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5.5 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Measurement of temperature cannot be accomplished by direct comparison with
basic standards such as length and mass. A standardized calibrated device or system is
necessary to determine temperature. In order to measure temperature, various primary
effects that cause changes in temperature can be used. The temperature may change
due to changes in physical or chemical states, electrical property, radiation ability, or
physical dimensions. The response of the temperature-sensing device is influenced by
any of the following factors:
1. Thermal conductivity and heat capacity of an element
2. Surface area per unit mass of the element
3. Film coefficient of heat transfer
4. Mass velocity of a fluid surrounding the element
5. Thermal conductivity and heat capacity of the fluid surrounding the element
Temperature can be sensed using many devices, which can broadly be classified
into two categories: contact- and non-contact-type sensors. In case of contact-type
sensors, the object whose temperature is to be measured remains in contact with the
sensor. Inference is then drawn on the assessment of temperature either by knowing or
by assuming that the object and the sensor are in thermal equilibrium. Contact-type
sensors are classified as follows:
1. Thermocouples 4. Liquid-in-glass thermometers
2. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) 5. Pressure thermometers
3. Thermistors 6. Bimetallic strip thermometers
In case of non-contact-type sensors, the radiant power of the infrared or optical
radiation received by the object or system is measured. Temperature is determined
using instruments such as radiation or optical pyrometers. Non-contact-type sensors
are categorized as follows:
1. Radiation pyrometers
2. Optical pyrometers
3. Fibre-optic thermometers

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5.5.1 THERMOCOUPLES
Thermocouples are active sensors employed for the measurement of
temperature. The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature
differences to an electric voltage. In 1821, Thomas Johan See beck discovered that
when two dissimilar metals are joined together to form two junctions such that one
junction (known as the hot junction or the measured junction) is at a higher temperature
than the other junction (known as the cold junction or the reference junction), a net
emf is generated. This emf, which also establishes the flow of current, can be measured
using an instrument connected as shown in Fig. The magnitude of emf generated is a
function of the junction temperature. It is also dependent on the materials used to form
the two junctions. The thermoelectric emf is a result of the combination of two different
effects the Peltier effect and the Thomson effect.
The French physicist Jean Charles Athanase Peltier discovered that if two
dissimilar metals are connected to an external circuit in a way such that a current is
drawn, the emf may be slightly altered owing to a phenomenon called Peltier effect. A
potential difference always exists between two dissimilar metals in contact with each
other. This is known as the Peltier effect.
Thomson found out that the emf at a junction undergoes an additional change
due to the existence of a temperature gradient along either or both the metals. The
Thomson effect states that even in a single metal a potential gradient exists, provided
there is a temperature gradient.
Both these effects form the basis of a thermocouple, which finds application in
temperature measurement. The flow of current through the circuit is spontaneous when
two dissimilar metals are joined together to form a closed circuit, that is, a
thermocouple, provided one junction is maintained at a temperature different from the
other. This effect is termed the See beck effect.

Fig. 5.47 Basic thermocouple circuit

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[source: Engineering Metrology and Measurements, N.V. Raghavendra, Pg. No 367]

If temperatures at the hot junction (T1) and the cold junction (T2) are equal and at the
same time opposite, then there will not be any flow of current. However, if they are unequal,
then the emfs will not balance and hence current will flow. It is to be mentioned here that the
voltage signal is a function of the junction temperature at the measured end and the voltage
increases as the temperature rises. Variations in emf are calibrated in terms of temperatures;
the devices employed to record these observations are termed thermocouple pyrometers.

Laws of Thermocouples

Apart from the Peltier and Thomson effects, which form the basis of thermoelectric
emf generation, three laws of thermocouples that govern this phenomenon are required to be
studied in order to understand their theory and applicability. They also provide some useful
information on the measurement of temperature.

Law of Homogeneous Circuit

This law states that a thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a single
homogenous material, regardless of the variation in its cross section and by the application
of heat alone. This law suggests that two dissimilar materials are required for the formation
of any thermocouple circuit.

Law of Intermediate Metals

If an intermediate metal is inserted into a thermocouple circuit at any point, the net emf will
not be affected provided the two junctions introduced by the third metal are at identical
temperatures. This law allows the measurement of the thermoelectric emf by introducing a
device into the circuit at any point without affecting the net emf, provided that additional
junctions introduced are all at the same temperature.

Fig. 5.48 Basic thermocouple circuit

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[source: Engineering Metrology and Measurements, N.V. Raghavendra, Pg. No 368]

It is clear from Fig. that when a third metal, M3, is introduced into the system, two
more junctions, R and S, are formed. If these two additional junctions are maintained at the
same temperature, say T , the net emf of the thermocouple circuit remains unaltered.

Law of Intermediate Temperatures

If a thermocouple circuit generates an emf e1 when its two junctions are at temperatures
T1 and T2, and e2 when the two junctions are at temperatures T2 and T3, then the thermocouple
will generate an emf of e1 + e2 when its junction temperatures are maintained at T1 and T3.

Fig. 5.49 Law of intermediate temperatures

[source: https://www.elprocus.com/what-is-a-thermocouple-definition-working-principle-
diagram-applications/]

This law pertains to the calibration of the thermocouple and is important for providing
reference junction compensation. This law allows us to make corrections to the thermocouple
readings when the reference junction temperature is different from the temperature at which
the thermocouple was calibrated. Usually while preparing the calibration chart of a
thermocouple, the reference or cold junction temperature is taken to be equal to 0 °C.
However, in practice, the reference junction is seldom maintained at 0 °C; it is usually
maintained at ambient conditions. Thus, with the help of the third law, the actual temperature
can be determined by means of the calibration chart.

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Fig. 5.50 Law of intermediate temperatures

[source: Engineering Metrology and Measurements, N.V. Raghavendra, Pg. No 369]

Advantages
The advantages of thermocouples include the following.

• Accuracy is high
• It is Robust and can be used in environments like harsh as well as high vibration.
• The thermal reaction is fast
• The operating range of the temperature is wide.
• Wide operating temperature range
• Cost is low and extremely consistent

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of thermocouples include the following.

• Nonlinearity
• Least stability
• Low voltage
• Reference is required
• least sensitivity
• The thermocouple recalibration is hard
Applications

Some of the applications of thermocouples include the following.

• These are used as the temperature sensors in thermostats in offices, homes, offices
& businesses.
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• These are used in industries for monitoring temperatures of metals in iron,

aluminium, and metal.
• These are used in the food industry for cryogenic and Low-temperature applications.
Thermocouples are used as heat pumps for performing thermoelectric cooling.
• These are used to test temperature in chemical plants, petroleum plants.
• These are used in gas machines for detecting the pilot flame.
5.5.2 Thermopiles

An extension of thermocouples is known as a thermopile. A thermopile comprises a

number of thermocouples connected in series, wherein the hot junctions are arranged side by
side or in a star formation. In such cases, the total output is given by the sum of individual
emfs. The advantage of combining thermocouples to form a thermopile is that a much more
sensitive element is obtained. For example, a sensitivity of 0.002 °C at 1 mV/°C can be
achieved with a chromel–constantan thermopile consisting of 14 thermocouples. If n identical
thermocouples are combined to form a thermopile, then the total emf will be n times the
output of the single thermocouple.

For special-purpose applications such as measurement of temperature of sheet glass,

thermopiles are constructed using a series of semiconductors. For average temperature
measurement, thermocouples can be connected in parallel. During the formation of a
thermopile, one has to ensure that the hot junctions of the individual thermocouples are
properly insulated from one another.

A thermopile having a series connection and one having a star connection

Fig. 5.51 Thermopiles (a) Series connection (b) Star connection

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[source: Engineering Metrology and Measurements, N.V. Raghavendra, Pg. No 371]

5.5.3 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS(RTDs)

RTDs are also known as resistance thermometers. The American Society for Testing
and Materials has defined the term resistance thermometer as follows: RTD is ‘a temperature
measuring device composed of a resistance thermometer element, internal connecting wires,
a protective shell with or without means for mounting a connection head, or connecting wire
or other fittings, or both’.

We know that the electrical conductivity of a metal is dependent on the movement of

electrons through its crystal lattice. An RTD is a temperature sensor that works on the
principle that the resistance of electrically conductive materials is proportional to the
temperature to which they are exposed. Resistance of a metal increases with an increase in
temperature. Hence, metals can be classified as per their positive temperature coefficient
(PTC).

When temperature measurement is performed by a resistance thermometer using

metallic conductors, it is called a resistance temperature detector (RTD); on the other hand,
semiconductors used for temperature measurement are called thermistors.

We know that an RTD measures temperature using the principle that the resistance of
a metal changes with temperature. In practice, the RTD element or resistor that is located in
proximity to the area where the temperature is to be measured transmits an electrical current.

Then, using an instrument, the value of the resistance of the RTD element is measured.
Further, on the basis of known resistance characteristics of the RTD element, the value of the
resistance is correlated to temperature. RTDs are more rugged and have more or less linear
characteristics over a wide temperature range.

The range of RTDs is between 200 and 650°C. Many materials are commonly used for
making resistance thermometers, such as platinum, nickel, and copper, which are contained
in a bulb.

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However, platinum is the most popular and internationally preferred material. When
platinum is employed in RTD elements, they are sometimes termed platinum resistance
thermometers.

The popularity of platinum is due to the following factors:

1. Chemical inertness

2. Almost linear relationship between temperature and resistance

3. Large temperature coefficient of resistance, resulting in readily measurable values of

resistance changes due to variations in temperature

4.Greater stability because the temperature resistance remains constant over a long period of
time

Selection of a suitable material for RTD elements depends on the following criteria:

1. The material should be ductile so that it can be formed into small wires.

2. It should have a linear temperature-versus-resistance graph.

3. It must resist corrosion.

4. It should be inexpensive.

5. It should possess greater stability and sensitivity.

6. It must have good reproducibility.

RTDs essentially have the following three configurations:

1. A partially supported wound element: A small coil of wire inserted into a hole in a ceramic
insulator and attached along one side of that hole.

2. Wire-wound RTD: Prepared by winding a platinum or metal wire on a glass or ceramic

bobbin and sealed with a coating on molten glass known as wire-wound RTD elements.

3.Thin film RTD: Prepared by depositing or screening a platinum or metal glass slurry film
onto a small flat ceramic substrate called thin film RTD elements.

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Fig. 5.52 Wire-wound RTD

[source: Engineering Metrology and Measurements, N.V. Raghavendra, Pg. No 373]

Advantages

Compared to other types of temperature sensors, RTDs have the following advantages:

1. The resistance versus temperature linearity characteristics of RTDs are higher.

2. They possess greater accuracy (as high as ±0.1 °C). Standard platinum resistance
thermometers have ultra-high accuracy of around ±0.0001 °C.

3. They have excellent stability over time.

4. Resistance elements can be used for the measurement of differential temperature.

5.Temperature-sensitive resistance elements can be replaced easily.

Disadvantages

RTDs are also associated with some disadvantages. They are as follows:

1. The use of platinum in RTDs makes them more expensive than other temperature sensors.

2. The nominal resistance is low for a given size, and the change in resistance is much smaller
than other temperature sensors.

3. Although its temperature sensitivity is high, it is less than that of thermistors.

5.5.4 THERMISTORS

Semiconductors that are used to measure temperature are called thermistors. When a
thermistor is employed for temperature measurement, its resistance decreases with increase
in temperature. The valence electrons, which are mutually shared by the metal atoms, move

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continuously and freely through the metal during their movement from atom to atom. The
vibration in the crystal lattice of atoms increases with the increase in temperature.

The free movement of electrons becomes restricted due to an increase in the volume
of space occupied by the atoms. In case of thermistors, the valence electrons are attached
more firmly to the atoms; some of the electrons are detached and flow due to the increase in
temperature, which decreases electrical resistance facilitating the easy flow of electrons.
Materials used in thermistors for temperature measurements have very high temperature
coefficients (8–10 times higher than platinum and copper) and high resistivity (higher than
any pure metal).

Fig. 5.53 Thermistors

[source: https://circuitglobe.com/thermistor.html]

The temperature coefficient of platinum at 25 °C is +0.0036/K and, for thermistors, it

is generally around −0.045/K, which is more than 10 times sensitive when compared to
platinum. A variety of ceramic semiconductor materials qualify as thermistor materials.
Among them, germanium containing precise proportions of arsenic, gallium, or antimony is
most preferred. The temperature measurement range of thermistors is −250 to 650 °C.

The oxides are milled into powder form and mixed with a plastic binder, which are
then compressed into desired forms such as disks or wafers. Disks are formed by compressing
the mixtures using pelleting machines, and the wafers are compression moulded. They are
then sintered at high temperatures to produce thermistor bodies. Depending on their intended
application, leads are then added to these thermistors and coated if necessary. To achieve the
required stability, the thermistors so formed are subjected to a special ageing process.

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Advantages

The use of thermistors as temperature sensors has several advantages:

1. Thermistors possess very high sensitivity, which is much higher than that of RTDs and
thermocouples, and hence have the capability to detect very small changes in temperature.

2. Their response is very fast, and hence, they are employed for precise control of
temperature.

3. They are inexpensive.

Disadvantages

Thermistors also have certain disadvantages:

1. They have highly non-linear resistance temperature characteristics.

2. The temperature range is narrow.

3. Low fragility is often a problem.

4. High-temperature performance of thermistors is not good and they exhibit instability with
time.

5. They are prone to self-heating errors.

5.5.5 LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETERS

The liquid-in-glass thermometer is the most popular and is widely used for temperature
measurement. It comprises a bulb that contains a temperature-sensing liquid, preferably
mercury. Alcohol and pentane, which have lower freezing points than mercury and do not
contaminate if the bulb is broken, are also used. Since alcohol has a better expansion
coefficient than mercury, it is also used. A graduated capillary tube is connected to the bulb.
At the top of the capillary, a safety or expansion bulb is provided.

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Fig. 5.54 Liquid-in-glass thermometer

[source: Engineering Metrology and Measurements, N.V. Raghavendra, Pg. No 375]

Figure shows a liquid-in-glass thermometer. A range cavity is provided just above the
bulb to accommodate the range variation. The walls of the bulb should be thin in order to
facilitate quick transfer of heat. Further, for the response to be quick, the volume of liquid
should be small. However, the larger the volume of the liquid, the higher the sensitivity. Since
speed of response depends on the volume of the liquid, a compromise needs to be made
between sensitivity and response.

The entire assembly is enclosed in a casing to provide protection from breakage. An

extra-long stem may be provided to facilitate easy dipping into hot liquids. Calibration of
thermometers has to be carried out for better results. Liquid-in-glass thermometers are
simple, portable, and inexpensive. However, they are fragile and not suitable for remote
applications and sensing surface temperature. Under optimal conditions, the accuracy of this
type of thermometers is around 0.1°C.

5.5.6 BIMETALLIC STRIP THERMOMETERS

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Fig. 5.55 Deflection of a bimetallic strip (a) Normal condition (b) Cold condition (c)
Hot condition

[source: Engineering Metrology and Measurements, N.V. Raghavendra, Pg. No 377]

A bimetallic strip thermometer works on the well-known principle that different metals
expand and contract to different degrees, depending on the coefficient of expansion of the
individual metals.

For example, if two strips of two different metals (steel and copper) are firmly welded,
riveted, or brazed together and subjected to temperature changes, either cooling or heating,
the degree of contraction or expansion of the metals differ depending on their coefficient of
expansion.

The metal strips tend to bend owing to their different coefficients of expansion; the
contraction or expansion of one strip will be greater than that of the other. The difference in
the expansion of two metals, which makes the strip bend, is a measure of temperature, and
since two different metal strips are employed, it is called a bimetallic strip thermometer.

Bimetallic strips are manufactured in different shapes: cantilever type, flat form, U
form, and helical and spiral shapes. In bimetallic strips, the lateral displacement in both the
metals is much larger than the small longitudinal expansion. This effect is made use of in
mechanical and electrical devices. For industrial use, the strips are wrapped around a spindle
into a helical coil. Due to its coil form, the length of the bimetallic strip increases, which in
turn increases its sensitivity. Bimetallic strip thermometers are preferred for their ruggedness
and availability in suitable forms. These thermometers are used for sensing temperature of
hot water pipes, steam chambers, etc. They are also used in temperature compensation clocks
and circuit breakers.

Advantages

• The bimetallic thermometer is easily installed and maintained.

• Wide temperature ranges are available.
• The bimetallic thermometer has good accuracy.

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• The cost is very low.

• It has nearly linear response

Disadvantages

• It is suitable at local mounting only.

• Indicators are used to display.
• Calibration is disturbed if roughly handled.

5.5.7 PYROMETERS

If the temperature of a very hot body has to be measured, contact-type temperature-

measuring devices will not be suitable, because they are liable to be damaged when they
come in contact with the hot body. Hence, the use of non-contact-type temperature-measuring
devices become imperative. When such devices are employed for high-temperature
measurement, the distance between the source of the temperature and the instrument has no
effect on the measurement. These non-contact-type devices are called pyrometers.

Pyrometers are classified into two distinct categories:

1. Total Radiation Pyrometers and

2. Optical Pyrometers

5.5.7.1 TOTAL RADIATION PYROMETER

A total radiation pyrometer gives a measure of temperature by evaluating the heat

radiation emitted by a body. All the radiations emitted by a hot body or furnace are measured
and calibrated for black-body conditions. A total radiation pyrometer comprises an optical
system that includes a lens, a mirror, and an adjustable eyepiece. The heat energy emitted
from the hot body is focused by an optical system onto the detector. The heat energy sensed
by the detector, which may be a thermocouple or a thermopile, is converted to its analogous
electrical signal and can be read on a temperature display device.

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Fig. 5.56 Total radiation pyrometer

[source: Engineering Metrology and Measurements, N.V. Raghavendra, Pg. No 380]

The pyrometer has to be aligned properly such that it is in line with the furnace or hot
body and is placed as close to it as possible. This is essential to minimize the absorption of
radiation by the atmosphere. Radiation pyrometers find applications in the measurement of
temperature in corrosive environments and in situations where physical contact is impossible.
In addition, radiations of moving targets and invisible rays can also be measured. It is also
used for temperature measurement when sources under consideration have near-black body
conditions.

Advantages

The following are the advantages of radiation pyrometers:

1. It is a non-contact-type device.

2. It gives a very quick response.

3. High-temperature measurement can be accomplished.

Disadvantages

Radiation pyrometers also have certain disadvantages. They are as follows:

1. Errors in temperature measurement are possible due to emission of radiations to the

atmosphere.

2. Emissivity errors affect measurements.

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 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

5.5.7.2 Optical Pyrometer

Fig. 5.57 Optical pyrometer

[source: Engineering Metrology and Measurements, N.V. Raghavendra, Pg. No 380]

Optical pyrometers work on the disappearing filament principle. In order to measure

temperature, the brightness generated by the radiation of the unknown source or hot body
whose temperature is to be determined is compared with that of the reference lamp. The
brightness of the reference lamp can be adjusted so that its intensity is equal to the brightness
of the hot body under consideration. The light intensity of the object depends on its
temperature, irrespective of its wavelength. A battery supplies the current required for heating
the filament. The current flowing through the filament is adjusted by means of a rheostat and
an ammeter is used to measure it. The current passing through the circuit is proportional to
the temperature of the unknown source.

An optical pyrometer essentially consists of an eyepiece, by means of which the

filament and the source are focused so that they appear superimposed, enabling a clear view
for the observer. Between the eyepiece and the reference lamp, a red filter is positioned,
which helps narrow down the wavelength band and attain monochromatic conditions. An
absorption filter helps operate the lamp at reduced intensity, thereby enhancing the life of the
lamp.

The current in the reference lamp can be varied by operating the rheostat and can be
measured using the ammeter. Thus, the intensity of the lamp can be altered. The following
three situations arise depending on the current passing through the filament or lamp:

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Fig. 5.58 Disappearing filament principle (a) Current passing though the filament is
low (b) Current passing though the filament is exact (c) Current passing though the
filament is high

[source: Engineering Metrology and Measurements, N.V. Raghavendra, Pg. No 381]

1. When the current passing through the filament is very low, the radiation emitted by the
filament is of a lesser intensity than that of the source, and the filament appears dark against
a bright backdrop.

2. When the current passing through the filament is exact, the intensity of the radiation
emitted by the filament is equal to that of the source and hence the filament disappears into
the background.

3. When the current passing through the filament is very high, the radiation emitted by the
filament is of higher intensity than that of the source and the filament appears brighter than
the background, as When the filament disappears, the current that flows in the circuit is
measured. The value at which the filament disappears is a measure of the temperature of the
radiated light in the temperature source, when calibrated.

Advantages

The advantages associated with optical pyrometers are as follows:

1. They are simple in construction and portable.

2. Optical pyrometers are flexible and easy to operate.

3. They provide very high accuracy of up to ±5 °C.

4. Since they are non-contact-type sensors, they are used for a variety of applications.

5. They can be used for remote-sensing applications, since the distance between the source
and the pyrometer does not affect the temperature measurement.

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6. Optical pyrometers can be employed for both temperature measurement and for viewing
and measuring wavelengths that are less than 0.65 µm.

Disadvantages

The following are the disadvantages of optical pyrometers:

1. Optical pyrometers can be employed for measurement only if the minimum temperature is
around 700 °C, since it is based on intensity of light.

2. Temperature measurement at short intervals is not possible.

3. Emissivity errors may affect measurement.

4. Optical pyrometers are used for the measurement of clean gases only.

5.5.8 Calibration of Temperature Measuring Devices

For calibration of temperature measuring devices, a constant temperature source

should be provided. The temperature source should as a minimum be stable enough to provide
a constant temperature. (approximately ±0.2°F) for a short length of time at any temperature.
The temperature source should have a zone of uniform temperature into which the
temperature measuring devices may be inserted. The length of the temperature source must
be adequate to permit a depth of immersion sufficient to assure that the measuring
junction temperature is not affected by a temperature gradient along the thermocouple wires.

These are two methods used to calibrate the temperature measuring devices.
(i) Cold temperature or ice bath check
(ii) Hot temperature check

5.5.8.1 Cold Temperature or Ice Bath Check

One of the most common methods of calibrating the temperature measuring devices is
the ice bath or cold temperature check. Here, the methods of calibrating thermocouple and
thermometer are given under.

The ice bath is made up of a mixture of melting shaved or crushed ice and water. The
ice bath is a convenient and inexpensive way to achieve an ice point (i.e., reference junction
or temperature source), it can be reproduced with ease and with exceptional accuracy.
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Junctions formed between the thermocouple materials and instrument leads can be simply
immersed into such mixture, or alternatively glass ‘U’ tubes containing a quantity of mercury
approximately ¾” to 1” depth can be placed into the slush mixture. Quick electrical
connection can then be made between thermocouple and instrument leads through the
mercury as shown in fig.

Fig. 5.59 Ice Bath Check

[source: https://theteche.com/calibration-of-temperature-measuring-devices/]

The same set up can be used to calibrate thermometer with slight modification. Place
the thermometer at the centre of the container to a depth of at least 50mm and should be
frequently agitated with agitator. The temperature should be noted after the reading has
stabilized (after about 3 minutes) and must be between 30° to 34°F or -0.5°C to +0.5°C,

5.5.8.2 Hot Temperature Check

In this method of calibration of thermocouple, both reference thermocouple and

thermocouple to be calibrated are inserted in a hot temperature source. The temperature
source is a electrical furnace in which the copper blocks are kept to inert both thermocouples.
The copper block is shielded by radiation resistant material to avoid radiations of the furnace
walls. The electrical furnace is switched on and kept for some time for attaining constant
temperature. Now, the temperature of both the thermocouple are noted and compared for
calibration. The difference in temperature must be ±0.5°C.
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Fig. 5.60 Hot Temperature Check

[source: https://theteche.com/calibration-of-temperature-measuring-devices/]

For calibrating thermometer, a 25cm deep container of water should be brought to a rolling
boil on a stove or other sources of constant heat. The thermometer to be calibrated is
immersed in the water. The temperature should be noted after the reading has stabilized (after
about 3 min.) and must be between 210°F to 214°F or 99.5°C to 100.5°C.

Mr.P. Navin Jass, AP/MECH ME 8501 METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS