MECH4411 Heat Transfer

Part 2 – Convective heat transfer

Lecture Note 2
Thermal boundary layer in laminar flows

1
Objectives
1. Energy equation

2. Derive the thermal boundary layer thickness

3. Nusselt number and heat transfer coefficient

4. Other relations

2
Energy equation
Hydrodynamic boundary layer – the region of the flow where viscous forces are felt
Thermal boundary layer – the region of the flow where temperature gradients are present in the flow

The equation for the thermal boundary layer can be obtained from the equation of energy conservation for the
temperature T :
∂T ∂T ∂T ∂2T ∂2T
ρcp +u +v = k +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y2
∂2 ∂2
Consider steady flow and a thin thermal boundary layer dt i.e., 2 ≪ 2
∂x ∂y
∂T ∂T ∂2T
u +v = 𝛼 2
∂x ∂y ∂y
k
where 𝛼 = is the thermal diffusivity.
ρcp

The thermal boundary layer equation is similar to the hydrodynamic boundary layer equation, and the
solutions of the two equations have the same form when 𝛼 = υ.

The relative magnitude of the thermal diffusivity 𝛼 and kinematic viscosity υ will influence the convective heat
transfer as they affects the relative distributions between velocity and temperature.
3
Thermal boundary layer
We follow a similar approach to solve the thermal boundary layer equation. We assume that
T y = C0 + C1 y + C2 y2 + C3 y3
where C0, C1, C2 and C3 depend on dt (noted that dt depends on x).

The boundary conditions are given by

T y = 0 = Tw T x, y = d = T∞
∂T ∂2T
=0 at y=d = 0 at y=0
∂y ∂y 2

Similar to the velocity profile, we have

θ T − Tw 3 y 1 y !
= = −
θ∞ T∞ − Tw 2 dt 2 dt
Again we still need to determine the boundary layer thickness dt .

4
Energy balance
Plane A-A:
#
𝑑
cpT∞ % 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 "

Plane 1: Plane 2:

H H d H
ρcp % uT dy ρcp % uT dy + ρcp % uT dy dx
0 0 dx 0

∂T
dqw= − kdx +
∂y y=0

Energy balance yields: d H ∂T 𝑘

% T∞ − T u dy = α + where α = is the thermal diffusivity.
dx 0 ∂y y=0 ρcp 5
Finding thermal boundary layer thickness dt (x)
Insert the expression of velocity into the integral thermal boundary layer equation:
θ T − Tw 3 y 1 y ! d H ∂T
= = − % T∞ − T u dy = α +
θ∞ T∞ − Tw 2 dt 2 dt dx 0 ∂y y=0

d H d H d H 3 y 1 y ! 3 y 1 y !
% T∞ − T u dy = % θ∞ − θ u dy = θ∞ u∞ % 1− + − 𝑑𝑦
dx 0 dx 0 dx 0 2 dt 2 dt 2d 2 d
∂T 3αθ∞
=α + =
∂y y=0 2dt

Assuming that the thermal boundary layer is thinner than the hydrodynamic boundary layer (dt < d), then we
dt
only need to carry out the integration to δt since the integrand is zero for y > dt . Substitution z = yields
δ
𝑑 3 2 3 4 3 αθ∞
θ∞ u∞ d z − z =
𝑑𝑥 20 280 2 dz

Because dt < d, z < 1, and the term involving z 4 is small compared with the z 2 term, we neglect the z 4 term
3 𝑑 3 αθ∞
θ∞ u∞ dz =
2
20 𝑑𝑥 2 dz
6
Finding thermal boundary layer thickness dt (x)
3 𝑑 3 αθ∞ 1 𝑑z 𝑑d
θ∞ u∞ dz 2 = → u 2d z
2 2 + dz 3 =α
20 𝑑𝑥 2 dz 10 ∞ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
μx 280 υx 140 υ
Recall that δ = 4.64 , we have δ2 = and δdδ= dx
ρu∞ 13 u∞ 13 u∞
dz 13 α
→ z + 4xz
3 2=
dx 14 υ
dz 1 d 3 4x d 3 13 α
Since z 2 = z , the equation becomes z 3 + z = 14 υ
dx 3 dx 3 dx
13 α
The solution for the above ODE is z 3 = Cx−3/4 +
14 υ
Consider the boundary condition, dt = 0 at x = x0
z=0 at x = x0
The thermal boundary layer is therefore given by
Prandtl number:
1 dt x0 0/2 3/0 υ μ/ρ cp μ
z= = Pr −1/3 1− Pr = = =
δ 1.026 x α k/ρCp k
7
Relative thickness of boundary layers
The Prandtl number Pr measures the relative magnitudes of diffusion of momentum and heat in the fluid,
where the diffusion rates determine the thickness of hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers.
υ μ/ρ cp μ
Pr = = =
α k/(ρcp) k

Consider the thermal boundary layer solution we derived,

dt 1 x0 !/% &/!
z= = Pr −1/3 1 −
d 1.026 x
d
For the plate heated over its entire length, if we set x0 = 0, we have ~ Pr 1/3
dt
Our derivation above is based on (dt < d ), but the solution works well practically for Pr ~ 0.6 - 50.
dt
For gas, ~1
d
d
For liquid metal, ≪1
dt
For viscous oil, d
≫1
dt
8
Finding the heat transfer coefficient h
Recall that the heat coefficient can be calculated by
∂T
−k 6 ∂T 3 θ∞ 3 T∞ − Tw
∂y w
h= where + = =
Tw − T∞ ∂y w 2 dt 2 dt

Therefore, we have
3k 3 k 1 x0 !/% &/!
where υx
h= = z= Pr −1/3 1− and δ = 4.64 u
2 dt 2 dz 1.026 x ∞

u∞ &/' x0 !/% (&/!

→ hx = 0.332 k Pr1/3 1−
υx x
x
The equation can be non-dimensionalized by multiplying both sides by
k
x0 !/% (&/!
→ Nux = 0.332Pr1/3Rex1/2 1−
x
hxx
Nusselt number: Nux =
k
Nux measures the ratio of convective heat transfer to conduction heat transfer. 9
Total heat transfer
For the plate heated over its entire length, if we set x0 = 0, we have
Nux = 0.332Pr1/3Rex1/2

Average heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt number may be obtained by integrating over the length of the plate:
)
∫" hx dx 7
hL
h7 = ) = 2hx=L NuL = = 2Nux=L = 0.664Pr1/3ReL1/2
∫" dx k
For a plate where heating starts at x = x0 , it can be shown that
h7 *! 1 − x0 / L !/%
= 2L
hx=L L − x0
The total heat transfer for the plate per unit width would be
qtotal = h7 *! L − x0 Tw − T∞

Our analysis is based on constant fluid properties throughout the flow. When there is an appreciable variation
between wall and free-stream conditions, the properties will be evaluated at the film temperature Tf given by
Tw + T∞
Tf =
2

10
Constant heat flux in laminar heat transfer
The above analysis has considered the laminar heat transfer from an isothermal surface (Tw = const). In many
practical problems the surface heat flux is essentially constant qw = − k∂T/∂y|w = const . For such a case,
hx
Nux = = 0.453Pr1/3Rex1/2
k
which may be expressed in terms of the wall heat flux and temperature difference as
qw x
Nux =
k Tw − T∞
The average temperature difference along the plate is given by
1 ) 1 ) qw x
Tw − T∞ = % Tw − T∞ dx = % dx
L " L " kNux
qw L/k
Tw − T∞ =
0.6795Pr1/3ReL1/2

The heat flux per unit area is given by

3
qw = hx=L Tw − T∞
2

11
Other relations
The above equations are applicable to fluids having Prandtl numbers between about 0.6 and 50. It would not
apply to fluids with very low or high Prandtl numbers. Instead, the following relations are given:

0.3387 Rex1/2 Pr1/3

Isothermal plate: Nux = for Rex Pr > 100
'/! &/%
0.0468
1− Pr

0.4637 Rex1/2 Pr1/3

Constant heat flux plate: Nux = for Rex Pr > 100
'/! &/%
0.0207
1− Pr
Tw + T∞
Properties of fluids are still evaluated at the film temperature: Tf =
2

12
Fluid friction and heat transfer
Here we show how fluid friction may be directly related to heat transfer.
The shear stress at the wall may be expressed in terms of a friction coefficient Cf :
ρu∞2 ∂u
τw = Cf or τ w= μ +
2 ∂y w
From von Karman’s approximation, we have
u 3 y 1 y ! υx 3 μu∞ 3 μu∞ u∞ &/'
= − d = 4.64 → τw = =
u∞ 2 d 2 d u∞ 2 d 2 4.64 υx
Therefore,
ρu∞2 3 μu∞ u∞ &/' Cfx
Cfx = → = 0.323Rex−1/2
2 2 4.64 υx 2
Cfx
Compare with the exact solution of boundary layer (Blasius solution): = 0.332Rex−1/2
2
Moreover,
Nux hx
= Stx = = 0.332Pr−2/3Rex−1/2 where Stx is the Stanton number and
RexPr ρcpu∞
Cfx
StxPr =
2/3
2
This is the Reynolds-Colburn analogy which expresses the relation between fluid friction and heat
13
transfer for laminar flow on a flat plate. This analogy can also apply to turbulent flows.
Property tables
Properties of some fluids (e.g., water, air) can be obtained from property tables. If we are given certain state
properties of a fluid (e.g., temperature), other state properties of the fluid can be obtained from the table.

However, sometimes the state properties we got may not match with the state properties provided by the
table and we will need to do interpolation.

Formula for linear interpolation: b

bc – b1 b2 – b1 a –a
= → bc = b1 + (b2 – b1)( c 1 )
ac – a1 a2 – a1 a2 – a1 (ac,bc) (a2,b2)

If we want to obtain the properties at T = 25°C, then we need to interpolate

the data at T = 21.11°C and T = 26.67°C. (a1,b1)
a

a1

ac

a2 14
Example 1: Isothermal Flat Plate Heated Over Entire Length
Air at 27°C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at a speed of 2 m/s. Assume that the plate is heated over its entire
length to a temperature of 60°C. Calculate the heat transferred per unit width in (a) the first 20 cm of the
plate and (b) the first 40 cm of the plate. 20 cm
T¥=27°C, u¥= 2 m/s y 40 cm
Solution:
(a) The total heat transfer over a certain length of the plate is desired, x
so we wish to calculate average heat-transfer coefficients. z Tw=60°C

Tw + T∞ 27+ 60
The film temperature is Tf = = = 43.5°C = 316.5 K
2 2
At Tf = 316.5 K, the properties of air are given by table A-5 using linear interpolation:
υ = 17.36 × 10 (+ m2/s k = 0.0275 W/m A °C Pr = 0.7 cp = 1.0068 kJ/kg A °C
At x = 20 cm:
u∞x (2)(0.2) hxx &/' Pr&/! = (0.332)(23041)1/2(0.7)1/3 = 44.74
Rex = = = 23041 Nu x = = 0.332Re x
υ 17.36 × 10 (+ k
k (44.74)(0.0275)
hx = Nux = = 6.15 W/m2 ⋅ °C h7 = 2hx = (2)(6.15) = 12.3 W/m2 ⋅ °C
x 0.2
If we consider a unit depth in the z-direction,
7 Tw − T∞ = (12.3)(0.2)(60 − 27) = 81.18 W
q = hA 15
Example 1: Isothermal Flat Plate Heated Over Entire Length
(b)
At x = 40 cm:
u∞x (2)(0.4) hxx
Rex = = (+
= 46082 Nux = = 0.332Rex&/' Pr&/! = (0.332)(46082)1/2(0.7)1/3 = 63.28
υ 17.36 × 10 k
k (63.28)(0.0275)
hx = Nux = = 4.35 W/m2 ⋅ °C h7 = 2hx = (2)(6.15) = 8.70 W/m2 ⋅ °C
x 0.4
If we consider a unit depth in the z-direction,
7 Tw − T∞ = (8.70)(0.4)(60 − 27) = 114.8 W
q = hA

20 cm
T¥=27°C, u¥= 2 m/s y 40 cm

x Tw=60°C
z

16
Example 2: Flat Plate with Constant Heat Flux
A 1.0-kW heater is constructed of a glass plate with an electrically conducting film that produces a constant
heat flux. The plate is 60 cm by 60 cm and placed in an airstream at 27°C, 1 atm with u∞ =5 m/s. Calculate the
average temperature difference along the plate and the temperature difference at the trailing edge.
Solution: T¥=27°C, u¥=5 m/s
Properties should be evaluated at the film temperature, but we do not know the
plate temperature. y q=1000W
x L=60 cm
For an initial calculation, we take the properties at the free-stream conditions: z
At T∞ = 27°C = 300 K, L=60 cm Trailing edge
υ = 15.69 × 10 −6 m2/s k = 0.02624 W/m A °C Pr = 0.708
u∞L (5)(0.6) -
ReL = = = 1.91 × 10
υ 15.69 × 10 −6
qw L/k (1000/ 0.6 2)(0.6)/0.02624
Tw − T∞ = = = 240°C
0.6795Pr1/3ReL1/2 0.6795 0.7 1/3 1.91 × 10 - 1/2

Now, we go back and evaluate properties at

(T∞+Tw − T∞) + T∞ 240 + 27 + 27
Tf = = = 147°C = 420 K
2 2 17
Example 2: Flat Plate with Constant Heat Flux
At Tf = 420 K,
υ = 28.22 × 10 (+ m2/s k = 0.035W/m A °C Pr = 0.687 T¥=27°C, u¥=5 m/s
u∞x (5)(0.6) -
ReL = = = 1.06 × 10 y q=1000W
υ 28.22 × 10 (+
qw L/k (1000/ 0.6 2)(0.6)/0.035 x L=60 cm
Tw − T∞ = = = 243°C z
0.6795Pr1/3ReL1/2 0.6795 0.687 1/3 1.06 × 10 - 1/2
L=60 cm Trailing edge

At the end of the plate (x = L = 0.6 m) the temperature difference is obtained by

qw 3
h= and qw = hx=L Tw − T∞
Tw − T∞ 2
3
Tw − T∞ x=L = Tw − T∞ = 364.5°C
2

18
Example 3: Plate with Unheated Starting Length
Air at 1 atm and 300 K flows across a 20-cm-square plate at a free-stream velocity of 20 m/s. The last half of
the plate is heated to a constant temperature of 350 K. Calculate the heat lost by the plate.

Solution: T¥=300K, u¥=20 m/s Tw=350K

We first evaluate the air properties at the film temperature
y
T + T∞ 350 + 300
Tf = w = = 325 K
2 2 x 20 cm
z
At Tf = 325 K, the properties of air are given by table A-5 using linear interpolation:
10 cm 10 cm
(+
υ = 18.23 × 10 m2/s k = 0.0281 W/m A °C Pr = 0.703
At the trailing edge of the plate the Reynolds number is
u∞L (20)(0.2) -
ReL = = = 2.194 × 10
υ 18.23 × 10 (+
Therefore, laminar flow over the length of the plate.
Heating start at a position x0 = 0.1 m. The local heat-transfer coefficient for this condition is given by
u∞ &/' x0 !/% (&/!
hx = 0.332 k Pr1/3 1− = 8.6883x−1/2(1 − 0.17783x−3/4)−1/3
υx x
19
Example 3: Plate with Unheated Starting Length
The heat transfer is obtained by integrating over the heated length x0 < x < L
).".' T¥=300K, u¥=20 m/s Tw=350K
q = d(Tw − T∞) % hx 𝑑𝑥 where d is the width of the plate
*!.".&
y
).".'
q = (0.2)(350 − 300) % 8.6883x−1/2(1 − 0.17783x−3/4)−1/3 𝑑𝑥 x 20 cm
*!.".&
z
q ≈ (0.2)(50)(8.6883)(0.4845) = 42.1 W by numerical integration (e.g., trapezoidal rule) 10 cm 10 cm

The average value of the heat-transfer coefficient over the heated length is given by
h7 = q/[(Tw − T∞)A] = q/[(Tw − T∞)(L − x0)d] = q/[(Tw − T∞)(0.2 − 0.1)(0.2)] = 42.1 W/m2 A °C

Alternative method (easier):

hL = 8.6883(0.2)−1/2(1 − 0.17783(0.2)−3/4)−1/3 = 26.25 W/m2 ⋅ °C
h7 *! 1 − x0 / L !/%
= 2L
hx=L L − x0
!/% !/%
1 − x0 / L 1 − 0.1 / 0.2
7h = 2L hL = 2(0.2) = 42.57
L − x0 0.2 − 0.1
20
Example 4: Oil Flow Over Heated Flat Plate
Engine oil at 20°C is forced over a 20-cm-square plate at a velocity of 1.2 m/s. The plate is heated to a uniform
temperature of 60°C. Calculate the heat lost by the plate.
Solution:
We first evaluate the film temperature
T +T 20 + 60
Tf = w 2 ∞ = 2 = 40°C

At Tf = 40°C, from the property table of engine oil (table A-4), we have:

υ = 0.00024 m2/s k = 0.144 W/m A °C Pr = 2870

The Reynolds number is

u∞L (1.2)(0.2)
Re = = = 1000 Re Pr = (1000)(2870) = 2.87 × 10 + > 100
υ 0.00024
For large RePr > 50, we have
0.3387Rex1/2 Pr1/3 0.3387(1000)1/2 (2870)1/3
Nux = = =152.2
'/! &/% '/! &/%
0.0468 0.0468
1− 1−
Pr 2870
k 0.144
hx = Nux = 152.2 = 109.6 W/m2 ⋅ °C 21
x 0.2
Example 4: Oil Flow Over Heated Flat Plate
The average value of the convection coefficient is
h7 = 2hx=L = (2)(109.6) = 219.2 W/m2 ⋅ °C

so that the total heat transfer is

7 Tw − T∞ = (219.2)(0.2)2(60 − 20) = 350.6 W
q = hA

22
Example 5: Drag Force on a Flat Plate
For the flow system in example 1, compute the drag force exerted on the first 40 cm of the plate using the
analogy between fluid friction and heat transfer.
Solution: T¥=27°C, u¥=2 m/s
From example 1, the film temperature is 316.5 K. y 40 cm
The density of air is calculated from
x Tw=60°C
p 1.0132 ×10 - z
ρ= = = 1.115 kg/m3
RT (287)(316.5)
For the 40-cm length,
h7 8.7
D
St = = = 3.9 × 10 (!
ρcpu∞ (1.115)(1006.8)(2)
The friction coefficient is given by
Df
C CDf
D
StPr =
2/3 → = (3.9 × 10 (! )(0.7) '/! = 3.07 × 10 (!
2 2
The average shear stress at the wall is computed from
ρu∞2
D
τw = Cf = (3.07 × 10 (! )(1.115)(2)2 = 0.0136 N/m2
2
The drag force per unit width
23
D = τw L = 0.0136(0.4) = 5.44 × 10 (! N = 5.44 mN