DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT  Precise grading (removing of damaged, diseased

fruits at the time of harvesting).

LESSON 1  Less expensive
 Minimal damage to the product
OVERVIEW OF PROCESS ANALYSIS AND PLANT DESIGN
 The rate of harvesting can be increased by
employing more people.
Efficient agricultural and biosystems processing systems play a  Minimum capital investment
crucial role in addressing global food security, sustainability, and
 The same worker can be used for harvesting
environmental conservation challenges. These systems encompass a
different types of crops viz. Apple and gladiolus
range of technologies and practices that optimize the production,
can be plucked by the same person but cannot be
processing, and distribution of agricultural products.
harvested by the same machine.
Agricultural and Biosystems processing systems also contribute to  Immature or small-sized fruits can be left on the
environmental conservation through practices such as precision plant for the next crop like peas, capsicum.
farming and sustainable agriculture. These systems play a crucial
Disadvantages of hand-harvesting:
role in addressing climate change impacts on agriculture, promoting
resilience and adaptability.  More time consuming
 Dependent on availability of labour.
POSTHARVEST HANDLING includes the twin aspects of science
and technology. Postharvest science involves several fields of study.
Postharvest physiology covers mainly the study of principles
2. MECHANICAL HARVESTING
governing the biological processes that occur in harvested crops.
Advantages of mechanical harvesting:
MORPHO-ANATOMY COVERS the specific parts of the crop in  Fast harvesting thus saves time
which the processes occur and the changes of these parts after
 Less dependency on labor availability
harvest. The study of the changes in physical characteristics of the
 Improving working conditions for the worker.
commodity falls under the sciences of postharvest engineering and
physical chemistry. Disadvantages of mechanical harvesting:

The technology part covers the series of procedures, operations, steps

 Requirement of skilled manpower for use of the
or movements that crops are made to undergo in order to control
machine, hence the dependence on trained manpower
changes in harvested crops, including the technological aspects of
 Improper use of the machine can cause huge economic
marketing and distribution.
losses.
The procedures, operation, movements or steps are collectively
 The machine requires regular maintenance
called handling. A more specific term used to cover the integration
 May damage perennial crops (bark of tree branches)
of these sciences and handling technology of perishable crops is
 Social impact from lower labor requirements and
postharvest horticulture. Science forms the basis of the
development of postharvest handling technologies. employment.

HARVESTING WHAT IS POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY?

This is the separation of a product from its original place. This point Post-harvest technology is an interdisciplinary "Science
of origin can be part of the plant above ground (apple, tomato, etc.) and Technique" applied to agricultural products after
or an underground plant part-like potato, carrot, etc. This involves harvest for its protection, conservation, processing, packaging,
separating the product from the parent plant by hand or with a tool or distribution, marketing, and utilization to meet the food and
machine.
nutritional requirements of the people about their needs.
Harvesting Methods.
POSTHARVEST HANDLING
Can be hand harvesting and mechanical harvesting.

1. HAND HARVESTING
Advantages of hand-harvesting:
 Hand harvesting is common in those crops in which
the product has to be harvested at different stages
of maturity and the crop is harvested several times.
 Ripe fruits can be precisely selected.
 agriculture, organic farming, and agroecology, to
ensure longterm viability without compromising future
generations' ability to meet their needs.

C. RESOURCE EFFICIENCY

 Modern agricultural and biosystems processing

technologies help optimize the use of resources such as
water, energy, and fertilizers. Precision farming, for
example, allows farmers to target inputs more
precisely, reducing waste and environmental impact.

D. CLIMATE RESILIENCE

 Climate change poses significant challenges to

agriculture, affecting weather patterns, precipitation,
and temperature. Efficient systems can incorporate
climate-resilient crops, adaptive technologies, and
sustainable practices to mitigate the impact of climate
change on food production.

E. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

 Agriculture is a vital sector for many economies,

especially in developing countries. Efficient processing
systems contribute to economic development by
FLOW CHART FOR POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF
increasing agricultural productivity, creating
VEGETABLES
employment opportunities, and supporting rural
Harvesting – Pre-Cooling – Cleaning – Trimming – Grading – livelihoods.
Sorting – Curing – Sizing – Waxing – Packaging-
Transportation – Wholesaler – Transportation – Retailer –
Consumer F. SUPPLY CHAIN

Postharvest Handling  Optimization Efficient biosystems processing systems

contribute to an effective supply chain. This includes
post-harvest handling, storage, transportation, and
distribution, reducing losses and ensuring that
agricultural products reach consumers in a timely and
cost-effective manner.

G. INNOVATION AND TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION

Importance of AB Processing Systems
 Embracing technological advancements in agriculture
A. INCREASED FOOD PRODUCTION fosters innovation. The integration of smart farming
technologies, biotechnology, and data analytics allows
 Efficient agricultural systems enhance productivity by
for continuous improvements in efficiency,
optimizing resource use, improving crop yields, and
productivity, and sustainability.
reducing waste.
H. GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY
B. SUSTAINABILITY

 Sustainable agricultural practices focus on minimizing

environmental impact, conserving natural resources,
and promoting biodiversity. Efficient systems integrate
sustainable farming methods, such as precision
  A well-functioning agricultural and biosystems  Monitor and analyze the quality of the final
processing system is essential for global food security. products to meet industry standards.
By ensuring a stable and efficient food supply chain, 7. Waste Management
these systems contribute to reducing hunger and  Develop strategies for the proper disposal or
malnutrition worldwide. utilization of waste generated during
agricultural and biosystems processes.
PROCESS ANALYSIS
 Explore opportunities for recycling and
Process analysis in agricultural and biosystems processing reusing by-products.
systems involves the systematic examination and evaluation of
the various stages and components within the production and
processing chain. This analysis aims to understand, optimize, Plant Design
and improve the efficiency, sustainability, and overall
Plant Design refers to the systematic process of planning,
performance of agricultural and biosystems processes.
creating, and organizing the physical and operational
Important Aspect of AB Process Analysis elements of a facility or plant dedicated to agricultural and
biosystems processing. This includes the design of structures,
1. Input analysis
equipment, workflows, and other components to ensure
 Identify and analyze the raw materials and
efficient and effective processing of agricultural products.
resources needed for the agricultural and
biosystems processes. Key elements of plant design
 Assess the quality and quantity of inputs
1. Site Selection
required for optimal output.
 Identifying and selecting a suitable location for
2. Crop and Livestock Management
the plant, taking into account factors such as
 Evaluate the cultivation and management
proximity to raw materials, accessibility for
practices for crops and livestock.
transportation, environmental impact, and
 Analyze factors such as planting methods,
compliance with local regulations.
irrigation, fertilization, and pest control.
2. Layout Planning
3. Harvesting and Collection
 Determining the arrangement of buildings,
 Assess methods and technologies used in
equipment, and other infrastructure within the
harvesting crops or collecting livestock
facility to facilitate smooth workflow and
products.
efficient operations. This involves
 Optimize timing and techniques to maximize
considerations such as the flow of raw
yield and minimize losses.
materials, the organization of processing units,
4. Storage and Transportation
and the positioning of storage areas.
 Analyze storage facilities and conditions to 3. Selection of Equipment
prevent spoilage and maintain product quality.
 Choosing the appropriate machinery and
 Evaluate transportation methods to ensure equipment for different processing stages
timely and efficient delivery of products. based on factors like capacity, efficiency, and
5. Energy and Resources compatibility with the materials being
 Evaluate the energy consumption of various processed. This includes considerations for the
processes and identify opportunities for energy latest technologies and adherence to safety
efficiency. standards.
 Assess water usage and other resources to 4. Safety and Regulatory Compliance
promote sustainability.  Ensuring that the design adheres to safety
6. Quality Control standards and regulations governing the
 Implement systems for quality control and industry. This involves incorporating safety
assurance throughout the processing chain. features into the plant design and considering
environmental impact assessments.
 (weighing, lbelling, sealing)
10 MARKETING
Economic Aspects of Agricultural Processing Plant Design
(publicity. Selling, distribution)
1. Cost-benefit Analysis 11 USE
2. Capital Investment (recipes elaboration:
3. Operational Costs traditional dishes, new dishes)
4. Return on Investment (ROI) 12 CONSUMER REFERENCES

Economic and Technical Aspects of Agricultural (product evaluation,

Processing Plant Design Consumer education)

1. Equipment Selection and Specification

2. Process Optimization The post-harvest system encompasses a sequence of activities
3. Automation and Control Systems and operations that can be divided into two groups:
4. Safety and Complience technical activities: harvesting, field drying, threshing,
cleaning, additional drying, storage, processing
LESSON 2
economic activities: transporting, marketing, quality control,
nutrition, extension, information and communication,

Process and Material Flow administration and management

The post-harvest system should be thought of as

encompassing the delivery of a crop from the time and place of POSTHARVEST LOSSES FOR GRAINS AND OTHER
harvest to the time and place of consumption, with minimum AB MATERIALS
loss, maximum efficiency and maximum return for all
Types of losses
involved.
The first distinction in agro-food losses is that between
Harvesting can be seen as the hinge, or as a ridge between the
pre-harvest slope, corresponding to production activity and the quantity and quality.
post-harvest slope, extending from harvesting to consumption.
Quantitative loss is a loss in terms of physical substance,
STAGES OF A WHOLE POST-HARVEST SYSTEM meaning a reduction in weight and volume and can be assessed
and measured.
01 HARVESTING
(handling) Qualitative loss is concerned particularly with the food and
02 THRESHING reproductive value of products and requires a different kind
03 DRYING of evaluation.
(transport and distribution)
A. MOISTURE CONTENT
04 STORING
In bio-chemical terms, organic products are composed of dry
05 PROCESSING
matter and water. The moisture content is the amount of free
06 PRIMARY PROCESSING
water within a given product and is expressed either as a
(cleaning, classification, dehulling,
decimal proportion or a percentage.
pounding, grinding, packaging,
soaking, winnowing, drying, The moisture content is the proportion of the weight of
sieving, whitening, milling) moisture to the total weight of dry matter and moisture.
07 SECONDARY PROCESSING
B. DAMAGE
(mixing, cookig, frying moulding,
cutting, extrusion) Damage is a clear deterioration in the product which affects
08 PRODUCT EVALUATION more its quality than its quantity and can in the long-term
(quality control: standard recipes) result in a definite loss. Both damage and loss should be
09 PACKAGING quantified in terms of weight and cost
C. DIRECT AND INDIRECT LOSSES G. SEED VIABILITY LOSS

Direct losses occur when the disappearance of a foodstuff is Seed set aside for sowing, like any product used for
caused by leakage (for example, spillage from bags) or reproduction, is preserved with great care in order to maintain
consumption by pests (insects, rodents, birds) its full germinative potential. The protein-rich grain heart can
be a favorite target of certain pests
Indirect losses occur when a reduction in quality leads to the
consumer's refusal to purchase. Atmospheric conditions also play a part, as they can weaken
the seed’s productive potential; variations in light, temperature
D. WEIGHT LOSS
and humidity, leading to excessive respiration, are particularly
While weight loss is easy to observe and measure, it does not responsible here.
necessarily mean food loss, since it can result simply from a
H. COMMERCIAL LOSS
reduction in moisture content. Moisture loss during drying is
therefore not a food loss. Commercial loss is the translation of the various types of loss
listed above into economic and monetary terms. This applies
An abnormal increase in weight through moisture absorption
especially to the qualitative elements starting with cleanliness
following rainfall on stocks left in the open can cause serious
and purity, which will be all the more sought after if supplies
damage resulting in loss.
are abundant in the market-place.
Weight loss can be caused by leakage, during transport for
A producer's ability to take advantage of a time when the
example, if sacks have holes or are insecurely attached.
scarcity of a commodity pushes up the price, is an element in
It is often the result of prolonged infestation and consumption good marketing management of his production, based on
by insects, rodents and birds or poor packaging. information and foresight.

E. QUALITY LOSS This assumes good organization, in which structural and not

Quality criteria cover a wide range and are concerned both only market-situational factors are taken into account as well

with external features, shape and size and with odor and taste. as keeping abreast of long-term developments, such as socio-
cultural changes, which affect the future.marketplace
The cleanliness and healthy condition of a product are primary
concerns for the market and correspond to what is referred to
as a "sound, legal and merchantable" product in commercial I. IRREDUCIBLE LOSSES AND COMPENSATION
law.
Arise basically from the respiration of the product and
Presence of foreign bodies, which can distort the weight of a mechanical rubbing of grain against itself, as well as the
batch being sold, also affects the quality and thus the market breakage inevitable with certain machines
value of a product.
Losses, whether pre-harvest or post-harvest cannot be
materially reduced to zero, and that they have to be

F. FOOD LOSS compensated for through extra production. The production

increase rate must be progressively higher than that of losses if
While food loss clearly results from a loss in quantity, it also
such compensation is to be adequate.
results, but more insidiously, from a loss in quality and
edibility, making it unfit for human consumption. Harvesting 5 – 8 percent
Storing operation 15 – 20 percent
Staple foods contain not only essential nutrients but also
Storage 5 – 10 percent
important vitamins. The various nutritive parts of products are
Transport 10 – 12 percent
thus the prey of different families of parasites.

Weevils feed especially on the endosperm, the inside of the

UNIT OPERATIONS
seed, which is rich in carbohydrates, while many parasites
attack the cereal cover, which is rich in vitamins. Vitamin Unit operation is a basic step in a process.
content is also affected by humidity during storage and by Unit operations involve a physical change or chemical
mould infection. transformation such as separation, crystallization,
evaporation, filtration,polymerization, isomerization, and Pallet racks - Vertical structures made of steel framing with
other reactions connectors and beams to store products.

These unit operations are connected to create the overall Shelves, bins and drawers: Shelves, drawers and bins within
process. A process may require many unit operations to obtain shelving units store smaller materials.
the desired product from the starting materials, or feedstocks.
Mezzanines: Wooden, steel or fiberglass raised platforms that
FIVE CLASSES OF UNIT OPERATION create additional storage.

1. Fluid flow processes, including fluids transportation, Stacking frames: Equipment that stores and stacks numerous
filtration, and solids fluidization. pallets and racks.
2. Heat transfer processes, including evaporation and
heat exchange.
3. Mass transfer processes, including gas absorption, BULK HANDLING MATERIAL EQUIPMENT
distillation, extraction, adsorption, and drying. Bulk handling material equipment stores, controls and
4. Thermodynamic processes, including gas transports loose form materials in large quantities.
liquefaction, and refrigeration.
Loose form materials can include liquid, food and minerals,
5. Mechanical processes, including solids
such as stones and rocks, and metal items, such as bolts and
transportation, crushing and pulverization, and
nails.
screening and sieving.
Bulk handling equipment includes:

Conveyor belts: Two or more belts and pulleys to transport

Three categories of unit operation which Involve elements
products from one location to another
from more than one Class
Stackers: Equipment that loads and unloads heavy materials
1. Combination (mixing)
and places them onto stockpiles or storage for bulk materials.
2. Separation (distillation, crystallization)
3. Reaction (chemical reaction) Reclaimers: Reclaimers are used to pick out materials from
stockpiles
MATERIAL HANDLING
Bucket elevators: Designed for handling and lifting large
Material handling is the movement of materials and goods
amounts of bulk materials through the system
from one location to another. It includes protecting, storing,
and controlling the materials, from manufacturing to Hoppers: Funnel-shaped equipment used to dump or pour
distribution. loose form materials into containers loose-form.

Material handling can be used across industries, but is typically BENEFIT OF MATERIAL EQUIPMENT
utilized in warehousing, where goods need to be securely
An effective material handling system allows your company to
stored, retrieved, and shipped.
have the necessary stock in smaller spaces where possible,
Material handling equipment utilizes manual, semi-automated, reduce time spent on internal operations (such us transport and
and automated equipment to assist the movement and storage picking), control inventory in real-time, reduce operational
of materials within the warehouse. costs and optimize the overall flow of goods in your facility.

TYPES OF MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT From preventing workplace accidents to saving you money,
here are four reasons why material handling is key to
Storage and handling equipment secures your goods while they
implement in your warehouse.
aren’t being used or waiting for the next stage in the supply
chain process. An effective material handling system allows your company to
have the necessary stock in smaller spaces where possible,
Storage and handling equipment can keep materials for short or
reduce time spent on internal operations (such us transport and
long periods of time, depending on your warehouse’s needs.
picking), control inventory in real-time, reduce operational
Storage and handling equipment includes costs and optimize the overall flow of goods in your facility.
 • Prevents Workplace Accidents PAES 417:2002
• Improves Workplace Accidents
Fruit and Vegetable Storage
• Increase Productivity and Efficiency
• Cost Efficient Controlled atmosphere storage

10 MATERIAL HANDLING PRINCIPLES TO Storage in an artificial atmosphere in which the proportion of

STREAMLINE THE OPERATION carbon dioxide and/or oxygen is precisely controlled

1. Planning: Establish a clear plan for your material Bulk storage

handling system. Your plan should identify which
Produce is piled in room-sized bins, which exerts forces that
materials will be transported, which equipment will be
must be resisted by the building walls.
used and where your materials will be stored.
2. Standardization: Standardize your process and Pallet bin storage

equipment to achieve predictable results while Produce is placed in boxes or pallet bins which in turn are
considering flexibility. For example, if you have boxes stacked in storage room.
of the same size, your team should anticipate future
Pallet
changes regarding box sizes, so you can choose
equipment that can efficiently transport smaller or Low portable platform made of wood or metal or plastic or in
larger boxes in the future. combination to facilitate handling, storage, or transport of
3. Work: Reduce unnecessary work by using equipment materials as a unit load using a forklift.
that will minimize or eliminate repetitive tasks.
Drip cooler
4. Ergonomics: Acknowledge your employees’
restrictions and capabilities by investing in ergonomic Storage structure with continuously wetted wall
equipment to ensure safety in the workplace.
Burlap
5. Unit load: Utilize unit loads such as containers and
pellets to reduce effort and walking time in the Coarse cloth made of jute, flax or hemps.

warehouse. Air cooled

6. Space Utilization: Organize your warehouse to
Storage provided with good ventilation.
maximize your available warehouse space. You can
ensure your warehouse is organized by clearing Vapor barrier
warehouse aisles from clutter, stacking inventory to
Materials used to prevent migration of moisture into a storage
utilize vertical height and grouping products in the
area
same category.
7. System: Integrate tracking tools so you can quickly Cell pack
identify materials and products at every stage of the Individual divisions in a carton formed by fiberboard dividers,
system. each cell to contain one fruit
8. Environment: Use equipment that will reduce energy
Telescopic cartons
consumption and prevent greenhouse gas emissions.
For example, using an electric forklift is more Cartons in which the cover is separate and fits snugly over the
sustainable than using a liquid-propane powered truck. bottom part
9. Automation: Implement automation in warehouse
Location
processes such as picking and retrieval to lower costs
and boost employee productivity.  shall conform to the land use plan of the area.
10. Life Cycle Cost: Utilize a comprehensive analysis of  shall be provision for parking area.
life cycle costs on material handling equipment to  building shall be concreted, covered with
ensure durability and sustainability. Consider different asphalt or with similar material. The access
criteria, including programming, installation, setup, road, walkways and parking areas shall be
operation, repair and maintenance, reuse value and similarly treated.
disposal.
  shall be accessible to service roads, water  made of G.I. sheet and other steel sheeting with
supply and electric lines corrosion resistant coatings.
 shall be well drained  Roof vents, when provided, shall be properly screened.
 For bulk storage, forces on roof system caused by wall
pressure shall be considered in designing roof
structure.

Ceilings

 shall be at least 2.4 m from the finished floor line for

Classification manual handling and 6m for mechanical handling.

 shall be constructed to prevent the collection of dirt or
According to method of storage
dust that might sift through from the areas above or fall
 Bulk from overhead collecting surfaces onto equipment or
 Palletized exposed products.
 shall be painted with white emulsion or latex paint.
5.2 According to environment control
Wall
 Drip
cooling  shall be concreted, smooth finished and properly
 Air- painted. Internal surface of the walls should be painted
cooled with white emulsion or latex paint
 Natural  For pallet storage, wall shall be designed to withstand
the pressure of piled fruit and vegetable
 All wall tops and ledges shall slope at 45o
 should be coved to the floor-wall and at wall-to-wall
junctions with a radius of 50 mm - 60 mm.

convection Doors and access

 Forced ventilation Door

 Refrigerated
 shall be fitted with screens, air flaps or provided with
 Controlled atmosphere
air curtain. The width shall be at least 2.5 m.

Access
Space requirement
 shall be provided for checking the commodity without
 For palletized storage, floor area shall be determined opening the main door. It shall be constructed with a
by calculating volume of the boxes or pallet bins and glass (reinforced) panel at eye level. The width shall be
dividing the volume by the maximum stacking height 600 mm750 mm.
and adding area for aisles, room for forklift
Main entrances and exits shall be arranged so that the product
maneuvering, and staging areas.
generally moves in one direction through the facility.
 For bulk storage, floor area shall be determined by
knowing the weight of the produce and by dividing by NOTE For cold storage room, provisions for ceilings, wall and
the bulk density and pile depth. access is optional.

Floor

Structural requirements  shall be concreted or tiled and properly reinforced to

prevent cracks. It shall be designed to withstand
Roof
concentrated loads
 treated timber or steel with anti-rust paint.  height should be leveled with the height of the vehicle
being used in transporting the commodity
  Intersection with the wall shall be coved with 50 mm -  An 80 mm air plenum should be provided between the
60 mm radius floor and stack.
 The floor slope should be 2% - 4% towards the drain.  Door should be sliding type and should be made of
heavy gauge metal.

Piling system
Functional Requirements
 Stack should be about 80 mm away from outer walls
Storage area
and 100 mm – 120 mm away from the wall that is
 Drip cooling exposed to the sun.
o should be made of burlap or porous materials  Space between the ceiling and the stack shall be 300
and should be held in place by wire netting. mm
o Water pipe with nozzles on the top of the wall  Within a stack, a minimum of 10 mm vertical air path
or sprinkling hose shall be provided to trickle shall be provided between each box
water down the walls  Space between stack and sides and floor shall be 150
o Water collector made from curve metal sheet mm – 200 mm.
of gutter shall be provided.  Stacking height shall be up to 12 units for the cell pack
o If necessary, forced air circulation system to and 8 units high for telescopic tray pack cartons
draw air from outside and ceiling exhaust fan Facilities and equipment
to force air out should be provided
Lighting
 Air-cooled
Natural convection  Artificial lighting shall always be available for use
 Air inlets shall be located near the floor level and during the night or darkened periods of the day.
outlets shall be near the roof.
Forced ventilation
 There shall be provision for regulating inside
temperature by a ventilation system. Entry of air
should be mechanically controlled using fan and
installing automatically regulated openings or
 All electrical design and installation shall conform to
dampers.
Philippine Electrical Code.

Water supply and Plumbing facilities

 water supply shall be ample and potable with adequate

pressure and with facilities for distribution
 Drainage and plumbing system for the fruit and
vegetable storage shall be in accordance with the
Refrigerated
National Plumbing Code.
 shall be provision for pre-cooling facilities.
Toilet and hand-washing facilities
 should be designed to maintain the appropriate storage
temperature and relative humidity of the commodity.  shall be provided inside the building.

 Ceiling, wall and floor shall be provided with vapor  Toilet rooms shall not open directly into areas where

barriers and shall be insulated with minimum R-values. the product is exposed unless steps have been taken to
prevent airborne contamination (example: double
doors, positive airflow)
 Toilet rooms must have self-closing doors.
 Adequate and convenient hand-washing and, if
necessary, hand-sanitizing facilities should be provided
anywhere in the building where the nature of
 employees jobs requires that they wash, sanitize and
dry their hands

Fire extinguishing system

 Construction of fire extinguishing system shall

conform with the provision of the National Building
Code of the Philippines.

ANNEX A

Thermal properties of selected insulating materials

Material R Factor
( m² ˚K/W)/cm
Fiberglass batts 0.230
Fiberglass, loose 0.177
Fiberglass, board 0.277
Cellular glass 0.198
Styrofoam, extruded 0.346
Styrofoam, beadboard 0.289
Polyurethane, board 0.433
Polyurethane, foamed in 0.433
place
Polyisocyanurate, board 0.488
 Space requirements

PAES 418:2002  Capacity of the processing plant shall be calculated

based on the volume of commodity being processed.
Primary Processing Plant for Fresh Fruit and Vegetable
An area of 20 square meter per ton of commodity shall
be provided.

Primary processing  The storage area of a processing plant shall have a

capacity for temporary storage of raw materials for 2-5
Product handling which include steps to make a harvested
processing days.
commodity more suitable for manufacturers or consumers
 Additional area shall be for equipment, working tables
Grading and space for circulation

Process of classifying into groups according to a set of

recognized criteria of quality and size, each group bearing an Structural Requirements
accepted name and size grouping
Roof
Sizing
 should be treated timber or steel with anti-rust paint.
Process of classifying into sizes according to criteria that may  should be G.I. sheet and other steel sheeting with
or may not be recognized or accepted by the industry corrosion resistant coatings.
 Provisions of skylights (i.e. plastic roofing sheets) at
Sorting
media preparation and sterilization area for natural
Process of classifying into groups designated by the person lighting are recommended.
classifying the produce either according to a set of criteria or  Roof vents, when provided, shall be properly screened
whatever criteria he may set
Ceilings
Air change ratio
 shall be at least 2.4 m from the finished floor line
Ratio of the volume of air that enters a room to the volume of
 shall be constructed to prevent the collection of dirt or
air of the empty room
dust that might sift through from the areas above or fall
Inspection from overhead collecting surfaces onto equipment or
exposed products.
Process of determining whether the grade standards have been
 shall be painted with white emulsion or latex paint.
interpreted or enforced properly by inspecting random samples
usually of predetermined amount large enough to give an
indication of the correctness of the grading procedure Wall

Packaging  shall be concreted, smooth finished and properly

painted. Internal surface of the walls should be painted
Process to ensure adequate protection and safe delivery of a
with white emulsion or latex paint.
product from the producer to the ultimate consumer
 All wall tops and ledges shall slope at 45o .
 It shall be coved to the floor-wall and at wall-to-wall
Location junctions with a minimum radius of 50 mm - 60 mm

 shall conform to the land use plan of the area Windows

 location of the processing plant in relation to raw
 All windows shall be properly installed with 16-mesh
material supplies shall be near as possible.
screen.
 shall be accessible to service roads, water supply and
 Window ledges shall be sloped about 45o to prevent
electric lines.
the accumulation of dirt, water, or debris
 shall be provision for parking area.
 Windowsill shall be at least 1 m from the finish floor
 shall be well drained line.
 shall be away from any source of smells and insects
Doors and jambs extend to the section of the plant or of the processing
room where the cleanest operations are carried out.
 shall have a minimum width of 1.5 m.
Separation of one area from the other shall be achieved
 shall be constructed of moisture and rust-resistant
through the use of light partitions and painted wood
material.
panels.
 shall be fitted with screens, air flaps or provided with
 Processing area shall include space for:
air curtain
 The juncture between the wall and the doorjambs shall Unloading area
be effectively sealed with a flexible sealing compound
 There shall be provision for unloading the fruit and
Floor vegetable with minimum damage.

 The floor of processing rooms and storerooms shall be Washing area

constructed of good quality concrete, properly
 shall be provision for washing the commodity either by
reinforced to prevent cracks and shall be smooth
immersion, by spray/ showers or by combination of
finished.
these two processes. Washing stand, tables and drying
 Intersection with the wall shall be coved with 50 mm - racks should be provided.
60 mm radius.
Sorting and grading area
 The floor shall slope 2% - 4% towards the drainage.
 All other matters concerning structural design of the  shall be provision for sorting and/or screening and
building not provided in this Standard shall conform grading of raw materials.
with the provisions of the National Structural Code of  height of sorting and grading surface shall be about
Building. 100 mm - 150 mm below the bottom of the elbow in
the normal working position (sitting or standing).
 Edges of the sorting table should be lined with thin
layer of foam to protect the commodity from bruising
Functional Requirements during sorting, and should slope from the center
toward the sorter by 10 degrees.
Receiving area
 Reject chutes for substandard product should be placed
 The plant shall be provided with an area for the in a convenient position at the level of the table.
reception and temporary storage of raw materials until
Trimming and peeling area
it is used in the process.
 There shall be provision for unloading the fruit and  shall be provision for trimming for removal of inedible
vegetable with minimum damage parts and parts with defects or cutting to a size feasible
 The area shall be either a shed or a more appropriately for further processing.
designed room to meet the requirements in terms of Packing area
temperature, humidity cleanliness, and exposure to
sunlight. Refer to PAES 417:2002  Packing stand and table should be provided

 Raw material storage area shall not be used for the  Packaging materials should either be corrugated

storage of other products that may be contaminating, cartons, plastic bags, shrinkwrap, stretch-wrap, layer

such as pesticides, paint, or cleaning utensils, all of pads, pallets and slip sheets, drums and other

which must be kept in specially designated areas. containers and filler materials (i.e. polystyrene, foam
paper, etc.).
Processing area

 shall be sufficient to accommodate all of the necessary

equipment on a continuous line, even in barely
automated facilities.
 shall be physically divided into areas where different
functions are performed. The dirty area shall not
 minimize the accumulation of particles, dirt
and organic matter
 Lighting facilities
o Well-distributed, good quality artificial
lighting shall be provided at all places where
natural light is unavailable or insufficient.
Table 2 shows the minimum lighting intensity
for processing plant.

Labeling

 Label should either by stamping with the company’s

brand or logo or putting stickers on them bearing the
brand name of the company. If stamped, the ink should
be approved by the Food and Drug Administration.
 Light fixtures shall be flushed in ceiling and shall be
Inspection and quality control area provided with diffuser

 A separate area shall be provided where the basic  All electric power points shall be placed at a sufficient

inspection and tests required to establish the quality of height above the floor. Waterproof sockets shall be

a given raw material or a given process may be used

performed.  All plugs shall be fitted with fuses that are appropriate

 shall be preferably equipped with a small sink, running for the power rating of the equipment and ideally the

water and a counter where tests may be carried out mains supply shall have an earth leakage trip switch.
 All electrical wiring design and installation shall
Storeroom for finished products
conform with the Philippine Electrical Code.
 The area shall be clean, the temperature and humidity
Water supply and plumbing facilities
levels shall be appropriate (less than 25 C° and 60% of
relative humidity), and it shall be protected from  The water supply shall be ample, clean, and potable

foreign matter. with adequate pressure and with facilities for

 It shall be easily accessible, so that tests may be distribution and protection against contamination and

performed during product storage, and any problems pollution

may be detected on the spot.  if necessary, covered storage tanks either in the roof-
space or on pillars outside the building shall be
Equipment and facilities
constructed.
 Equipment and utensils  The capacity of each tank shall be sufficient for one
o shall be designed and constructed so that they day's production.
are adequately cleanable and will not  The tanks shall have a sloping base and be fitted with
adulterate commodity with lubricants, fuel, drain valves above the slope and at the lowest point.
metal fragments, contaminated water, and  In use, water is taken from the upper valve and when
other contaminants. the tank is almost empty, the lower valve shall be
o Equipment should be installed so that it, and opened to flush out any sediment that has accumulated.
the area around it, can be easily cleaned.  Drainage and plumbing system for the fruit and
o Food contact surfaces shall be made of vegetable processing plant shall be in accordance with
nontoxic materials and must be corrosion- the National Plumbing Code.
resistant.  Sewage should flow into an adequate sewage system
o Seams on commodity contact surfaces shall be or disposed of through other adequate means
smoothly bonded, or maintained in order to
Toilet and hand-washing facilities
  shall be provided inside the laboratory
 Toilet rooms shall not open directly into areas where
the culture is exposed unless steps have been taken to
prevent airborne contamination (example: double
doors, positive airflow).
 Toilet rooms must have self-closing doors.
 Adequate and convenient hand-washing and, if
necessary, hand-sanitizing facilities should be provided
anywhere in the laboratory where the nature of
employees jobs requires that they wash, sanitize and
dry their hands
 Water control valves should be designed and
constructed to protect against recontamination of clean
and sanitized hands.

Fire extinguishing system

 Construction of fire extinguishing system shall

conform with the provision of the National Building
Code of the Philippines.

Ventilation

 Screens and filters shall be used to prevent product

contamination from dust, odors, and insects
 Mechanical ventilation shall be used to provide fresh
air to areas where natural ventilation is inadequate.
POSTHARVEST PROCESSES OF CORN
(Zea mays)

Corn Postharvest Practices and Technologies

Conventional post harvesting stages of corn

involve several stages listed in this chart by Shepherd
(1999). Corn harvested by small-scale farmers usually
leave the crop, piled on cut corn stalks, in fields after
maturity to be sun-dried for two months. The corn is then
temporary stored under cover by a sheet. Other farmers
dry their corn by transporting them in storage bins known
as cribs that is treated with insecticide. After drying, the
husking of corn is done manually, followed by shelling,
then places in sacks stored in a facility before it finally
reached the market.

Mechanized practices in harvesting corn ears

employ the use of a mechanical corn-picker. The corn
ears are then husked mechanically by a corn sheller or
combine harvester. The machines can mass produce corn
kernels to be prepared for drying. Drying is then
performed after threshing or shelling of the corn to reduce
moisture content to 14 percent to slow down the
deterioration. Machines force dry heated air to the corn
during artificial drying. Afterwards, the dried corn is
cleaned, stored either in bulk or bags in silos or
warehouses for grains. The stored grain can be either be
for sale in the market for as fresh ears, kernels, and flour
for human consumption. It can also be sent to processing
plants to produce oil and margarine, cattle-feed, beer,
baby food, soap, glue, and varnish.

On the other hand, wet milling produces high

fructose corn syrup, oil, starch, animal feed products, and
ethanol. Wet milling starts by immersing the corn kernels
in large vessels referred to as steep tanks, containing a
diluted sulfur dioxide solution. The softened kernels
undergo subsequent processing to eliminate the germ,
which is further processed to extract the valuable corn oil.
The residual Germ Meal, post oil extraction, is then
marketed for utilization as animal feed (AMG, 2020).
Although ethanol produced in this process is lower it
makes up for the high-value corn oil which is the main
product in the milling.
 awareness and knowledge of postharvest losses at the
farm level are essential, making it necessary to conduct
research to determine the best postharvest practices for
corn. By examining existing literature and drawing on
relevant references, this study aims to enhance our
understanding of the postharvest dynamics of corn,
providing valuable insights for both researchers and
Challenges in postharvest practices of corn practitioners in the field of agriculture and food science.

Small scale farmer who practice delayed

harvesting due to the lack of drying facilities, but this
method also has its problems. The longer its stays in the
field after maturity, the higher the postharvest loss
(Shepherd, 1999). Several reasons of postharvest loss by
delayed harvesting to dry the corn include infestation of
insects, rodents, and animals as well as exposure to rain
which increases its moisture content. The drying rate of
corn is also slower in the open field and small sheds both
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
which only will induce the growth of mold instead.

INTRODUCTION

The global demand for corn as a staple crop and

industrial resource has intensified the need for efficient
postharvest processes to ensure quality and maximize
yield. As a critical component of the agricultural supply
chain, postharvest practices significantly impact the
economic viability and nutritional value of corn.

The postharvest process of corn plays a crucial

role in maintaining its quality and minimizing losses. The
introduction of postharvest equipment is expected to
HARVESTING MAIZE
overcome labor constraints in corn farming, suppress
yield loss, and improve quality. Post-harvest corn Maize can be harvested when the process of
activities, including harvesting, transportation, drying, nutrients uptake into the kernels (physiological maturity)
threshing, and storage, are essential for preserving the is complete. This cereal can be harvested by hand
quality of the crop. The awareness and knowledge of (harvesting ears) or mechanically (harvesting ears or
postharvest losses at the farm level are still low, grains).
emphasizing the need for research to determine and
Early planted corn (planted around May 10 and
implement effective postharvest handling practices.
earlier) in the Thumb and Saginaw Valley has reached
Research in this area has revealed significant
physiological maturity - the stage when a black or brown
advancements, challenges, and strategies employed to
layer has formed right above the kernel tip. This layer
optimize the storage, handling, and processing of this
forms when the starch layer has advanced completely
vital grain. For instance, postharvest ripening is a key
down to the cob. The black layer cuts off water and dry
aspect that affects the structural, rheological, and
matter movement into the kernel. Thus, no more starch
digestive characteristics of corn Additionally, the
accumulation occurs at black layer. You can determine
when black layer has occurred by snapping a corn cob in  Field pre-drying techniques are fairly widespread, but
half and removing a kernel. Cut the kernel in half they entail great risks of product loss, especially if the
lengthwise. If the black layer has developed, you will see varieties grown are particularly sensitive to
a crescent-shaped black layer at the base of the kernel. unfavorable weather (rain, humidity, etc.) and pests
Kernels reach black layer starting at the tip of the cob and (insects, birds, rodents, etc.). In addition, the time
progressing to the base. At black layer formation, taken up by pre-drying in the fields decreases the
depending on hybrid and weather conditions, the average possibilities for exploiting the land.
kernel moisture usually ranges from 30 to 35 percent.
 To harvest maize by hand, the ears are pulled from the
This raises the question "When will the corn be ready to
stalk of the plant and no tool is used.
harvest?" According to Bob Nielsen at Purdue University,
corn reaching physiological maturity in mid- to late  Indicatively, the average duration of a manual maize
September will dry down in the field at an average rate of harvest varies from 120 to 200 man-hours (15-25
0.4 percentage points per day. Of course, air temperature man-days) per hectare.
and relative humidity play a big part in that dry down
 Shucking the ears, that is, the removal of the husks
rate. Corn may lose one percentage point of moisture on a
covering the ears, may be done by hand or by
warm, breezy day, and no or very little moisture on a
machine at the same time as the harvest.
cool, cloudy day. Assuming an average loss of 0.4
percent per day, it would take 25 days for corn to lose 10  If this operation is done by hand, it requires about 130

percentage points of moisture after black layer man- hours (about 16 man-days) per hectare. Hand

development (10 percentage points / 0.4 percent moisture harvesting of maize is considered practicable for

loss per day = 25 days). Differences in hybrids also play a crops of under 12 hectares if climate and availability

part in in-field dry down. Hybrid differences that of labor permit.

influence dry down include the number and thickness of

husk leaves, husk coverage of the ear, and how quickly
Mechanical harvesting
the ear drops from the upright to the downward position.
Think of it like this - the less husk material covering the Mechanized harvesting of maize is done with
ear, the more potential the kernels have to dry faster. And, corn-pickers, corn- shellers or combine-harvesters. Still in
when the ear drops down, the rain will not accumulate as use, but with decreasing frequency, are simple corn-
much in the ear. snappers, which do only harvest of ears.

Hand harvesting Combine-harvester

When maize reaches physiological maturity, the moisture This machine is derived from a combine-harvester
content of the grains can be as high as 37-38 percent. For for wheat on which modifications have been made to the
this reason, before proceeding to hand-harvest the ears, cutting apparatus and the threshing device. Although the
maize is often pre-dried standing in the field. The work capacity of these machines depends on harvesting
techniques generally used for this operation are: conditions and on the size and shape of the parcels, it can
run from 0.8 to 1.2 h/ha for six-row machines processing
 Leave the ears on the whole plant, just as it grew.
the whole plant, and from 0.4 to 0.6 h/ha for six-row
 Break the stalks of the plants or the ears so that their machines treating only the ears. Ø Overall grain losses,
tips are pointing downward; this is a frequent practice usually caused by the cutting device, are rarely higher
in South America where it is called "doblado”. than 3 percent. ØTwo operators are generally needed for
these machines. Ø The use of combine-harvesters, like
 Cut the tops of the plants to encourage exposure of
that of corn-shellers, offers an economic advantage for
the ears to the sun.
harvests of a minimum of 40-75 hectares a year.
PRE-DRYING OPERATIONS  Direct (Convection): Heat transfer occurs through
direct contact with hot air or gas.
For maize, the use of cribs permits not only pre-
drying, or complete drying of the grains, but also storage  Indirect (Conduction): Heat transfer occurs through
of the ears. The duration of pre-drying is difficult to contact with a heated surface.
establish because it is influenced by several factors. The
 Radiant (Radiation): Heat transfer occurs through
weather, moisture content at harvest time, the threshing or
electromagnetic radiation.
shelling systems and machines used, the proximity of
artificial drying installations, storage methods: these are  Dielectric (Microwave): Heat transfer occurs using
only a few of the factors that must be taken into account radio frequency waves.
when establishing the duration and the kind of pre-drying
 Drying Zones: Constant-Rate Period: Moisture
operations.
evaporates from a saturated surface at a rate governed
PRE-DRYING by diffusion.

 Definition: Pre-drying refers to the initial stage of  Falling-Rate Period: Moisture content decreases as
moisture removal from a material before the main drying progresses.
drying process.
 Applications: Drying is critical in various industries,
 Purpose: Moisture Reduction: Pre-drying reduces including pharmaceuticals, food processing, and
the initial moisture content, making the subsequent chemical manufacturing.
drying process more efficient.
Standing-crop pre-drying
 Handling Improvement: It improves the handling
One of the simplest and most common methods,
characteristics of materials, especially powders and
especially in favorable weather, consists of postponing
granules.
the harvest. Once maturity has been reached, the products
 Stabilization: Pre-drying stabilizes moisture-sensitive are allowed to pre-dry standing in the field, before
materials. harvesting them. As for maize, for instance, this method
sometimes requires several weeks in the field after
 Examples: Standing-Crop Pre-Drying: In agriculture,
physiological maturity. When used for sorghum,
crops are partially dried while still standing in the
sunflowers, and especially maize, this method is risky and
field before full harvest.
has great disadvantages:
 Blanching: Vegetables are blanched before drying to
 Losses from natural falling of grain.
prevent rapid darkening and improve storage
quality12.  Losses from attack by pests (rodents, birds, etc.).

 Methods: Pre-drying methods include microwave  Losses from infestation (insects, molds, etc.) that
drying, sun drying, and other preliminary treatments. could have grave consequences during storage.

Drying  Prolonged inactivity of fields and impossibility of

using the land for a second crop.
 Definition: Drying is the process of vaporizing and
removing water or other liquids from a solution, Standing-crop pre-drying refers to the practice of partially
suspension, or solid-liquid mixture to form a dry drying crops while they are still standing in the field
solid. before full harvest. This technique is commonly used in
agriculture to achieve specific goals:
Heat Transfer Mechanisms:
 Moisture Reduction: By allowing the crop to dry
partially, farmers reduce its moisture content. This is
 particularly important for grains like rice, corn, and Disadvantages:
wheat, as excessive moisture can lead to mold growth,
 Shattering Losses: Some grains may fall naturally
spoilage, and reduced quality.
from the crop during pre-drying. Pest and
 Weed Control: Pre-drying can also help control
 Infestation Risks: Rodents, birds, insects, and molds
weeds. When the crop is partially dried, it becomes
can cause losses. Field Inactivity: The land remains
less hospitable for weed growth, making it easier to
unused during this period, preventing a second crop.
manage unwanted plants.
Pre-drying in cribs
 Harvest Efficiency: Pre-drying can facilitate more
efficient harvesting. Dry crops are easier to handle For maize, as well as for sunflowers, the disadvantages of

during mechanical harvesting, reducing losses and standing-crop pre-drying can be alleviated by harvesting

improving overall efficiency. at maturity and placing the ears (or sunflower heads) to
pre-dry in the naturally ventilated cells called cribs. By
 Storage Preparation: When crops are partially dried
permitting the natural circulation of air among the ears,
in the field, they are better prepared for storage.
cribs ensure a slow and progressive reduction in the
Lower moisture content prevents post-harvest issues
moisture content of the grains, but too long a stay in cribs
such as insect infestations and fungal growth.
may bring about severe losses from insect infestation.
Standing-crop pre-drying is a straightforward and Cribs, which are used both for drying and storage, can be
commonly used method, especially when weather used in damp climates, but more efficiently in dry
conditions are favorable. Here's how it works: climates. They are relatively inexpensive, since they can
be built from local materials using traditional techniques.
 Harvest Timing: When crops reach maturity, instead
of immediately harvesting them, they are allowed to Threshing and shelling
pre-dry while still standing in the field.
Threshing or shelling consists of separating the grains, or
 Purpose: The goal of standing-crop pre-drying is to the shells in the case of groundnuts, from the portion of
reduce the moisture content of the harvested product the plant that holds them. This separation, done by hand
before the actual harvest. This step prepares the crop or machine, is obtained by threshing, by friction or by
for the subsequent operation of threshing or shelling. shaking the products; the difficulty of the process depends
on the varieties grown, and on the moisture content and
 Common Application: This method is often
the degree of maturity of the grain.
employed for crops like maize (corn), sorghum, and
sunflowers. Threshing

 Duration: Depending on the specific crop and  Purpose: To separate the grains (such as rice, wheat,

environmental factors, standing-crop pre- drying can or sorghum) from the rest of the plant.

take several weeks after physiological maturity.  Threshing involves separating the grains (or seeds)
Advantages: from the portion of the plant that holds them, such as
the husks or panicles.
 Simplicity: It requires minimal intervention. Utilizes
natural conditions: The crop dries naturally in the  Threshing is the process of separating the edible part
field. of the grain (the kernels) from the inedible parts (the
husks or cobs) of the corn plant.

 Traditionally, threshing involved beating or pounding

the harvested corn stalks to dislodge the kernels from
the husks or cobs.
 Modern threshing machines use mechanical methods rotating fluted cylinder, a rotating disc and a spring
such as rollers or flails to separate the kernels from pressure plate. The cobs are fed to rotating fluted
the husks or cobs. cylinder and kernels are removed from cobs as they
move in between cylinder and disc.
Shelling
 An artillery shell's driving band or rotating band is a
 Purpose: To separate the edible part of the crop (such
band of soft metal near the bottom of the shell. This
as maize or sunflowers) from the husk or protective
band is often made of gilding metal, copper, or lead.
covering.
The pressure of the propellant forces the metal into
 Shelling specifically refers to removing the grains the rifling of the barrel and forms a seal. This seal
from the ears (cobs) of maize (corn). helps to create the high-pressure environment

 Shelling specifically refers to the process of removing necessary for the shell to function properly.

the kernels from the cob of the corn plant.  According to PNS/BAFPS 20:2008 - Shelling

 After threshing, the kernels are still attached to the 1. Before shelling, dry the corn ears to at least 21 %
cob. Shelling removes them from the cob, making moisture content (MC). This is the optimum MC that will
them ready for consumption or further processing. bring about less damage to corn kernels during shelling.

 Shelling can be done manually by hand or using 2. Use clean, dry and properly calibrated mechanical
mechanical equipment such as a corn sheller machine. sheller for efficient shelling.

Hand shelling 3. Use clean and dry containers of the shelled corn.

 The easiest traditional system for shelling maize is to Threshing with animals or vehicles
press the thumbs on the grains in order to detach them
If draught animals are available and there are large
from the ears.
quantities of rice, threshing can be done by driving the
 Another simple and common shelling method is to animals (harnessed, in that case, to threshing devices)
rub two ears of maize against each other. These over a layer of sheaves about 30 cm thick. This operation,
methods require a lot of labour, however. It is which is also called "treading out", can equally well be
calculated that a worker can hand-shell only a few accomplished with vehicles. This method of threshing
kilograms an hour. Shelling of maize, as well as of rice is adopted in some Asian countries, using a tractor
sunflowers, can be more efficiently accomplished by for power instead of draught animals.
striking a bag full of ears or heads with a stick.

 Maize and sunflowers can also be shelled by rubbing

POSTHARVEST PROCESSES OF CACAO
the ears or heads on a rough surface. Small tools,
(Theobroma cacao)
often made by local artisans, are sometimes used to
hand-shell maize. With these tools, a worker can shell Furthermore, proper handling and storage practices are
8 to 15 kg of maize an hour. essential to extend the shelf life of crops, reducing these
losses and contributing to the economic sustainability of
 Small tools, often made by local artisans, are
the agricultural sector (Rajapaksha et al., 2021). This not
sometimes used to hand-shell maize. With these tools,
only enhances the marketability of agricultural
a worker can shell 8 to 15 kg of maize an hour.
commodities but also builds trust with consumers who
Corn sheller seek high-quality produce (Banks, 2022).

 Maize shellers are of two types: spring type and Similarly to other agricultural commodities, cacao beans
cylinder type. Spring-type sheller consists of a undergo a vital postharvest process that directly impacts
their quality, safety, and marketability (De Shon, 2022).
This process extends beyond basic handling and storage
to encompass specific practices such as fermentation,
drying, cleaning, roasting, and grinding, each with a
crucial role in unlocking the full potential of the beans
(Shrestha, 2023). These processes, requiring careful
control and precise timing at each step, transform the
initially bitter seed into the flavorful and aromatic base of
delights.

Postharvest Processes Harvesting – fermentation – alkanization - drying –

Once the flower on the cacao tree is pollinated, it takes roasting – grinding – blending – conching - tempering

about five to six months for the cacao pod to ripen. The
ripening period may vary depending on the country of
Harvesting cacao pods involves carefully cutting the pods
cultivation, climatic conditions, and the cacao variety.
to prevent damage to the beans (International Cocoa
The change in color of the pods from green to yellow or
Organization, 2021). The pods are typically harvested
orange is a key indicator of ripeness, and a ripe cacao pod
manually by making a clean cut through the stalk with a
makes a hollow sound when tapped. These fruits are
well-sharpened blade, such as a machete. Special care is
typically harvested when they change color, with green
taken to avoid damaging the trunk or branches from
pods turning yellow when mature and reddish pods
which the pods grow. After harvesting, the pods are
turning yellow or orange
opened to extract the wet beans, a process that is usually
done within a week to 10 days after harvesting
(CocoTerra & CocoTerra, 2023). The beans then undergo
a fermentation and drying process before being bagged
for delivery.

Fermentation is an essential part of turning raw cacao

into delicious chocolate. This processing step contributes
to the development of flavor and the acidity of the final
product. Yeasts, bacteria, and enzymes ferment the juicy
white pulp, or baba, that surrounds the cacao beans
(Cadby, 2020). The beans endure the heat, acid, and
enzyme effects from the fermentation of the pulp and are
transformed, both internally and externally, as a result.

The pulp itself is sterile before it’s removed from the pod,
but naturally occurring yeast and bacteria soon find their
way to the pulp when the pod is opened. These microbial
inoculants come from a variety of sources in the local
environment (Hocking et al., 1999). Fermentation
follows, converting natural sugars in the beans into acids, specialized equipment and expertise. The ground nibs are
shaping the chocolate's unique flavor (Rufino, 2010). further processed to separate the cocoa presscake from the
cocoa butter (Bulk., 2015). The grinding of roasted cocoa
beans can be done using a coffee grinder, food processor,
After the fermentation process, the next crucial step in or flour mill (Prish, 2022).
post-harvest processing of cocoa beans is drying (Asare et
Challenges in the Postharvest Process of Cacao
al., 2015). Drying is essential to prevent mold growth and
maintain the characteristic flavor of the beans (Adebayo The quality and value of the product can be affected by
& Afolabi, 2013). During this stage, the moisture content several challenges in the postharvest process. These may
of the beans is reduced from around 60% to include challenges in fermentation, drying, storage, and
approximately 7.5% (Afoakwa et al., 2013). This process lack of infrastructure knowledge (Adewoyin, 2023). The
should be done slowly and carefully to ensure that off- quality of cacao beans is greatly affected by microbial
flavors don't develop (Adebayo & Afolabi, 2013). If the activity during the post-harvest handling stage, which can
beans are dried too quickly, some of the chemical impact the overall quality of the beans.
reactions initiated during fermentation might not be
The uncontrolled growth of unwanted microorganisms in
completed, potentially leading to an undesirable bitter
the postharvest process of cacao can lead to off-flavors
taste (Adebayo & Afolabi, 2013).
and contamination with mycotoxins, posing health risks
On the other hand, if the drying process is too slow, it can and reducing marketability. This microbial activity
create the perfect environment for mold growth and greatly affects the quality of cacao beans during post-
undesirable off-flavors to develop (Afoakwa et al., 2013). harvest handling, particularly in the fermentation and
Therefore, striking the right balance between slow and drying stages (Subroto et al., 2023).
fast drying is crucial. Ideally, the drying period should
Damage caused by pests, insects, rodents, and molds can
take five to seven days to gradually reduce the moisture
also lead to deterioration of facilities and result in losses
content of the beans to the desired 7.5% range (Asare et
in quality. These challenges are prevalent and can
al., 2015). Achieving this optimal drying pace is crucial
significantly impact the quantity and quality of food from
for preserving the inherent quality of the cocoa beans, as
harvest to consumption. Common postharvest challenges
it directly impacts the final quality of the chocolate
include lack of secure storage facilities, quality
produced (Adebayo & Afolabi, 2013).
degradation during the drying stage, and delays in
transportation, all of which can contribute to postharvest
losses and reduction in the economic value of crops
After the beans are fully dried, roasting and grinding
(Levai, 2020).
happens next. The roasting and grinding of cacao beans
are essential steps in the chocolate making process. Intensified rainfall can slow down the fermentation
Roasting the cocoa beans brings out their natural flavors process, leading to quality and flavor issues. Inadequate
and aromas while removing any excess moisture. The drying methods and circumstances can result in
beans are typically roasted at a temperature of 120-140°C production losses and reduced quality (Kumar & Kalita,
for 10-30 minutes (Tim, 2023). The roasting process also 2017). Addressing these challenges is crucial to
helps separate the outer husk from the inner bean, making preserving the quality and value of agricultural produce
cracking and winnowing easier. during the postharvest process.

After roasting, the cocoa beans are ground to produce Postharvest Processing of Celery: Optimizing
chocolate liquor, which forms the base for all chocolate Crispness, Quality, and Shelf Life
products. The grinding process is complex and requires
The journey from field to fork for celery involves 5. COLD STORAGE AND CONTROLLED
meticulous postharvest processing to maintain its ATMOSPHERE
characteristic crispness, vibrant color, and nutritional
Optimal storage conditions involve maintaining a
value. These critical steps ensure its arrival at market in
temperature near 0°C (32°F) and high humidity (95-
optimal condition, maximizing quality and minimizing
98%). Some facilities utilize controlled atmosphere
waste.
systems with low-oxygen conditions to further slow down
1. RAPID PRE-COOLING respiration and extend shelf life.

Celery's high water content (approximately 95%) 6. ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS:

necessitates rapid pre-cooling immediately after harvest.
Sanitation: Rigorous cleaning and disinfection protocols
This vital step inhibits respiration, reduces field heat, and
throughout the processing chain are essential to prevent
delays deterioration. Efficient methods include:
contamination and ensure food safety.
Hydrocooling: Immersion in near-freezing water for
Traceability: Maintaining comprehensive records helps
rapid temperature reduction.
track celery from farm to table, enhancing transparency
Hydrovac cooling: Combining vacuum pressure and and facilitating quality control measures.
chilled water spray for even faster cooling with minimal
Different Practices and Technologies in Harvesting
water loss.
Celery
Forced-air cooling: Suitable for smaller operations,
Celery harvesting, just like the vegetable itself, is a
though less rapid than hydro methods.
versatile affair. Depending on the scale of the operation,
2. CLEANING AND TRIMMING resources available, and specific needs, different practices
and technologies come into play. These are some of the
Thorough cleaning removes dirt, residues, and potential
most common methods:
pathogens. A two-stage washing process, including a final
sanitizing rinse, is commonly employed. Trimming 1. MANUAL HARVESTING
involves removing roots, leaves, and any blemishes or
The Classic Hand Cut: This traditional method involves
damaged sections. Depending on market demands, celery
workers equipped with sharp knives carefully severing
can be further trimmed into various sizes (sticks, hearts,
celery stalks at the base, ensuring minimal damage and
baby stalks).
maintaining quality.
3. GRADING AND SORTING
Selective Picking: For smaller farms or specialty crops,
Celery is meticulously graded based on pre-defined selective picking allows for harvesting mature stalks
quality parameters, including appearance, size, while leaving younger ones to grow further. This extends
uniformity, and freedom from defects. This ensures the overall harvest season.
consistency and directs produce to specific markets and
2. MECHANIZED HARVESTING
uses, such as fresh retail, processing, or food service.
Topping Machines: These tractor-mounted devices
4. PACKAGING
efficiently remove the celery leaves and tops, preparing
Appropriate packaging plays a crucial role in protecting the stalks for further processing
celery during storage and distribution. Film packaging,
Cutting and Bunching Machines: More advanced
modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), and coated
machines combine topping with stalk cutting and
cartons are commonly used to minimize moisture loss,
bunching, significantly increasing harvesting speed and
maintain crispness, and extend shelf life. Branding and
efficiency, particularly for large-scale operations.
attractive designs can further enhance retail appeal.
3. HYDROPONIC HARVESTING
Specialized Harvesting Carts: In hydroponic setups, Celery's crisp stalks deserve packaging that preserves
where celery grows in nutrient-rich water baths, their crunch and freshness throughout their journey from
specialized carts equipped with cutting blades move field to fridge. Here's a rundown of some key packaging
through the channels, efficiently and cleanly harvesting strategies for this versatile veggie:
the Considerations for Choosing the Right Method
1. KEEPING IT COOL AND HUMID
Farm Size and Scale: Manual harvesting might be
Film Packaging: Clear, perforated plastic films allow
feasible for smaller farms, while larger operations benefit
respiration while minimizing moisture loss, maintaining
from the speed and efficiency of mechanized methods.
celery's vibrant color and crispness.
Labor Availability and Cost: Manual labor can be
Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP): The use of
expensive, making mechanized options attractive for cost-
modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) keeps the
conscious farms.
postharvest quality and the shelf-life of a wide range of
Market Requirements: Some markets might demand products. MAP implies the use of polymeric films of
specifically sized or trimmed celery, influencing the different permeabilities to O2, CO2, C2H4 and water
choice of harvesting technology. vapour. Atmospheric modification generates within the
package as a result of the respiration rate of the plant
Crop Maturity and Quality: Gentle manual harvesting
tissue and the gas diffusion characteristics of the film
might be preferred for delicate or high-value celery
(Kader, 1992). Film selection and temperature are very
varieties.
important for obtaining the passive evolution of an
appropriate atmosphere within the package.

Optimizing Celery's Journey: Practices and

Technologies in Efficient Transportation
Challenges in Postharvest Practices of Celery
Celery's crispness and nutritional value are not merely a
Despite its seemingly sturdy appearance, celery presents
product of the field; they're also meticulously preserved
various challenges during postharvest handling.
throughout the post-harvest journey. Ensuring optimal
Maintaining its crispness, vibrant color, and nutritional
celery transportation requires a robust combination of
value throughout the process requires careful attention
established practices and innovative technologies, each
and meticulous steps. Here are some key hurdles:
playing a crucial role in delivering this versatile vegetable
to consumers in its prime. 1. Maintaining Crispness and Shelf Life
2. Disease and Pathogen Control
Pre-Transport Preparation
3. Environmental Concerns
The journey begins well before the wheels turn. Pre-
cooling to near 0°C (32°F) significantly slows respiration
and extends shelf life. Maintaining high humidity levels
(95-98%) minimizes moisture loss and wilting, crucial for
retaining celery's characteristic crunch. Selecting
appropriate packaging, such as waxed cardboard boxes or
ventilated plastic crates, provides breathability while
preventing condensation build-up
POSTHARVEST PROCESS OF RICE

Packaging Strategies
 Manual harvesting + machine threshing

Manual harvesting and machine threshing is rice

manually threshed, then cleaned with a machine thresher.

Machine reaping + threshing

A reaper cuts and lays the crop in a line. Threshing and

cleaning can then be performed manually or by machine.

Several stages of post-harvest handling of rice grains

Combined harvesting
include field-drying, threshing, shed-drying, cleaning,
grading, storing, weighing, and milling before making it Combine harvester combines all operations such us
fit for human consumption. It is important to observe cutting, handling, threshing and cleaning.
carefully all the stages of post-harvest handling as each
stage will affect the other to determine the quality of
THRESHING
grain, mill recovery rate and the minimizes losses that can
be controlled. Threshing is the process of separating the grain from the
straw and panicles. Threshing of rice can be done by
hand, foot, or simply by a swinging, beating and
HARVESTING whipping actions against a framed object. Threshing can
Harvesting is the process of collecting the mature rice also be done with winnowing machines.
crop from the field. Harvesting consists of cutting, Threshing can be done manually or mechanically
threshing, cleaning, hauling and bagging. Field drying
and stacking or piling are optional. Harvesting can be
performed manually using sickles and knives, or • MANUAL THRESHING
mechanically with threshers or combine harvesters. The
The manual methods of threshing are treading by feet,
act of harvesting can be picking, pulling, plucking,
flail method, and beating stalks against tubs, boards or
slashing, cutting, stripping and shaking the economic part
racks. Pedal threshers are also used.
of the plant that is of interest to the harvester. Time to
harvest a crop is often determined by changes that takes
place in the economic part of the crop and, in some cases, • MACHINE THRESHING
the entire plant. This change can be in the form of visual
The machine threshing removes rice grains from rice
appearance, smell, colour, size, and the moisture content
plants, speeds up threshing and reduces labor
. requirements.

HARVESTING SYSTEMS DRYING

• MANUAL HARVESTING Drying is the process that reduces the moisture content of

Manual harvesting makes use of traditional threshing the rice paddy down to a safe-level where rice can be

racks, simple treadle threshers and animals for trampling. properly milled and, importantly, put away safely for
storage. Drying is the most critical operation after
harvesting a rice crop. Any delay in the drying process,
incomplete drying or ineffective drying will reduce the 3. Practically no losses due to birds, rodents and
grain quality and result in post-harvest losses. insects
4. Entire process is hygienic
5. Suitable for handling of large quantity of grain
METHODS OF DRYING with in a short period of time

• SUN DRYING/FIELD DRYING 6. Requires very little space for operation

7. Mechanical drying, in conjunction with early
harvest, improves the milling quality of paddy
Sun Drying or Field Drying is a traditional method of considerably.
drying the paddy grains, it is spreading grains under the
sun, on mats and pavements. Sun drying is most
economical method of drying grains. It is the most Disadvantages

common drying method in Asia because of its low cost 1. Cost of drying is relatively higher compared to
compared to mechanical drying. sun-drying for commercial drying
2. The process requires fuel and electrical or
mechanical power to drive the blower, elevators
Disadvantages
etc.
1. Uncontrolled and non-uniform drying, results in
sun checks or cracks in kernels.
2. Completely dependent on weather. CLEANING

3. Not possible round the clock and round the year. Cleaning is the process to remove rice straw chaff,
4. Excessive losses occur due to shattering, birds, foreign matters and immature/empty grains within paddy
rodents etc. It is usually 0.1 to 0.4 % after threshing and drying. High percentage of chaff,
5. Require specially constructed large drying floor foreign matters include the soil piece, sand, small stones,
6. The entire process is unhygienic. metal debris, plastic or paper pieces, twig and branches,
7. Unsuitable for handling large quantity of grain wood piece, weed seed, other grains, chemical and
within a short period of time. poisonous matters, etc., will unnecessarily increase the
8. Require large number of unskilled labour. number of sack of rice and weight of paddy, which may
cost the grower avoidable transport fees and milling fees
paid the mill operator; and for the rice mill operator the
• MECHANICAL DRYING
cost of wear-and-tear and spoilage to his machine.
Mechanical Drying methods is drying the grains by
ventilating natural or heated air through the grain mass to
get it evaporated the moisture from it. MILLING

Milling is a crucial step in post-production of rice. The

basic objective of a rice milling system is to remove the
Advantages
husk and the bran layers, and produce an edible, white
1. Grains can be dried irrespective of weather rice kernel that is sufficiently milled and free of
condition, day or night; the process does not impurities.
depend on natural sources like sun energy
Most rice varieties are composed of roughly 20% rice hull
2. Process is automatic and required unskilled
or husk, 11% bran layers, and 69% starchy endosperm,
labour, except a trained person operate dryer
also referred to as the total milled rice. In an ideal milling
process this will result in the following fractions: 20%
husk, 8−12% bran depending on the milling degree and correct and precise. The platform scale is needed for
68−72% milled rice or white rice depending on the measurement of paddy/white rice weight to calculate the
variety. Total milled rice contains whole grains or head correct milling recovery
rice, and brokens. The by-products in rice milling are rice
GRADING
hull, rice germ and bran layers, and fine brokens. (IRRI,
2011) Grading is the process of sorting the milled rice grains
into categories based on the visual observation and
moisture content measurements. If rice is not consumed
Milling is a term that describes the processes of soon after milling, and rice is requiring long shelf-life or
converting paddy into rice. It includes the following basic storage would need high milling degree for removing all
operations: the bran.

Characteristics Considered for Grading of Milled Rice

 ✓ Pre-cleaning: removing foreign material such as a. Dead rice, brokens percentages

particles of sand, stones, straw, seeds, etc. from b. Defectives
the paddy. c. Foreign matter

 ✓ De-husking and husk separation: removing the d. Presence of paddy

husk from the paddy with a minimum of damage e. Whiteness

to the grain, and separating the husk from the f. Chalkiness

paddy. g. Moisture content

 ✓ Paddy separation: separating de-hulled paddy Objectives of establishing standards and grades
(brown rice kernels) from any remaining paddy
• To ensure only edible rice reaches the
grains.
consumer.
 ✓ Bran removal or whitening: removing all or part
• To improve post harvest practices so as to
of the bran layer from the grain to produce white
eliminate or reduce waste.
rice.
• To improve agronomic practices to
 ✓ Grading: separation (or grading) of broken from increase farm yields.
unbroken rice. The broken rice is often separated • To improve processing practices for better
into different sizes. milling recoveries and for market
expansion.
• To protect consumers from price/quality
METHODS OF MILLING
manipulation.
• TRADITIONAL METHOD

Before the advent of mechanical milling, hand pounding

STORAGE
traditional method of rice milling was in practice. In fact,
hand-pounding rice has got more nutritive value as The purpose of grain storage facility is to provide safe
compared to machine milling rice. storage conditions for rice grain in order to prevent grain
loss caused by adverse weather, moisture, rodents, birds,
insects and micro-organisms like fungi. Grain is
WEIGHING maintained at moisture level of 14% or less and seed is
stored at 12% moisture level or less.
Weighing is the method of determining the mass of the
rice paddy produce and mass of the white or milled rice
processed. The measurement of rice weight must be
Why storage is needed?

• To provide uniform supply of food The most common modes of transportation are;
throughout the year, because grains are
• Road transportation
produced seasonally while consumption is
• Railways
fairly uniform throughout the year.
• Water transport
• To provide reserve for contingencies such
as flood, drought and other calamities.
• To speculate on a good price either in POSTHARVEST PROCESS OF
domestic or in the export market.
WATERMELON

HARVESTING
Good storage systems include:
The postharvest journey begins with harvesting, a pivotal
1. protection from insects, rodents and birds, step in determining the fruit's ultimate quality.
2. ease of loading and unloading, Watermelons are typically harvested when the fruit
3. efficient use of space, reaches maturity, as indicated by a uniform color, a dull
4. ease of maintenance and management, and surface, and a hollow sound upon tapping. Premature
5. prevention of moisture re-entering the grain after harvesting can lead to underdeveloped flavor and texture
drying. issues.

Types of Storage SORTING AND GRADING

1. On-field Storage Watermelons are graded according to their size for the
a. Barn/ Granary- this is made of cement local market. The distinction among grades is based
and concrete materials. It can load an predominantly on external appearances. However,
average volume of sacked grains. watermelons should be symmetrical and uniform in
b. Holder/ Receptacle- like crates, boxes, appearance. The surface should be waxy and bright in
drums, tin cans, etc. appearance devoid of scars, sunburn, transit abrasions, or
2. Commercial Storage other surface defects. The fruits are transported by road in
a) Warehouse- – made of concrete materials and can bulk by stacking them on dried grass in trucks. The
contain large volume of sacked grains melons are sorted according to grade and number.
b) Flat Store- this is like the warehouse, however, Discolored, misshapen, sugar cracked, blossom-end rot,
the grains are spread on the floor. and insect-damaged fruit is regarded as culls but still may
c) Silo-is a structure used for storing bulk materials. be sold to nearby markets. Watermelon sales usually are
Silos are used in agriculture to store grains or based upon a 1% to 2% shrink, because of breakage.
fermented feed known as silage

POSTHARVEST HANDLING AND PACKAGING

TRANSPORTING/PACKAGING
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES
In most developing and least developed countries that
produce rice, transport methods of paddy from the field to
processing areas are mainly by means of human and Sugar content does not change after harvest, but the flavor
animal power and sometimes mechanical power with the may be improved due to the loss in acidity of slightly
corresponding devices, tools and equipment. immature melons. Fruit can get over-ripe fairly quickly if
not cooled. However, watermelon color will continue to Principal Postharvest Diseases: Postharvest diseases are
improve for up to 7 days after harvesting if kept at important sources of postharvest loss in watermelon
temperatures of 18°-22 °C, but it will fade (get lighter) if production. This loss depends on cultural practices
kept at temperatures of below 12 °C for long periods. It is adopted during production and also the local climatic
important to note that once harvested the sugar content or conditions at harvest. Disease pressure is greater in areas
sweetness will not improve. Chilling injury will occur with high rainfall and humidity during production and
after several days below 5°C. The resulting pits in the harvest. Several pathogens may cause postharvest decay
rind will be invaded by decay-causing organisms. of watermelon. The primary defense against the
Moisture content and pH of the injured watermelon were occurrence of decay is the exclusion of diseased fruit
higher than those of normal watermelon. However, color from the marketing chain through careful selection at
tone (Lab), hardness, soluble solids, and total amino acid harvest and appropriate fruit grading before shipment.
and sugar contents of the injured fruit were lower than Holding fruits at 10°C will slow down the rate of disease
those of normal fruit. development, compared to ambient temperature storage.
There are no postharvest fungicide treatments for
watermelon. Common fungal diseases that cause rind
Watermelons exposed to various concentrations of decay after harvest include black rot (Didymella sp.),
ethylene (C2H4) for 3 or 7 days of storage at 18oC anthracnose (,Colletotrichum sp.), Phytophthora
deteriorated rapidly. Exposure to C2H4 reduced the rind (Phytophthora sp.) fruit rot, Fusarium, and stem-end rot
thickness and firmness of melons. Almost all of the (Lasiodiplodia theobromae). The most common
melons exposed to 30 or 60 µl/liter ethylene for 7 days postharvest bacterial disease is soft rot.
were unacceptable for consumption.

TYPES OF PACKAGING
Less than 50 % of the melons exposed to any
Melons should be packed in clearly marked cardboard
concentration of ethylene were acceptable for
bins. Inspect all containers to ensure no sharp objects,
consumption.
which may damage the fruit, are present. Ensure
minimum handling of melons, as extra handling is
Watermelons, particularly early in the season, are expensive and may harm the fruit. Seeded melons are
sometimes shipped in mixed loads with other produce or sorted and packed in large, sturdy, tri-wall fiberboard
they may be stored in central warehouses near products containers. The melons are sorted according to grade:
that may emit C2H4. Watermelons are usually harvested number 6.4 to 11.8 kg, and number 3.6 to 6.4 kg. Inferior
at their peak maturity and flavor, and generally will not melons may be sold at nearby markets; culls (discolored,
improve with storage. An increase in C2H4 production is misshapen, sugar-cracked, rotted blossom end, and insect-
associated with the respiratory peak and with the end of damaged fruit) are discarded. Containers that hold 60 to
senescence after harvest. 80 melons and weigh 500 to 545 kg are shipped on
flatbed trucks to terminal markets or wholesale receivers.
The containers are covered to prevent sunburn in transit.
Watermelons are detrimentally affected by ethylene and
Seedless melons are sorted according to size and packed
should not be held with cantaloupes, honeydews or other
in cartons containing 3, 4, 5, 6, or 8 fruit. “Fours” and
mixed melons. The whole fruit may become spongy and
“fives” are preferred sizes; “sixes” and “eights” are
the internal pulp may become mealy and breakdown if
common later in the season after the crown-set melons
exposed to low concentrations (>0.5 ppm) of ethylene.
have been removed from the vine. The rough gross
weight of a carton is 18 to 22.7 kg. Seedless melons may
also be sold in large bulk containers. Personal seedless transit. This fruit must be utilized for prompt market sales
watermelons are sorted by size and packed in single- as quality declines rapidly under these conditions.
layer boxes containing 6, 8, 9, or 11 fruit. Shipping boxes
roughly weigh 15 kg and arranged 50 boxes per pallet.
Watermelons should not be stored with apples and
bananas as the ethylene produced during storage from
these fruits hastens the softening and development of off
flavor to watermelons.

Watermelons are not adapted to long-term storage.

Normally the upper limit of suitable storage is about three
weeks. However, this will vary from variety to variety.
Storage for more than two weeks triggers a loss in flesh
crispness.

MARKET PREPARATION

An important consideration in successful marketing is to

have adequate facilities for transporting the crop to
market outlets. Although earliness usually results in
STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION
higher prices, quality, and maturity should be of prime
Watermelons do not store well as they are susceptible to importance in marketing watermelons
chilling injury, and are subject to decay at higher
temperatures. Watermelons may lose crispness and color
in prolonged storage. Temperatures below 10 °C can POST-HARVEST PROCESS OF POTATO
result in chilling injury to the fruit (pitting of the skin,
1. POST-HARVEST STORAGE OF POTATOES
flesh breakdown, and black rot). Watermelon should be
cooled to between 12-15 °C within 24 hours of harvesting To provide a consistent supply of quality tubers year-

if they are to be stored for long periods. They should be round to meet the industry and consumer demands,

held at 10° to 15°C and 90 percent relative humidity. postharvest storage of potatoes becomes as important as

Under the ideal conditions of 7 ° C and a relative good crop management. Processors require a constant

humidity of 80 to 90 percent melons can be stored for up supply of healthy disease- and damage-free tubers of

to two weeks. The consensus is that watermelons will proper size throughout the year to retain processing

keep for 2-3 weeks if stored at between 12° – 15 °C. quality. The quality of processed potato is important for
the industry as well as consumers. Because the varieties
required for different end uses need different
Watermelons can be stored for 14 days at 15°C. For characteristics as well as storability, varietal screening by
short-term storage or transit to distant markets (> 7 days), plant breeding and other genetic modification methods
watermelons can be stored at 7.2°C with 85-90% relative should meet rigorous selection processes to choose the
humidity. Extended holding at this temperature will correct variety. Quality loss during storage occurs owing
induce chilling injury. Many watermelons are still to various factors starting from the conditions of the tuber
shipped without pre-cooling or refrigeration during placed into storage, depending on the storage
temperature, mechanical injury during harvesting and
handling, storage conditions such as humidity, the production centre to the ultimate consumer in safe
ventilation, and pests and diseases. Hence, a thorough and condition at an affordable price. Two main functions of
sound knowledge of the potato physiology, crop packaging are: to assemble the produce into convenient
management, storage conditions, and management as well units for handling and to protect the produce during
as grower education is critical in meeting the quality distribution, storage and marketing.
standards of the end use, which varies from seed tuber to
Packaging materials serve as an efficient handling unit. It
table stock and processing varieties.
protects from mechanical damage, moisture loss and
2. POST-HARVEST PHYSIOLOGY OF POTATO pilferage. For processed products, packaging provides
TUBERS sales and service motivation; it reduces the cost of
transport and marketing. It also makes the products look
Potato is one of the most widely consumed staple food
attractive and keeps the products in a hygienic condition.
crop throughout the world with high nutritional value due
to its high content in vitamins, minerals, high quality 4. POSTHARVEST STORAGE AND FRESH
protein and numerous bioactive compounds. Despite PROCESSING OF POTATO
being less perishable than fresh vegetable products, the
Postharvest management determine not only that potato
marketing needs and consumer demands for all year
reaches its maximum storage potential (genetically
round supply, as well as the increasing needs for
defined) but also the organoleptic, nutritional, and
transportation of products to long distances, necessitate
functional quality maintenance of the final product. The
the storage of tubers for mid or long time periods.
potato must be harvested in endodormancy state. After
However, potato tubers are living organs with unique
harvest and before storage, curing occurs (15-20 °C and
morphology and physiology that differentiates them from
90-95% HR for 5-10 days) and periderm is formed to
seed grains and pulses, and vegetables. Therefore,
protects tubers from dehydration and pathogens entry.
knowning the main physiological processes of potato
During storage, temperature management allows to
tubers after harvesting allows to further understand their
prolong dormancy (2-4 °C) and reduce metabolic activity,
response to storage conditions and most importantly to
which reaches minimum values between 4-5 °C.
minimize post-harvest losses and retain product quality
However, the storage temperature will depend on potato
according to marketing standards. Moreover, hormones
destination since it is sensitive to cold and when stored
and genes that regulate tuber physiology, as well as the
below 4 °C, glucose and fructose levels increase, and it
main physiological disorders that occur during storage are
would not be suitable for frying (non-enzymatic
also highlighted. Finally, a brief description of storage
browning). Potato is a source of beneficial compounds
facilities is also presented along with storage
such as vitamins, polyphenols, anthocyanins, carotenoids,
recommendations for the various end products of potato
and minerals. More than 50% of the marketed potato is
value chain.
destined for industrial processing (frozen or minimally
3. POTATO POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT processed) and is consumed in several forms: fried,
(PACKAGING) steamed and/or microwaved. The suitability of the potato
genetic material for these preparations depends
Packaging is required to keep fruits, vegetables and
fundamentally on the dry matter content, determined
root crops like potatoes in good condition until it is sold
genetically and on the reducing sugars, mainly dependent
and consumed. It serves as an efficient handling unit to
on the storage conditions. Processing prior cooking and
carry produce from field to consumer. The package
cooking itself determine changes at the functional quality,
should protect the produce against rotting. It should also
in some cases reducing or increasing compounds.
protect the produce from damage.
5. POSTHARVEST HANDLING PRACTICES AND
Food packaging is defined as a mean or system by
PERCEPTION OF POTATO
which fresh produce or processed product will reach from
 can result in the sprouting, rotting, and loss of potatoes.
Lack of proper ventilation and insulation can also
PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGY INVOLVED IN
contribute to these problems.
PROCESSING POTATO
2. Temperature and Humidity Management:
Post-harvest process in potato involves several
Maintaining the ideal temperature and humidity levels is
practices and technologies to ensure the quality and
essential for potato storage. Fluctuations in temperature
preservation of the tubers. After harvesting, the tubers are
and humidity can accelerate the sprouting and spoilage of
kept in a heaped condition temporarily and covered with
potatoes. It can be challenging to control these factors,
straw. Sorting is done after a few days to separate
especially in regions with extreme climates.
damaged or diseased tubers. The curing or wound healing
period immediately after harvest is critical to successful 3. Disease and Pest Management: Potatoes are
storage. Store tubers at about 50-60°F at high relative susceptible to various diseases and pests, such as late
humidity (95%) for 10-14 days to allow wounds to heal. blight, early blight, and potato tuber moth. Effective
Controlled atmosphere storage, a cutting-edge technique management of these diseases and pests requires proper
that modifies atmospheric conditions, has proven to be a monitoring, timely intervention, and the use of
game changer in reducing spoilage and extending the appropriate control measures.
shelf life of potatoes. BMPs and precision agriculture
4. Handling and Transportation: Rough handling
technologies are revolutionizing potato production,
during harvesting, sorting, and transportation can lead to
increasing efficiency, profitability, and sustainability,
mechanical damage and bruising of potatoes. These
while reducing waste and ensuring high-quality potatoes
damages can provide entry points for pathogens and
for consumers.
accelerate spoilage. Ensuring gentle handling and proper
packaging is crucial to minimize these issues.

5. Quality Control: Maintaining consistent quality

throughout the postharvest process is a challenge. Factors
such as size, shape, color, and texture can affect the
market value of potatoes. Implementing quality control
measures, such as grading and sorting, can help ensure
that only high-quality potatoes reach the market.

6. Market Demand and Price Fluctuations: Meeting

the market demand and managing price fluctuations can
be challenging for potato farmers and traders. Oversupply
or undersupply of potatoes can lead to financial losses.
Keeping track of market trends and establishing reliable
AGRICULTURAL CHALLENGES IN POST- marketing channels is important to address these
HARVEST PROCESSING OF POTATO challenges.

Postharvest practices play a crucial role in maintaining 7. Lack of Knowledge and Training: Many farmers and
the quality and extending the shelf life of potatoes. stakeholders involved in postharvest practices may lack
However, there are several challenges that can be adequate knowledge and training on best practices. This
identified in postharvest practices of potatoes. Here are can result in improper handling, storage, and management
some of the common challenges: techniques. Providing education and training programs
can help address this gap.
1. Storage Facilities: Inadequate storage facilities can
lead to improper temperature and humidity control, which
RESULT AND DISCUSSION for consumers, However, there are several challenges in
post-harvest processing of potatoes. To address these
Potatoes are sensitive to mechanical damage, so they
challenges, it is essential to improve post-harvest
need to be handled with care to prevent bruising and cuts.
practices, invest in technology, and provide education and
The removal of field debris and soil is also important to
training programs for farmers and stakeholders involved
maintain cleanliness and prevent the growth of pathogens.
in potato production and processing.
Understanding and improving post-harvest handling
practices is essential for minimizing losses and enhancing
the competitiveness of potato commodities. Harvesting
POST-HARVEST PROCESSES OF
should be done in dry weather to avoid bruising and
COCONUTS
skinning of tubers, and curing is essential for healing the
wounds of the tubers. Proper post-harvest handling is A. HARVESTING
important for improving the quality and competitiveness
 METHODS OF HARVESTING COCONUTS
of potato commodities, as post-harvest losses can be
significant. The post-harvest process plays a critical role It is important for harvesters to have experience
in ensuring food security and income generation for and knowledge of the specific variety of coconut being
potato farmers. After potatoes are harvested, they undergo harvested, as maturity indicators may vary among
a series of steps to minimize spoilage, maintain their different coconut cultivar. Additionally, local practices
nutritional value, and prepare them for storage, and regional preferences may influence the choice of
transportation, and further processing. harvesting method. Here are the methods of harvesting
coconuts at the appropriate stage of maturity:
The post-harvest process of potatoes, including storage,
physiology, management, and handling practices, is 1. Visual Inspection- it is the common method of
crucial for maintaining the quality, safety, and determining the maturity of coconuts. Experienced
marketability of this vital food crop. Thorough harvesters can assess the maturity of coconuts
knowledge and adherence to best practices in post-harvest based on their color, size and other visual
operations are essential for minimizing losses and characteristics. Mature coconuts typically have a
meeting the diverse demands of the potato industry and brown husk and well-developed shape.
consumers. 2. Sound Test- it is done by tapping the coconut
The post-harvest process of potatoes involves several with fingers or a tool. A mature coconut will
practices and technologies to ensure the quality and produce a hollow sound, indicating that the
preservation of the tubers. After harvesting, the tubers are coconut is ready for harvesting. Immature
kept in a heaped condition temporarily and covered with coconuts will produce a dull or solid sound.
straw. Sorting is done after a few days to separate 3. Shake Test- performing a shake test by gently
damaged or diseased tubers. The curing or wound healing shaking the coconut. If the coconut is mature, the
period immediately after harvest is critical to successful water inside will have less movement, indicating
storage. Store tubers at about 50-60°F at high relative that the coconut is ready for harvesting. Immature
humidity (95%) for 10-14 days to allow wounds to heal. coconuts will have more sloshing sounds and
Controlled atmosphere storage, a cutting-edge technique movement of water.
that modifies atmospheric conditions, has proven to be a
4. Weight Test- assessing the maturity of coconuts
game changer in reducing spoilage and extending the
by comparing their weight to a reference coconut
shelf life of potatoes. BMPs and precision agriculture
of known maturity. Mature coconuts tend to be
technologies are revolutionizing potato production,
heavier than immature ones due to the higher
increasing efficiency, profitability, and sustainability,
water content in immature coconuts.
while reducing waste and ensuring high-quality potatoes
 5. Measurement of Husk Thickness - it can be and techniques should be used, and hygiene practices
done by measuring the thickness of the husk as an should be followed to prevent contamination.
indicator of maturity. Mature coconuts usually
1. Husk Removal- The outer husk of the coconut is
have a thicker husk compared to immature ones. often trimmed to reduce its weight. This involves
This method requires specialized tools such as a removing the fibrous layer of the husk while
leaving the inner shell intact. Trimming the husk
husk thickness gauge. also helps to improve the appearance of the
coconuts.

2. Leaf Removal- Coconuts are typically transported

in bulk, and the leaves attached to the coconut
By employing these methods, harvesters can ensure that stem can add significant weight. Trimming or
removing the leaves helps reduce the weight and
coconuts are harvested at the appropriate stage of makes it easier to stack and pack the coconuts for
maturity, which is crucial for maintaining the quality and transportation.
taste of the coconuts.
3. Stem Cutting- In some cases, the stem of the
coconut may be trimmed to minimize the overall
length and facilitate packing. This is particularly
 DE-FRUITING TECHNIQUES important when coconuts are transported in
containers or when space is limited.
This techniques are used to separate coconuts
from the bunches after harvesting.The choice of de-
4. Pruning- Pruning involves the removal of excess
fruiting technique depends on factors such as the scale of leaves and branches from the coconut palm. This
coconut farming, available resources and personal. not only reduces the weight of the tree but also
improves air circulation and light penetration,
leading to healthier coconut palms and better fruit
production.
1. Hand De-fruiting- This is the most traditional and
widely used method of de-fruiting coconuts. It involves 5. Water Draining- Coconuts naturally contain
manually cutting each coconut from the bunch using a water inside, and draining the water before
sharp knife or machete. The harvester carefully cuts the transportation can help reduce weight. Small holes
stem of the coconut, ensuring that the coconut is are drilled into the eyes of the coconut to allow the
separated cleanly from the bunch. water to drain out. This is done carefully to avoid
2. Pole De-fruiting- In this method, a long pole with a damaging the coconut meat.
cutting tool attached at the end is used to reach and cut
the coconuts from the bunch. The harvester stands on the
By employing these trimming methods, the weight of
ground and uses the pole to cut the stem of each coconut,
coconuts can be reduced, making them easier to handle,
allowing it to fall to the ground.
transport, and store. This helps ensure the efficient post-
3. Mechanical De-fruiting- With advancements in harvest management of coconuts.
technology, mechanical de-fruiting machines have been
developed to automate the process. These machines use
rotating blades or cutting mechanisms to detach the  CLEANING PROCEDURES
coconuts from the bunch. The bunch is fed into the
machine, and the coconuts are separated and collected. Cleaning procedures are essential to remove dirt and
debris from coconuts, ensuring their cleanliness and

 TRIMMING METHODS quality.To ensure that the cleaning process is carried out
hygienically and that clean water is used. Proper
Trimming should be done carefully to avoid damaging
sanitation practices should be followed, and cleaning
the coconuts or compromising their quality. Proper tools
equipment should be regularly cleaned and sanitized to spoilage. Proper ventilation and protection from
prevent cross-contamination.Here are some common rain are essential during the drying process.
cleaning procedures used in the postharvest process of  Artificial Drying: In some cases, artificial drying
coconuts: methods, such as hot air drying or drying in
specialized drying chambers, are employed to
1. Water Washing- Coconuts can be cleaned by
accelerate the drying process.
washing them with clean water. This helps
remove dirt, dust, and other surface contaminants. C. PACKAGING AND STORAGE
The coconuts are typically immersed in water or
Packaging materials and techniques play a crucial
sprayed with water to thoroughly clean the outer
role in protecting coconuts during storage and
surface.
transportation. Considering the specific requirements of
2. Brushing- Brushing is another effective method coconuts, such as their size, weight, and perishability,
to clean coconuts. Soft brushes or scrubbing pads when selecting packaging materials and techniques.
can be used to gently scrub the surface of the Additionally, proper handling and storage practices
coconuts, removing any dirt or debris. This should be followed to ensure the integrity and quality of
method is particularly useful for removing the packaged coconuts.
stubborn stains or residues.
Proper Storage Conditions: Coconuts should be stored in
3. Air Blowing-High-pressure air can be used to a cool and well-ventilated area to prevent mold growth
blow away loose dirt and debris from the surface and maintain their quality. Storage duration should be
of the coconuts. This method is often employed in minimized to avoid quality deterioration.
industrial settings where large quantities of
Packaging: Coconuts can be packaged in sacks, crates, or
coconuts need to be cleaned quickly.
mesh bags to protect them during storage and
4. Drying-the coconuts should be properly dried to transportation. In addition for safety packing coconuts;
remove excess moisture. This helps prevent the
1. Cushioning Materials: provide additional
growth of mold or bacteria. Coconuts can be air-
protection against impact and vibration,
dried naturally or dried using mechanical dryers,
cushioning materials such as foam inserts, straw,
depending on the available resources and the
or shredded paper can be placed between the
desired drying time.
coconuts or around the packaging. This helps
5. Sorting-coconuts can also be sorted to remove absorb shocks and prevent damage.
any damaged or defective ones. This ensures that
2. Labels and Barcodes: Each package of coconuts
only high-quality coconuts are selected for further
should be labeled with relevant information such
processing or packaging.
as product name, origin, weight, and handling
By implementing these cleaning procedures, coconuts can instructions. Barcodes or QR codes can be used
be effectively cleaned, removing dirt and debris and for efficient tracking and inventory management.
ensuring their quality and hygiene.
3. Ventilation and Air Circulation: is essential to
B. DRYING TECHNIQUES prevent the buildup of moisture and heat, which
can lead to spoilage or fungal growth. Packaging
Drying is an important step in the postharvest process of
should allow for adequate air circulation to
coconuts. It helps to reduce the moisture content and
maintain the quality of the coconuts.
prolong the shelf life of the coconuts.
4. Palletization: For large-scale transportation,
 Natural Drying: Coconuts are traditionally dried
pallets can be used to stack and transport multiple
in the sun to reduce moisture content and prevent
packages of coconuts. Palletization facilitates
 efficient loading and unloading, protects the conducted to detect any pesticide or chemical
coconuts from damage, and allows forklifts or contaminants.
pallet jacks to handle the packages easily. 6. Traceability and Documentation: Implementing
a traceability system allows for the tracking and
Employing suitable packaging materials and techniques,
documentation of coconuts from the farm to the
coconuts can be protected from physical damage,
consumer. This helps in identifying the source of
moisture, and contamination, ensuring their freshness and
any quality or safety issues and enables quick and
quality throughout storage and transportation.
efficient recalls if necessary.
D. QUALITY CONTROL AND POSTHARVEST 7. Compliance with Food Safety Standards:
LOSSES Coconuts should meet the regulatory requirements

 QUALITY CONTROL MEASURES and food safety standards set by the relevant
authorities. This includes adherence to good
To ensure the freshness and safety of coconuts, it is
agricultural practices, proper handling, storage,
important to implement quality control measures
and transportation practices, and compliance with
throughout the post-harvest process. Here are some key
hygiene and sanitation guidelines.
quality control measures:
8. Continuous Monitoring and Improvement:
1. Harvesting at the Right Stage: Coconuts should Regular monitoring of the postharvest process is
be harvested at the appropriate stage of maturity to important to identify any quality or safety issues
ensure optimal quality and taste. and take corrective actions. Continuous
2. Proper Handling and Storage: Coconuts should improvement initiatives should be implemented to
be handled with care to prevent physical damage. enhance the quality control measures and ensure
They should be stored in a cool, well-ventilated the ongoing freshness and safety of coconuts.
environment with the right temperature and
By implementing these quality control measures, the
humidity levels to maintain freshness and prevent
freshness and safety of coconuts can be ensured,
spoilage.
providing consumers with high-quality, safe products, and
3. Cleaning and Sanitization: Coconuts should
maintaining the reputation of coconut producers.
undergo thorough cleaning to remove dirt, debris,
and surface contaminants. Proper sanitization  FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO POST-

practices should be followed to minimize the risk HARVEST LOSSES

of microbial contamination Post-harvest losses can occur due to various factors. Here
4. Packaging and Labeling: Coconuts should be are some common factors contributing to post-harvest
packaged in clean, durable, and properly sealed losses of coconuts and strategies to minimize them:
containers or bags to protect them from physical
1. Physical Damage: it occur during harvesting,
damage, moisture, and contamination. Each
handling, or transportation can lead to postharvest
package should be labeled with relevant
losses.
information, including product name, origin,
weight, and handling instructions. 2. Moisture Loss: Coconuts naturally contain
5. Quality Testing: Regular quality testing should moisture, and excessive moisture loss during
be conducted to assess the sensory attributes, such storage can lead to quality deterioration and
as taste, aroma, and texture, of the coconut meat weight loss.
and water. Microbiological testing can also be
3. Temperature and Humidity: Inadequate storage
performed to ensure the absence of harmful
conditions, such as improper temperature and
microorganisms. Chemical residue analysis can be
 humidity levels, can accelerate spoilage and skincareproduct. . It is also used in the production
reduce the shelf life of coconuts. of cosmetics, soaps, and hair care products.

4. Pest and Disease Infestation: Insects, rodents, 2. Coconut Water: is the clear liquid found inside
and microbial pathogens can cause significant young, green coconuts. It is a refreshing and
postharvest losses. hydrating beverage that is rich in electrolytes,
vitamins, and minerals. Coconut water is
5. Ethylene Exposure: Coconuts are sensitive to
consumed as a natural energy drink and is also
ethylene gas, which can be produced by certain
used as a base for smoothies, juices, and cocktails.
fruits and vegetables during ripening. Exposure to
ethylene can accelerate the ripening process and 3. Coconut Milk: is made by blending the grated
lead to premature spoilage of coconuts. flesh of mature coconuts with water and then
straining it. It is a creamy, dairy-free alternative to
6. Improper Handling and Storage Practices:
cow's milk and is widely used in Asian and
Inadequate handling and storage practices can
Caribbean cuisines. Coconut milk is used in
contribute to postharvest losses..
curries, soups, desserts, and as a dairy substitute in
7. Market and Supply Chain Issues: Inefficient baking and cooking.
supply chain management, lack of infrastructure,
4. Coconut Flour: r is made from the dried and
and market fluctuations can also contribute to
defatted coconut meat. It is a gluten-free
postharvest losses.
alternative to wheat flour and is rich in fiber and
8. Value Addition and Processing: Value addition protein. Coconut flour is used in baking,
through processing can help minimize postharvest particularly for gluten-free and grain-free recipes.
losses. By converting coconuts into value-added It adds a subtle coconut flavor and a light texture
products like coconut oil, coconut water, or to baked goods.
coconut milk, the shelf life of coconuts can be
5. Coconut Sugar: also known as coconut palm
extended, and market opportunities can be
sugar, is derived from the sap of coconut palm
maximized.
flowers. It is a natural sweetener with a caramel-
By addressing these factors through proper handling, like flavor and is considered a healthier alternative
storage, pest control, and value addition strategies, to refined sugar.
postharvest losses of coconuts can be minimized,
6. Desiccated Coconut: is the dried, grated flesh of
ensuring better economic returns for farmers and a
mature coconuts. It is commonly used as a topping
consistent supply of high-quality coconuts to consumers.
for cakes, pastries, and desserts.

7. Coconut Butter: is made by grinding the flesh of

E. VALUE ADDITION AND PROCESSING mature coconuts into a smooth and creamy paste.

 Value added products It is used as a spread, in baking, and as an

ingredient in raw desserts. Coconut butter has a
Coconuts are incredibly versatile and can be processed
rich coconut flavor and adds a creamy texture to
into various value-added products. Here are some popular
recipes.
value-added products derived from coconuts:
These are just a few examples of the value-added
1. Coconut Oil: is extracted from the dried kernel
products derived from coconuts. The versatility of
(copra) of coconuts. It is widely used in cooking,
coconuts allows for a wide range of culinary and cosmetic
baking, and as a natural beauty and
applications, making them highly sought after in various
industries.
 column dryers, round dryers, or forced air dryers,
hydrolysis of proteins takes place to produce a wide
variety of free amino acids. Coffee temperatures during
POST HARVEST ACTIVITIES OF COFFEE drying should not exceed 40 °C for parchment and 45 °C
for cherries; in this sense, temperature, air flow, relative
After harvesting, coffee beans have a post-harvest process
humidity and pressure.
for a more stable, transportable, and roastable form, with
a moisture content between 10–12% to avoid unwanted
fermentations (Rodriguez et al. 2020).

1.1 PROCESSING
1.1. 2 WET METHOD
Green coffee seeds are managed by one of three methods
In the wet method, a substantial amount of water (40
known as dry, wet, and semi-dry processing.
L/Kg) is used to remove the pulp and mucilage from ripe
cof-fee cherries. This is carried out by chemical products
or by fermentation with starter cultures like S. cerevisiae
(Martins et al. 2020; Seninde & Chambers 2020). At the
end of the fermentation, the seeds are washed and dried.

A postharvest machinery that could be used for this

process is the coffee pulper machine. This machine
remove and separate the soft pulp of ripe coffee cherry
without making any damage to the parchment coffee.
Classification of coffee pulper in the Philippines include
disc pulper, drum pulper, slotted plate pulper, and fluted
1.1.1 DRYING METHOD
cylinder (PAES 252:2011).
In the dry method, the whole cherry (bean, mucilage, and
pulp) is dried under the sun or in a mechanical dryer,
followed by the mechanical removal of the dried outer Nevertheless, wet-processed cofee beans have a better
parts. The deterioration caused by fungus and bacteria is aroma and a higher consumer acceptance than dry-
stopped by this drying process (Duarte et al. 2010). processed ones, because the high volatiles concentration,
less body and more pleasant aroma (Sunarharum et al.
2014; Gumecindo-Alejo et al. 2021).
Natural drying involves drying the whole grain under the
sun, with manual or mechanical removal of unwanted
outer layers (Joët et al. 2010). Thus, a sweet and complex 1.1.3 SEMI-DRY METHOD
body and sensory attributes are ofered. However, sun
In the semi-dry or pulped natural method, the system aims
drying is a long process with a high labor cost and
to separate immature cherries from mature ones when
requires a large surface area for drying. (Kulapichitr et al.
nonselective harvesting is used (Schwan & Fleet 2014).
2019).
This method is also called honey process, because the
mucilage is dried along with the cofee beans and
produces a honey-like or sugar-like aroma after the drying
The favor of coffee could be affected if insufficient or
process (Bastian et al. 2021). Being a combination of dry
excessive-sive drying is applied because coffee beans are
and wet processing, it requires more processing time and
hygroscopic. During the drying process in static dryers,
water consumption. The cherries are pulped, and the inthe sorting machine, which is using a big vibrating
seeds dried while surrounded by the mucilage, without flatbed (NTCDB, 2009). There are different kinds of
the fermentation step for mucilage removal (Kipkorir et machines used to sort coffee beans. Electronic devices are
al. 2015). also used to separate the coffee beans by their colours.
However, this is not always sufficient to detect and
separate the good and bad coffee beans. After sorting is
1. 2 HULLING properly done, the coffee beans are then packed with the

Hulling is the next step after drying. The dried coffee right packaging materials and transferred to the storage

cherries (dry-processed) or parchment coffee (wet- house.

processed) hulled to remove the covers and get the coffee

beans out of it. Once the coffee bean reaches this stage, it
1. 4 STORAGE
means all the essential quality, such as colour and
moisture content, has already been achieved. Hulling is Right after the coffee beans are graded, they have to be
done by using different hulling machines, or locally on a kept in a storage house until they shipped and sold in the
small-scale farm, wooden mortar and pestle used to market. The temperature and relative humidity of the
separate the coffee beans from the parchment or dried storehouse should be controlled to maintain the coffee
coffee cherries. Commonly there are two kinds of coffee quality without losing its intrinsic sensorial characteristics
hulling machines. This includes rubber roller which shall and physical and chemical properties and to store for a
be used for wet processed coffee beans and steel roller. longer time. Afonso (2001) reported that as the storage
(PNS/BAFS/PAES 212:2017) relative humidity is higher for an extended time, it
decreases the compositions of reducing sugars in green
coffee beans. Several research reports are available about
It is essential to take care of the coffee beans and avoid the effects of storage conditions on the sensorial quality
physical damage even not to heat the beans during hulling of coffee beans. He also mentioned that the 60% relative
because it affects the colour and taste of the coffee. The humidity with longer storage causes to cellular
last layer that encloses the coffee beans is thin silver skin, degradation and leads to oil leaking, which also
and this may be removed or may not be removed during contributes to the chemical compositions of green coffee
the hulling process. If the coffee beans’silver skin is not beans. When the storage duration is prolonged, the oil
separated during hulling; it needs a machine called becomes more acidic, and itreduced the quality of the
polishers to separate it and get the green coffee beans. product (NTDCB, 2001).

1. 3 SORTING 1. 5 ROASTING, GRINDING, AND BREWING

Finally, the green coffee beans are ready to be cleaned Roasting is considered the essential steps in the formation
and sorted according to colour, size, and density of the aroma and flavour properties (Arya & Lao, 2007).
(Wanyonyi, 1972).The hulled coffee beans then undergo When the roasting temperatures are higher than 200°C,
sorting processes, which is done bymachine and hand. the precursors in green coffee are transformed into
Hand sorting is most widely used, and it requires roasted coffee constituents, which lead to the
intensivelabour for sorting the coffee beans based on size, development of diverse aroma test and colour. The
colour, and density. roasting duration and the final temperature of the coffee
beans determine the development of flavour compounds

Sieve machines are used toscreen the coffee beans

according to their size. The sieving principle is applied
Grinding is the next step after roasting. In this step, the  Grading: separation (or grading) of broken from
coffee beans are crushed and changed into powder at unbroken rice. The broken rice is often separated into

different particle size. It is done using a grinding machine different sizes.

such as burr grinder, hammer-type grinder, and blade METHODS OF MILLING

grinder. (PNS/BAFS PAES 188:2018) However, to
 Traditional Method
achieve a uniform ground size, an electrical grinder is the
best choice. Mostly for French press coffee, a coarse Before the advent of mechanical milling, hand pounding
traditional method of rice milling was in practice. In fact, hand-
coffee ground is preferred, whereas the fine ground coffee
pounding rice has got more nutritive value as compared to
is used to make the espresso coffee.
machine milling rice

2. Challenges in Agricultural Processing

From inconsistent harvests to inefficient technologies,

agricultural processing faces a multitude of challenges.
Labor shortages, waste management, product losses, and
volatile market prices all threaten profitability and
sustainability. POSTHARVEST PROCESS OF MUNG
BEAN
However, mechanization steps in on this problem.
Machinery automates tasks, reduces waste, and improves Mung beans, scientifically known as Vigna radiata and
processing efficiency, leading to higher yields and colloquially referred to as green gram or "monggo" in Tagalog,

quality. Smart sensors optimize water and energy use, hold a prominent place as a popular legume in the Philippines.
Recognized by their petite, variable-hued seeds ranging from
while advanced sorting ensures product consistency. Yet,
green and yellow to brown and black, these warm-season crops
challenges like high initial costs and access to skilled
are extensively cultivated across Asia, notably in the Indian
operators persist. The key lies in finding the right
subcontinent, India, China, Korea, and Thailand. Typically
balance: utilizing technology to overco hurdles while
grown during the dry season, spanning from November to
ensuring responsible practices and fair worker treatment.
April, mung beans are harvested with anticipation in May or
June (Hou et al., 2019).

RESULT AND DISCUSSION The postharvest process of mung beans is a crucial

stage in ensuring the quality, safety, and usability of this
Coffee processing is known to be labor extensive and versatile legume. Leveraging postharvest technology is integral
contribute about 60% of the quality of green coffee beans. to optimizing these processes. After being harvested from the
The posharvest activities in coffee processing start from fields, mung beans undergo a series of steps aimed at
selecting the best quality coffee, processing, drying, preserving their nutritional content, preventing spoilage, and
hulling, storage, roasting, grinding, and brewing which preparing them for diverse applications in culinary and

can influence the coffee quality. However, each step of industrial settings (Hou et al., 2019).

the post-harvest activities can cause a significant quality The process involved in post-harvesting of mung bean
loss and lead to a lower market price that's why correct involved harvesting and threshing , cleaning and drying,
procedures must be taken to achieve a good quality sorting and grading , storage, packing for transport, and

coffee. transport to the market.

HARVESTING

Mung beans are hand-harvested or mechanically

harvested when the pods dry and turn brown, typically within
75-90 days. The timing of harvesting is crucial to ensure the possible contaminants away from the storage area as the seeds
quality of the beans (Naik et al., 2020b). will be sprouted and eaten directly.

THRESHING PACKAGING

After harvesting, the beans are threshed to separate the Beans are packaged in various materials like jute
grain from the dried stems. This can be done manually or with bags, plastic bags, or hermetically sealed containers for
the use of threshing machines such as threshing cylinders and transportation, distribution, and retail sale. Packaging choices
rotary threshers. There are also various machines available for influence shelf life, product presentation, and marketability.
threshing mung beans, such as the UGT-10 Mung Bean
TRANSPORT
Threshing Machine Green Bean Thresher, which includes both
seed threshing and cleaning functions. It has the powerful Following harvest, beans are trucked to a grading shed
vibration cleaning screen and air blower, so in fact it can also where they are cleaned, graded and bagged as soon as possible.
be used as a multi-crops cleaning machine. Mung bean does not require specialized transport.

CLEANING MARKETING

Threshed beans contain impurities like pod As with all specialty crops with limited market uses, a
fragments, dust, and debris. These are removed using grower should always identify markets before producing mung
sieves, winnowing baskets, or specialized cleaning machines. bean on a large scale. It is also advisable to identify markets as
early as possible rather than waiting until after the harvest.
DRYING
Local health food stores, restaurants and brokers may be able
Beans need to be dried to a safe moisture content to purchase the produce. Production costs for mung beans are
(around 12-13%) to prevent mold growth and spoilage. Sun very similar to production costs for soya bean, except that post-
drying is common which beans spread out on mats under the harvest cleaning and transportation costs may differ.
sun, but mechanical dryers offer faster and more controlled
drying, especially in humid climates (Hou et al., 2019b). Once
cleaned, the beans are dried to an appropriate moisture level to
prevent spoilage during storage.

SORTING

Beans are sorted to remove damaged, discolored, or

foreign materials. This can be done manually or using
electronic sorting machines based on size, color, and other
charaCTERISTICS.

GRADING

Sorted beans are further categorized into different

grades based on market standards and requirements. These
grades often reflect size, color, purity, and overall quality.

STORAGE

Dried and graded beans are stored in clean, dry, and

pest-free environments to maintain quality and prevent
spoilage. Warehouses, silos, and sealed containers are
CHALLENGES IN POSTHARVEST PROCESS
commonly used storage facilities. Mung beans with about 12%
PRACTICES OF MUNG BEAN
moisture can be stored in regular grain bins that have been
fumigated to control bean weevils. If beans are higher in Some of these challenges are my observations during
moisture, above 12%, they can be dried slightly by moving the mung bean harvest on our farm.
unheated air though thin layers until they are near or at the
12% value (DAFF, 2010). Care should be taken to keep all
 1. Shattering during harvesting: Mung beans are very play a critical role in ensuring the fruit reaches consumers in
sensitive to shattering, which can lead to significant optimal condition, preserving its quality, extending shelf life,
harvest losses. Proper harvesting techniques and and maximizing market value. From harvesting to packaging
equipment are essential to minimize shattering and and distribution, various processes are involved in managing
ensure optimal yield. bananas postharvest, each requiring careful attention to detail
and adherence to best practices. We delve into the essential
2. Improper handling: Mung beans are delicate and can
postharvest activities of bananas, highlighting key steps and
be damaged during handling, leading to reduced
technologies employed to maintain fruit quality and reduce
quality and market returns. Proper handling
losses along the supply chain. Understanding these activities is
techniques, such as avoiding excessive pressure and
vital for stakeholders, including farmers, exporters, and
using appropriate containers, are crucial for
researchers, and even you as future AB Engineers of the
maintaining the quality of mung beans.
country, seeking to enhance the efficiency and sustainability of
3. Harvesting maturity: The timing of harvesting is banana production and trade.
crucial for ensuring optimal yield and quality.
Threshing must be done carefully to avoid damaging HARVESTING
the delicate seeds. Choosing the right method depends
The bananas are harvested at a specific maturity, relating
on various factors, including the scale of production, to the number of days from flowering, the angularity of
available resources, and desired level of the fingers in cross section, the size of fingers, and
mechanization. distance to market. Skilled teams harvest the bananas,
using specialized equipment to cut stems and support cut
4. Thorough cleaning: Mung beans must be cleaned to bunches. Fruit should be harvested early in the day, when
remove contaminants that can affect their taste, safety, the temperature is low. The fruit can be harvested by
and storage life. Proper cleaning techniques are cutting the stalk when the bananas are plump but green.
essential for ensuring the beans are free of
contaminants.

5. Drying: Drying is essential for preventing spoilage

and maintaining seed quality for consumption or
further processing. The chosen drying method should
be efficient and ensure uniform drying to avoid
damage to the beans.
HANDLING
6. Proper storage: Proper storage is critical for
preserving the quality and preventing losses during Banana fruits are highly susceptible to abrasion and
storage. Packaging plays a vital role in protecting the impact injuries, with mechanical injury being a significant
beans from damage, contamination, and moisture issue in export markets. Post-ripening, mechanical injury
often manifests as black sunken areas on the fruit's skin.
absorption during transport and storage.
Careful handling during harvesting and transportation is
necessary to prevent such injuries. Measures such as
using thin plastic liners in export cartons can minimize
POSTHARVEST PROCESS OF BANANA chafing damage during handling.

SCIENTIFIC NAME: :MUSA TRANSPORT

 Musa acuminata During transportation, banana bunches are typically

 Musa balbisiana transported to packing sheds on padded trailers or via an
 Musa paradisiaca overhead cable system to minimize mechanical damage.
Dehanding, which involves removing hands (clusters of
bananas) from the bunch, can be done in the field or at the
Banana, one of the most widely consumed fruits globally, packing shed. To protect plantain bunches during harvesting
holds significant economic importance in many tropical and transportation, dehanding in the field and the use of plastic
regions, including the Philippines. Its postharvest activities
forms are recommended. This approach reduces mechanical technologies for fresh and major processed banana products in
damage and preserves fruit quality, particularly for exportation. the markets are also covered.

CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE

SORTING & GRADING  A green condition for 6 weeks under controlled

atmosphere (CA) conditions of 2% oxygen and 7%
Postharvest sorting and grading of bananas are crucial
carbon dioxide at 12.5°C. Thereafter the fruit ripened
steps in ensuring the quality of the bananas that reach the
normally within 4 to 5 days at 16°C.
consumers. Bananas are sorted into categories based on their
 Under semi-commercial CA storage at 2% oxygen and
ripeness and quality. This can be done manually or using
5% carbon dioxide the fruit started to ripen after 5
technology such as computer vision. After sorting, bananas are
weeks storage due to uneven maturity.
graded based on their size and quality. This helps in packaging
 Storage of bananas in CA shipping containers or in
bananas of similar sizes and qualities together, which is
beneficial for both transportation and marketing. polyethylene bags in standard shipping containers was
also successful and export of bananas by sea can
STORAGE become a viable proposition.
Storage of Fruits like banana at low temperature MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE STORAGE
hamper the quantity of ascorbic acid and accelerate the chilling
injuries because of destruction in the ascorbic acid content The storage life of bananas was also extended when

caused the chilling. fruit were held in a modified atmosphere containing 10%
carbon dioxide for 1 to 3 days, followed by storage under
Note: Bananas stored at tropical temperatures around 30°C do regular atmosphere conditions at 12.5°C. Packing the fruit in
not fully degreen due to ethylene inhibition and reduced Mg- polyethylene bags and treatment with different concentrations
dechelatase activity, hindering chlorophyll breakdown. of 'Semperfresh' also extended the storage life.
STORAGE

 The ideal storage temperature is approximately 13- CHALLENGES IN BANANA POST-HARVEST

14°C.
1. RAPID RIPENING
 Bananas ripened at 20°C under ethylene treatment are
 The rapid ripening of bananas, propelled by
preferred for their better flavor, reduced astringency,
ethylene gas production, presents significant
and increased sweetness.
challenges in managing the fruit's shelf life,
 Thus, it's advisable to store bananas for transport at 13-
particularly during transportation and storage.
14°C, coupled with ethylene treatment to enhance
Ethylene is a natural plant hormone involved
quality characteristics during storage.
in the regulation of various physiological
processes, including fruit ripening. Bananas

POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGIES are among the fruits that produce relatively

high levels of ethylene, which accelerates their
PACKAGING
ripening process.
Packaging has become a significant part of the food 2. SUSCEPTIBILITY IN PHYSICAL DAMAGE
value chain not only for containing and delivering products  Bananas, being delicate fruits, are highly
from farm to consumer but also protecting and preserving susceptible to bruising and physical damage
products. Active packaging technologies have been aimed at throughout the postharvest process, starting
extending shelf life or to enhance safety, whereas intelligent from harvesting to transportation and handling.
packaging provides an indication of the quality of products. The soft flesh of bananas makes them
Various technologies have been reported to maintain the particularly vulnerable to mechanical injury,
quality and prolong shelf life of fresh bananas; for example, which can occur due to improper handling
edible films and coatings, modified atmosphere packaging, and practices or rough treatment during transit.
ozone treatments. Current and innovative packaging Any form of physical damage, such as
crushing, impacts the fruit's integrity and
 accelerates the ripening process. Damaged preserved or dried forms or is processed into juices, purees,
areas become more prone to microbial attack, chutneys and pickles. Ripe mangoes are best eaten as fresh
increasing the risk of decay and spoilage. fruit, usually as a dessert and are used in the production of
Additionally, bruises and cuts provide entry confectionery, ice cream, and bakery products. Mango contains
points for pathogens, further compromising the a variety of phytochemicals and nutrients. The fruit pulp is
fruit's quality and shelf life. high in dietary fiber, Vitamin C, provitamin A, carotenoids and
3. PATHOGEN SUSCEPTIBILITY diverse polyphenols.
 Bananas are highly susceptible to postharvest
IMPORTANCE OF POST-HARVEST HANDLING
diseases caused by a range of pathogens
including fungi, bacteria, and viruses. These Losses in quantity and quality (or post-harvest losses)

pathogens can infect the fruit during various occur after harvest at different points in the handling chain. A

stages of postharvest handling, including loss assessment study conducted under this project in 2015,

harvesting, transportation, and storage. showed that losses amounted to 31 percent due mainly to decay

 Pathogen infestation leads to the development that manifested at the retail level (Photo 2). Bruising and

of visible symptoms such as rotting, weight loss which represent loss in marketable weight are the

discoloration, and tissue degradation, other nature of losses. These losses can be attributed to poor

rendering the fruit unmarketable and causing harvesting, rough handling, and poor packaging and transport

substantial economic losses for producers and conditions. The high incidence of decay mainly in the form of

distributors. anthracnose and stem end rot can be attributed to the high level

4. PACKAGING AND TRANSPORTATION ISSUE of pre-harvest infection due to improper disease management

 Inadequate packaging and transportation during production.Anthracnose is a latent infection and

methods pose significant risks to the symptoms of the disease become apparent only as the fruit
ripens.
postharvest quality of bananas. Improper
packaging fails to provide adequate protection Post-harvest losses represent a waste of the resources –
against physical damage, leaving the fruit land, labour, energy, water, fertilizer, etc. that went into
vulnerable to bruising, crushing, and impact producing the crop. Every effort must therefore, be made to
during handling and transit. Such damage not minimize these losses. Unless these losses are minimized, the
only affects the appearance of the fruit but also gains from production will be offset and potential income
accelerates ripening, leading to a shorter shelf cannot be realized.
life.
With the changing tastes and lifestyles of consumers,
Addressing these challenges requires the and the need to reduce the high levels of post-harvest losses,
implementation of appropriate postharvest management the need for good post-harvest handling becomes a matter of
practices, including careful handling, temperature control, concern. The continuous growth of supermarkets and
ethylene management, disease prevention strategies, and hypermarkets and the demands from institutional buyers
improved packaging and transportation methods. These require giving more attention to post-harvest handling of
measures are crucial for maintaining banana quality and mango to satisfy demand forbetter quality and safe produce
extending shelf life from harvest to consumption.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MANGO FRUIT THAT

IMPACTON POST-HARVEST LIFE

POSTHARVEST PROCESS OF Mango fruits undergo programmed changes The mango fruit,
being a living tissue is subject to continuous change until it
MANGO
completely deteriorates. The process of ageing and eventual
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the most dying in living tissues is called senescence. There are
important and popular fruits in Bangladesh and is referred to as programmed changes in the fruit like ripening that influence
the “king of fruits” because of its excellent overall eating appearance, flavor, texture and nutritive value that cause them
characteristics. It is consumed as a fresh fruit, in the frozen, to age.
 MANGOES ARE PRONE TO INJURY

 Mangoes are susceptible to damage. When

damaged, all of the biological processes within
the fruit, like respiration and ethylene (the
ripening agent produced naturally by
mangoes) production proceed at a rapid rate
leading to rapid deterioration. Moreover,
damage may notbe apparent externally but can
show up later in the handling chain typified by
the failure of the damaged portion to change
color and the presence of a starchy layer just
beneath the peel ofthe ripe fruit.

While some changes are desirable (e.g., changes associated

with ripening), most are deteriorative. These post-harvest
changes cannot be stopped but can be slowed down within
certain limits. HARVEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

In general, the application of post-harvest technology can only A fruit is considered mature when it has reached a
maintain, not improve or little ifany, the quality of harvested stage of development such that after harvesting and during
fruit. post-harvest handling, both the external and internal quality

The main objective of applying any post-harvest technology is attributes are acceptable to consumers. Harvesting at the proper

to keep fruit quality and safety as high as possible until it stage of maturity, the manner in which the fruit is detached

reaches the final consumer. from the tree and the time of harvesting are important
considerations during harvesting.

Maturity indices
MANGOES LOSE WATER
Mango fruits harvested at the correct stage of maturity
 The pulp of the mango fruit consists mainly of develop good peel and pulp color and have full flavor and
water. When harvested, the fruit can no aroma at the ripe stage. Mangoes harvested at an immature
longerreplace the water that is lost through stage of development can be induced to ripen but the quality of
respiration. Mangoes are, therefore, subject to the ripe fruit and particularly the flavor,is inferior.
shriveling(Photo 5) and weight loss and
consequently loss in marketable weight.
Exposure of the fruit tothe sun results in rapid Maturity indices are an indication of the readiness of the fruit
water loss. for harvest. There are several methods of assessing the
maturity of mangoes. These include:
MANGOES ARE PRONE TO DECAY

 Shape – flat shoulder at stem end; fullness of

 Fruits are susceptible to attack by insects and
cheeks
decay-causing organisms (called pathogens)
which can eventually accelerate their  Peel appearance – presence of bloom (white

deterioration. Rough handling may create powdery substance on the peel, change in peel

wounds which serve as entry points for color from dark to light green (for some

pathogens. Field containers like bamboo varieties)

baskets have rough and pointed edges that  Pulp color – light creamy yellow pulp

could damage the fruit, hence the need to line TIME OF HARVESTING
the containers with clean plastic sacks or jute
sacks to prevent injury on the fruit.
 The recommended time for harvesting mature fruits is or in a packinghouse .The packing area should provide
from 9:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. to minimize latex flow. Latex stain adequate protection from sun and rain, kept clean at all times,
(Photo 9) which leads to unsightly latex burns are major causes pet animals should be kept away from the packing area, and all
of rejection especially if fruits are to sold on export and workers should practice good personal hygiene.
premium markets like supermarkets and hotels. Harvesting
The sequence of operations should insure that cross
immediately following rain, should be avoided.
contamination is avoided. The surroundingsof the
packinghouse should always be kept clean.

HARVESTING METHOD

Mango fruits are generally harvested manually using a TRIMMING

picking pole with net bag attached for catching the fruit once it
Trimming refers to the cutting of stem that is left on
is severed from the branch (Photo 10). The harvested mangoes
the fruit .Packing fruits with stems attached may result in latex
are then transferred to a collecting container that is lined with
stains when stems break off during handling. Fresh latex oozes
clean plastic or jute sack to prevent damage on the fruit (Photo
out of the stem end, thus staining other fruits in a pack. Dried
10c). Plastic crates are the most suitable field containers.
latex is difficult to remove.
Harvesting tools and aids such as field containers must be
clean to avoid contamination. DELATEXING/DESAPPING

Delatexing, also known as desapping, is the removal of

fresh latex from the fruit. The steps involved are outlined
Minimizing damage and deterioration during harvesting
below:
and field handling
 Remove bagging material from the fruit. One
 Harvesters must wash their hands before harvesting.
advantage of bagging is that bags canprovide
Good personal hygiene must bepracticed to avoi
immediate protection from latex staining
 cross-contamination of the produce.Line collecting
during harvesting.
baskets with clean plastic sacks or newspaper to
 Trim stem neatly close to the base of the fruit
protect fruits from punctures and cuts caused by sharp
using sharp and clean pruning shears.
or protruding edges of the baskets. Cuts and punctures
 Delatexing can be done by either of the
provide avenues for water loss and invasion of decay-
following:
causing organisms. Wounded fruits also produce a lot
 Inverting freshly de-stemmed fruits on plastic
of ethylene that hastens the ripening process.
or steel mesh racks, allowing the latex to drip
 Gently lower filled collecting baskets to the ground.
for 30 minutes. Do NOT invert fruits on burlap
Do NOT pour harvested fruits onto the ground pour on
sacks as this may lead to coagulation of latex
to a clean tarpaulin. Harvested mangoes should notget
at the base of the fruit.
in contact with the soil in order to avoid microbial
 Dipping freshly de-stemmed fruits in 1 percent
contamination.
alum solution (one-half kg powdered alum per
 Minimize damage and avoid contamination of fruits
50 liters of water) for one minute .Alum
with soil, pathogens, fertilizers orother agro-chemicals.
enhances coagulation of the latex when fruit
 Avoid exposing harvested fruits to the heat of the sun
are dipped. Plastic crates can be used to
to prevent heat build up.
holdthe fruits during dipping. Allow fruits to
 Leave 2-3 cm of the stem (pedicel) attached to divert
dry before packing.
latex flow away from the fruit
SORTING/GRADING

Sorting is the grouping of mangoes based on the

POST-HARVEST OPERATIONS
criteria of the one classifying and there is no definite set of
Post-harvest operations refer to activities done to the standards followed. This is the most common practice in
fresh produce to meet the requirements of the target market. selling mangoes. After harvest, mangoes are arbitrarily
These operations can be done in the field, in collection centers classified as “Class A” (good quality; for export or for
institutional buyers like supermarkets and hotels) or “Class B” PROCEDURE FOR HWT
(local grade or for domestic market. Grading onthe other hand,
 Fill the tank with enough water to completely immerse
refers to the classification of mangoes based on the standard
the crate with fruits in heatedwater (about 3/4 of the
criteria acceptedby the industry.
total depth of the tank). Use only clean water for
Mangoes that are of good quality and safe for HWT.
consumption are mature, clean, wellformed, free from insect  Heat the water to 55oC. Use the thermometer to check
and disease damage, free from mechanical damage such as the water temperature.
cuts, abrasion and punctures, free from microbial, chemical  Temperature should be checked at different points of
and physical contamination. Defects, if any, are only minimal the tank.
as in the case of windscar and latex stain.  If temperature is uneven, check if the water pump

Mango fruits with the following defects, on the other isfunctioning properly and water outlets are not

hand, are most likely to be rejected blocked

 Put the mangoes to be treated in plastic crates with
 insect damaged due to cecid fly, fruitfly and
holes on all sides and at the bottom. Do NOT overfill
thrips;
the crate. The crate protects the fruits from heat injury
 with pre-harvest damage such as scab and
resulting from contact with the hot sides and bottom of
sooty mold, harvesting and handling damage the tank.
such as latex stains and burns, bruising,
 Dip the crates in hot water for 5 or 10 minutes.
abrasion, compression, cuts and punctures, and
o Stir the water occasionally (if there is no pump
prematurely ripened. Classifiers or sorters
to circulate the water) to have uniform
should practice good personal hygiene such as
temperature within the tank.
washing their hands with soap or detergent
o The treatment can be shortened to 5 minutes if
before handling the produce. There should also
the mangoes are produced duringthe dry hot
be provision for workers’ comfort during
period when conditions are not favorable for
sorting/grading since uncomfortable sitting
infection in the field.
positions during may lead to fatigue hence
 Remove the crates from the tank.
inappropriate sorting procedures.
o Cool treated mangoes for 10 minutes in clean
POST-HARVEST DISEASE CONTROL tap water if fruits are to be brought to distant

Anthracnose and stem end rot are the two most markets. Cooling is needed since HWT

important post-harvest diseases of mango fruits. These two hastens ripening of the fruit.

diseases cannot be detected at the green stage and symptoms of o If fast ripening is desired, then fast cooling is

infection appear only as the fruits ripen. An integrated pre- and not necessary.

post-harvest disease management protocol will ensure adequate o llow fruits to cool and dry before packing.

control of these diseases. Faster drying can be achieved by placingcrates

of mangoes in front of blowers.
Hot water treatment (HWT) is by far the most effective
post-harvest treatment against the two diseases mentioned. Important reminders during HWT

HWT is a non-chemical method of controlling decay.  Fruits should be treated within 36 hours after harvest
Additional benefit gained from HWT is the removal of fresh to get the maximum benefit ofdisease control.
latex and dirt adhering on the surface of mangoes.
 Hot water treatment is most effective against stem end
During HWT, green mature fruits are dipped for 5 to rot when applied while fruit isstill fully green.
10 minutes in water heated to 52– 55oC. At this temperature  Do not allow latex to dry on the fruit before applying
range, the disease-causing organisms are killed without HWT since this will aggravatelatex burns that develop
injuring the fruit. The effectiveness of HWT is reduced if the later.
temperature drops below 52oC and while temperature above  Change the water if it becomes contaminated with
55oC will cause scalding of the peel of the dipped fruits. latex and dirt. Dipping fruit in dirty and latex-
 contaminated water can increase the incidence of fruit  Hygiene – plastic crates should be thoroughly
and lenticel damagethat develop during ripening cleaned with soap/detergent after use.
 Handling – handle with care during loading,
PACKAGING AND TRANSPORT
stacking and unloading; do not drop. Don’t use
Packaging as seats when sorting .

Proper packaging is essential in maintaining produce  Storage – store in a clean area that will
quality during transport and subsequent handling. Packaging prevent harborage of insects and rodents. Store
materials should provide adequate protection to its contents, separately from chemicals and farm machinery
should facilitate convenience in handling the produce, attract to prevent contamination. Crates should not be
consumers and sell the contents, and inform the consumers left exposed to the external environment since
about the produce inside the pack. they will readily wearout
 Do not use as storage containers for chemicals
(fertilizers and pesticides) if used forfresh
Packaging materials for mangoes produce

Rigid containers such as plastic crates are highly recommended Transport

for fresh mangoes since they provide adequate protection
The main objective of transportation is to ensure that mangoes
against compression damage. They have smooth inside finish
will arrive in good conditionat the final market. Mangoes must
and can be easily cleaned. They are also stackable and
be transported between several points in the supply chain:
reusable/returnable. Although more expensive than traditional
packaging containers, plastic crates with long-term use (5-6  Field to collection center.
years), the packaging cost per kg of produce is relatively  Collection center to wholesale market.
cheaper.  Wholesale market to retail market

At all of these stages, good transport practicessummarized

below, must be followed:
Semi-rigid containers such as bamboo baskets are also
used but these should NOT be over-packed. Overpacking  Handle containers gently; they should not be dropped
results in compression damage. Baskets should be lined with or thrown on to each other.
clean paper, jute sack or any suitable cushioning material to  Containers at the bottom of the stack, should not be
prevent abrasion and punctures on the fruit since these used as steps to allow stacking to a greater height
containers usually have a rough inside finish. especially if semi-rigid containers like cartons are used

Cartons or fiberboard boxes should be equipped with a  Allow air to circulate in the stacks or piles of packaged

vertical divider in the middle and with ventilation holes at the produce by providing space in between stacks. If

sides to prevent heat buildup inside the carton. The physical canvass is used as cover, provide space for air to pass

strength of fiberboards decreases as they absorb moisture with through at the bottom and top of stack. Use light

time. Recycled cartons shouldNOT be over packed and over colored material as cover as this willreflect heat.

stacked as this results in compression damage and the  Minimize delays or facilitate the transfer of packages
incidenceof premature ripening. from one part of the market to another; four-wheeled
hand trolleys will minimize damage during unloading
While awaiting transport, filled cartons should not be
and transfer of produce packed in plastic crates
used as a “resting” area as this will lead to damage particularly
 Observe cleanliness of the transport vehicle; produce
compression and bruising which may not be apparent at the
safety is compromised when:
green stage but will show up later in the handling chain
 there are decaying remains of produce from the
especially when fruits are already ripe.
previous shipment
 insects and rodents nesting in the vehicles

Considerations in the use of plastic crates  vehicle used as storage area of farm implements when
not in use
HANDLING AT WHOLESALE AND RETAIL
MARKETS

The wholesale and retail markets serve as the outlets of mango

farmers, collectors and othertraders. The basic rules that should
be observed are as follows:

 Unload containers from the transport vehicle under

cover/shade with careful handlingto minimize
mechanical damage.
 Re-sort mangoes using sorting table.
 Discard culls properly.
 Re-grade mangoes according to size, appearance and
stage of ripeness as the casemaybe, depending on the
requirement of the target market.
 Display mangoes on clean retailshelves or in clean
containers
 When mangoes cannot be sold in one day, keep unsold
mangoes in storage withproper ventilation.