CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

(Brown, et al)

Prepared by: Dr. Rowena P. Calasara

Professor

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

Module Rationale:
This module intends to introduce chemistry in order to familiarize the students with the course matter.
The appreciation of the study of chemistry will be discussed in conjunction with the phases of matter
(e.g. solid, liquid, and gas). The applications of chemistry in daily lives will be addressed through the
following problems and exercises within the module content.

Module Outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should be able to:
• Explain the usefulness of the macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic perspectives in
understanding chemical systems.
• Draw pictures to illustrate simple chemical phenomena (like the differences among solids,
liquids, and gases) on the molecular scale.
• Explain the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning in your own words.
• Use appropriate ratios to convert measurements from one unit to another.
• Express the results of calculations using the correct number of significant figures.

Module Content

The Study of Chemistry

Chemistry has been called the central science because it is important to so many other fields of
scientific study. The study of chemistry involves three levels of understanding, or three perspectives.
• Macroscopic
• Microscopic
• Symbolic

The Macroscopic Perspective

Matter is anything that has mass and can be observed.Matter is observed through two types of changes.
• Physical changes
• Chemical changes
Physical properties are variables of matter that we can measure without changing the identity of the
substance being observed. Example, Aluminum metal is a highly malleable metal; it can withstand
large amounts of stress before it breaks or crumbles.The density of an object is a ratio of its mass to its
volume. This is sometimes called as mass density. To determine density mass and volume must be
measured or determined. Other physical properties include: mass, color, viscosity, hardness, and
temperature.

Chemical properties are determined only by observing how a substance changes its identity in
chemical reactions. Burning in oxygen is a chemical reaction called combustion. The commonly
observed chemical changes are corrosion which is the degradation of metals in the presence of air and
moisture, pure aluminum metal reacts with acid, such as in soft drinks, to form an aluminum salt and
hydrogen gas.Both physical and chemical properties of aluminum are important to its utility. A
structural material is useful only if it can be formed into desired shapes, which requires it to be
malleable. Malleability is a measure of material’s ability to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets. It is
a physical property because the substance remains intact. Example, aluminum can be formed during its
manufacturing process, but be changed. Aluminum is generally found second behind gold, in rankings
of metal malleability.

There are three phases of matter

1. Solids are hard and do not change their shapes easily at ordinary temperatures.
2. Liquids assume the shape of the portion of the container they fill.
3. Gases expand to occupy the entire volume of their containers.
Matter is composed of unimaginably small particles called atoms that retain the chemical identity of
the element they represent.An element is composed of atoms with identical physical and chemical
properties.Molecules are groups of atoms held together by attractive forces whose properties are
distinguishable from those of the individual elements.

Solid: particles maintain a regular ordered structure; maintains size and shape
Liquid: particles remain close but no longer ordered; takes shape of container
Gas: particles are widely separated and move independently of one another; fills available volume of
container
During a physical change, chemical composition does not change.Heating liquid water to make
gaseous water (steam)

During a chemical change, a chemical reaction occurs that changes the chemical composition of the
matter involved. Using electricity to convert water into oxygen and hydrogen molecules

ExampleProblem 1.1
A candle suspended above boiling water could be used to test a hypothesis about the chemical
composition of the bubbles that rise from boiling water. What would be observed if the bubbles were
composed of?
1. water
2. hydrogen
3. oxygen

The Symbolic Representation

Element abbreviations are used to represent:

a) pure aluminum, Al
b) aluminum oxide, Al2O3
 • Particulate level representation for b. Particulate level representation for pure
aluminum oxide, Al2O3, in bauxite. aluminum, Al.

The Science of Chemistry: Observations and Models

Chemistry is an empirical science and is studied by measuring physical properties and observing
chemical reactions.Models are created to explain observations and organize collected
data.Observations are recorded via measurements.Accuracy –indicates how close the observed value is
to the “true” value. Precision - the spread in values obtained from measurements; the reproducibility of
values.

Characteristics of Error
1. Random error –may make a measurement maybe too high or too low and is associated with the
limitations of the equipment with which the measurement is made.
2. Systematic error – makes measurements consistently either too high or too low.

Observations are recorded via measurements:

• Accuracy –indicates how close the observed value is to the “true” value
• Precision - the spread in values obtained from measurements; it is the reproducibility of values

Measurements can have poor precision and poor accuracy. Darts are scattered evenly across the board.

Measurements can have good precision and poor accuracy.Darts are clustered together, but darts are
clustered far from the bulls-eye
Measurements can have good precision and good accuracy.Darts are clustered togetherand darts are clustered
close to or on the bulls-eye

Measurements contain two types of errors

a) Random Error - may make a measurement randomly too high or too low (e.g., variation associated
with equipment limitations)
b) Systematic Error - may make a measurement consistently too high or too low (e.g., the presence of
an impurity)
Not all experiments provide direct information about the questions. In many cases, they infer the
answers from the data that are obtained. There are two types of reasoning which are used to interpret
collected data and observations.
• Inductive reasoning begins with a series of specific observations and attempts to generalize to a
larger, more universal conclusion.
• Deductive reasoning takes two or more statements or assertions and combines them so that a
clear and irrefutable conclusion can be drawn.

To organize vast amount of information, scientists create models and theories to make sense of a range
of observation. Models refer to a largely empirical description, such as gas pressure is proportional to
temperature.Theories are explanations grounded in some more fundamental principle or assumption
about the behavior of a system.The relationship between gas pressure and temperature are explained
using kinetic energy. Models are important for a number of reasons.
• They allow us to summarize a large number of observations concisely.
• They allow us to predict behavior in circumstances that we haven’t previously encountered.
• They represent examples of creative thinking and problem solving
• Constructing and refining models can lead to an ultimately more fundamental understanding of a
problem.

The process of proposing the explanation and testing the implications of those proposals leads to a
theory that explains some facet of nature. Models and theories are dynamic, evolving as the new
information is obtained.
Laws are sufficiently refined, well tested, and widely accepted theories.
Chemists quantify data, expressing collected data with units and significant figures.
Units - designate the type of quantity measured
a) Prefixes - provide scale to a base unit
b) Significant Figures - indicate the amount of information that is reliable when discussing a
measurement
Table 1.1

Base quantities of the SI system of Units

Property Unit, with abbreviation
Mass kilogram, kg
Distance meter, m
Temperature kelvin, K
Light intensity candela, cd
Time seconds, s
Electric current ampere, A
Number of particles mole, m

• The base unit designates the type of quantity being measured.

• SI units (from French Système International d’Unités) are the base units of science.
• Some units comprise combinations of these base units and are termed derived units
1 J = 1 kg m2 s-2

Prefixes are used with base units to report and understand quantities of any size.
Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol
1024 yotta Y 10-1 deci d
1021 zetta Z 10-2 centi c
1018 exa E 10-3 milli m
1015 peta P 10-6 micro 𝜇
1012 tera T 10-9 nano n
109 giga G 10-12 pico p
 106 mega M 10-15 femto f
103 Kilo k 10-18 atto a
103 hecto h 10-21 zipto z
101 Deca da 10-24 yocto y

Prefixes are based on multiples of 10.

Temperature is measured using the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin (absolute) temperature scales.

Temperature Scale Conversions

0
F = (1.8 x 0 C) + 32
0 (𝐹−32)
C= 1.8
0
K = C + 273.15
0
C =K – 273.15

Scientific notation is used to easily write very small and very large numbers.
Factor out powers of ten
54,000 = 5.4 x 104
0.000042 = 4.2 x 10-5
Significant figures are used to indicate the amount of information that is reliable in discussing a
measurement.

A. All digits reported are considered significant except for certain types of zeros.
a. When a zero establishes the decimal place, it is not significant.
• 51,300 m (3 significant figures)
• 0.043 g (2 significant figures)
b. A zero is significant when it follows a decimal point or when it occurs between other
significant figures.
 • 4.30 mL (3 significant figures)
• 304.2 kg (4 significant figures)
c. All numbers are significant when written in correct scientific notation.

B. All digits reported are considered significant except for certain types of zeros.
a. When a zero establishes the decimal place, it is not significant.
• 51,300 m (3 significant figures) ----------- 5.31 x 103
• (2 significant figures) ------------ 4.3 x 10-2
C. A zero is significant when it follows a decimal point or when it occurs between other
significant figures.
• 4.30 mL (3 significant figures)
• 304.2 kg (4 significant figures)

D. All numbers are significant when written in correct scientific notation.

Example Problem 1.2

An alloy contains 2.05% of some impurity. How many significant figures are reported in this value?

Answer. 3 significantfigures

For calculated values, the number of significant figures should be consistent with the data used in the
calculation.
1. For multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in a result must be the same
as the number of significant figures in the factor with the fewest significant figures.
0.24 kg x 4621 m = 1100 kg m = 1.1 x 102 kg m
2. For addition and subtraction, the number of significant figures is determined from the position
of the first uncertain digit.
4.882 m
+ 0.3 m
5.2 m

Example Problem 1.3

Report the result for the indicated arithmetic operations using the correct number of significant figures.
Assume all values are measurements and not exact numbers.
a. 4.30 × 0.31 b. 4.033 + 88.1 c. 5.6/(1.732 × 104)
When counting discrete objects, the result has no ambiguity. Such measurements use exact numbers. They
have infinite significant figures.

Two pennies would be 2.000000…

Exactly defined terms, such as metric prefixes, are also considered exact numbers.
There are several categories of problems:
a) Calculations involving ratios
b) Conceptual understanding of particulate level
c) Visualization of phenomena on different levels

Ratios represent the relationship between two quantities and can be expressed two ways.
$ 4.45
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = = $ 0.89 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
5.0 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠
5.0 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠
= 1.1 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟
$ 4.45

Example Problem 1.4

Suppose that your supermarket is offering 20-count shrimp for $5.99 per pound. How much should
you expect to pay for one dozen shrimp?

Solution:
$ 5.99
𝑥 12 𝑠ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑠 = $ 3.59
20 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑠

Example Problem 1.5

What is the wavelength, in meters, of orange light of wavelength 615 nm?

Solution:
1𝑚
615 𝑛𝑚𝑥 = 6.15 𝑥10−7 𝑚
109 𝑛𝑚

Ratios in Chemistry Calculations

Mass Density - ratio of an object’s mass to its volume.

• Temperature- and compound-specific

• Allows conversion between mass and volume.

Units of measurement can be used to determine how to write the appropriate ratio by “canceling” out;
called dimensional analysis or the factor-label method.

Example Problem 1.6

The density of water at 25ºC is 0.997 g per mL. A child’s swimming pool holds 346 L of water at this
temperature. What mass of water is in the pool?

Solution:
1000 𝑚𝐿 0.975 𝑔
346 𝐿𝑥 𝑥 = 3.37 𝑥105 𝑔
1𝐿 1 𝑚𝐿
 PROBLEMS:
1. Superconductors are materials that have no resistance to the flow of electricity, and they hold great
promise in many engineering applications. But to date, superconductivity has only been observed
under cryogenic conditions. The highest temperature at which superconductivity has been observed
is 138 K. Convert this temperature to both C and F.
2. Express (a) 275C in K, (b) 25.55 K in C, (c) –47.0C in F, and (d) 100.0F in K.
3. How many significant figures are there in each of the following?
(a) 0.136 m,(b) 0.0001050 g, (c) 2.700  10–3 nm,(d) 6  10–4 L,(e) 56003 cm3
4. Perform these calculations and express the result with the proper number of significant figures.
(a) (4.850 g – 2.34 g)/1.3 Ml (b) V = r3, where r = 4.112 cm
(c) (4.66  10–3)  4.666 (d) 0.003400/65.2
5. Carry out each of the following conversions:
(a) 25.5 m to km, (b) 36.3 km to m, (c) 487 kg to g,
(d) 1.32 L to mL, (e) 55.9 dL to L, (f ) 6251 L to cm3
6. If a vehicle is traveling 92 m/s what is its velocity in miles per hour?
7. Mercury has a density of 13.6 g/mL. What is the mass of 4.72 L of mercury?

8. The dimensions of aluminum foil in a box for sale in supermarkets are 66 2 yards by 12 inches. The
3
mass of the foil is 0.83 kg. If its density is 2.70 g/cm3, then what is the thickness of the foil in
inches?
9. Wire is often sold in pound spools according to the wire gauge number. That number refers to the
diameter of the wire. How many meters are in a 10-lb. spool of 12-gauge aluminum wire? A 12-
gauge wire has a diameter of 0.0808 in. and aluminum has a density of 2.70 g/cm3
10. A load of asphalt weighs 254 lb.and occupies a volume of 220.0 L. What is the density of this asphalt
in g/L?