CIT 432 COURSE GUIDE

 Feedback systems- The E-type software systems constitute multi-loop,

multi-level feedback systems and must be treated as such to be successfully
modified or improved.
 Self-regulation - E-type system evolution processes are self-regulating with
the distribution of product and process measures close to normal.
 Organizational stability - The average effective global activity rate in an
evolving E-type system is invariant over the lifetime of the product.

3.3 Software Paradigms

Software paradigms refer to the methods and steps, which are taken while designing
the software. There are many methods proposed and are in work today, but we need
to see where in the software engineering these paradigms stand. These can be
combined into various categories, though each of them is contained in one another:

Programming paradigm is a subset of Software design paradigm which is further a

subset of Software development paradigm.

3.3.1 Software Development Paradigm

This Paradigm is known as software engineering paradigms where all the
engineering concepts pertaining to the development of software are applied. It
includes various researches and requirement gathering which helps the software
product to build. It consists of –
 Requirement gathering
 Software design
 Programming

3.3.2 Software Design Paradigm

This paradigm is a part of Software Development and includes –
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 Design
 Maintenance
 Programming

3.3.4 Programming Paradigm

This paradigm is related closely to programming aspect of software development.
This includes –
 Coding
 Testing
 Integration

3.4 Need of Software development

The need of software development arises because of higher rate of change in user
requirements and environment on which the software is working.
 Large software - It is easier to build a wall than to a house or building,
likewise, as the size of software become large engineering has to step to give
it a scientific process.
 Scalability- If the software process were not based on scientific and
engineering concepts, it would be easier to re-create new software than to
scale an existing one.
 Cost- As hardware industry has shown its skills and huge manufacturing has
lower down he price of computer and electronic hardware. But the cost of
software remains high if proper process is not adapted.
 Dynamic Nature- The always growing and adapting nature of software
hugely depends upon the environment in which user works. If the nature of
software is always changing, new enhancements need to be done in the
existing one. This is where software engineering plays a good role.
 Quality Management- Better process of software development provides
better and quality software product.

3.5 Characteristics of good software

A software product can be judged by what it offers and how well it can be used.
This software must satisfy on the following grounds:
 Operational
 Transitional
 Maintenance
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Well-engineered and crafted software is expected to have the following

characteristics:
3.5.1 Operational
This tells us how well software works in operations. It can be measured on:
 Budget
 Usability
 Efficiency
 Correctness
 Functionality
 Dependability
 Security
 Safety

3.5.2 Transitional
This aspect is important when the software is moved from one platform to another:
 Portability
 Interoperability
 Reusability
 Adaptability

3.5.3 Maintenance
This aspect briefs about how well a software has the capabilities to maintain itself
in the ever-changing environment:
 Modularity
 Maintainability
 Flexibility
 Scalability
In short, Software engineering is a branch of computer science, which uses well-
defined engineering concepts required to produce efficient, durable, scalable, in-
budget and on-time software products.

4.0 Self-Assessment Exercise(s)

Answer the following questions:
1. List and explain the basic concepts in Z notation.
2. Explain the following terms: formal specification, Formal Verification and
Theorem Proves
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3. Explain maintainability, scalability and modularity

4. Compare and contrast interoperability and reusability
5. State the characteristics of a good software
6. Explain the basic concepts of software paradigm.

5.0 Conclusion
Definitions of some software development concepts are given. Software has gone
through evolutionary processes which has been highlighted

6.0 Summary
In this unit software evolution, some paradigms, characteristics of good software etc
have been discussed. The need of Software Development is also examined.

7.0 Further
Barry Boehm (1996)., "A Spiral Model of Software Development and
Enhancement". In: ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes (ACM)
Barry W. Boehm (2000). Software cost estimation with Cocomo II: Volume 1.
Charles S. Wasson (2006) System Analysis, Design, and Development Concepts,
Principles, and Practices, Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New
Jersey.
Hans-Petter Halvorsen (2020) Software Development A Practical Approach!
https://halvorsen.blog
Pressman Roger S: “Software Engineering”- A Practitioner’s Approach”, McGraw
Hill, 5th edition. 2000.
Richard H. Thayer, Barry W. Boehm (1986). Tutorial: software engineering project
management. Computer Society Press of the IEEE. p.130
Rushby John: Formal Methods and the Certification of Critical Systems. Tech. Rep.
SRI-CSL-93-7, Computer Science Laboratory, SRI International, Menlo Park,
CA, Dec. 1993.
Woodcock Jim, Larsen Peter Gorm, Bicarregui Juan and Fitzgerald John: Formal
Methods: Practice and Experience, ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR), Volume
41 Issue 4, 2009 Article No. 19.

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Unit 2: Software Development Life Cycle

2.0 Introduction
Software Development Life Cycle, SDLC allows the software developer or engineer
to follow well-defined phases or stages to achieve quality in the design and
construction of software product that will meet user’s need. That is, in terms of
functionality, reliability, maintainability, availability etc. SDLC comes in different
flavours. This includes among others – waterfall model, iterative model, spiral
mmodel, V-model etc. The stages and various models will be discussed in this unit.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

After studying this unit, you should be able to
6. List the SDLC activities
7. Ecplain the SDLC activities with aid of a diagram
8. List and explain the Software Development Paradigm
3.0 Main Content
Software Development Life Cycle, SDLC for short, is a well-defined, structured
sequence of stages in software development to develop the intended software
product.

3.1 SDLC Activities

SDLC provides a series of steps to be followed to design and develop a software
product efficiently. SDLC framework includes the following steps:

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1. Communication: This is the first step where the user initiates the request for a
desired software product. He contacts the service provider and tries to negotiate
the terms. He submits his request to the service providing organization in writing.
2. Requirement Gathering: This step onwards the software development team
works to carry on the project. The team holds discussions with various
stakeholders from problem domain and tries to bring out as much information as
possible on their requirements. The requirements are contemplated and
segregated into user requirements, system requirements and functional
requirements. The requirements are collected using a number of practices as
given -
 studying the existing or obsolete system and software,
 conducting interviews of users and developers,
 referring to the database or
 collecting answers from the questionnaires.
3. Feasibility Study: After requirement gathering, the team comes up with a rough
plan of software process. At this step the team analyzes if a software can be made
to fulfil all requirements of the user and if there is any possibility of software
being no more useful. It is found out, if the project is financially, practically and
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technologically feasible for the organization to take up. There are many
algorithms available, which help the developers to conclude the feasibility of a
software project.
4. System Analysis: At this step the developers decide a roadmap of their plan and
try to bring up the best software model suitable for the project. System analysis
includes Understanding of software product limitations, learning system related
problems or changes to be done in existing systems beforehand, identifying and
addressing the impact of project on organization and personnel etc. The project
team analyzes the scope of the project and plans the schedule and resources
accordingly.
5. Software Design: Next step is to bring down whole knowledge of requirements and
analysis on the desk and design the software product. The inputs from users and
information gathered in requirement gathering phase are the inputs of this step. The
output of this step comes in the form of two designs; logical design and physical
design. Engineers produce meta-data and data dictionaries, logical diagrams, data-
flow diagrams and in some cases pseudo codes.
6. Coding: This step is also known as programming phase. The implementation of
software design starts in terms of writing program code in the suitable
programming language and developing error-free executable programs efficiently.
7. Testing: An estimate says that 50% of whole software development process should
be tested. Errors may ruin the software from critical level to its own removal.
Software testing is done while coding by the developers and thorough testing is
conducted by testing experts at various levels of code such as module testing,
program testing, product testing, in-house testing and testing the product at user’s
end. Early discovery of errors and their remedy is the key to reliable software.
7.Integration: Software may need to be integrated with the libraries, databases and
other program(s). This stage of SDLC is involved in the integration of software
with outer world entities.
8. Implementation: This means installing the software on user machines. At times,
software needs post-installation configurations at user end. Software is tested for
portability and adaptability and integration related issues are solved during
implementation.
9. Operation and Maintenance: This phase confirms the software operation in terms of
more efficiency and less errors. If required, the users are trained on, or aided with
the documentation on how to operate the software and how to keep the software
operational. The software is maintained timely by updating the code according to the
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changes taking place in user end environment or technology. This phase may face
challenges from hidden bugs and real-world unidentified problems.
10 Disposition: As time elapses, the software may decline on the performance front. It
may go completely obsolete or may need intense up gradation. Hence a pressing need
to eliminate a major portion of the system arises. This phase includes archiving data
and required software components, closing down the system, planning disposition
activity and terminating system at appropriate end-of-system time.

3.2 Software Development Paradigm

The software development paradigm helps developer to select a strategy to develop the
software. A software development paradigm has its own set of tools, methods and
procedures, which are expressed clearly and defines software development life cycle. A
few of software development paradigms or process models are defined as follows:

3.2.1 Waterfall Model

Waterfall model is the simplest model of software development paradigm. It says the
all the phases of SDLC will function one after another in linear manner. That is, when
the first phase is finished then only the second phase will start and so on.

This model assumes that everything is carried out and taken place perfectly as
planned in the previous stage and there is no need to think about the past issues that
may arise in the next phase. This model does not work smoothly if there are some
issues left at the previous step. The sequential nature of model does not allow us go
back and undo or redo our actions.
This model is best suited when developers already have designed and developed
similar software in the past and are aware of all its domains.
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3.2.2 Iterative Model

This model leads the software development process in iterations. It projects the
process of development in cyclic manner repeating every step after every cycle of
SDLC process.

The software is first developed on very small scale and all the steps are followed
which are taken into consideration. Then, on every next iteration, more features and
modules are designed, coded, tested and added to the software. Every cycle
produces a software, which is complete in itself and has more features and
capabilities than that of the previous one.
After each iteration, the management team can do work on risk management and
prepare for the next iteration. Because a cycle includes small portion of whole
software process, it is easier to manage the development process but it consumes
more resources.
3.2.3 Spiral Model
Spiral model is a combination of both, iterative model and one of the SDLC model.
It can be seen as if you choose one SDLC model and combine it with cyclic process
(iterative model).

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This model considers risk, which often goes un-noticed by most other models. The
model starts with determining objectives and constraints of the software at the start
of one iteration. Next phase is of prototyping the software. This includes risk
analysis. Then one standard SDLC model is used to build the software. In the fourth
phase of the plan of next iteration is prepared.

3.2.4 V – model
The major drawback of waterfall model is we move to the next stage only when the
previous one is finished and there was no chance to go back if something is found
wrong in later stages. V-Model provides means of testing of software at each stage
in reverse manner.

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At every stage, test plans and test cases are created to verify and validate the
product according to the requirement of that stage. For example, in requirement
gathering stage the test team prepares all the test cases in correspondence to the
requirements. Later, when the product is developed and is ready for testing, test
cases of this stage verify the software against its validity towards requirements at
this stage.
This makes both verification and validation go in parallel. This model is also
known as verification and validation model.

3.2.5 Big Bang Model

This model is the simplest model in its form. It requires little planning, lots of
programming and lots of funds. This model is conceptualized around the big bang
of universe. As scientists say that after big bang lots of galaxies, planets and stars
evolved just as an event. Likewise, if we put together lots of programming and
funds, you may achieve the best software product.

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For this model, very small amount of planning is required. It does not follow any
process, or at times the customer is not sure about the requirements and future
needs. So, the input requirements are arbitrary.
This model is not suitable for large software projects but good one for learning and
experimenting.

4.0 Self-Assessment Exercise(s)

Answer the following questions:
1. List at least four types ofsoftware
development models.
2. State the weaknesses and strengths of each
of the named model in (1) above.
3. Describe the iterative model of software
development.
4. Explain the importance of model verification and validation in software
development.
5. With the aid of a diagram, illustrate the
stages involved in waterfall model.

5.0 Conclusion
Software Development Life Cycle consist of steps or phases in developing a
software. The steps are as follows:Communication, requirement gathering,
feasibility study, system analysis, system design, coding, iteration, implementation,
operation and maintenance and disposition. There are quite a number of paradigms
used in software development. This includes among others: water fall model, spiral
model, V-model Iterative model etc.

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6.0 Summary
The Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) has been discussed. Also discussed
are the various software paradigms, among which are: water fall model, spiral
model, V-model Iterative model etc.

7.0 Further Reading

Barry Boehm (1996)., "A Spiral Model of Software Development and
Enhancement". In: ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes (ACM)
Barry W. Boehm (2000). Software cost estimation with Cocomo II: Volume 1.
Charles S. Wasson (2006) System Analysis, Design, and Development Concepts,
Principles, and Practices, Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New
Jersey.
Hans-Petter Halvorsen (2020) Software Development A Practical Approach!
https://halvorsen.blog
Pressman Roger S: “Software Engineering”- A Practitioner’s Approach”, McGraw
Hill, 5th edition. 2000.
Richard H. Thayer, Barry W. Boehm (1986). Tutorial: software engineering project
management. Computer Society Press of the IEEE. p.130
Rushby John: Formal Methods and the Certification of Critical Systems. Tech. Rep.
SRI-CSL-93-7, Computer Science Laboratory, SRI International, Menlo Park,
CA, Dec. 1993.
Woodcock Jim, Larsen Peter Gorm, Bicarregui Juan and Fitzgerald John: Formal
Methods: Practice and Experience, ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR), Volume
41 Issue 4, 2009 Article No. 19.

196