1. Define compiler. Explain with diagram. Also state its advantages disadvantages.

= A compiler is a special program that translates a programming language's source code

into machine code, byte code or another programming language. A compiler translates the
entire source code in a single run.
Diagram: high level language >> (compiler >> compilation error) >> low level language.
Advantage: *Run faster *No dependancies. * Hardware Optimization. *secure and private.
Disadvantage: *Hardware Specific.*Compile Times. * Incompatibility issue. *
Extra Memory. * Harder to Debug. * Extra step
2. Define interpreter. How it works? How it is differ from compiler? List advantages
of interpreter.
= 1) Interpreter is a computer program that directly executes instructions written in a
programming or scripting language, without requiring them previously to have been
compiled into a machine language program. 2) An interpreter translates the entire source
code line by line.3) A compiler translates the entire source code in a single run.
Advantages: * Cross-Platform * Easier To Debug * Less Memory and Step * Execution
Control Disadvantages: *Slower * Dependencies file required *Less Secure
3. Define compilation.
= Compilation is the process the computer takes to convert a high-level programming
language into a machine language that the computer can understand. The software which
performs this conversion is called a compiler.
4. Define the term pass.
= A Compiler pass refers to the traversal of a compiler through the entire program.
Compiler pass are two types: Single Pass Compiler, and Two Pass Compiler or Multi Pass
Compiler.
5. Define one-pass compiler. Explain diagrammatically with its advantages
disadvantages.
= one-pass compiler is a compiler that passes through the parts of each compilation unit
only once, immediately translating each part into its final machine code.

Advantage: More effective than multi-pass compilers in the compiler point of view.
 Disadvantage: It compiles less efficient programs.
6. What is multi-pass compiler? Explain diagrammatically with its advantages
Disadvantages.
= A multi-pass compiler is a type of compiler that processes the source code or abstract
syntax tree of a program several times.
Advantages: It can be played very role useful when optimizing code. Disadvantages: It is a
very Slower process which takes a lot of time to compile the codes.
7. List phases of compiler. What is phase in compiler? Explain structure of compiler
diagrammatically.
= Analysis phase and Synthesis phase. The analysis phase creates an intermediate
representation from the given source code. The synthesis phase creates an equivalent
target program from the intermediate representation.

Lexical Analysis: Lexical analyzer phase is the first phase of compilation process. It takes
source code as input. It reads the source program one character at a time and converts it
into meaningful lexemes. Lexical analyzer represents these lexemes in the form of tokens.
Syntax Analysis: Syntax analysis is the second phase of compilation process. It takes
tokens as input and generates a parse tree as output. In syntax analysis phase, the parser
checks that the expression made by the tokens is syntactically correct or not.
Semantic Analysis: Semantic analysis is the third phase of compilation process. It checks
whether the parse tree follows the rules of language. Semantic analyzer keeps track of
identifiers, their types and expressions. The output of semantic analysis phase is the
annotated tree syntax.
Intermediate Code Generation: In the intermediate code generation, compiler generates
the source code into the intermediate code. Intermediate code is generated between the
high-level language and the machine language. The intermediate code should be
generated in such a way that you can easily translate it into the target machine code.
Code Optimization: Code optimization is an optional phase. It is used to improve the
intermediate code so that the output of the program could run faster and take less space. It
removes the unnecessary lines of the code and arranges the sequence of statements in
order to speed up the program execution.
Code Generation: Code generation is the final stage of the compilation process. It takes
the optimized intermediate code as input and maps it to the target machine language. Code
generator translates the intermediate code into the machine code of the specified
computer.
8. Enlist types of compilers.= *Cross Compilers. *Bootstrap Compilers. *Source to
source/transcompiler *Decompiler
9. "Symbol table is not required in all phases of compilers". State true or false.
= True. Maintained
= A multi-pass compiler is a type of compiler that processes the source code or abstract
syntax tree of a program several times.
Advantages: It can be played very role useful when optimizing code. Disadvantages: It is a
very Slower process which takes a lot of time to compile the codes.
10. "Symbol table is not required in all phases of compilers". State true or false.
by compilers in order to store information about the occurrence of various entities such as
variable names, function names, objects, classes, interfaces, etc.
11. What is scanner? How the FA in used in scanner? Explain in detail.
= The scanner is a subroutine which is frequently called by an application program like a
compiler. The primary function of a scanner is to combine characters from the input stream
into recognizable units called tokens. 2) A finite automaton (FA) is a simple idealized
machine used to recognize patterns within input taken from some character set (or
alphabet) C. The job of an FA is to accept or reject an input depending on whether the
pattern defined by the FA occurs in the input.
18. Which phase in compiler is used for parsing?
= syntax analysis phase in compiler is used for parsing.
12. What is the need of code optimizationin?
= Optimization is a program transformation technique, which tries to improve the code by
making it consume less resources (i.e. CPU, Memory) and deliver high speed. In
optimization, high-level general programming constructs are replaced by very efficient low-
level programming codes.
13. Define bootstrapping. How to use it?
= bootstrapping is the technique for producing a self-compiling compiler — that is, a
compiler (or assembler) written in the source programming language that it intends to
compile. 2) Step-1: First we write a compiler for a small of C in assembly language. Step-
2: Then using with small subset of C i.e. C0, for the source language c the compiler is
written. Step-3: Finally we compile the second compiler. using compiler 1 the compiler 2 is
compiled. Step-4: Thus we get a compiler written in ASM which compiles C and generates
code in ASM.
16. What is lexical analysis? What is the purpose of lexical analysis phase in
compiler?
= Lexical Analysis is the first phase of the compiler also known as a scanner. It converts the
High level input program into a sequence of Tokens. First step of lex to create lexical
analyser. 2) To convert the input from a simple sequence of characters into a list of tokens
of different kinds, such as numerical and string constants, variable identifiers, and
programming language keywords.
17. Define cross compiler.
= A cross compiler is a compiler capable of creating executable code for a platform other
than the one on which the compiler is running. For example, a compiler that runs on a PC
but generates code that runs on an Android smartphone is a cross compiler.
22. Differentiate between one-pass, multi-pass and cross compilers.
One-Pass Compiler Multi-Pass Compiler

It reads the code only once It reads the code multiple times, each time changing it
and translates it at a similar into numerous forms.
time.

They are faster. They are "slower." As more number of passes means
more execution time.

Less efficient code Better code optimization and code generation.

optimization and code
generation.

It is also called a "Narrow It is also called a "wide compiler." As they can scan
compiler." It has limited scope. every portion of the program.

The compiler requires large The memory occupied by one pass can be reused by a
memory. subsequent pass; therefore, small memory is needed by
the compiler.

Example − Pascal & C Example − Modula -2 languages use multi-pass

languages use one-pass compilation.
compilation.

Native Compiler Cross Compiler

Translates program for same Translates program for different

hardware/platform/machine on it is hardware/platform/machine other than the
running. platform which it is running.

It is used to build programs for same It is used to build programs for other
system/machine & OS it is installed. system/machine like AVR/ARM.

It is dependent on System/machine and

OS It is independent of System/machine and OS

It can generate executable file like .exe It can generate raw code .hex

TurboC or GCC is native Compiler. Keil is a cross compiler.

27. What is parsing? How to use it in compiler?

= The process of transforming the data from one format to another is called Parsing.
2) A parser takes input in the form of a sequence of tokens, interactive commands, or
program instructions and breaks them up into parts that can be used by other components
in programming. There are The Top-down Parsing. The Bottom-up Parsing.
19. What is code optimization? What is the purpose of code optimization? Explain
with diagram.
= Code optimization is any method of code modification to improve code quality and
efficiency. 2) A program may be optimized so that it becomes a smaller size, consumes
less memory, executes more rapidly, or performs fewer input/output operations.

20. Define error in compiler. How to handle it in compiler? Explain with example.
= An Error is the blank entries in the symbol table. Errors in the program should be
detected and reported by the parser. Whenever an error occurs, the parser can handle it
and continue to parse the rest of the input. Example: for(;), this will report an error as for
having two semicolons inside braces.
23. Describe data types and data structures in compiler.
= A Data type is one of the forms of a variable to which the value can be assigned of a
given type only. This value can be used throughout the program. A Data structure is a
collection of data of different data types. This collection of data can be represented using
an object and can be used throughout the program.
24. With the help of example describe scope rules.
= The scope rules of this language make the decision that which part of the program a
specific piece of code or data item is accessible. Scope is a source-code level concept, and
a property of name bindings, particularly variable or function name bindings—names in the
source code are references to entities in the program—and is part of the behavior of a
compiler or interpreter of a language. Example: Given a function f(), entities that are
declared in all containing functions or the main program are said global to f().
25. What semantic analysis? Describe in detail.
= semantic analysis is the process of drawing meaning from text. It allows computers to
understand and interpret sentences, paragraphs, or whole documents, by analyzing their
grammatical structure, and identifying relationships between individual words in a particular
context. This helps in extracting important information from achieving human level accuracy
from the computers. Semantic analysis is used in tools like machine translations, chatbots,
search engines and text analytics.
26. What is symbol table? How to manage it?
= Symbol table is an important data structure created and maintained by compilers in order
to store information about the occurrence of various entities such as variable names,
function names, objects, classes, interfaces, etc. Symbol table is used by both the analysis
and the synthesis parts of a compiler. 2) If a compiler is to handle a small amount of data,
then the symbol table can be implemented as an unordered list, which is easy to code, but
it is only suitable for small tables only. A symbol table can be implemented in one of the
following ways: Linear (sorted or unsorted) list. Binary Search Tree.
28. What is parse tree? Explain with example.
= Parse tree is the hierarchical representation of terminals or non-terminals. These symbols
(terminals or non-terminals) represent the derivation of the grammar to yield input strings.
In parsing, the string springs using the beginning symbol. Example: A parse tree or parsing
tree or derivation tree or concrete syntax tree is an ordered, rooted tree that represents the
syntactic structure of a string according to some context-free grammar.
29. Explain the term intermediate code generation in detail.
= Intermediate code can translate the source program into the machine program.
Intermediate code is generated because the compiler can't generate machine code directly
in one pass. Therefore, first, it converts the source program into intermediate code, which
performs efficient generation of machine code further.