DA DAY NOTES: SCIENCE

"Welcome to the Antropocene" ; (Rise of the Modern Land)

Earth Science- understanding earth and its neighbors in space.
- Geology as Physical: Earth Itself and what it is composed of (Materials and Processes).
As Historical: How Earth was formed.
- Oceanography: Ocean’s composition, coastal processes, movement of seawater,
seafloor topography, and marine life.
- Meteorology: Atmosphere and processes to produce weather and climate.
- Astronomy: Study of the universe probing the origins of our environment.
The Beginning of the Universe
Cosmology- Study of the Universe (Began 13.7 Billion Years ago)
Theories:
1.) Steady State vs. Big Bang
- SS: Sir Fred Hoyle says the universe is expanding but the density remains the same over
time (He ridicules the Big Bang theory as if it was a girl coming out of the box).
- BBT: George Lemaitre says it all began from a single primordial atom that exploded
and then just begin everything and until now is continuously expanding. Supporters:
Edwin Hubble (Invented the Hubble telescope. His law showed that the Universe was
expanding since the greater the distance of the galaxy from ours then the first it
recedes.) and Arno Penzias & Robert Wilson (Cosmic Microwave radiation: Proof with
the remnant from the explosion). Theory explanation: Primordial Atom -> Exploded ->
subatomic particles -> cool and fuse -> form hydrogen and helium to create other
elements.
- After several years, the Steady State was disproved.
2.) Eternal Cosmic Inflation vs. Oscillating Universe
- ECI: Alan Guth says that the universe is continually expanding today and is one of the
many universes so there is a multi-verse. (examples: Bubbles that are connected)
- OU: Alexander Friedmann says The universe has a point of max expansion so it will
collapse into itself eventually and repeat the big bang. (examples: like a connecting
sausage, cuz it will expand then so on) Once it goes starts over, it’s called the “Big
Crunch”.
Supernova: This is what a star turns into before turning into a black hole. This is also
considered as the star’s death since it is an explosion. It releases dust and gas then a new
star is formed.
Neutron Star: It is made up of so much proton and electrons to form a bunch of neutrons,
hence the name. A spinning neutron star is called a Pulsar. When a dying star has a mass
which is 1.4 to 3 times that of the sun, it will form a neutron star. Neutron stars are created
when giant stars die in supernovas and their cores collapse, with the protons and electrons
essentially melting into each other to form neutrons.
Black Hole: Stars with a mass greater than thrice the sun's mass, black hole (in which its grav.
field has light inescapable) is formed. Through machines, radio waves are detected and
through these signals
they are able to tell. Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars
collapse at the end of their life cycle.
White Dwarf: Higher the sun and bigger than the Earth. It’s very dense for it is a dead sun
(since nuclear fuel is exhausted).
Black Dwarf: It is a White Dwarf that has cooled and no longer emits heat or light.
Classifying stars
- Classifying stars according to their spectra (the elements that they absorb), size, and
temperature by luminosity and color. There are seven main types of stars. In order of
 decreasing temperature, O, B, A, F, G, K, and M. Colors are determined by
wavelengths and frequencies. The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram is a graphical tool that
astronomers use to classify stars according to what is mentioned above and their
evolutionary stage.
- Stars are expected to die in about a thousand years.
Theory on the Origin of the Solar System.
How is it formed?
It began with the dust and gas to form a unit or a solar nebula. Gravity collapsed the
material in on itself as it began to spin, forming the sun in the center of the nebula... Small
particles drew together, bound by the force of gravity, into larger particles.
1. Geocentric vs. Heliocentric
- GC: Aristotle proposed that the earth is the center of the Solar System.
- HC: Nicolaus Copernicus says the Sun is the center of the Solar System
Part of the Sun
Energy of the sun is constant not too hot or weak
1. Core, Mostly Hydrogen and then helium.
2. Radiative Zone, Hydrogen is converted into Helium
3. Convective Zone, consists of heavier materials or so the cooler parts (other elements)
4. Photosphere, it details the sun’s lines/edges from the earth-perspective.
5. Chromosphere, The area between the photosphere and the corona; hotter than the
photosphere.
6. Corona, the plasma that surrounds the sun.
7. Sunspots, one of the coolest dark parts of the sun.
8. Granules, being made from convection currents, it is the grainy appearance of
the solar photosphere which is produced by the tops of these convective cells and is
called granulation.
9. Prominence, A solar prominence (also known as a filament when viewed against
the solar disk) is a large, bright feature extending outward from
the sun's surface. Prominences are anchored to the sun's surface in the photosphere
[sun's visible surface], and extend outwards into the sun's hot outer atmosphere, called
the corona.
Terrestrial Planets:
Mercury, smallest planet, rocky, 59 earth days to rotate around its axis once, 88 earth
days to revolve around the sun once, thin atmosphere, discovered during the ancient
times, and was explored by Mariner 10 MESSENGER.
Venus, hottest planet for it is the second planet from the sun, small and rocky, has
active volcanoes, to rotate on its own axis it takes 243 earth days, to revolve around
the sun it takes 225 earth days, it has a thick atmosphere carbon dioxide and sulfuric
acid, discovered during ancient times, and was discovered by the mariner 2,5, and 10
pioneer 1 & 2 Magellan. Greenhouse gases comes from one of the volcanoes of this
planet. It’s named after the goddess of love. Its size is comparable to Earth’s. It has icy
parts which is why people claimed it used to have water.
Earth, only planet known to support life, small and rocky and has active volcanoes,
365.25 (leap year) to revolve around the sun, it has a thick atmosphere made of
nitrogen and oxygen, and was explored by 1,100 active satellites.
- How it was formed: Earth gained its size. During the process, earth was still
gaining its mass. Everything was hot that time but cold enough to join
together so the surrounding particles (dust and gases) and materials was
 absorbed by the growing earth. Other growing planets clashed with
earth, allowing it to melt as one and create layers (core, mantle, crust).
- How it is unique: “Right Planet”. Right size, if it was too large then it would
create a hostile atmosphere which won’t support a good environment, if
it was too small then it will not support just like mercury (oxygen, water
vapor, and other gases will escape), Earth did not have a rigid lithosphere
overlaying a weak asthenosphere, Earth did not have a molten metallic
core (inner). Right location, if earth were about 10% closer to the sun like
Venus, it would be too hot, if the earth is 10% farther away from the sun, it
would be too cold, earth is near a star of modest size- during most of his
time radiant energy is emitted at fairly constant level. Right time- the
development of our modern atmosphere is due to the evolution of the
photosynthesizing microorganisms that release oxygen into the
atmosphere. An asteroid that struck the earth about 65MYA that cause a
mass extinction of nearly ¾ of all species allowed the evolution of animals
and plants that survived the impact and thus occupy the world today.
- To be Continued below
Atmosphere
As Earth cooled, an atmosphere formed mainly from gases spewed from
volcanoes. Also forming water due to the cyanobacteria which eats methane.
Mars, also called Ares, it has dead volcanoes called Olympus and Mons, small and
rocky, 24.6 hours to rotate on its own axis, if earth is described as the size of a dime,
then Mars would be as big as an aspirin tablet, Mars has 2 moons called Phobos and
Deimos, named after the horses of the god of war (Mars), Tough for life, many missions
and only 16 out of 39 missions have been successful, a red planet due to iron minerals
in its soil oxidize also known as the rust.
________________________________asteroid belt_________________________________
Jovian Planets
Jupiter, has smtn to do with Juno, biggest planet, it rotates for 10 hours, 11.8 earth
years to revolve around the sun, 50 moons called Europa Ganymedeio, Calisto 17, Gas Giant
for Helium and Hydrogen, Thick atmosphere, discovered during ancient times, you get fatter
there.
Saturn, 7 main rings, 53 moons, Gas Giant for Hydrogen and Helium, thick atmosphere,
discovered during ancient times, explored by pioneer 11, voyager 1 and 2, and cassini, 10.7
hours to rotate on its own axis, 29.5 earth days to revolve around the sun
Uranus, a planet that rotates sideways, 13 faint rings, Ice giant for water, ammonia,
and methane, 27 moons, thick atmosphere methane and hydrogen and helium, discovered
by W. Herschel Great Britain 1781 with explorers Voyager
Neptune, Coldest planet, 13 moons, Ice giant for water, ammonia, and methane,
thick atmosphere with methane hydrogen and helium, discovered by U. La Verrier, J.C.
Adams, J.G. Galle back at 1846, Voyager 2.

_______________kuiper belt____________________________________________________
Asteroid Classification
c-type: carbonaceous & x-type: metallic
/Inside are comets (cosmic snowballs of frozen gases, rock and dust orbit the sun) and dwarf
planet
/Oort Cloud, compromising of billions of comets
/Pluto (134340) and Beyond
5 moons (Charon, styx. nyx, hydra, Kerberos, mythology related), in the Kuiper belt
composed of ice and dust and rocky, 6.5 earth days to rotate on its own axis, 8 years to
revolve around the sun, thin atmosphere (nitrogen, methane, carbon dioxide), discovered
by c.w. timbough, explored by new horizons. It has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic
equilibrium, making it consistent in rotation to be a round planet since the size and core
maintains it.
/Ceres
It’s round but it doesn’t dominate its neighborhood.
MORE ONE EARTH
- They were made of the leftover gas from the nebula that made the Sun.
The Moon may have been formed after a collision between the
early Earth and a smaller planet (sometimes called Theia).
- Oxygen started getting added to the atmosphere by photosynthetic
cyanobacteria. “Oxygen is produced as a waste product of
photosynthesis. ... But over time, new forms of life evolved that use or
expel oxygen in respiration, and atmospheric oxygen levels continued to
increase. (Methane a lot -> Bacteria a lot -> Oxygen a lot)
- Water molecules and different gasses formed from a volcano
(Outgassing)
- 79% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, and 1% other gases

Earth’s Primitive Atmosphere

Exosphere, “exo” meaning outside. Outer most layer of the atmosphere. 5000km to
10,000km. Air in the exosphere is extremely thin - in many ways it is almost the same as the
airless void of outer space.
Thermosphere, Contains only a fraction of the atmosphere’s mass. Temperature increase
due to the absorption of very short wave, high energy solar radiation by atoms of oxygen
and nitrogen.
Ionosphere, ionized by the solar and cosmic radiation, Because of the high energy from the
sun from cosmic rays, the atoms in this area have been stripped of one or more of their
electrons, or ionized and are therefore positively charged.
Mesosphere, Coldest later of the atmosphere. Temperature decrease with height until meso
pause. East explored regions of the atmosphere. First layer of atmosphere with asteroids burn
up.
Stratosphere, temperature remains constant (20KM) and a gradual increase until the
stratopause. Atmospheric properties like tem
Ozone Layer,
Troposphere, there is a turbulence experienced here.
1. Troposphere:
 This layer lies at about 8-10 km at the poles and 16 km at the equator.
 About 95% of the atmosphere lies in this layer.
 Large amount of heavy gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, inert gases, water
vapor etc. are present.
 Cloud formation, wind, lightning, rain, hail stone fog formation etc. take place in this
layer.
 As the temperature varies with height, this layer is also called a variable layer.
 The uppermost part of this layer is called the tropopause.
2. Stratosphere:
 It is the second layer over troposphere extending from 16 to 50 km above the surface of
the earth.
 Ozone, nitrogen and oxygen are the main gases present in this layer.
 Ozone layer lies on the upper part of this layer, hence also called the ozonosphere.
 At about 20-30 km from the surface, ozone layer is continuously formed and depleted
because of UV radiation from the sun.
 99% of UV radiation from the sun is absorbed by ozone layer and hence protects plants
and animals from its harmful effects.
 The temperature starts increasing (from -560C to -20C) with the increase in the altitude
because of absorption of solar radiation by ozone layer.
 There is less water vapor and thin clouds and hence all the jet planes fly in this layer to
avoid the bumpy air pockets of troposphere.
 The uppermost boundary of this layer is called the stratopause, which separates the
stratosphere from the mesosphere.
3. Mesosphere:
 It is the third layer and extends from 50 to 80 km above the earth’s surface.
 The temperature decreases with height and reaches up to -1090 C.
 The streaks of hot gases released from meteors can be seen in this layer.
 The uppermost boundary of this layer is called the mesopause which separates the
mesosphere from the thermosphere.
4. Thermosphere:
 It is the fourth layer and starts from the mesopause.
 This layer extends from 80 to 720 km above the earth’s surface and occupies about
0.01% of the total atmosphere.
 The temperature increases with height due to solar radiation.
 The density of air is very low and the gases present are very low.
 The lower region contains nitrogen and oxygen molecules, whereas the upper region
consists of hydrogen and helium.
 The gaseous molecules (nitrogen and oxygen) undergo ionization and give ions due to
the effect of UV radiation of the sun, hence this region is also called the ionosphere.
 Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth from this layer
and thus helps in communication.
  The uppermost region of this layer is called thermopause.
5. Exosphere:
 It is the outermost layer of the atmosphere which extends beyond the thermosphere.
 It extends from 720 km and gradually merges with the outer space.
 The temperature of this layer is very high.
 The density of air is very low, but the wind blows at high speed.
 This layer is very far from the earth’s surface, so there is no effect of gravity.
 It is also called the fringe region as it forms the outermost edge of the atmosphere.
Atmospheric processes
1. Non-meteorological Processes: Aurora Borealis, Ozone Layer, Greenhouse Gases.
2. Meteorological Processes: Radiation, Wind Formation, Cloud Formation,
Precipitation. (weather related)
NMP:
Northern and Southern Lights - aurora borealis and aurora australis
Northern and Southern Lights were formed by very fast moving electrons striking
atoms in the Earth’s upper atmosphere, primarily oxygen and nitrogen atoms
which make up most of our atmosphere. When this happens, it can put these
atoms in an excited state. During the process with which they return to their
normal state, they emit this excess energy in the form of visible photons. // When
charged particles from the sun strike atoms in Earth's atmosphere, they cause
electrons in the atoms to move to a higher-energy state. When the electrons
drop back to a lower energy state, they release a photon: light. This process
creates the beautiful aurora, or northern lights
The sun shines and it produces solar flares. The magnetic field of earth protects us from those
dangerous flares. It deviates the flares to certain patterns. It hits the Thermosphere because it
has charge particles, since the ionosphere is existing in this layer (Ions become charged due
to the strength of the sun). Why are the ions glowing? Due to frictional charge, it created
light. Because they follow the magnetic field. The lights are seen around the magnetic poles
of the northern and southern hemispheres. Auroras that occur in the northern hemisphere
are called 'Aurora Borealis' or 'northern lights' and auroras that occur in the southern
hemisphere are called 'Aurora Australis' or 'southern lights'.
The Ozone Layer
It was thinning and the another article was saying that it was repairing itself then it was
fake. Ozone layer 'shows signs of recovery', say scientists. The Earth's protective ozone layer is
starting to repair itself, according to a panel of United Nations scientists. The main reason
behind its recovery, they say, is the fact that certain chemicals, such as those used in aerosol
cans, were phased out in the 1980s. Faced with growing evidence of ozone depletion,
governments in 1987 ratified the Montreal Protocol, a global treaty that aimed to phase out
the production of harmful chemicals known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs were used
in hairspray, aerosol cans, and refrigerators. Kyoto protocol is also an example. UVA is most
penetrating, UVC is absorbed by the ozone layer and so does not reach the earth.
Greenhouse Gases
A greenhouse gas is a gas that absorbs and emits infrared radiation. The primary greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and
ozone. Greenhouse gases are capable of trapping the earth's emitted radiation, which
otherwise escapes back to space. . Water vapor accounts for by far the largest greenhouse
effect (90–85%) because water vapor emits and absorbs infrared radiation at many more
wavelengths than any of the other greenhouse gases, and there is much more water vapor
in the atmosphere than any of the other greenhouse gases.
MTGP:
Solar Radiation- Most important since it infiltrates temperature and pressure. If it is in
play, then you have wind movement. Without the sun or this process then other process wont
function.
Wind Convection - Controlled by temperature and because the Earth is turning. The
equator receives more heat since the sun is focused at the center of the earth.
Wind Movement- Wind formation/ movement is strongly influenced by radiation
which creates air pressure. It is also influenced by the rotation of the Earth on its axis. Wind
moves from high pressure to low pressure since it rushes in (Example, where the wind comes
from & when others have typhoons (low pressure) and it’s hot at one area (high pressure))
Cloud Formation
Clouds form when moist, warm rising air cools and expands in the atmosphere. The
water vapor in the air condenses to form tiny water droplets which are the basis of clouds.
Basic types: Cumulus (Flowy), Stratos (Layered), (dark and heavy since it carries more
water and usually causes and storms and thunders) Nimbus, (light ones) Cyrus.
Factors that dictate the temperature of weather and climate:
The two most important factors in the climate of an area are temperature and precipitation.
The yearly average temperature of the area is obviously important, but the yearly range
in temperature is also important. Some areas have a much larger range between highest
and lowest temperature than other areas. Precipitation is water released from clouds in the
form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow or hail.

KOPPEN CLMATE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM, the world’s climates are divided to four: TYPE A:
Tropical, warm all year around. TYPE B: Dry, usually hot and sunny so water evaporates but
rarely falls again as rain. TYPE C: Temperate, TYPE D: Continental, TYPE E: Polar (North Pole
and Antarctica). Check video sent by ma’am
Climate System
Includes the atmosphere (troposphere, humidity, precipitation, trace gas and aerosol
distribution), hydrosphere (temperature and oceans with living matters), geosphere
(temperature, flora and fauna, soil moisture, living matters), biosphere, and cryosphere
(currently diminishing; snow and ice cover). Powered by energy from the sun, the climate
system involves the exchanges of energy and moisture that occur among the five spheres.
These exchanges link the atmosphere to the other parts of the system to produce the
different climates of diff areas.
Climate- atmospheric conditions of a region over a long period of time.
Weather – Atmospheric conditions at a specific point in time. These are the day to day
changes or patterns in the atmosphere at a particular place and time.
Factors: Air pressure and temperature, amount and type of precipitation, wind
strength and direction, types of clouds.
Air temperature, hotness and coldness of air, measure by a thermometer.
Air pressure, heaviness of air over a unit of area, measured by a Barometer
Amount and type of precipitation, water (drizzle, rain) or solidified water (ice, hail,
snow)
Wind strength and directions, air moves from an area of high pressure to low pressure
area they travel from landmasses that are warmer and dry.
PAGASA - Philippines Atmospheric and Geophysical and astronomical service
administration. They issue daily weather reports. They were no always accurate because
they relied on the data of the US.
Philippine Climate
It is tropical and maritime. Characterized by relatively high temp, high humidity, and
abundant rainfall. The temp has a mean annual temp of 26.6o C. The coolest months fall in
January while the warmest on May. It is divided into Rainy (June
to Nov) and Dry (Dec to may)
a. Cool dry- Dec to Feb
b. Hot dry- March to May
It was further divided to 4 types
The Philippines is very biodiverse and parts that are
endemic
Philippine Flora
Dipterocarp, Hoya species, Jade Vine (tayabak),
Rafflesia, waling-waling
Philippine Fauna
Philippine Eagle, Water Buffalo, Clown Fish, Tarshier.
Seasons
Winter
Equinox
Spring
Summer
Summer Solstice
Autumn/ Fall

Indicators of a warming world

Climate Feedback Mechanism

HYDROSPHERE
Water on earth remains constant. 75% water in the Blue Planet. We are able to survive due to
this. Water regulated temperature.
Water Cycle
Evapotranspiration: both evaporated and transpired since it is hard to determine which.

A. Surface Water
1. Lakes – body of water surrounded by mountains/ within a land, separate from the
ocean and not a sea. E.g. Lake Baikal, Siberia – Clearest water & Salt Lakes like
Caspian Sea.
a. Example: Laguna Lake, Taal Lake, Pinatubo Crate Lake, Zambales,
Kayangan Lake, Barracuda Lake
b. San Pablo Laguna – city of seven lakes
2. Reservoirs – Artificial lakes constructed by humans. E.g. Angat dam, la mesa dam
Purposes:
a. Flood Control
b. Reliable water supply for agriculture on municipalities
c. Hydroelectric power
3. Swamps and Marshes - Swamps are shallow forested wetlands. They may have
water in them for the whole year or for only part of the year. Like marshes, they are
often found near rivers or lakes and have mineral soil that drains very slowly. Unlike
marshes, they have trees and bushes.
Swamp - E.g. Anawangin swamp
Marshes – e.g. Agusan marsh wildlife sanctuary
4. Stream - a body of flowing water confined within a channel running downhill
regardless of size this is from the smallest creek to mightiest river. E.g. hinatuan
enchanted river, Puerto princesa underground river, lobos river, davao river (rapid),
villa escudero river, panguil river (rapid), pagsanjan rapids
 The runoff initially flows in broad thin sheets, which eventually
develops threads of current that form tiny channels called rills (runoff divided to several
parts). This then combines to form Gullies then to streams which connects to/ creates rivers
or etc. A drainage basin is the area drained by a stream and its tributaries. Boundaries
between drainage basins are called divides.
Main zones of River system:

Zone of sediment production (erosion), headwaters region of the river and most turbulent
Zone of transportation (Containing the Trunk stream), e.g. In falls, the flow is strong. The
deeper part has boulders and as you go farther, the rocks are smaller that is because it is
carried by the water.
Zone of Deposition, least turbulent.
Two types of stream flow:
Laminar and Turbulent streamflow, level of speed or rapid-ness due to the slope, depth, and
rocks.
Flow Velocity – relates to the stream’s ability to erode and transport materials. It is affected
by the channel slope, size of the channel, the channel’s roughness, and the amount of
water that flows.

Runoffs absorption factors:

1. Intensity, amount, and duration of rainfall. If it were to be raining for five days….
2. Amount of water already in the soil. Then Saturated grounds do not absorb
anymore…. E.g. puddles
3. Type/ Nature of the surface material
4. Slope of the land
5. The extent and type of vegetation (trees absorption and trees’ roots hold soil together.

Running water and Groundwater – Basic links in the constant cycling of the planet’s water
and is responsible for sculpturing and creating varied landforms. (e.g. Asik Asik falls in North
Cotabato and Grand Canyon in Arizona).
Running waters like rivers and falls. E.g. mississippi river, amazon river, nile river, enchanted
river in surigao, paguil river.
Grounder water is underground water
What allows pater to pass through?
Porosity (holes) and Permeability (allows to pass through)
Water ground is the Aquifer.
Types:
Unconfined (Accessible)
Confined (locked)

Zone of saturation is the lowest. Water table above it, the highest spot that if dug down u
would hit ground water. Zone of aeration is where water passes through.
Experiment Order: Hot(TOP), Clear, Colored, Cold, Saline (Lowest)
Seas and Oceans
Oceanography – is the study of the composition and movements of seawater as well as
coastal processes, seafloor topography, and marine life. It uses knowledge and methods
from other fields of science: Geology, Chemistry, Physics, Biology.
Philippines Oceans and Seas:
Northern: East China Sea
Southern: Celebes Sea
West: West Philippine Sea
East: Pacific Ocean and Philippine Sea
 Characteristics of Ocean Water
- Chemical composition: Water and Salt. Ocean Acidification Process

- Temperature:
- Density
Movement of ocean water: Tides, Current and Waves
Tides: Are bulges (high tide) in the sea surface on the side of earth facing the moon and on
the opposite side, and simultaneous sinks (low tides) halfway between. E.g. during new
moon, lots of fish are caught (explain)

Currents-
Causes:
1. Wind flow (primary driver of surface currents)
2. Contrasts in temperature
3. Variation in salinity
Influenced by:
1. Size and shape of ocean
2. Configuration and depth of sea bottom
3. Coriolis effect: The Coriolis effect describes the pattern of deflection taken by objects
not firmly connected to the ground as they travel long distances around and above
the Earth. The Coriolis effect is responsible for many large-scale weather patterns. The
key to the Coriolis effect lies in the Earth’s rotation. Specifically, the Earth rotates faster
at the Equator than it does at the poles. The Coriolis effect is defined as how a moving
object seems to veer toward the right in the Northern hemisphere and left in the
Southern hemisphere.
Lower parts of the ocean have movement due to
The Greater Ocean Conveyer Belt.

PERMAFROST - a thick subsurface layer of soil that remains frozen throughout the year,
occurring chiefly in polar regions.
Melting of glaciers – not just causes sea-level rise. Affects climate dynamics in more complex
ways. E.g. jet stream, currents in the ocean.
LITHOSPHERE (REFER TO OLD G10 NOTES)

CRUST
- Outermost and thinnest layer of the Earth
- Composed of the parts
o Continental – Sial (Silica and Aluminum)
o Oceanic Crust – Sima (Silica and Magnesium)
- Moho Discontinuity – separates the crust and Mantle
MANTLE
- Semi solid but actually fluid from heat. It flows up and down depending
on the temperature of the adjacent mantle.
- Most voluminous region of the earth.
- Lithosphere = Crust + Upper Mantle
- Asthenosphere – below the lithosphere.
- Convection Currents- When the portion of the earth is hot, it rises then it
goes back down when it cools.
- Mesophere- part of the lower mantle
- Gutenberg Discontinuity – Separates the mantle and Core
CORE
- Innermost layer of the earth.
- Outer – Liquid of Iron and Nickel
- Inner – Solid Iron and Nickel
- Lehmann Discontinuity??
What is a Mineral
- Naturally occurring
- Inorganic Solid
- Definite Chemical Composition
- Crystalline Structure
Properties of Minerals
- Color – Distinctive color that can be used for identification.
- Odor – Color of the mineral in powdered form. Streak shows the true of the
mineral.
- Taste
- Hardness – Is a measure of the mineral’s resistance to scratching. E.g.
Mohs Hardness Scale
- Specific Gravity
- Magnetism
- Luster – Indicates how much the surface of a mineral reflect light
 o Metallic – bright and reflective
o Nonmetallic – Virtuous, glassy, brilliant, silky, fibrous,
o Submetallic - resinous, plastic
- Cleavage & Fracture – (C) Breaks along lines or smooth flat surface. (F)
Breaks along rough and jagged surfaces
- Magnetism – Characteristic that slows a mineral to attract or repel other
magnetic materials.
- Crystalline Structure – the various sizes and shapes are determined by the
arrangement of atoms, molecules or ions that make up the crystal and
how they are joined. (amorphous, etc.)
- Refractive Index – Refract Light, allows the passage of light.
Classification of Minerals
Sulfates
- Oxygen is the most abundant element since it combines with other
elements.
- SILICATES – Silicon (e.g. Silicon Valley uses silicon as insulators and for
plastic implants) and Oxygen are the building blocks of the most common
mineral group. E.g. Olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and Quartz, etc.
- CARBONATES – Carbon and Oxygen. It is less common but forms
sedimentary rocks that cover large regions. E.g. Sodium carbonate/ Soda
ash, Calcium Carbonate/ Limestone, etc. Compounds not rocks.
- PHOSPHATES – Composed of phosphate, oxygen, and hydrogen metal.
E.g. turquoise, apatite, and pyromorphite.
- SULFATES – e.g. voltaite, celestite, barite.
- Silicates are composed of a tetrahedron and carbonates have a trigonal
planar (?) This is their difference.
Elemental
- Made entirely of one type of element. E.g. diamond, graphite, and coal

ROCK CYCLE
 - Color of the rock may be determined by its elements.
- Rock are naturally occurring solid aggregates of mineral
ORES
- All ores are minerals but not all minerals are ores. = False
- Ores are rocks that contain metals, mostly. E.g. bauxite and haematite.
- Philippines is one of the greatest carriers of gold. (top 24)
- Acid test on gold, if it turns green then it’s fake but if it’s turns white then
it’s reals. Then there’s a kin test because some are allergic to fake ones.
 There’s also a float and Rust test. Magnet test, it shouldn’t be attracted.
Asoge/ mercury is the metal use to separate gold from others.
MINING
- “Mining is more fun in the Philippines”.
- Acid mine Drainage - FACT: Two years ago, secretary Gina Lopez the
head of DNR fought for the ban of mining in the phil. In order to avoid
exploitation since it is not being regulated. There are many factors of
mining to humans, one as it being a non-livable environment. It damages
lands and waters (many fishes die due to chemicals). Mining companies
don’t rehab the area. There is also something called Gold Panning by
small children. Asoge/ mercury is the metal use to separate gold from
others like dirt. The fumes from the mercury could be not good for a
person. God harvestation and minor protection is the issue. There are
issues when miners sell a tiny gold for only a small amt of money in
exchange because business men are unfair, lol joke idk.
Exogenic processes: natural processes that change the face of the earth. Geological
activities. Includes weathering, erosion(mass wasting and sedimentation), transport, and
deposition.
1. Weathering – processes that decompose rocks and convert them to loose, sand, clay
and soil.
a. Mechanical (needs elements to be able to create an impact) and Chemical
(dissolution>hydrolysis/ breaking with water>oxidation)
2. Erosion- is the process of ‘eating away’ rocks from source.
3. Transport – A present agent who transfers the material.
4. Deposition – setting of sediments in an area.

1. Mass wasting – Downslope process of transportin bodies form a higher to lower

elevation.
a. Factors affecting is: Gravity, water, soil cover, geologic feature faults, triggering
effect-earthquakes, volcanic eruption.
b. Soil cover -??
c. Types of mass wasting based on movement: falls, rock slide, mudflow, slumps,
creep.]
Endogenic processes – types: volcanic eruption and tectonic plates
Dati, bodies came together then the friction created temperature. Then there was high tmp,
pressure, and friction to create the core which is why hot. Masmainitn and bigat nasa ilalim
ng earth which made the layers (because of the friction, pressure, temp).
Volcanoes and its parts (not part of exam)
- Vents in the earths crust (mars also has one – forgot the name)
- Cinder, composite, and shield. Causes of volcanic eruptions : influc of
magma, melting of surrounding rock, exsolution of gas, contact with
water. Volcanoes erupt because of movement of plates creating
earthwauakses and oteher c=stuff. Movement of plate due to not only
convection currents but becuas eof varying changes of tempaerature.
Plate types: divergent, convergent, transform. Continental drift theory
from climate, jigsaw puzzle, fossil thing, glaciers for applekanian smtn’/.
Claausopteres, mesosaurus.
 DA DAY NOTES: SCIENCE SECOND HALF

How do you know you’re living?

- Class: Response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development,
energy processing, made up of cells, homeostasis, heredity, regulation.
- “Living systems self-assemble against entropy.”
- Chemist: “Self-sustaining chemicals system capable of Darwinian
evolution.”
- IT: “Network of feedback mechanisms.”
9 Attributes/ Properties of Life: Composed of cells, Reproduction, Regulation, Homeostasis,
Energy Processing, Order (From cells to tissues to organs, type of living matters, etc.),
response to stimuli, evolutionary Adaptation,
Theories of the Beginnings of Life
1. Creationism
Superior-being created life
a. Young Earth Creationism
Earth came from 6000 years ago
b. Old Earth Creationism
Earth came from billion years ago
c. Christian Faith
- Seven days to create the Universe and everything else.
d. Islamic Creationism
- On the seventh day, God did not rest. He’s all too powerful.
e. Hindu Creationism
- Brahma (Creates), Vishnu (Preserves), Shivu (Destroys)
2. Panspermia
- Like came from extra terrestrial energy.
- We are all created from outer space. Hydrated tardigrades is an
example or evidence. (e.g. Joke: “we are all aliens”)
3. Abiogenesis
a. Spontaneous Generation
- From living to non-living (jar of rice to jar of rats inside) attraction.
- Francesco Redi disproved the theory with the jar, meet, and living matter
experiment. The magots must come out from inside the jar but they came
from outside.
- Pasteur’s
experiment

1. Louis Pasteur designed an

experiment to test whether sterile
nutrient broth could spontaneously
generate microbial life. To do this,
he set up two experiments. In both,
Pasteur added nutrient broth to
flasks, bent the necks of the flasks into S shapes, and then boiled the broth to kill any
existing microbes.
 2. After the broth had been sterilized, Pasteur broke off the swan necks from the flasks in
Experiment 1, exposing the nutrient broth within them to air from above. The flasks in
Experiment 2 were left alone.
3. Over time, dust particles from the air fell into the broken flasks of Experiment 1. In
Experiment 2, dust particles remained near the tip of the swan necks, but could not travel
against gravity into the flasks, keeping the nutrient broth sterile.
4. The broth in the broken flasks quickly became cloudy–a sign that it teemed with microbial
life. However, the broth in the unbroken flasks remained clear. Without the introduction of
dust–on which microbes can travel–no life arose. Thus, the Louis Pasteur experiment refuted
the notion of spontaneous generation.

b. Oparin and Haldane, Urey and Miller

The Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis. Oparin-Haldane hypothesis: that life on Earth could have
arisen step-by-step from non-living matter through a process of “gradual chemical
evolution.” Oparin suggested that the organic compounds could have undergone a series
of reactions leading to more and more complex molecules. He proposed that the molecules
formed colloid aggregates, or 'coacervates', in an aqueous environment. The Oparin-
Haldane hypothesis suggests that life arose gradually from inorganic molecules, with
“building blocks” like amino acids forming first and then combining to make complex
polymers.
Oparin and Haldane thought that the early Earth had a reducing atmosphere, meaning an
oxygen-poor atmosphere in which molecules tend to donate electrons. Under these
conditions, they suggested that:
 Simple inorganic molecules could have reacted (with energy from lightning or the sun) to
form building blocks like amino acids and nucleotides, which could have accumulated in
the oceans, making a "primordial soup." ^33start superscript, 3, end superscript
 The building blocks could have combined in further reactions, forming larger, more complex
molecules (polymers) like proteins and nucleic acids, perhaps in pools at the water's edge.
 The polymers could have assembled into units or structures that were capable of sustaining
and replicating themselves. Oparin thought these might have been “colonies” of proteins
clustered together to carry out metabolism, while Haldane suggested that macromolecules
became enclosed in membranes to make cell-like structures^{4,5}4,5start superscript, 4,
comma, 5, end superscript.
The details of this model are probably not quite correct. For instance, geologists now think
the early atmosphere was not reducing, and it's unclear whether pools at the edge of the
ocean are a likely site for life's first appearance. But the basic idea – a stepwise, spontaneous
formation of simple, then more complex, then self-sustaining biological molecules or
assemblies – is still at the core of most origins-of-life hypotheses today.
Abiogenesis:
1. Abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules
2. Joining into macromolecules
3. Packaging of molecules into protocells
4. Origin of self-replicating molecules
 First set of molecules made based on the conditions of the earth were
Nucleotides from Nucleic Acids
  Differences of DNA and RNA
 Nitrogenous bases are different because of Uracil only
at RNA.
 DNA has two strands and RNA has one strand
 Different sugar bases: Deoxyribose and Ribose
 Glycosidic and Hydrogen Bonds IDK it was just mentioned.
Nucleo side + sugar + Base
Nucleotide= Sugar + Phosphate
 Nucleotides can be proteins because during translation it
makes proteins and like you know… a group of three
MRNA nucleotides make a specific amino acid called
codon.
The Miller-Urey experiment was immediately recognised as an important breakthrough in the
study of the origin of life. It was received as confirmation that several of the key molecules of
life could have been synthesised on the primitive Earth in the kind of conditions envisaged by
Oparin and Haldane. they analyzed the contents of the liquid pool. They found that several
organic amino acids had formed spontaneously from inorganic raw materials. Miller-Urey
experiment provided the first evidence that organic molecules needed for life could be
formed from inorganic components.

Proved that organic molecules were made from inorganic molecules. Life from non-living
matter. (e.g. Murchison is one of the first set of living systems that survived on earth. Vents
and Meteorites is where other living systems came from.)
4. Biogenesis
RNA world hypothesis, which suggests that the first life was self-replicating RNA. Others favor
the metabolism-first hypothesis, placing metabolic networks before DNA or RNA.
Five Kingdoms: Animalia, Plantae, Protista, Monera, and Fungi. Domain the highest
classification: he tree of life consists of three domains: Eukarya and (Archaea, Eubacteria
under it)
- Phylogenetic Tree – it works because of separation and reproduce.
Branching out from one domain to several types of bacteria (singular:
bacterium)
- Humans are form Eukarya meaning Eukaryotes.
- Achaeans are extremophiles.
- This chart was done took several samples of RNA and DNA to see the
similarities of one set from another. The more similar one is then the more
clustered you are together or close it is. That’s how they found out the
domains
 - New kingdom: Achaeans and Eubacteria. It’s seven lang kasi may living
dead: Virus.
- Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus
- Eukarya and bacteria are both under the prokaryotic cell. Pro rhyming no
and karyo meaning nucleus. Prokaryotes have DNA outside side the cell
tas the other one inside

Lab Activity: Wet Mount and Hanging Drop Slide – (HDS) Depression Slide with cover and
Vaseline. An advantage of the usage of this slide is that the moving thing or organism I guess
was able to move in their natural habitat. Macrobes yung green na gumagalaw sa bottle na
pond water ni ma’am. We observed yung sa pond water, cork, and tadpole.

History of First Observation of Cells

- Robert Hooke in 1665, he made a simple microscope and observed a

cork. He saw small compartments and he called it cells like small rooms.
What did he see? The cell wall, and that it could survive and not easily
degraded so they tend to live. The tiny compartments he saw were cells
walls, the remains of the plant.
- Anton Van Leeuwenhock in 1673 made a hand held microscope and
observed pond water. He referred to the term “Animalcules”, tiny animals.
Used a what, thermostat?
- Matthias Schleiden in 1838 observed plants and saw that these were
made of cells.
- Theodore Schwann in 1839 observed cells in animals. (tip from ma’am:
since his name sounds like a swan then we know na sa kaniya yung
animal)
 - Rudolph Virchow the German was famous for his quote “Omnis cellula e
cellula” meaning “all cells come from pre-existing cells”. In 1855 meaning
he saw dividing cells.
- They were able to make the theory from the contributions of the other
individuals. To create the cell theory.
Cell Theory

- All living things are made up of cells. (thanks to the schwann and
schleiden)
- Cell: is a basic unit of structure and function.
- Cells come from pre-existing cells (thanks to Virchow)
- Similarities of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes, they have ribosomes and cell
b=membranes and dna. Eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles
- Eukarya and bacteria are both under the prokaryotic cell. Pro rhyming no
and karyo meaning nucleus. Prokaryotes have DNA outside side the cell
tas the other one inside
- Arcahebacteria is prokaryotic then the rest sa 6 kingdoms are eukarotic
- Nucluoid for prokaryotes. Flagella would depend. Capsule> cellwall >
plasma membrane.
- The dna is organized but looked tangled, called super-coiling.
- The photo was taken with a TEM. Transmission electron microscope, you
can see the inside.
- If SEM, it’s scanning then you can see the outside.
- Function of bacteria. They breakdown food in the digestive system
- GOOD: Used to make some food like yogurt, kimchi, wine etc. used for
composition?
- BAD: Salmonella Typhi. Typhoid fever. (fun fact: typhoid mary. She’s imune
to the disease but she actually spreads it. She’s also a cook in her
 restaurant then lots of people got sick. She got fired tas they looked for
but she ran away then hse foud out then she started cooking again then
she got imprisoned then she died alone ata. Namatay siya sa cell).
Another, Staphylococcus dureus. The first mentioned diseae was in a basili
shape but this one is circular which is why it was called cauccus. They
have a similar ancestor.
Endosymbiotic Theory with Lynn Marguilis

- Eukaryotic cells came about because of the relations, fusion and etc of
several __
- Living system/ cell lived with a bacteria to create __ cell
- Each one organelle each had an animal before (???)
- Strong evidence: they have their own dna (cell)
- Mitochondria ang unique sakanila
- Plasmids are circular dna
- Invagination means the nucleaus was formed from (marker center of
hanky then it encolsed) dna being enclosed by bacteria.

- After such. Aerobic bacterium blablabla

- Phosynthetic bacterium blabla
- Naging ancestor ng first plant cells
- Animal cells are hetero trophic, plant cells are autotrophic
- ANIMAL CELL ALSOHAS FLAGELLUM
- Cell membrane: Cell boundary, another one I didn’t ccopy
*omg practice resembling the cell to the house for the quiz?
https://www.ck12.org/biology/parts-of-the-cell/lesson/Common-Parts-of-the-Cell-BIO/
https://askabiologist.asu.edu/cell-parts <important. Omg girl gather notes!
Mitochondrion – Convert Glucose to ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for power.
Endoplasmic Reticulum – They differ in shape, function, and appearance.
Chloroplasts – Thylakoids

Contact Inhibition – They are all divided already and communicate with all the cells
surrounding them.
Difference of Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic based on “S”.
DNA is found in the nucleus. It turns into RNA, and if it wants proteins then it’ll go outside to
the ER where Ribosomes are. Central Dogma of Electro Biology.
Primary tertiary and potinary form sa protein blablabla
Plant cell recived water to make glucose. It needs water and carbon dioxide
____________

Intro: (research more on) A combination reaction with a reactant and product needs
enzymes.
Bio-Energetics

- Discussing the different processes inside a cell. This is the transfer of energy
from one cell to another.
- Metabolism – ‘Metabole’: Alteration of Molecules, manage material and
energy in cells. Metabolic Pathways: Anabolic Reaction, needs energy to
form a certain product. It’s Endo- “Inside”-Thermic reaction. Catabolic
Reaction, Release energy from product. Other terms like Breakdown,
degradative, “Cut”. It’s Exothermic – “outside” reaction. *insert
metabolism-energy thing chart.
- Chemical, kENETIC, OTHERS AS A FORM OF ENERGY
- Thermodynamics can’t react without a trigger. Endergonic etc.
ATP
 - Phosprelated (P) – added. Dephosphorelated – removed a phosphate =
Adenosine diphosphate. Added = triphosphate
- *chart
- ATP + Water , cut one of the phosphate bonds – making ADP and P
(Phosphate)

- Glycolisis and E.T.C. and others occur in the cell all three processes occur
in the mitochondrion.how the mitochondrion is known as the powerhouse
of the cell

ENZYMES

Enzymes are biological molecules (typically

proteins) that significantly speed up the rate of
virtually all of the chemical reactions that take
place within cells. ... The molecules that
an enzyme works with are called substrates. The
substrates bind to a region on the enzyme called
the active site. There’s a certain enzyme that
works for a certain substrate.=Lock and Key
Model.
- Where substrates bound an enzyme – active site

Types of reactions – combustion, e tc.

Combination/ synthesis, decomposition (opposite of combination), single-replacement,
double-replacement, combustion

relationship of plants
and animals in a symbiotic relationship as mutualistic
Processes:
Photosynthesis
Cellular respiration: Citric acid cycles/ Crab cycle, oxidative, phosphorylation,
,

Glycolysis – happens in the cytosol, outside the mitochondrion. When it passes through and
goes in mitochondrion, where krab cycle happens/ citric acid cycle, after that it converts to
enrgy- enter the ETC (oxidative, phosphorylation enctron micro chain), cellular respiration,
photosynthesis in plant cells – water and carbon dioxide with the help of light form glucose
nad oxygen (something we need to survive)
Etc
_____________________

Anabolic – The buildup of complex organic molecules from simpler ones. They use up energy
and are endergonic.

Catabolic The breakdown of complex organic molecules into simpler ones. Small molecules
join to make larger ones.

Kinetic Energy - In physics, the kinetic energy (KE) of an object is the energy that it possesses
due to its motion. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass
from rest to its stated velocity. Having gained this energy during its acceleration, the body
maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes. A collision of pool balls is an example
of kinetic energy being transferred from one object to another. Kinetic energy is
the energy of mass in motion. The kinetic energy of an object is the energy it has because of
its motion.
Thermal energy – e.g. cooking. Thermal energy comes from a substance whose molecules
and atoms are vibrating faster due to a rise in temperature. Heat energy is another name
for thermal energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of a moving object. As thermal
energy comes from moving particles, it is a form of kinetic energy. Examples of Thermal
Energy: ... The sun's thermal energy heats our atmosphere. 5. Thermal energy from a hot
stove is transferred to a metal pot and causes the water molecules to move faster increasing
the temperature of the water.

Chemical Energy – Chemical energy is energy stored in the bonds of chemical compounds,
like atoms and molecules. This energy is released when a chemical reaction takes place.
Usually, once chemical energy has been released from a substance, that substance is
transformed into a completely new substance. Examples of matter containing chemical
energy include: ... Wood: combustion reaction converts chemical energy into light and heat.
Petroleum: can be burned to release light and heat or changed into another form
of chemical energy, such as gasoline. Chemical batteries: store chemical energy to be
changed into electricity
Laws of Energy Transformation (Thermodynamics)

1. Energy is constant. It can be transferred and transformed but cannot be

created or destroyed. (e.g. In the combination and anabolic reaction of
photosynthesis. Energy from the reactant side is equal to the product side). To
know one side is equal to the other, you balance it.
 Law of conservation of mass – Similar to this but in the subject of mass.
Matter cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be transformed or
transferred.
 Balancing of Equations – The weight in the reactant side is equal to the
products’.
2. Law of Entropy. Measure of disorder/ randomness. More random = Greater
Entropy. (e.g. one day your room is clean but then the next week it’s messy. It’s
entropic because of the external system (you) keeping it that way.) There can
be other external factors without an agent like humans, there is air and other
earthly natural movements, if it is exposed to an open area. But it will not be
entropic if it is closed. (e.g. even if you have two ingredients together but you
don’t have the factors (machinery or energy) necessary for change, nothing will
happen).
3. (e.g. the process of enzymes and how they work, as a decomposition reaction
= Lock and key Method. Enzymes are non-consumes so it doesn’t change, it
remains the same and stays there.
 Other models of how the enzymes work: Induced Fit, it molds itself (the
active site) in order to compensate the substrate. The enzyme adjusts to
the substrate.
 Metabolic Pathways – (cellular respiration chart) explains our mutualistic
relations to plants. *insert chart explaining which is reactant and product,
with the help of arrows. It explains you are releasing energy (ATP), making
it a catabolic reaction.
 Metabolic Pathways –(glycolysis) From the word “glycol” it means it is
sugar. It is the splitting of sugar (Glucose sugar form Plants) , happening in
the CYTOSOL – 2 Pyruvate.

 https://microbiologyinfo.com/glycolysis-10-steps-explained-steps-by-steps-with-
diagram/
 Energy investment phase – ATP TO ADP (called Dephosphorylation),
nawalan siya ng isang phosphate- from triphosphate to
diphosphate.
 Hexokinase- converts glucose to glucose phosphate.
It’s the enzyme responsible. It dephosphorylates. What it
does is it removes hydrogen from the sixth carbon and
atttaches phosphate to it. So now it’s:
 Glucose 6 Phosphate is the name since the
phosphate attached to the oxygen attached to the sixth
carbon. Through Phosphoglucose isomerase. It removes
the bond of oxygen from the first carbon and bonds it to
the second carbon then since first carbon is free then it
attaches a hydrogen to it, available in the cytosol.
 Phosphoglucose isomerase = The second reaction of
glycolysis is the rearrangement of glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) into
fructose 6-phosphate (F6P) by glucose phosphate isomerase
(Phosphoglucose Isomerase).
 For the third phase, Fructose 1, 6- biphosphate. Because hydrogen
from the first carbon was lost and replaced with phosphate from atp.
  Aldolase enzyme splits the fructose into two molecules (third and
fourth carbon). Three carbons = tree carbons. Oxygen in the middle
was brought back to the fifth carbon, then the oxygen created a
double bond with it since it needed something to hold on to
(oxygen). The third carbon double bonds with O, then bonds once
with hydrogen (a new one). CHECK PAPER WITH DRAWING.
 Isomerase can change the glyceroxyacetonephosphate to
glyceraldehyde3phosphate. glyceraldehyde3phosphate had an arrow
going downwards because it is what is needed, compared to the
other, because it will continue the process.
 Energy Payoff Face: check paper or online

Citric Acid Cycle

- Krebs Cycle
- Acetyl CoA
- Complete breakdown of Glucose, Mitochondrial Matrix (Happens here).
- *It needs to go through a “gate pass phase”/ needed to go in “the party”
- Check paper notes
Photosynthesis
 Perpetuation of Life

Plant and Animal Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction – a type of reproduction by which offspring arise from a single
organism, and inherit the genes of that parent only; it does not involve the fusion of
gametes, and almost never changes the number of chromosomes. No need for
pollinator (plants), intact genetic legacy, stronger seedlings.

Vegetative Propagation – Stems, roots, leaves; don’t

need a partner (e.g. Rhizome are grown/ginger/ zingeber officinale,
strawberry/stolong or runner or grown/ gradaria sp, potato/ solanum tuberosum,
cyodon dactylon/ grass, bulbs/ allium ceps, tuber/ solanum tuberosum, corms
colocasia esculenta, saccharum officinarum L. / Stem cuttings of sugar canes are
grown and planted laying down, leaves/ bryophyllum pinnarum/ kalanchoe pinnatum
with common name: katakataka – it tends to grow plants and propagate through
leaves like in cactus)

Totipotency – any cell can generate a clone of the

original organism (e.g. Grafting plants)
Apomixis – Asexual seed formation

For animals:
1. Bees

Parthenogenesis – Growth and development of embryos without fertilization

(Fertilized egg (2n) – Female, Unfertilized egg (n) – male)

2. Starfish/ Sea star

3. Sea Anemone
4. Brittle Star
5. Hydra sp. through fragmentation
6. dugesia sp.
7. Yeast
 Sacchoromyces Ceravisiae or “baker’s yeast” - budding
 Schizosaccharomyces Ceravisiase or “Brewer’s Yeast” – binary fision
8. Hermaphroditus
9. Sea Slugs/ Nudibranchia
Sexual Reproduction – needs both male and female, genetic variation, high number of
seedlings but more energy expenditure, seed
dormancy
Types of fertilization
1. External – Frogs
2. Internal – humans

Types of reproduction

1. Oviparity
- Lays eggs outside the body, hatch from eggs.
- Protective case attaches to sea floor
- Smaller due to limited nutrients
- (e.g. White sharks and basking sharks)
2. Ovoviviparity
- (Like a combination of first and last)
- E.g. Horn shark and Great white shark
- Eggs hatch in mother’s uterus, so it doesn’t go out of the body but if they
give birth the organism comes out but the egg stays in the body
- Single pup
- E.g. Bony fishes - osteichthyes
3. Viviparity
- More advanced
- E.g. bull sharks and hammerhead
- live young
- Babies get milk directly from mother
- Born alive no more shells.
Idk which: CHondrichthyes – Cartaliaginous bodies (no bones) e.g. sharks, rays, and skates
 Spermatogenesis –

*iNSERT OTHER NOTES ON CELL DIVISION

*and why humans give birth to human due to different organs and etc

Inheritance – transmission of traits from one generation to another

Cell Division
Cell cycle

1. Interphase stage
 Gap1 (G1) ~9hrs. All cells are double except for DNA
 Synthesis (S) ~ 7HRS. DNA (From the Nucleus) gets duplicated.
 GAP 2 (G2) ~ 5 hrs. Checks if everything has been duplicated.

DNA is duplicated separately or there would be errors in

the DNA’s duplicated which is in the S-Phase

2. Division Phase
  Mitosis (Body Cells/ Sematic Cells) so e.g. bone cells

*Chromosomes are counted not by legs but by centromeres. Parts: Long arm (Q), Short arm
(P), Centromere, Short arms together (Telomeres) // Metacentric (Centromere is in the
middle), Sub-metacentric (Centromere is near the middle), acrocentric (Centromere is near
the end), telocentric (Centromere is by the end). Chromatids as a whole, then the pair is
sister chromatids (long and short)

PURO SUBMETACENTRIC NA CHROMOSOME

 (4) Interphase - Doubles

 (4) Prophase – Stage when cells are thickening
 (4) Metaphase – They are aligned
 (8) Anaphase - Microtubules pull them apart (legs and
centromeres). Chromosome number is doubled because there are
separate chromosomes.
 (4) Telophase – Two new nuclei are made
*During Cytokinesis: plant cell (square-like) gets cut in the middle from center to
outward// Furrowing, animals (circle-like) gets cut from the outside to the inside //
Cleavage Formation. Different due to cell wall, plants have a harder cell wall.
 Meiosis (Only for Sex Cells/ Gametes)
 Meiosis I (Reductional Division)
 (4) Prophase I – Chromosomes pair up according to: (1)
Centriole Position, (2) Size and (3) Carriage of the same set of
genes.
 (4) Metaphase I – Crossing over occurs. Chromosomes line up
at the center.
 (4) Anaphase I - Chromosome pairs separate.
 (2) Telophase I – Nuclei separates
 Meiosis II (Equational Division)
 (2) Prophase II – There are literally just two chromosomes
 (2) Metaphase II – Microtubules attach and align on another.
 (2) Anaphase II - sister chromatid separates
 (2) Telophase II – daughter cells separate
Example: Spider mite, 2n=4 in Mitosis and n=2 in Meiosis

 (4) Interphase - Doubles

 (4) Prophase – Stage when cells are thickening
 (4) Metaphase – They are aligned
 (8) Anaphase - Microtubules pull them apart (legs and
centromeres). Chromosome number is doubled because there are
separate chromosomes.
 (4) Telophase – Two new nuclei are made
Why do humans only give birth to their own kind? And others that follow?
Reproductive Isolation

1. Prezygotic Isolation – Combination??

a. Barriers (Prevents Mating and Fertilization):
i. Habitat/ Spatial Isolation – Fertilization could not occur due to
geographical location. Though they are of the same species, they
separated for a while then they reproduce and turn after other kinds of
reproduction so later on they no longer interact.
ii. Temporal Isolation – Mating or breeding season. Cannot breed due to
one being fertile on a month that is not the same as the other.
iii. Behavioral Isolation – Situations when you are not attracted, especially in
mate-calling.
iv. Mechanical Isolation - How will an Aguila and Maya mate? Their genitals
differ. The Philippine bird is huge and the Maya isn’t as big.
 v. Gametic Isolation - the gametes (egg and sperm) come into contact, but
no fertilization takes place.
2. Post-Zygotic
a. Barriers (Prevention of viable offspring): include the creation of hybrid individuals
that do not survive past the embryonic stages (hybrid unviability) or the creation
of a hybrid that is sterile and unable to produce offspring (hybrid sterility)
i. Reduced Viability – Hybrid Breakdown. E.g. A mule is infertile (Offspring of
a Horse 2n = 64 > n = 32 and Donkey 2n = 62 > n = 31) because the Mule
could not hati the 2n = 63 > n=n/a diploids and all. Can mate but not
viable
ii. Chromosome incompatibilities
Geological Time Scale
Epoch
DATING
A.Relative Dating

 Means placing rocks in their proper sequence of

formation. It cannot tell us how long ago something took
place, only that it followed one event and preceded
another.
 Nicolas Steno – Danish Geologist, …
Principles:
 Law of Superposition – The ones below are older
than the ones on top. *There’s another definition*
 Law of Original Horizontally – Layers of sediment
are generally deposited in a horizontal position
Thus, if we observe rock layers that are flat, it
means they have not been disturbed. “Change
as folding”, the ground is folded. The folding and
tilting of rock layers are vents that are YOUNGER
than rock layers they effect. Tilting
 Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationship – Whe a
fault cut through other rocks or when magma
intrudes and crystallizes, we can assume that the
fault or intrusion is younger than the rocks
affected. Ee.g. C, B, A, D is last for it was cut
something thimg. A fault is younger than the rock
layers…
 Inclusions – are pieces of one rock unit that are
contained within another layer. The ayer
containing the inclusion is the younger layer.
  Unconformities – Conformable layers (not
intruded) that have deposited without
deprivation.
 Angular Unconformity – striahgt siya pero
na tilt na onti
 Disconformity -
 Non- Conformity – interruption from a
tectonic movement when it tilts or is not
parallel with others

Absolute Dating

- E.g. Petrified Good, Ptrilofide, Mole and Cast, Fossil Bee pereserved in a
thing carbon bin, Amber, Fossil Dung
- What exactly the age of the fossil is asides from s=just checking fossils in
rocks or layers
- Concept of Half lives – The time required for one half to decay chuchu.
- Isotopes of Carbon