X India Employment Report 2024

Youth employment, education and skills

X India Employment Report 2024
Youth employment, education and skills
 Dedicated to the Memory of

Ajit K. Ghose
(1947–2023)

who made significant contributions to labour market and

employment issues during his long tenure with both ILO and IHD.
X Copyright

© International Labour Organization 2024

First published 2024
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 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills i

X Foreword

The India Employment Report 2024 is the third in the series of regular publications by the Institute
for Human Development on labour and employment issues. Undertaken in partnership with the
International Labour Organization (ILO), this report examines the challenge of youth employment in
the context of the emerging economic, labour market, educational and skills scenarios in India and the
changes witnessed over the past two decades.
Drawing on the latest official data, the report highlights recent trends in the Indian labour market, which
indicate improvements in some outcomes along with persisting and new challenges, including those
generated by the COVID-19 pandemic. While the labour force participation rate, especially for women,
and the unemployment rate experienced some improvement post-2019, this needs to be interpreted
carefully due to an increase in agricultural employment in rural areas. A novel Employment Conditions
Index applied across the states of India reveals a positive trend over the last decades, though this was
negatively impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic.
India remains poised to take advantage of its demographic dividend, though the situation varies across
the country. Education levels have improved considerably and is a key determinant of accessing better
jobs. At the same time, educated youth have higher rates of unemployment, reflecting a mismatch with
their aspirations and available jobs. Beyond a narrow view of the unemployed, there is a large proportion
of youths, particularly young women, not in education, employment or training. Technological change
and digitalization are rapidly affecting the demand for skills, which will continue to impact young people
in the Indian labour market.
The report highlights five key policy areas for further action, which apply more generally and also
specifically for youth in India: 1) promoting job creation; 2) improving employment quality; 3) addressing
labour market inequalities; 4) strengthening skills and active labour market policies; and 5) bridging
the knowledge deficits on labour market patterns and youth employment. Given the importance of
these issues, we believe the report will serve as a timely and constructive input for policymakers, social
partners, civil society and other researchers over the coming years.

Alakh Sharma Michiko Miyamoto

Professor and Director Director
Institute for Human Development ILO Country Office for India and Decent Work
New Delhi Technical Support Team (DWT) for South Asia
New Delhi
ii X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Acknowledgement

The India Employment Report 2024 was prepared and produced under the joint auspices of the Centre for
Employment Studies of the Institute for Human Development (IHD) in New Delhi and the International
Labour Organization (ILO). An initial concept note for the report was discussed in 2022 with the ILO
Decent Work Technical Support Team for South Asia, the Country Office for India, the ILO Employment
Strategies for Inclusive Transformation Unit at ILO headquarters and the ILO Regional Economic and
Social Analysis Unit of the ILO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific in Bangkok. The report was initiated
with technical and financial support from the ILO. Dagmar Walter, Satoshi Sasaki, Sher Verick and Felix
Weidenkaff from ILO and Alakh N. Sharma from IHD supported and facilitated this collaboration.
The report was prepared by a team of IHD researchers in close collaboration with ILO experts. Alakh
N. Sharma and Ravi Srivastava of IHD and Sher Verick from ILO led, coordinated and edited the report.
The background chapters were prepared by Balwant Singh Mehta, Tanuka Endow, Diksha Tayal and
Shipra Nigam of IHD. Balwant Singh Mehta and Tanuka Endow also contributed in editing other chapters
along with the team leaders. Thanks are due to all of them. Additional appreciation is due to Siddharth
Dhote, whose excellent research assistance in statistical analysis, with overall supervision of Balwant
Singh Mehta, significantly contributed to the preparation of this report. Special thanks is also due to
G.C. Manna for validating the statistical analysis and reviewing draft chapters, with insightful comments
and suggestions.
The following persons participated in the inception workshop at IHD, provided valuable comments
and suggestions and immense gratitude is due to them: Arup Mitra (South Asian University), Bino Paul
(Tata Institute of Social Sciences), Jeemol Unni (Ahmedabad University), S.K. Sasikumar (formerly of
V.V. Giri National Labour Institute), Sunita Sanghi (formerly of the Ministry of Skill Development and
Entrepreneurship), Vinoj Abraham (Centre for Development Studies), Christian Viegelahn (ILO), I.C.
Awasthi (IHD), Sarthi Acharya (IHD), the late Ajit K. Ghose (IHD) and Gerry Rodgers (IHD).
The first draft of the report was discussed in a workshop during the 63rd Conference of the Indian
Society of Labour Economics, at Rajiv Gandhi University in Arunachal Pradesh (28 February 2023). The
major findings were also presented during the 22nd Indian Association of Social Science Institutions
Conference at the Centre for Economic and Social Studies in Hyderabad (November 2023). Grateful
appreciation is due to all the participants for their constructive comments and suggestions.
The findings of the revised draft report were presented to the Ministry of Labour and Employment, which
included Ramesh Krishnamurti, Additional Secretary, Amit Nirmal, Deputy Director General, Employment,
and Shikha Anand, Director, Employment. Their positive feedback is gratefully acknowledged.
Ajit K. Ghose (who recently passed away), Gerry Rodgers and Felix Weidenkaff provided comprehensive
reviews of the draft chapters and their insightful comments tremendously contributed to the overall
improvement of the document. Sher Verick and Felix Weidenkaff also considerably helped in coordinating
the preparation from the ILO. Special thanks goes to Karen Emmons for her exceptional editing skills,
eliminating errors and enhancing the readability of the report.
Finally many thanks go to Ruchira Chandra (ILO) and to the IHD staff, particularly Priyanka Tyagi, Jyoti
Girish and Rekha Aswal, who helped with the entire process of preparing the report, from inception to
its final production.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills iii

X India Employment Report 2024 team

Team leaders and editors

Ravi Srivastava
Alakh N. Sharma
Sher Verick
Principal contributors
Ravi Srivastava
Alakh N. Sharma
Balwant Singh Mehta
G. C. Manna
Tanuka Endow
Siddharth Dhote
Background paper writers
Balwant Singh Mehta
Tanuka Endow
Deeksha Tayal
Shipra Nigam
Siddharth Dhote
Data processing team
Balwant Singh Mehta (overall in-charge)
Siddharth Dhote
Vikas Dubey
Arjun Dubey
Advisers and reviewers
The late Ajit K. Ghose
Gerry Rodgers
Sher Verick
Felix Weidenkaff
iv X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Abbreviations

CSO Central Statistical Organization

CWS current weekly status

GVA gross value added

ICT information and communication technology

ILO International Labour Organization

LFPR labour force participation rate

NCO national classification of occupations

NEET not in employment, education or training

NSSO National Sample Survey Organisation

TVET technical and vocational education and training

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

UPSS usual principal and subsidiary status

 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills v

X Glossary

Aatmanirbhar Skilled It is a directory of skilled workers serving as a platform for matching

Employees Employer the supply of skilled workers with the market demand for them.
Mapping Portal

Active labour market These are publicly financed interventions intended to improve the
policies (ALMPs) functioning of the labour market by inducing changes in labour
demand and labour supply as well as their matching process.

Activity status It is the activity situation in which a person is found during the
reference period. According to this, a person could be in one or
a combination of the three broad activity statuses during the
reference period: (a) working or being engaged in economic activity
(work); (b) being not engaged in economic activity (work) but either
making tangible efforts to seek work or being available for work if
work is available; and (c) being not engaged in economic activity
(work) and also not available for work.

Apprenticeship It is a skills training programme wherein a person is engaged by a

company as an apprentice and gains classroom (theory) learning for
a short period, followed by on-the-job (practical) training.

Casual employment All workers who do not have any tenure and are mostly employed on
a daily wage basis are casual workers.

Deen Dayal Upadhyaya DDU-GKY is a demand-driven placement-linked skills training

Grameen Kaushalya Yojana initiative launched by the Ministry of Rural Development in 2014. It is
(DDU-GKY) part of the National Rural Livelihoods Mission, offering placements
to rural youths aged 15–35 from poor households.

Economic activity Any activity resulting in the production of goods and services that
adds value to the national product is considered an economic
activity for the Employment and Unemployment Surveys and
Periodic Labour Force Survey conducted by NSO.

Employment by current All persons who have performed any economic activity at least for
weekly status (CWS) one hour on any day of a reference week of the preceding seven
days of the survey are included under CWS employment.

Employment by usual Usual principal status refers to the activity in which a worker was
principal status (UPS) engaged most of the time during a reference period of the 365 days
preceding the date of a survey. All persons engaged in a principal
activity for most of the period are covered under UPS employment.

Employment by usual Subsidiary status workers are persons who are engaged in an
principal and subsidiary economic activity for a shorter duration in a reference period.
status (UPSS) All persons engaged in a principal activity (UPS) and a subsidiary
activity are included in UPSS employment.
vi X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Employment elasticity Employment elasticity with respect to GDP during a period is the
ratio of the average annual growth of employment to the average
annual growth of GDP during that period.

Employment status Employment status is classified into three categories:

self-employment, regular employment and casual employment.

Formal workers (or formal Formal workers consist of persons working in the unorganized,
employment) or informal, sector who are regular workers with social security
benefits provided by their employer and the workers in the formal
sector with any employment and social security benefits provided by
their employer.

Gross value added (GVA) GVA is the value of all goods and services produced by an industry,
sector, manufacturer, area or region in an economy.

Informal workers (or Informal workers consist of persons working in the unorganized,
informal employment) or informal, sector enterprises or households, excluding regular
workers with social security benefits provided by their employer and
the workers in the formal sector without any employment and social
security benefits provided by their employer.

Jan Shikshan Sansthan It is a scheme of the National Literacy Mission that was set up by the
Government of India that provides vocational skills to non-literate,
neo-literates as well as school drop-outs by identifying skills that
have a market in the region of their establishment.

Labour force Labour force constitutes all persons who are working, seeking work
or are unemployed or available for work.

Labour force participation The LFPR is the proportion of the country’s population actively
rate (LFPR) engaged in the labour market either by working or seeking work. It
is an indication of the total supply of labour.

Lakh It is equal to 100,000.

Monthly per capita MPCE is the household consumer expenditure over a period of 30
consumption expenditure days divided by the household size.
(MPCE)

National classification of NCO is the categorization of individual occupations on the kind of

occupations (NCO) work and skill level involved in that particular occupation.

National Employment NES operates in India through a network of employment exchanges.

Service (NES) Its primary objective is employment for jobseekers, either through
regular jobs or through self-employment.

National Industry NIC is a statistical standard for developing and maintaining a

Classification (NIC) comparable database according to economic activities. Such
classifications are frequently used in classifying the economically
active population, statistics of industrial production and distribution,
the different fields of labour statistics and other economic data, such
as national income.

Organized or formal sector The organized, or formal, sector consists of the government and
public departments and public and private enterprises plus the
private enterprises that employ ten or more workers.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills vii

Own-account workers They are self-employed persons who operate their enterprises on
their own account or with one or a few partners and who during
a reference period of a survey, by and large, run their enterprise
without hiring any labour. They may, however, have unpaid helpers
to assist them in the activity of the enterprise.

Pradhan Mantri Kaushal PMKVY was launched in 2015 to encourage and promote skill
Vikas Yojana (PMKVVY) development in the country by providing free short- duration skills
training and incentivizing this by providing monetary rewards to
youths for skill certification. The overall idea is to boost industry as
well as the employability of youths.

Pradhan Mantri Mudra The PMMY is a scheme launched in 2015 for providing loans of up
Yojana (PMMY) to 1,000,000 rupees to non-corporate, non-farm micro and small
enterprises.

Prime Minister’s PMEGP aims at generating self-employment opportunities for

Employment Guarantee unemployed youths in both rural and urban areas. It is a major
Programme (PMEGP) credit-linked subsidy programme to facilitate youths in establishing
a microenterprise in the non-farm sector.

Regular employment It refers to all wage or salaried workers who are on relatively longer
tenure of works and who are usually paid wages or a salary on a
weekly or monthly basis.

Rozgar Mela The Rozgar Mela is a half-day event organized by the National Skill
Development Corporation with the help of the Sector Skill Councils
and the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Kendras and brings together
employers from high-growth sectors and jobseekers in an area or
state for fast-tracking applications and recruitment.

Self-employment All persons who are own-account workers, working employers,

unpaid family workers and home-based workers are included under
self-employment.

Skill India Mission It is a Government of India-recognized autonomous body that

provides skills training to the country's youth and creates a skilled
workforce.

Technical and vocational TVET refers to aspects of the educational process involving, in
education and training addition to general education, the study of technologies and
(TVET) related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes,
understanding and knowledge relating to occupants in various
sectors of economic and social life.

Unemployment rate The unemployment rate is the proportion of the labour force that
does not have employment and is seeking and/or available for work.

Unorganized or informal Enterprises that employ fewer than ten workers and are not
sector government or public and public or private limited are in the
unorganized, or informal, sector. These enterprises can belong to
any of the following five categories: (a) proprietary; (b) partnership;
(c) cooperative societies, trusts or other non- profit organizations;
(d) employer’s households (private households employing maids,
watchmen, cooks, etc.); and (e) others.

Worker population ratio WPR is the proportion of the labour force engaged in work.
(WPR)
viii X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Contents

X Forewordi

X Acknowledgementsii

X India Employment Report 2024 team iii

X Abbreviationsiv

X Glossaryv

X Contentsviii

X List of figures xi

X List of tables xv

X List of boxes xix

X Executive summary xx

X 1. Introduction 1

1.1 Context 1
1.2 Sustained and high economic growth 2
1.3 Indian labour market 3
1.4 Employment challenges 4
1.5 Challenge of youth employment 5
1.6 Data sources 7
1.7 Report structure 8

X 2. Trends, emerging characteristics and current challenges in India’s labour market 11

2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Labour force, employment, unemployment and underemployment 12
2.3 Growth of employment and output 19
2.4 Employment quality and conditions 21
2.5 Segmentation and inequality in the labour market 31
2.6 Migration due to employment-related reasons 36
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills ix

2.7 Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on employment 38

2.8 Implications of technological advancement and digitalization on employment  43
2.9 Employment condition index 47
2.10 Summing up  50

X 3. Growth and employment 53

3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Relationship between gross value added and employment growth 55
3.3 Growth, productivity and employment relationship 56
3.4 Sectoral gross value added and employment growth relationship  58
3.5 Sectoral growth, productivity and employment relationship 60
3.6. Important employment-generating sectors 65
3.7 Employment structure index 69
3.8 Summing up 71

X 4. Youth employment  75

4.1 Introduction 75
4.2 Demographic structure  76
4.3 Youth participation in the labour market 77
4.4 Quality and conditions of youth employment 81
4.5 Youth unemployment and underemployment 88
4.6 Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on youth employment 92
4.7 Impact of technological changes and digitalization  95
4.8 Regional analysis: Youth population and employment situation  100
4.9 Summing up 103

X 5. Education and links with employment 107

5.1 Introduction 107

5.2 Changing profile of education and skills among the youth 108
5.3 Returns to education among the youth 125
5.4 Education, training and employment 127
5.5 Education and type of employment 134
5.6 Education, employment and job search among youths in low-income localities:
Findings from a 2020 survey  141
5.7 Has the mismatch between education level and jobs for highly educated youths
increased over time? 147
5.8 Summing up  152
x X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X 6. Skills and active labour market policies 157

6.1 Introduction 157

6.2 Current context of skills development in India 159
6.3 Evolution of skills training and development 161
6.4 Challenges to skills development 172
6.5 Entrepreneurship development and employment-generation programmes 176
6.6 Job search assistance programmes 178
6.7 Summing up  180

X 7. The future of jobs for youths and pointers for the way ahead  183

7.1 Major employment developments 184

7.2. Emerging policy agenda 189
7.3 Summing up  196

X 8. Postscript Highlights of the Periodic Labour Force Survey for 2023 199

8.1 Labour market indicators  200

8.2 Sector of employment 202
8.3 Quality of employment 204
8.4 Wages and earnings 207
8.5 Summing up 208

X References210

X Appendix: Additional statistical tables 224

Appendix Chapter 2 224

Appendix Chapter 3 256
Appendix Chapter 4 263
Appendix Chapter 5 288

X About the Report Team 304

 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills xi

X List of figures

X Figure 2.1. Labour force participation rate, worker population ratio and unemployment rate
(UPSS) among persons aged 15+ (rural and urban combined), 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%) 13

X Figure 2.2. Size of labour force, workforce and unemployed workers (UPSS), by persons aged
15+ (rural and urban combined), 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (millions) 14

X Figure 2.3. Labour force participation rate (UPSS, aged 15+), by gender and location, 2000,
2012, 2019 and 2022 (%) 16

X Figure 2.4. Proportion of workers in subsidiary status, by gender (aged 15+), 2000, 2012, 2019
and 2022 (%) 17

X Figure 2.5. Underemployment and labour utilization among all persons aged 15+, by gender,
2012, 2019 and 2022 (%) 18

X Figure 2.6. Structure of economy (GVA at constant 2012 prices) and employment (UPSS, aged
15+), 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%) 21

X Figure 2.7. Share of employment (UPSS, aged 15+), by work status, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022
(%)23

X Figure 2.8. Average monthly earnings of regular, casual and self-employed workers, 2012,
2019 and 2022 (rupees, at 2012 prices) 27

X Figure 2.9. Employment and other characteristics (UPSS, aged 15+),

by social group, 2022 (%) 32

X Figure 2.10. Employment (UPSS, aged 15+) characteristics, by income class (monthly per capita
expenditure quintiles), 2022 (%) 33

X Figure 2.11. Employment (UPSS, aged 15+) characteristics, by gender, 2022 (%) 34

X Figure 2.12. Employment (UPSS, aged 15+) characteristics, by geographical region, 2022 (%) 35

X Figure 2.13. Migration rate in India, by gender, 2000, 2008 and 2021 (%) 36

X Figure 2.14. Quarterly key labour market indicators (CWS, aged 15+), 2019Q3 (July-September)
to 2022Q2 (April–June) (%) 39
xii X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Figure 2.15. Occupation-based skill structure of employment (UPSS, aged 15+), 2000, 2012,
2019 and 2022 (%) 44

X Figure 2.16. Skill level in manufacturing sector employment (UPSS, aged 15+), 2000, 2012, 2019
and 2022 (%) 45

X Figure 2.17. Overall employment condition index 48

X Figure 3.1. Growth of employment (UPSS) and gross value added, 2000–22 (%) 55

X Figure 3.2. Share of labour income, 1991–2020 (%) 57

X Figure 3.3. Estimates of the employment structure index, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 59

X Figure 4.1. Broad age group distribution of the population, 2011, 2021, 2031 and 2036 (%) 77

X Figure 4.2. Activity status (UPSS) of youth (aged 15–29) and adults (aged 30–59), by economic
and non-economic activities, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%) 78

X Figure 4.3. Labour force participation rate (UPSS) of youths and adults, by gender, 2000, 2012,
2019 and 2022 79

X Figure 4.4. Worker population ratio (UPSS) among youths and adults, by gender, 2022 (%) 80

X Figure 4.5. Status of employment (UPSS) of youths and adults, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)82

X Figure 4.6. Average monthly earnings and wages among youths and adults, 2022 (nominal
prices in rupees) 85

X Figure 4.7. Average monthly real earnings and wages among youths and adults, 2012, 2019
and 2022 (rupees, at 2012=100 constant prices) 86

X Figure 4.8. Industrial structure (UPSS) for youths and adults, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%) 87

X Figure 4.9. Unemployment rate (UPSS) among youths and adults, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 89

X Figure 4.10. Share of unemployed educated youths (secondary or higher) in total unemployed
persons (UPSS), 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%) 90

X Figure 4.11. Youth not in employment, education or training, by gender, 2000, 2012, 2019 and
2022 (%) 91

X Figure 4.12. Quarterly worker population ratio and unemployment rate for youth (urban),
2019Q4 (October–December) to 2022Q2 (April–June) 93
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills xiii

X Figure 4.13. Distribution of jobs by level of skill (UPSS) among youths, 2000, 2012, 2019 and
2022 (%) 96

X Figure 4.14. Distribution of jobs by level of skill (UPSS) in the manufacturing sector, 2000, 2012,
2019 and 2022 (%) 97

X Figure 5.1. Changing education profile of youths (aged 15–29), 2000–2022 109

X Figure 5.2. Share of youths (aged 15–29), by educational attainment and gender, 2000 and
2022 (% share of total) 110

X Figure 5.3. Share of youths (aged 15–29), by educational attainment and location, 2000 and
2022 (% share of total) 111

X Figure 5.4. Share of youth with a graduate degree across regions as ratio to national average,
2000 and 2022 112

X Figure 5.5. Education attainment among youths (aged 15–29), by social group, 2000 and 2022
(% share of total) 113

X Figure 5.6. Education attainment among youths (aged 15–29), by quintile, 2000 and 2022, (%
share of total) 113

X Figure 5.7. Distribution of the top 100 universities in India, by region 114

X Figure 5.8. Technical degree or diploma among youths, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (% share of
total)115

X Figure 5.9. Technical qualification holders as a percentage of youths with post-secondary

education, 2005 and 2022 116

X Figure 5.10. Computer skills among the youth population (aged 15–29), by urban–rural gap
and gender gap, 2021 (%) 123

X Figure 5.11. Workforce participation rate for non-student youths, by level of general educa-
tion (UPSS), 2000 and 2022 (%) 127

X Figure 5.12. U-shaped curve of the workforce participation rate for non-student youths, by
level of general education, 2022 (%) 128

X Figure 5.13. Worker population ratio for non-student youths, by level of technical education
and vocational training (UPSS), 2005 and 2022 (%) 129

X Figure 5.14. Unemployment rate for youths, by level of general education (UPSS), 2000 and
2022 (%) 130
xiv X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Figure 5.15. Unemployment rate for youths, by level of technical education and vocational
training (UPSS), 2005 and 2022 (%) 131

X Figure 5.16. Youth unemployment rate, by monthly per capita expenditure quintile and level
of education, 2022 (%) 133

X Figure 5.17. Youth unemployment rate, by social group and level of education, 2022 (%) 134

X Figure 5.18. Employment status of youths, by level of general education (UPSS), 2022 (%) 135

X Figure 5.19. Employment status of youths, by level of technical education (UPSS), 2022 (%) 136

X Figure 5.20. Formal employment status of youths, by level of general education (UPSS), 2000
and 2022 (%) 138

X Figure 5.21. Formal and informal employment status of youths, by level of technical educa-
tion (UPSS), 2000 and 2022 (%) 139

X Figure 5.22. Industrial distribution of youth workers, by level of general education (UPSS),
2022 (%) 140

X Figure 5.23. Industrial distribution of youth workers, by level of technical education (UPSS),
2022 (%) 141
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills xv

X List of tables

X Table 2.1. Compound growth rate of the population, labour force, workforce and employment
across major sectors (%) 20

X Table 2.2. Status of employment (UPSS, aged 15+), 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%) 26

X Table 2.3. Average monthly earnings of self-employed,* regular salaried and casual workers,
by location and gender, 2022 (rupees, nominal value) 26

X Table 2.4. Distribution of regular workers, by monthly wages (rupees, at 2012 prices), 2012,
2019 and 2022 (%) 28

X Table 2.5. Distribution of casual workers, by monthly wages (rupees, at 2012 prices), 2012,
2019 and 2022 (%) 28

X Table 2.6. Average monthly wages of regular workers, by wage quintiles, 2012, 2019 and 2022
(rupees, at 2012 prices) 29

X Table 2.7. Average monthly wages of casual workers, by wage quintiles, 2012, 2019 and 2022
(rupees, at 2012 prices) 29

X Table 2.8. Percentage of workers not receiving average daily minimum wage, 2022 (major
states)30

X Table 2.9. Change in the proportion of poor persons across household status of employment,
2012 and 2022 (%) 31

X Table 2.10. Proportion of migrants who migrated for employment-related reasons and overall
migration rate, by major states and union territories, 2021 (%) 37

X Table 2.11. Changes in status of employment (UPSS, aged 15+), pre- and post-pandemic,
2019–22 (millions) 40

X Table 2.12. Annual growth rate of real monthly wages and earnings (rupees), 2018–22 (%) 41

X Table 2.13. Changes in sectoral employment (UPSS, aged 15+), pre- and post-pandemic,
2019–22 (millions) 42

X Table 2.14. Skill level in services sector employment (UPSS, aged 15+), 2000–22 (%) 45
xvi X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 2.15. Employment condition index, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022 49

X Table 3.1. Decomposition of growth in per capita value added, 2019–22 56

X Table 3.2. Compound annual growth rate in economywide labour productivitya and capital
intensity,b 2000–12, 2012–19 and 2000–19 57

X Table 3.3. Growth of employment and gross value added, by broad economic sectors,
2000–22 (%) 59

X Table 3.4. Sector productivity, 2000–22 (thousands, 2012 prices) 60

X Table 3.5. Percentage organized manufacturing GVA to total GVA, and employment to total
employment62

X Table 3.6. Growth in manufacturing, 2008-2019 62

X Table 3.7. Growth of value added, employment and employment elasticities in services,
2000–19 (%) 64

X Table 3.8. Growth of labour productivity, capital intensity, value added and employment
status in select services, 2000–19 (%) 65

X Table 3.9. Important employment-generating sectors in construction, 2000–19 (%) 66

X Table 3.10. Important employment-generating sectors in manufacturing, 2000–19 66

X Table 3.11. Important employment-generating sectors in organized manufacturing, 2009,

201967

X Table 3.12. Important employment-generating sectors in services, 2009–19 68

X Table 3.13. Distribution of employment structure, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (% and number)71

X Table 4.1. Employment quality and conditions (UPSS) among youths and adults, 2000, 2012,
2019 and 2022 (%) 84

X Table 4.2. Changes in employment by activity status (UPSS) for youths pre- and post-
COVID-19 pandemic, 2019-22 (millions) 94

X Table 4.3. Changes in sectoral youth employment (UPSS), pre- and post-COVID-19 pandemic
2019–22 (millions) 95
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills xvii

X Table 4.4. Distribution of jobs, by level of skill (UPSS) in the services sector for youth, 2000,
2012, 2019 and 2022 (%) 98

X Table 4.5. Projected youth population (aged 15–29) and their share in total population, by
state, 2021, 2031 and 2036 (%) 101

X Table 4.6. Regional differences in youth employment, 2022 (%) 102

X Table 5.1. Share of youths (aged 15–29) with a technical education, by gender and location,
2005 and 2022 (% of total) 116

X Table 5.2. Share of youths (aged 15–29) with a technical degree, diploma or certificate, by
social groups, 2005 and 2022 (% of total) 117

X Table 5.3. Share of youths (aged 15–29) with a technical degree, diploma or certificate, by
region, 2005 and 2022 (% of total) 117

X Table 5.4. Share of youths (aged 15–29) with technical degree or technical diploma or certifi-
cate, by monthly per capita expenditure quintile, 2005 and 2022 (% of total) 117

X Table 5.5. Share of youths (aged 15–29) accessing vocational training,

2005, 2012,2019,2022 (% share of total) 118

X Table 5.6. Vocationally trained youths (aged 15–29), by gender and location,
2005 and 2022 (%) 119

X Table 5.7. Vocational training among youths (aged 15–29), by social group,
2005 and 2022 (%) 119

X Table 5.8. Vocational training among youths (aged 15–29 years), by region,
2005 and 2022 (%) 120

X Table 5.9. Vocational training for youths (aged15–29), by general education levels, 2005 and
2022 (% of youths) 120

X Table 5.10. Proportion of vocationally trained youths, by household monthly per capita
expenditure and quintile, 2005 and 2022 (%) 121

X Table 5.11. Proportion of youths (aged 15–29) who used internet during the 30 days prior to
the survey interview, by location, gender and social group (% of total) 122

X Table 5.12. ICT skills of the youth population (aged 15–29), by monthly per capita expenditure
quintile, 2021 (%) 124

X Table 5.13. ICT skills of youths (aged 15–29), by region, 2021 (%) 124
xviii X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 5.14. Activity status during the year prior to the survey (primary economic activity), in
Delhi and Ranchi, 2020 (%) 143

X Table 5.15. Type of employment aspiration among surveyed students after completion of
their education, 2020 (%) 144

X Table 5.16. Reasons for choice of employment, 2020 (%) 144

X Table 5.17. Reasons for surveyed respondents not being in the labour force, 2020 146

X Table 5.18. Definition of levels of skill and corresponding educational requirements 149

X Table 5.19. Distribution of youths with high educational qualification across skill and
occupation categories, 2005, 2019 and 2022 (%) 150

X Table 5.20. Distribution of youths (aged 15–29) with technical education, by skill
and occupation categories, 2005, 2019 and 2022 (%) 151
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills xix

X List of boxes

X Box 1 Too many educated youths rushing for few government jobs 6

X Box 2 Employment terminology used in the India Employment Report 2024 15

X Box 3 Definition of underemployment 19

X Box 4 Employment status definitions 22

X Box 5 Unorganized and organized sectors and informal and formal employment definitions25

X Box 6 Skill level based on occupation or task performed 43

X Box 7 Employment condition index methodology 47

X Box 8 Reserve Bank of India-KLEMS and the Annual Survey of Industries databases 54

X Box 9 Construction of the employment structure index 70

X Box 10 Welfare fund for gig workers 100

X Box 11 Quality concerns for education in India 114

X Box 12 Role of active labour market policies 159

X Box 13 National Youth Policy 2021 162

X Box 14 National Skill Development Mission 163

X Box 15 National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship 2015 165

X Box 16 Boosting industrial growth through Make in India 191

xx X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Executive summary

Background to the India Employment Report 2024

The India Employment Report 2024 is the third in the series of regular publications by the Institute for
Human Development on labour and employment issues. This report on Youth Employment, Education
and Skills examines the challenge of youth employment in the context of the emerging economic, labour
market, educational and skills scenario in India and changes over the past two decades. The report is
primarily based on analysis of data from the National Sample Surveys and the Periodic Labour Force
Surveys between 2000 and 2022, with a postscript for 2023. Other sources of data include the Annual
Survey of Industries, the National Account Statistics and the Reserve Bank of India-KLEMS database.

Employment trends and current scenario

The key labour market indicators in recent years reflect paradoxical improvements. The labour
force participation rate, the workforce participation rate and the unemployment rate showed long-term
deterioration between 2000 and 2019 but improvement thereafter. The improvement coincides with
periods of economic distress, both before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, with the exception of two
peak pandemic quarters.
The trend in overall labour market indicators is mirrored even more strongly by the female labour
market indicators. The female labour market participation rate, after declining significantly in the earlier
years, took to a faster upward trend as of 2019, particularly in rural areas.
In general, there have been improvements in employment conditions over the years. The
employment condition index prepared for this report and based on seven labour market outcome
indicators indicated that between 2005 and 2022, there was a slow but steady increase in values, indicating
improvement in employment conditions. But again, this trend was halted – and even reversed after
2019 – after onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Notwithstanding the modest improvements, employment
conditions remain poor.
The slow transition to non-farm employment has reversed. One of the most significant features of
the Indian labour market is a slow and steady transition of the workforce away from agriculture and into
the non-farm sectors. The share of manufacturing employment was stagnant, at around 12-14 per cent.
The increase in non-farm employment was absorbed by construction and services. After 2019, this slow
transition reversed due to the pandemic, with a rise in the share of agricultural employment as well as
an increase in the absolute size of the agricultural workforce.
Women largely account for the increase in self-employment and unpaid family work. Nearly two
thirds of the incremental employment after 2019 comprised self-employed workers, among whom
unpaid (women) family workers predominate. The share of regular work, which steadily increased after
2000, started declining after 2018.
Employment is dominated by poor-quality employment in the informal sector and informal
employment. Employment in India is predominantly self-employment and casual employment.
Nearly 82 per cent of the workforce engages in the informal sector, and nearly 90 per cent is informally
employed. Due to the nature of employment growth since 2019, the share of total employment, which is
in the informal sector and/or in informal employment, increased.
Wages and earnings are stagnant or declining. While wages of casual labourers maintained a modest
upward trend during 2012–22, real wages of regular workers either remained stagnant or declined. Self-
employed real earnings also declined after 2019. Overall, wages have remained low. As much as 62 per
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills xxi

cent of the unskilled casual agriculture workers and 70 per cent of such workers in the construction
sector at the all-India level did not receive the prescribed daily minimum wages in 2022.
The production process has increasingly become capital-intensive and labour-saving. Due to
increasing mechanization and capital use, the employment generation in India has become more and
more capital-intensive, with fewer workers employed between 2000 and 2019 than in the 1990s. The skill
intensity of employment in industry and services increased during this period, which was contrary to the
labour market needs of the country.
Digitalization and introduction of new technologies are changing the structure of industrial
employment. There has been a rapid introduction of digitally mediated gig and platform work, which
are algorithmically controlled by the platforms and have brought about new features in control of the
labour process. Increasingly, platform and gig work have been expanding, but it is, to a large extent, the
extension of informal work, with hardly any social security provisions.
Disparities are predominant in the labour markets across states and regions. There are large
variations between states in their employment outcomes, which are captured through the employment
condition index prepared for this report. The index showed that although there were improvements in all
states in labour market outcomes, albeit at different rates, there was little change in the position of states
at the bottom and at the top. Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh. Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh
had much poorer employment outcomes; they were at the bottom in 2005 and remained so in 2022. In
most of the labour market indicators, the variations across the states were significant, suggesting impact
of policies at the regional level.
The migration rate is likely to increase in future. The migration levels in India are not adequately
captured through official surveys. The rates of urbanization and migration are expected to considerably
increase in the future. India is expected to have a migration rate of around 40 per cent in 2030 and will
have an urban population of around 607 million. The bulk of this increase in urban growth will come from
migration. The pattern of migration also shows regional imbalance in the labour markets. The direction
of migration in general is from eastern, north-eastern and central regions to southern, western and
northern regions.

Growth and employment

Employment growth remained stagnant up to 2019 and then moved upward. Between 2000 and
2012, employment in India experienced an annual growth rate of 1.6 per cent, while gross value added
grew at a much faster rate, at 6.2 per cent. This pattern was intensified between 2012 and 2019, when
gross value added continued to grow at 6.7 per cent, but employment growth was nearly negligible,
at 0.01 per cent. After 2019 and due to the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a substantial increase in
employment, with agricultural employment growth even outpacing the growth in agriculture gross value
added.
The rise in labour productivity up to 2019 was accompanied by capital deepening. Labour
productivity consistently increased alongside capital deepening, indicating that economic growth was
increasingly associated with technological progress and productivity gains rather than employment.
Labour productivity was the primary driver of per capita gross value added growth during 2000–19. The
rise in capital intensity suggests that growth has been closely linked with technological advancements
that favour capital-intensive production.
Employment has shifted from low-productivity agriculture to relatively higher-productivity non-
agriculture sectors. During 2000–19, there was a shift in employment from low-productivity agriculture
to relatively higher-productivity non-agriculture sectors. However, this transition slowed and then
reversed between 2019 and 2022. Employment in the agriculture sector experienced negative growth
rate during 2000–19, accompanied by significant growth in the construction and service sectors. This
trend reversed with substantial growth in agriculture during 2019–22. This surge can be attributed to
xxii X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

individuals returning to subsistence activities in agriculture due to the lack of work opportunities outside
the agriculture sector that was exacerbated by the pandemic-related economic slowdown.
The construction sector maintains high employment elasticity. The construction sector stands out
for consistently demonstrating high employment elasticity throughout the post-liberalization (after
2000) period. Yet, most jobs generated in this sector are characterized by low wages and their informality.
Growth in manufacturing employment remains sluggish despite the robust gross value added
growth. Employment in manufacturing expanded by only 1.7 per cent, even though the gross value
added exhibited a high growth rate of 7.5 per cent per year during 2000–19. From 2019 to 2022,
employment and gross value added increased by 3 per cent and 3.5 per cent per year, respectively,
prompted by the partial post-pandemic recovery. The significance of the manufacturing sector becomes
evident when considering that most of the additional employment generated in the sector was regular
and self-employment types, with much higher earnings and productivity compared to construction,
agriculture and some services, like trade.
The service sector has been the primary driver of India’s growth since 2000. The remarkable
performance by certain modern services contributed to the creation of more productive and decent
employment. The services sector exhibited consistent growth during the periods of 2000–19 and 2019–22
in gross value added (7.5 per cent and 2 per cent, respectively) and employment (2.9 per cent and
nearly 1.1 per cent, respectively). Software, IT, IT-enabled services, business and financial services had
significant roles: They generated direct employment opportunities and stimulated job growth in other
sectors through multiplier effects. These services consistently generated highly paid, regular formal job
opportunities.
There has been slow and steady structural transformation, which reversed after 2019. An important
feature of the growth process was the slow transition of the workforce from agriculture to non-
agriculture between 2000 and 2019. The transfer of labour from agriculture has been to construction
and services; manufacturing remained stagnant, at 12–14 per cent. There has been a decline in the share
of agricultural employment but a much faster decrease in the share of gross value added. This process
of slow structural transformation reversed after 2019, with a substantial rise in agricultural employment.
This pattern of growth is rather unique for a lower-middle-income country like India.

Challenge of youth employment

India remains poised to reap a demographic dividend. A large proportion of the population is of
working age, and India is expected to be in the potential demographic dividend zone for at least another
decade. But the country is at an inflexion point because the youth population, at 27 per cent of the total
population in 2021, is expected to decline to 23 per cent by 2036. Each year, around 7–8 million youths
are added to the labour force whose productive utilization could lead to India reaping a demographic
dividend.
The education participation of youths and youths who are out of the labour force drive the low
youth labour force participation rate. Youth participation in the labour market has been much
lower than among adults and was on a long-term (2000–19) declining trend, primarily due to greater
participation in education. But the increase in unemployment between 2012 and 2019, is attributable
to a proportion of youths, mainly women, remaining out of the labor force. After 2019, the trajectory
reversed, with a rise in the youth labour force participation rate (LFPR) and the worker population ratio
and declining unemployment rates, particularly among rural women.
The activity status of youth reflects a preponderance of unpaid family work. Youths have greater
participation than adults in regular employment and comparatively lower participation in self-
employment. Among self-employed persons, the proportion of unpaid family workers is much larger
for youths than for adults.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills xxiii

Youth employment is, by and large, of poorer quality than employment for adults. Employed youths
have been much more likely to be in more vulnerable occupations (informal) or in the informal sector.
Youth wages and earnings have increased with age but are lower than what they are for adults for all
categories of employment. There has been only a marginal gap between youth earnings from wage
employment and self-employment, indicating poor conditions of work.
The structural features of youth employment indicate less presence in the agriculture sector,
although with an obvious gender gap. Youth have been relatively less engaged in agriculture and
more engaged in industry and services. As youth grow older and acquire higher levels of education, they
are more likely to engage in non-farm activities. Young women are more likely to engage in agriculture
than young men. In tertiary sector activities, such as trade, hotels and restaurants, public administration,
health and education and transport, storage and communication, there is a large gender gap in favour of
men. Between 2000 and 2019, youths shifted out of agriculture much more than adults, but the COVID-19
pandemic reversed the long-term trend of youth employment expansion into non-farm sectors.
Youth employment and underemployment increased between 2000 and 2019 but declined during
the pandemic years. Youth unemployment increased nearly threefold, from 5.7 per cent in 2000 to 17.5
per cent in 2019 but declined to 12.1 per cent in 2022. The incidence of unemployment was much higher
among young people in urban areas than in rural areas and among younger youths (aged 15–19) than
older youths (aged 20–29). Female unemployment rates were much higher than among men in 2019 but
fell to the same level by 2022.
Educated youths have experienced much higher levels of unemployment.1 The youth unemployment
rate has increased with the level of education, with the highest rates among those with a graduate
degree or higher and higher among women than men. In 2022, the unemployment rate among youths
was six times greater than among persons with a secondary or higher level of education (at 18.4 per
cent) and nine times greater among graduates (at 29.1 per cent) than for persons who cannot read and
write (at 3.4 per cent). Educated female youths experienced higher levels of unemployment compared
with educated male youths.
India has a large proportion of youths, particularly young women, not in education, employment
or training. One in three young people has had such status in India, which has been almost equal in rural
and urban areas and increased over the years after 2000. Young women are much more likely to not be
in employment, education or training than young men, and this was especially more pronounced among
older youths than younger ones. In fact, women not in employment, education or training amounted to
a proportion nearly five times larger than among their male counterparts (48.4 per cent versus 9.8 per
cent) and accounted for around 95 per cent of the total youth population not in employment, education
or training in 2022.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the youth labour market indicators worsened only during peak
periods. After the lockdowns, the youth labour market indicators recovered quite quickly. But this
movement was accompanied by additions to the labour force and workforce, primarily in poor-quality
work. The number of youths in self-employment expanded much more than in other categories of
employment during the pandemic, which was mostly in household unpaid work, especially among rural
women and considered the worst form of employment. Additionally, the number of young workers
engaged in regular salaried jobs declined during the pandemic period. The participation of young
people in employment expanded in subsistence agriculture and in the low-productive and low-wage
construction sectors during the pandemic, while it remained somewhat stable in the industrial and

1 The National Sample Survey Office’s annual Periodic Labour Force Survey categorizes general education attainment levels
in India into the following: “not literate, literate without formal schooling or below literate, primary, middle, secondary,
higher-secondary, diploma/certificate course, graduate, post-graduate and above”. Persons with a technical education are
also listed as having a technical degree in: agriculture, engineering/technology, medicine, crafts, other subjects; or having
a diploma or certificate in those streams, which is further categorized as “below graduate level” or “graduate and above
level”. “Graduate” throughout the report refers to university graduates (with a bachelor’s degree) or persons with an
equivalent recognized diploma or certificate.
xxiv X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

services sectors. This sectoral trend suggests an increase in largely informal, unpaid and low-paying
work, especially in farming and the construction sectors and among women.
Technological change and digitalization have rapidly affected the demand for skills and for certain
types of employment. The proportion of high- and medium-skill jobs is greater among youths than
among older people. Young people are also better represented in the gig and platform economy, where
jobs remain insecure and the labour process is tightly controlled through algorithmic management. In
services and, to a lesser extent, in manufacturing, youth are more likely to be in high- and medium-skill
jobs.
Regional trends and outcomes of youth employment vary across states. Because states are at
different stages of demographic transition, the potential demographic advantage also varies across
them, as do the employment outcomes. A synthetic indicator constructed for this report to capture
regional outcomes found that youths fare poorly in Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Odisha and West Bengal, many of which also otherwise have a high potential
demographic advantage. But most of the southern and western states, along with some of the northern
states, such as Himachal Pradesh and Delhi, show higher values of the composite index.

Education and youth employment

Improvements in educational attainment remain steady, although disparities persist. Education
attainment among the youth has improved significantly in the past two decades across all sections of
youth, indicating that youth are better equipped to deal with technological change and emerging labour
market opportunities. However, gaps persist and have grown for some social groups, the individual
monthly per capita expenditure quintiles, location (rural or urban) and region. Thus, different segments
of youths have placed differently in terms of availing of the emerging labour market opportunities. At
an aggregate level, as much as 42 per cent of youths have less than a secondary level of education and
only 4 per cent of them have accessed formal vocational training.
Returns to education are low at lower levels of education. Analysis of returns to different levels of
education showed that improvement at the lower levels of education bring little incremental returns. The
highest jump occurred for employed youths who had a graduate degree or higher or technical education.
Returns were influenced by gender, location, social origin and economic background.
Non-student youths have had a declining worker population ratio except during the recent
pandemic period. A declining trend in the worker population ratio continues among non-student
youths; it is more marked among those with a low level of education. The worker population ratio
among all non-student youths, especially young men, exhibits a weak inverted U-shaped pattern in
relation to educational attainment. This underscores the dual challenges faced by men with low and
high levels of education in terms of their participation in the labour market. The worker population ratio
among technically qualified non-student youths has declined sharply, raising concerns about the quality
of technical education. Formal vocational training among young individuals in India continues to be
associated with a low worker population ratio as well as unemployment.
Education correlates with better jobs. Highly educated youths are predominantly employed in regular
salaried jobs. But youths with little education engage more in casual or informal work. Youths with
technical degrees and graduate-level diplomas are more predominant in regular or formal employment
than youths without technical qualifications. Highly educated youths tend to more actively engage
in the high-productivity sectors, primarily the tertiary sector, such as business, telecom, finance and
information technology. The skills and knowledge acquired through higher education equip these
individuals with the expertise required to excel in these sectors, which contributes significantly to
economic growth and development. Less-educated youths are more likely to be employed in the primary
(agriculture) and secondary sectors (manufacturing and construction). Youths with technical degrees
and graduate diplomas are involved more in the tertiary sector.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills xxv

The probability of any kind of employment is lower as education rises but higher for youths having
technical education. The probability of being employed rises with age; it is higher for men and in rural
areas and for socially deprived groups; it increases for those in higher expenditure quintiles. And it is
higher for the country’s more economically dynamic regions – the North, West and South. The likelihood
of highly educated youths being engaged in regular formal employment increases with the level of
education and technical qualifications.
Youths with a low level of education want stable jobs, and the vast proportion of young men and
women want to be employed. An Institute for Human Development survey of youths in low-income
localities in Delhi and Ranchi (the capital of Jharkhand State) found a high propensity for education
among youths but a low propensity for vocational training. Educated youths, whether men or women,
want jobs and aspire for stable white-collar jobs. But most young women still opt out of the labour force
due to societal pressures, and the actual nature of jobs that young people do is markedly different from
the jobs that they aspire to. The average waiting period for a first job is more than a year.
A large proportion of highly educated young men and women, including the technically educated,
are overqualified for the job they have. The analysis of the extent to which highly educated youths
(graduate level and higher) had taken up blue-collar public sector jobs indicated large shares, even
in 2004–05, with the mismatch increasing for students with only a graduate degree. Even among the
technically qualified youths, nearly two fifths of them engaged in vocations that did not correspond
to their qualifications. Although educational attainment has increased overall, there appears to be
sharp constraints on the demand side that are pulling down the employment rates (for highly educated
and poorly educated youths) and thus pushing up the unemployment rates. This leads to even highly
educated youths taking up a low-skill blue-collar job. Insight into these dynamics can aid in policy
formulation to address the complex challenges surrounding youth employment and to promote inclusive
and equitable opportunities for all.
Despite the considerable progress, the level of educational attainments at higher levels remain
low and quality is a concern. The drop-out rates after the middle and secondary levels of education in
poorer states and among marginalized groups are high. Enrolment in higher education in India, although
rising, is much lower than the levels in developed as well as in middle-income countries. The quality of
education continues to remain a concern. There is significant learning deficit at school levels and in
general, and the quality of education imparted by institutions of higher learning remains poor.

Skills and active labour market policies

Skills training and active labour market policies (ALMPs) supplement and complement each other
in overcoming the skills-supply and skills-demand gaps. In the rapidly changing labour market
scenario, skills training is needed to improve the employability of youths while short-term skills training
along with other ALMPs are needed to bridge the supply–demand gaps and skill mismatches. A proper
skills and ALMP setting can help to realize India’s demographic potential.
The Indian skills training scenario has changed with initiation of several policies and setting up
of institutions. India’s skills scenario has changed significantly over the past 25 years or so. A national
skills mission has been set up, and two national skills policies have been formulated to guide skills
development. A Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship was established in 2014, with
several institutions created to work in partnership with the private sector to determine skills gaps, create
courses, implement programmes and certify skills. Although several ministries and departments are
involved in skills training, the apex Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship has formulated
an umbrella programme called the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana for implementing short-term
and long-term programmes. Skill development is being integrated within the education system, and
Centres of Excellence are being set up.
Expansion of skills training faces many challenges. First, there is a limited uptake of training due
to factors on both the supply and demand sides, even though there is evidence of a gap between the
xxvi X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

supply and demand for skills. Second, there are spatial imbalances in the training. The creation of training
capacity is low in poorer regions where the potential demographic advantage is high. Third, there are
low levels of socio-economic inclusion in training programmes, despite evidence that training positively
relates to education and socio-economic levels. Fourth, the overarching nature of informality makes
it difficult to design training such that returns from it can be internalized by trainees. And fifth, the
returns from training are inadequately remunerated in the labour market, making training socially and
economically less attractive.
Apprenticeship training remains low. Although there is a renewed focus on apprenticeship training,
low apprenticeship enrolment against the stated targets is an issue of concern. Of around 120,000
establishments, only around 25,000 offer apprenticeships. Given the size of the youth population, it is
very low.
Fresh stimulus for entrepreneurship development is an important policy instrument. Although
government policy stressed entrepreneurship development in the past, it only recently was singled out
as a key instrument to create a fresh supply of and demand for jobs. The National Policy for Skill and
Entrepreneurship Development articulates five pillars of an ideal environment for entrepreneurship:
access to funding; an entrepreneurial culture; supportive regulatory and tax regimes; educational
systems that support entrepreneurial mindsets; and a coordinated approach that links the public, private
and voluntary sectors. But there has hardly been satisfactory progress in most of these spheres.
Job search assistance programmes are still in infancy. Digitalization has provided opportunity for
developing job assistance programmes. This includes setting up the Aatamanirbhar Skilled Employee
Employer Mapping, or ASEEM, portal, which helps to match skills supply with demand. Yet, policy
interventions designed to facilitate matches between jobseekers and employers are having modest
effect on youth employment due to the mismatch between the expectations and the job offers received
through the online job search platform. Job fairs are another means of bringing jobseekers and
employers together in a region.

Emerging policy agenda

Some policy issues emerging from this analysis need to be urgently tackled.
Mission 1: Make production and growth more employment-intensive. Five groups of policy measures
are recommended here: (a) Integrate an employment creation agenda with macro and other economic
policies to boost productive non-farm employment, especially in the manufacturing sector. India is likely
to add 7–8 million youths annually to the labour force during the next decade or so. To absorb them
along with existing unemployed and underemployed youths, the country needs to have a high rate
of growth but also an employment-intensive process of growth. (b) Give primacy to labour-intensive
manufacturing employment to absorb the abundant unskilled labour and also to combine with select
services. Support the emerging employment-generating modern manufacturing and services sectors
(identified in this report) through appropriate policies and other benefits. (c) Direct greater focus to
micro, small and medium-sized enterprises, especially by providing a more supportive, decentralized
approach. This will require close examination of local policies and the regulatory environment, support
for marketing and technology enhancement (including digitalization and artificial intelligence) and a
cluster-based approach to manufacturing. (d) Increase agriculture productivity, create more non-farm
jobs and promote entrepreneurship. (e) Expand and invest in the green and blue economies. There is
huge potential for employment creation if it is supported by strategic investments, capacity-building
initiatives and policy frameworks.
Mission 2: Improve the quality of jobs. This can be strengthened in three ways: (a) Invest in and
regulate sectors that are likely to be an important source of employment for young people, such as
the care sector, digital economy, etc. However, concerns regarding quality of jobs remain and need to
be addressed. (b) Create an inclusive urbanization and migration policy. India is likely to experience a
higher rate of urbanization and migration in the future as more and more youths aspire to seek decent
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills xxvii

employment, which would be available mostly in urban areas. An inclusive urban policy is required
to address the needs of migrants, women and impoverished young people in India (recognizing that
young people dominate the migration flows). India is also among those countries from where significant
international migration is taking place – 3.5 million people migrated looking for work between 2010 and
2021 – and the migration policy should be supportive of them. (c) Secure a strong supportive role of
labour policy and labour regulation by ensuring a minimum quality of employment and basic rights of
workers across all sectors.
Mission 3: Overcome labour market inequalities. The creation of good-quality employment needs to
be supplemented by measures that reduce the stark inequalities in the labour market. Six approaches
would help improve the current situation: (a) Craft policies that boost women’s participation in the labour
market with quality work. These policies should include larger provision for institutional care facilities,
adaptable work arrangements, improved public transport, improved amenities and enhanced workplace
safety. These policy measures should be seamlessly integrated into the urban planning and development
agenda. (b) Embrace different strategies to tackle the problems of youths not in employment, education
or training, including those who are unemployed and youths (mainly women) who have opted out of the
labour force for a variety of reasons. (c) Impart quality and mainstreaming skills in education for inclusion
of socially and economically poorer groups and to improve employability. The quality of education needs
to be augmented at all levels, with equitable access to all sections of society and in all regions. The
National Education Policy is attempting an overhaul of education at all levels and mainstreaming skills
training in education with the aim of fulfilling Sustainable Development Goal 4, unleashing the creative
and employment potential of individuals and meeting the developmental challenges facing the country.
This will require, as the policy recognizes, critical changes in educational governance and substantial
human and financial resources, with a focus on implementation and outcomes. (d) Improve information
and communication technology access and bridge the digital divide. (e) Create a non-discriminatory
labour market. Concrete measures are needed to address labour market discrimination against women
and marginalized social groups. (f) Adopt regional-level policy approaches to reduce labour market
inequalities across regions and states. This is very important, given the broad differences across regions
and states in the labour market outcomes and the potential demographic dividend.
Mission 4: Make systems for skills training and active labour market policies more effective. Skills
training and ALMPs are crucial for bridging the supply–demand gaps and improving employability.
The analysis of youth-related data for this report led to three areas for necessary change: (a) Skills
development and ALMPs need a more effective role in bridging the supply–demand gap in jobs and in
making the overall labour market more inclusive. A larger and more targeted role for state governments
and stronger partnerships with the private sector and other stakeholders is also needed, along with
greater contribution by the private and non-state sector. (b) Greater effort is needed to facilitate youths
to connect with work opportunities through the labour market and job search information, with hand-
holding for youths from marginalized segments. (c) The Government should address the issue of
unfilled vacancies in the public sector by leveraging technology, conducting efficient assessments and
implementing transparent and merit-based selection procedures.
Mission 5: Bridge the deficits in knowledge on labour market patterns and youth employment.
Bridging such deficits requires: (a) reliable labour market statistics on the emerging new forms of jobs
to shape effective policy, given the fast-changing nature of the labour market as well as the uncertainties
consequent upon emerging technologies, and (b) more effective use of implementation and monitoring
data for estimates of youths and formal jobs.
xxviii X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills
X1
Introduction

X 1.1 Context

This India Employment Report 2024 is the third in a series of publications by the Institute for Human
Development on labour and employment issues. The first report, India Labour and Employment Report
2014: Indian Workers in the Era of Globalization, was the first of its kind on development and employment
issues in India. It provided a comprehensive view of the employment situation in the country and analysis
of labour market developments in the wake of globalization of the Indian economy (IHD 2014). The
second report, India Employment Report 2016: Challenges and the Imperative of Manufacturing-Led Growth,
provided an in-depth review of the evolving characteristics of India’s labour force and the employment
challenges confronting the country. Based on an overview of the policy interventions that would be
required for India’s continued development, the report concluded that pursuing a manufacturing-led
growth strategy would help the country overcome the formidable challenges (Ghose 2016).
2 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

The Institute for Human Development collaborated with the International Labour Organization (ILO)
to produce this 2024 report, which revolves around youth employment, education and skills. Based on
analysis of the trends and patterns of the Indian labour market over the past two decades, including
the impact of the COVID-19 crisis, the report describes the emerging characteristics of the employment
challenges now confronting the economy as well as the impact of growth on employment. The report
presents in-depth analysis of the youth labour market, the emerging youth employment challenges
and the important links with education and skills. It also reviews the prevailing strategies and suggests
additional policies and approaches to address emerging employment challenges and the challenges to
youth employment in particular.

X 1.2 Sustained and high economic growth

India has experienced high economic growth since the 1980s, particularly since the 1990s, with the
liberalization of the economy. The growth rate accelerated in the 2000s and, in some years, even
exceeded 8 per cent. But after 2008, the growth rate substantially declined due to the global financial
crisis and then collapsed during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and 2021. Despite these disruptions,
the economy has achieved, on average, more than a 6 per cent growth rate over the past four decades.
Although not at the level achieved during the 2000s, growth has almost stabilized since the end of
the pandemic, and India is among the fastest-growing major economies in the world. Currently the
world’s most populated country and the fifth-largest economy in dollar terms, India is expected to have
sustained economic growth of 5–6 per cent in the next 15 years or so. It is also projected to become
the third-largest economy in the world by 2027 (Ernst & Young 2023) and is expected to touch a gross
domestic product (GDP) of US$7 trillion by 2030 (DEA 2023). India’s growth story has benefited from a
demographic advantage, huge investment in digital public infrastructure, a large expansion in physical
infrastructure, reforms in the goods and services tax and better service delivery thanks to adoption of
technologies. The Government’s resources have increased due to increasing tax revenues. According to
current estimates, the Indian economy grew 7.3 per cent and 7.2 per cent in 2022 and 2023, respectively
(Government of India 2023).1 India has thus exhibited resilience in economic growth, including in the
post-pandemic period.
The economy has gradually globalized since the 1990s. The export of goods and services as a percentage
of GDP has increased, from 6.3 per cent in 1984 to nearly 22 per cent in 2022. The composition of goods
and services as a percentage of GDP has also considerably increased, from 7.7 per cent in 1984 to 23.6
per cent in 2018. Service exports, particularly of software and information technology-enabled services,
has had an important role in the growth (DEA 2023).
The high growth has led to important changes in the Indian economy and society: The level of absolute
poverty has declined significantly. There have been improvements in the living standards as well as other
social and human development indicators, although the Human Development Index is still low when
compared with other country averages.
Although India has performed well in terms of its rate of growth and size of the economy, which has
placed the country in a leading position on the world stage at an aggregate level, its position in terms of
per capita income has much scope for improvement. Estimations based on International Monetary Fund
data indicate that India’s per capita income is the lowest among G-20 countries in both dollars (US$2,601)
and purchasing power parity (PPP) (US$9,073) terms. According to estimates by the World Development
Indicators in PPP terms, gross national income per capita in 2022 was US$8,210 for India, US$21,250 for
China and US$77,530 for the United States (World Bank 2024).

1 These rates pertains to fiscal years, which are from April to March in India. All other figures also correspond with the fiscal
year only, except the Periodic Labour Force Survey and NSSO data, which pertain to the period from July to June. In this India
Employment Report 2024, data for employment and other factors the year used is the end year (2022 for 2021–22).
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 3

Within India, the growth story is an uneven one. There is wide variation in the per capita net state
domestic product. In 2021, the per capita national state domestic product in Delhi was more than eight
times what it was in Bihar and six times that in Uttar Pradesh. Between 2011 and 2021, the per capita state
domestic product in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Manipur, Meghalaya and Assam grew
at a slow pace, in contrast to other states in the North, South and West (CSO 2024).
India has only a limited window of opportunity remaining to capitalize on its growth story, relative to
its demographic advantage of an increasing working-age population – in contrast to the population
decline evident in developed countries as well as in China. The expanding digital infrastructure, along
with increasing physical and social infrastructure, particularly educational opportunities, are likely to
propel growth in the future. Another growth opportunity lies in the form of India assuming an important
role in the global supply chains through output-incentive plans and the growth of its domestic consumer
market.2

X 1.3 Indian labour market

While the economic growth has had some positive impact on the country’s labour market conditions,
it has not led to a radical structural transformation in employment conditions. There has been a slow,
although steady, decline in the share of agriculture and a rise in the share of services in total employment
– the share of agriculture fell from 60 per cent in 2000 to around 42 per cent in 2019. This shift has been
largely absorbed by construction and services, the share of which in total employment increased from
23 per cent in 2000 to 32 per cent in 2019. The share of manufacturing has remained almost stagnant, at
around 12–14 per cent (see Part 1 of Ghose 2016 and Chapter 1 of IHD 2014).
An important change has been the increase in labour productivity, largely due to increasing capital
intensity. The proportion of regular and formal sector workers have increased from 14 per cent and 12
per cent in 2000 to 21 per cent and 18 per cent, respectively, in 2019. However, the increase in formal
workers has been insignificant, with 90 per cent of workers still informal (including informal workers
in the formal sector). The share of labour income in total income has been falling, and despite some
recovery, as of 2019 it was still below its 2000 level.
The Indian labour market exhibits several characteristics akin to a lower-middle-income country.3
1. The observed growth pattern has been different from the experiences of other developed countries
where manufacturing was the main driver of growth in the earlier stages of development. In India,
the growth has been services-led. Although the share of agriculture in total employment has declined,
it has largely shifted to services, which account for 23 per cent of total employment. Agriculture
accounted for a mere 14 per cent share of GDP in 2022 while services amounted to 55 per cent and
manufacturing for 18 per cent.

2. Until recently, the open unemployment rate was low, at 2–3 per cent, which increased to about 5.8
per cent in 2019 (but further declined in 2022). The low open unemployment rate is indicative of the
lack of livelihood opportunities common to developing economies.

3. The Indian labour market is highly informal – around 90 per cent of workers are informally employed.
Although the percentage of regular workers has increased along with the share of formal sector
workers, a significant proportion of regular workers in the formal sector are informal. The persistence

2 See Eric Martin and Ruchi Bhatia, “India Wants Key Supply-Chain Role as Firms Shift From China”, Bloomberg, 11 April 2023.

3 Ibid.
4 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

of self-employment is another feature of the Indian labour market, and self-employment continues
to constitute about half of total employment in the economy, which is indeed one of the highest in
the world.

4. The labour market is highly segmented in terms of gender, location, occupation, social groups and
geographical regions. Although the gap in earnings across gender and other social categories has
declined over the years, the broad socio-economic hierarchies in access to employment, education
and earnings persists.

5. Women’s labour force participation rate is very low, at around 25 per cent of the total female
working-age population in 2022. It increased during the pandemic, driven by a significant increase in
subsistence employment. India has one of the lowest female labour force participation rates in the
world, which is a reflection of its considerable gender inequalities.

X 1.4 Employment challenges

The following four important employment challenges emerged in the analysis of the labour market
characteristics and are addressed throughout this report in detail, with focus on the employment
challenges for youths.

Slow employment generation and lack of structural transformation

Despite the reasonably high growth, there has not been commensurate expansion in productive
employment opportunities. Instead, there has been falling employment intensity in the growth process.
It is widely acknowledged that this has been mainly due to the growth process being services-led –
contrary to manufacturing-led that most developed countries experienced during their development
process. Consequently, the process of structural transformation has been slow in India and even
characterized as “stunted”.

Labour market inequalities and the challenges of technology

New technological developments have led to significant changes in the labour market. First, capital
intensity over the years has been increasing, leading to lower employment intensity of the growth
process. Second, the skills composition of work has been changing: while jobs requiring high skills have
been increasing, those requiring low skills have been contracting, thus exacerbating the labour market
inequalities.
The labour market exhibits rather high levels of inequality in terms of regions, social groups, gender
and occupation. This is a major factor behind the labour market inequalities and the overall societal
inequalities.

Regional disparities
Regional demographic changes highlight the disparity in employment outcomes, particularly youth
employment, across the regions. Many large states in the eastern and central parts of India are
characterized by a youth bulge. These states are relatively underdeveloped and have low per capita
income. In addition, these states have a small proportion of highly educated youths, low incidence of
formal (regular) employment and a large proportion of young people not in employment, education or
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 5

training, which underscores the need for regional policies designed to address such differences in the
employment situation for youths and promote more-balanced opportunities.

Education and skills mismatch and the challenge of employability

The proportion of youths with a higher education level rose substantially among unemployed persons
over the past two decades, from 2000 to 2022, along with heightened aspirations, which could be
indicative of some degree of a mismatch between education levels and relevant skills required for
the high-skill jobs. If so, it indicates a crisis of employability. It also indicates that education levels are
an imperfect proxy for skill levels, given the co-existence of educated unemployed persons with an
underqualified workforce in high-skill and medium-skill jobs.

Fast-changing technologies and climate change

A major challenge emerging in the labour market stems from the rapidly changing technologies that will
increasingly have major implications for the various aspects of the labour market and employment. For
example, artificial intelligence has created opportunities as well as major challenges. The labour market
is being – and will further be impacted – by climate change, which seems to be occurring more rapidly
than was forecasted by climate scientists only a decade ago (Stern 2015). It is critical to understand this
important issue and its consequences for the labour market in the likely transition to new requirements
of a carbon-reducing regime. Although workers in the informal sector are adversely affected by extreme
weather events, such as record-breaking heat waves, opportunities are also emerging in terms of green
jobs. A major share of India’s transformational target of 500 GW of installed non-fossil fuel electricity-
generation capacity by 2030 will come from renewable energy technologies like solar and wind (CEEW
et al. 2022). India can potentially create about 3.4 million jobs (in the short and long terms) in the solar
and wind sectors by installing new capability to achieve the targeted non-fossil electricity-generation
capacity. The two major issues of changing technology and climate change are not discussed with any
depth in this report, but they require due attention in any discussion on employment and the labour
market.

X 1.5 Challenge of youth employment

India is at an inflexion point in terms of its demographic transition, whereby the share of the working-age
population increased from 59 per cent in 2011 to 63 per cent in 2021 and is expected to remain stable
over the next 15 years or so. Thus, the country is in the final stage of reaping its demographic dividend.
Although the share of youths in total population has now started to decline, youths in India still account
for a large population share (27 per cent) and size (371 million persons) when compared with most
countries and will continue to be significant in the country’s demographic structure for the next ten
years.

Characteristics of youth employment

The labour force participation rate (LFPR) among youths has been declining, with a reduction from 54 per
cent in 2000 to 42 per cent in 2022, and the decline has been sharper among youths aged 15–19 compared
to youths aged 20–24 and 25–29. The worker population ratio for youths also experienced a declining
trend between 2000 and 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic (ILO 2022a).
6 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Rising unemployment among youths

In keeping with global trends in which young people are three times as likely as adults4 to be unemployed
(ILO 2020a), the unemployment rate of Indian youths is higher than for adults.5 The youth unemployment
rate has been rising over the past several decades – from 5.6 per cent in 2000 to 6.2 per cent in 2012,
and then increasing threefold, to nearly 18 per cent in 2018, and reaching around 15.1 per cent in
2020. Unemployment among educated youths is particularly high and had exceeded global averages
by 2018 (ILO 2022). Indian youths are attaining high levels of education, but not enough employment
opportunities are getting created for them, as reflected by the declining participation in the labour
force and workforce. The challenge of educated youth unemployment is increasing and becoming huge
in India, with immense implications for societal balance and peace (box 1). There are segments of the
industry in which there is potential for youths to take up jobs where modern rather than traditional skills
are in demand, but issues related to low skills and employability persist.

X Box 1. Too many educated youths and even civil judge aspirants applying – and not just
rushing for few government jobs from within the state but also the neighbouring state
of Uttar Pradesh.c Sometimes, such a rush for job
The Indian media frequently reports stories of applications leads to violence. Millions of youth had
thousands of educated youth applying for a small applied in 2022 for about 150,000 jobs with the Indian
number of advertised government jobs, often much Railways in Bihar and the neighbouring state of Uttar
below their educational qualifications. Recently, more Pradesh. Bihar experienced massive protests when
than 93,000 candidates applying for jobs included thousands of jobless youth hit the streets in the last
3,700 PhD holders, 5,000 graduates and 28,000 post- week of January 2023 over the alleged irregularities in
graduates who applied for 62 posts of “peon” in the the results published by the Railway Recruitment Board
Uttar Pradesh Police Department, although the jobs for the non-technical popular categories examination.
require only a minimum eligibility of education till There was widespread violence, with agitators pelting
Class 5.a The SSC MTS 2023 recruitment examination stones at train compartments, blocking railway tracks
conducted in May 2023 in Uttar Pradesh State received and even burning bogies of trains (as reported by
a staggering 5.5 million applicants for group D jobs media at that time). Although such reports are more
(positions such as peon, watchman, gardener). Among frequent from less-developed (northern) states,
the applicants, many candidates had high qualifications, this rush, although on a smaller scale, has also been
such as bachelor or master of technology, master of reported from developed states. In June 2022, for
business administration, master of art or master of instance, about 1.7 million people applied for 3,400
science degrees.b Fifteen vacancies for peons, drivers jobs requiring a minimum qualification of Class 10 in
and watchmen in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh State had the developed state of Gujarat.
nearly 11,000 unemployed young people with graduate, Source: a=The Economic Times, 31 January 2024; b=India Today Education Desk
post-graduate, engineer and MBA or PhD degrees (Updated), 7 June 2023; c=NDTV, 29 December 2021.

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic

Globally, the COVID‑19 crisis exacerbated the labour market challenges generally faced by young people
(ILO 2022c). In India, the decline in the Worker Population Ratio among youths was reversed between
2019 and 2022, with a much higher increase among women than among their male counterparts,
especially in rural areas. The pandemic crisis likely compelled young people to work to support their
family’s income (ILO and UNICEF 2020).

4 Defined as 25 years and older (ILO 2020a).

5 Defined as 30 years and older.

 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 7

Gender gap in the youth labour force participation

rate, with low participation for women
There is a significant gender gap in the labour market, with low rates of female labour force participation.
This gender gap in the LFPR has remained almost consistent over the past two decades. In 2022, the LFPR
of young men (at 61.2 per cent) was almost three times higher than that of young women (at 21.7 per
cent), and the gender gap was similar in both rural and urban areas.

Large share of youths not in employment, education or training

The rate of youths not in employment, education or training globally has been consistently the highest
in South Asia, at an average of 29.2 per cent between 2010 and 2019 (ILO 2022a). India also has a large
share of youths not in employment, education or training, and the rate is much higher among young
women than men. The majority of young women not in employment, education or training are also out
of the labour force, while the men with the same status are largely unemployed.

Lower quality of youth employment compared with adult employment

The quality and condition of employment among youths are poorer compared with the older age cohort,
although more youths are in industry and services. They are more likely to be engaged in self-employed
unpaid family work and casual wage work. They are also more likely to be involved in no-skill and low-skill
informal work, which typically offers lower wages or earnings.

X 1.6 Data sources

The developments in the Indian labour market and the long-run structural trends examined throughout
this report encompass roughly two decades (2000–19). The period beginning in March 2020 through
2022 marks the crisis brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic and hence constitutes unusual years in
terms of growth patterns and labour market trends. Thus, the analysis for the pre-pandemic period was
broken down into time periods – 2000, 2012 and 2019 – to highlight the changes and continuities from a
long-run perspective, expanding on the more recent subperiod wherever necessary to bring out a more
detailed picture. The analysis also relied on available data for 2020 to 2022 to discuss the impact of the
COVID-19 pandemic. The quinquennial rounds of the Employment and Unemployment Survey of the
National Sample Survey Office provided the main basis for analysis of employment for 2000 and 2012.
The National Sample Survey Office reports of the Periodic Labour Force Survey data were available from
2018 up to 2022, along with unit-level data.
The unit-level data in these surveys were chiefly used to develop conceptual tools and statistical indicators
appropriate for the analysis of the labour market and employment in India. That they are the official
data sources was the main reason for doing so. But also, the all-India estimates of the LFPR, the worker
population ratio, the unemployment rate, including the distribution of employed persons in the country
according to gender, location (rural and urban), broad industry and other categorizations, from the
Employment and Unemployment Surveys and the Periodic Labour Force Surveys are generally found to
be quite robust with reasonably low relative standard errors. Although there have been certain changes
in the sample design of the Periodic Labour Force Survey, particularly in the method of stratification of
households, the findings are comparable with the Employment and Unemployment Survey findings.
This is due to the high level of precision of the all-India estimates and because the final estimates of
8 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

aggregates (and accordingly, the ratios) for different domains are derived after appropriately adjusting
the sample data with corresponding design-based weights at the household level.
Other databases, such as the Reserve Bank of India-KLEMS6 and the Annual Survey of Industries database,
were relied upon where relevant, along with information from a range of published surveys, reports
and literature. This includes the Survey on Youth and Skills that the Institute for Human Development
conducted in urban areas of Delhi and Ranchi (the capital of Jharkhand State) in 2019. At various points
in the report there is also disaggregated analysis of major employment trends and other labour market
indicators by age, gender, education, social group and region to highlight underlying trends, especially
regarding the youth working-age population.

X 1.7 Report structure

The report is divided largely into two parts. After the introduction, Chapters 2 and 3 speak to the
emerging pattern of employment and growth–employment linkages (Part 1). They provide an overview
of the important changes and continuities in the overall labour market and employment scenario in India
and the implications of the growth process for employment and the labour market. The analyses in these
chapters goes into detail on the characteristics of the labour market over the past two decades and the
factors behind the slow structural transformation. The chapters also discuss the transfer of labour from
agriculture to the manufacturing and services sector and assess the changes in employment conditions.
The challenges brought about by technological developments as well as labour market inequalities are
briefly assessed.
In Part II, chapters 4, 5 and 6 move to the challenge of youth employment, education and skills in the
face of the changing structure of the labour market and overall developments, along with a discussion
of the active labour market policies. These chapters also map the emerging characteristics of youths
and their labour market profile and provides detail on the education–employment links and the nature
of the skills mismatch in India.
Chapter 7 then wraps up with summary analysis and emerging policy pointers on facing the overall
employment challenges – especially youth employment. It is followed by a postscript in Chapter 8 on
data that emerged for 2023 after the analysis for this report was completed.
The report focuses on the challenges associated with jobs, skills and education for youths and how to
address those challenges. Some of the highlighted challenges as well as the policy measures to redress
them are well recognized. The report has consolidated them while highlighting new challenges that
emerged more recently, fuelled by the structural transformation brought about by the country’s recent
growth trajectory. It also highlights continuities that persist due to longstanding structural features of
the Indian labour market.

6 KLEMS (K=capital, L=labour, E=energy, M=materials and S=purchased services) refers to broad categories of intermediate
inputs that are consumed by industries in their production of goods and services. See www.bea.gov/help/faq/192.
10 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills
X2
Trends, emerging
characteristics and current
challenges in India’s labour
market
12 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X 2.1 Introduction

This chapter encompasses an overview of employment trends and patterns in India’s labour market over
the past two decades, beginning from 2000. It further summarizes emerging characteristics and current
challenges in the labour market.
The second section examines labour force, employment, unemployment and underemployment
patterns and trends. The third section briefly delves into the growth of the economy and employment,
and then the fourth section highlights employment quality and conditions. The fifth section discusses
segmentation and inequality in the Indian labour market, and the sixth section looks at migration briefly
and the seventh section looks at the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on employment. The eighth
section turns to the implications of technological advancement and digitalization on employment before
the ninth sections explains use of the employment condition index. And in conclusion, the tenth section
sums up the trends and the persistent challenges.
The chapter relies on unit-level data obtained from the Employment and Unemployment Surveys and
the Periodic Labour Force Surveys. The various sections centre on comparative analysis for three distinct
periods: 2000 to 2012, 2012 to 2019 and 2019 to 2022. The appendix tables at the end of the report provide
more disaggregated results of intervening years for which data are available. The chapter also examines
the abnormal pandemic years of 2020–22 to gain insight into the impact on India’s employment situation.
Throughout the text, tables and figures, the fiscal, agricultural and calendar years are interchangeably
used, with 1999–2000 as 2000, 2011–12 as 2012, 2018–19 as 2019, 2019–20 as 2020, 2020–21 as 2021 and
2021–22 as 2022. The scope of the chapter refers to individuals aged 15 years and older who were in the
labour force or employed or unemployed based on their usual principal and subsidiary status (UPSS), as
defined in box 2. To complement the quantitative information, the analysis drew on secondary sources,
such as published reports and articles.

X 2.2 Labour force, employment, unemployment and

underemployment

This section presents the long-term patterns and trends of India’s employment, unemployment and
underemployment situations. The labour market dynamics underlying these results are analysed in
subsequent sections.

2.2.1 Labour force, employment and unemployment

The LFPR in India for individuals aged 15 years and older was 55.2 per cent in 2022, which was lower
than the world average of 59.8 per cent (figure 2.1). It consistently declined over the past two decades,
from 61.6 per cent in 2000 to 50.2 per cent in 2019, before increasing to 55.2 per cent in 2022. The worker
population ratio also exhibited a similar trend, declining from 60.2 per cent in 2000 to 47.3 per cent in 2019
before increasing to 52.9 per cent in 2022. The overall open unemployment rate, measured by the usual
status criteria (see box 2), was quite low – a little more than 2 per cent in 2000 and 2012, which sharply
increased to 5.8 per cent in 2019, followed by a significant fall to 4.1 per cent in 2022. As appendix tables
A2.1–A2.3 show, these upward trends in the labour market can be observed from 2018 onwards, during
the economic slowdown, and continuing into the pandemic period (Jha and Kumar 2022; Basole et al.
2021; Kapoor 2020), raising questions on the drivers of these changes.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 13

X Figure 2.1. Labour force participation rate, worker population ratio and unemployment rate
(UPSS) among persons aged 15+ (rural and urban combined), 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

55.9 55.2 54.7 52.9 2.1 4.1

61.6 50.2 60.2 47.3 2.3 5.8

70

52.5

35
%

17.5

0
LFPR WPR UR

2000 2012 2019 2022

Note: LFPR=labour force participation rate; WPR=worker population ratio; UR=unemployment rate.
Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.

In absolute terms,7 the labour force grew by 99.2 million persons, from 396.3 million in 2000 to
495.5 million in 2019 (figure 2.2). Yet, the growth of the workforce (at 79.4 million persons) was not
commensurate with the growth of the labour force, resulting in a substantial rise in open unemployment
(19.8 million persons). In particular, open unemployment grew significantly (by 18.6 million persons)
between 2012 and 2019, when the employment generation was virtually negligible (at 200,000 persons).
A relatively greater increase in the workforce (by 78 million persons) occurred during the pandemic years,
from 466.5 million in 2019 to 544.5 million in 2022, in comparison to the labour force increase (by 71.9
million persons), from 495.5 million in 2019 to 567.4 million in 2022. This dynamic resulted in a substantial
reduction in unemployment (by 6.1 million persons) during this period.

7 The absolute number of persons in the labour force and workforce (aged 15 and older) was estimated by multiplying the
LFPR and worker population ratio with the mid-year (January) projected population (aged 15 and older) for the respective
years. The population (aged 15 and older) was based on the population projections that are available for all age groups com-
bined in the report of the Technical Group on Population Projections by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (2020).
14 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Figure 2.2. Size of labour force, workforce and unemployed workers (UPSS), by
persons aged 15+ (rural and urban combined), 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (millions)
476.7 567.4 466.3 544.5 10.4 22.9
396.3 495.5 387.1 466.5 9.2 29

600

450
Millions

300

150

0
Labour force Workforce Unemployed

2000 2012 2019 2022

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.

The substantial increase in the open unemployment rate between 2012 and 2019 was primarily
due to the growth of the labour force without a corresponding increase in employment. But the
increase in the labour force from 2019 to 2022 was accompanied by significant growth in the workforce
and a decrease in unemployment.
However, the recent improvement in the Indian labour market indicators needs to be interpreted with
caution, along with other changes in labour market participation that are discussed later in this chapter.
As the ILO (2023) pointed out, the quality of employment generated during the ongoing global slowdown
is a matter of concern, with many workers forced to accept low-quality jobs and often with low wages
or earnings.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 15

X Box 2. Employment terminology used Workforce (workers or employed persons):

in the India Employment Report 2024 Persons who were engaged in any economic activity
or who, despite their attachment to economic activity,
Activity status: It is the activity situation in which a abstained from work for reason of illness, injury or
person is found during a reference period, typically other physical disability, bad weather, festivals, social or
for a survey. A person can be in one or a combination religious functions or other contingencies necessitating
of three broad activity statuses during this reference temporary absence from work, constitute as workers
period: (a) working or engaged in economic activity or employed persons. Unpaid household members
(work); (b) not engaged in economic activity (work) but who assist in the operation of an economic activity
either making tangible efforts to seek work or available in the household farm or non-farm activities are also
for work if work is available; and (c) not engaged in considered as workers.
economic activity (work) and also not available for Labour force: Persons who are either “working or
work. employed” or “seeking or available for work” or
Usual principal activity status (UPS): The usual unemployed constitute the labour force.
principal activity status relates to the activity status Unemployed: Persons who, owing to lack of work, have
of a person during the reference period of 365 days not worked but sought work through employment
preceding the date of a survey interview. The activity exchanges, intermediaries, friends or relatives or by
status on which a person spent relatively long time making applications to prospective employers and
(major time criterion) during the 365 days preceding express their willingness or availability for work under
the survey interview is considered the usual principal the prevailing conditions of work and remuneration are
activity status of a person. considered as “seeking or available for work”.
Subsidiary economic activity status (SS): Subsidiary Labour force participation rate (LFPR): The rate is the
status workers are engaged in an economic activity for percentage of the working-age population in the labour
a short duration of at least 30 days during the 365 days force.
prior to a survey interview.
Worker population ratio (WPR): The ratio is the
Usual principal and subsidiary status (UPSS): percentage of employed persons in the population.
All persons engaged in usual principal activity and
subsidiary activity are included in this employment Unemployment rate (UR): This rate is defined as the
status. percentage of persons unemployed as a percentage of
the persons in the labour force.
Employment by current weekly status (CWS): All
persons who have performed any economic activity for Source: NSO 2023.

at least one hour on any day of the reference week (the

seven days preceding a survey interview) are included
in this grouping.

The gender distribution shows that the female LFPR declined sharply (by 14.4 percentage points)
when compared with the male counterparts (by 8.1 percentage points) between 2000 and 2019.
But this trend reversed between 2019 and 2022, with a much greater increase in the female LFPR
(by 8.3 percentage points) than in the male LFPR (by 1.7 percentage points) (figure 2.3). As discussed
later in the chapter, this rise, along with other labour market changes, is consistent with more women
coming into the workforce in response to crises. This situation was also observable in 2005 (see appendix
table A2.1; Himanshu 2011).
There is a considerable gender gap in the Indian labour market, with the women’s LFPR (32.8 per
cent) in 2022 around 2.3 times lower than the rate for men (at 77.2 per cent). India’s low LFPR is
largely attributed to the low female LFPR, which is much lower than the world average for 2022, of
47.3 per cent, but higher than the South Asian average of 24.8 per cent (ILO 2023).
16 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

The LFPR declined significantly more in rural areas (by 14.1 percentage points) than in urban areas (by
3.5 percentage points) between 2000 and 2019. But then this pattern reversed between 2019 and 2022,
with a much higher increase in the LFPR in rural areas (by 6 percentage points) than in urban areas (by
2.1 percentage points). This trend was more pronounced among women in rural areas than their female
urban counterparts.
Similar patterns and trends were also observed in the worker population ratio, resulting in a rise in
the unemployment rate in the first period and a decline in the more recent period for both men and
women in rural and urban areas (see appendix tables A2.1–A2.3). The unemployment rate, however, was
relatively higher in urban areas than in rural areas.

X Figure 2.3. Labour force participation rate (UPSS, aged 15+), by gender and location, 2000, 2012,
2019 and 2022 (%)

79.8 77.2 31.2 32.8 58.7 57.4 49.3 49.6

83.6 75.5 38.9 24.5 65.6 51.5 51.0 47.5

90

67.5

45
%

22.5

0
Men Women Rural Urban

2000 2012 2019 2022

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.

These trends indicate that the fluctuation in women’s participation in the labour market, especially
in rural areas, has been a significant contributing factor to the changes in the overall LFPR over the
past two decades. It has been widely argued that family members, and especially women, increasingly
participate in economic activities to support their family during an economic downturn or when their
household experiences income losses, and once the situation improves, they may opt out of such activity
(Basole 2022; Verick 2018; IHD 2014; Himanshu 2011; Srivastava and Srivastava 2010).
Figure 2.4 shows that the participation of women in subsidiary status of employment had been declining,
from 8.3 per cent in 2000 to 2.8 per cent in 2019, but then increased significantly, to 6.3 per cent in 2022.
This indicates that women, who did not have a long-term attachment to the workforce, were participating
in it in larger measure in 2022. The women’s decline in the workforce in rural areas prior to 2019 was
attributed to a variety of factors, but there was a substantial increase of women in self-employment and
as subsidiary workers between 2019 and 2022, when many women needed economic activity to support
their family.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 17

X Figure 2.4. Proportion of workers in subsidiary status, by gender (aged 15+), 2000, 2012, 2019
and 2022 (%)

0.9 1.4 8.0 6.3 4.5 3.8

1.0 0.6 8.3 2.8 4.6 1.7

9.0

6.8

4.5
%

2.3

0
Male Female Total

2000 2012 2019 2022

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.

The literature suggests that fluctuation in women’s labour force participation associates with
various demand and supply factors. On the supply side, the income effect, the education effect, the
underreporting of women’s work in official statistics, the gender wage gap, social and cultural norms,
domestic and care responsibilities and migration limit women’s participation in the labour force
(Srivastava and Bhaskar 2020; Dasgupta and Verick 2016; IHD 2014; Rustagi 2013; Rodgers et al. 2013;
Hirway 2012; Kannan and Raveendran 2012). On the demand side, the mechanization of agriculture,
the shift towards commercial dairies, the declining household-level animal farming or related work,
occupational segregation, a fall in demand for labour-intensive tasks and the discouragement effect – the
lack of jobs deemed suitable for women – also restrict women’s participation in the labour force (Mehta,
Laha and Sharma 2022; Srivastava and Bhaskar 2020; Verick 2018; Klasen and Pieters 2015; Kapos et al.
2014; Neff et al. 2012; Himanshu 2011; Mazumdar and Neetha 2011). These demand and supply factors
are interrelated and can reinforce each other. For instance, a decline in demand for labour in certain
sectors can lead to limited job opportunities, which can discourage women from participating in the
labour force and subsequently lead to a decline in the LFPR and in the worker population ratio, as the
findings of the 2022 Periodic Labour Force Survey revealed.8

2.2.2 Underemployment
Open unemployment in developing countries like India is not a suitable indicator to measure the
underutilization of the labour force. This is because only a few people can afford to be unemployed for
a period of time – most people of working age must engage in some economic activity to survive, no

8 Some of the demand and supply factors that respondents in the Periodic Labour Force Survey for 2022 cited as reasons for
not working included childcare or personal commitment to homemaking (44.2 per cent), the desire to continue studying (27.1
per cent), health reasons (17.4 per cent), social reasons (3.4 per cent), lack of required training, qualification or age (1.2 per
cent), being well-off (0.8 per cent) or the non-availability of work at a convenient location (0.8 per cent). Childcare or personal
commitment to homemaking (59 per cent) and social reasons (4.4 per cent) were significantly more prevalent among women
while the desire to continue studying (57.5 per cent) and health-related reasons (33 per cent) were more dominant among
men.
18 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

matter how little or inadequate it may be. That is why the open unemployment rate has been historically
low in India. There are also limitations of using a single measure, in this case the usual status, as an
indicator of unemployment. In such circumstances, the employment situation cannot be fully described
by unemployment data alone and should be supplemented by underemployment data (ILO 2023). The
common measure used to measure underemployment is based on a time criterion. Box 3 summarizes
the definition used by the 16th International Conference of Labour Statisticians and the norms used
in this report for estimating India’s underemployment. This section thus looks at the challenges of
underemployment, or labour underutilization, in India.
Time-related underemployment in India was high as of 2022, at 7.5 per cent. It had fluctuated over the
years, increasing from 8.1 per cent in 2012 to 9.1 per cent in 2019 before declining to that 7.5 per cent
in 2022 (figure 2.5). The underemployment rate was only slightly higher among men in 2022 (at 7.7 per
cent) than among women (at 7.1 per cent) and more prevalent in urban areas (at 8.4 per cent) than in
rural areas (at 7.2 per cent) (see appendix table A2.4). Although underemployment was considerably
higher than open unemployment, it, too, came down between 2019 and 2022, especially among women
(by 2.5 percentage points). Again, the increase in underemployment in the pre-pandemic period
and the decline in underemployment during the pandemic and post-pandemic periods, especially
among women, raise questions about the availability of additional employment opportunities.
These questions are explored in the next sections.

X Figure 2.5. Underemployment (LU1) and labour utilization among all persons aged 15+, by
gender, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

9.0 9.6 9.1

8.1 7.7 8.1 7.1 8.1 7.5

12.5

10.0

7.5

5.0
%

2.5

0.0
Male Female Total

2012 2019 2022

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 19

X Box 3. Definition of underemployment persons plus unemployed persons). In the latter case,
a composite rate of time-related underemployment
According to the definition adopted by the 16th and unemployment, referred to as LU2, can be obtained
International Conference of Labour Statisticians, by summing the rate of time-related underemployment
persons in time-related underemployment are and the unemployment rate. The LU2 definition has
identified using three criteria: (a) willingness to work been used in this report to measure underemployment
additional hours; (b) availability to work additional in India.
hours; and (c) total number of hours actually worked In India, the Occupational Safety, Health and Working
during the reference period, below a specified Conditions Code, 2020, prescribes a standard working
threshold, to be determined as per the national labour day as eight hours and a working week as six days.
policies or circumstances. To consider a person in time- Although the Periodic Labour Force Survey collects
related underemployment, all three criterion must be information on reported working hours per day for a
satisfied simultaneously. reference week, the Employment and Unemployment
A rate of time-related underemployment can be Survey that preceded it collected information for a half
calculated as the ratio between the number of persons day (one hour to fewer than four hours of work) and a
in time-related underemployment and the total number full day (four hours or more of work). Underemployment
of employed persons (LU1). Alternatively, such a rate in the analysis for this report was estimated using these
can be calculated as the ratio between the number norms, combined with criteria (a) and (b).
of persons in time-related underemployment and Source: Labour Force Statistics database, ILOSTAT 2023.
the number of persons in the labour force (employed

X 2.3 Growth of employment and output

This section looks at employment growth and changes in employment and output over the past two
decades. The pattern of employment changes along with changes in the employment and output
structure link to the process of structural transformation, where resources such as employment
and capital move in the long run from low- to high-productivity sectors. Therefore, it is important to
understand whether people are moving from the low-productivity farm sector and the subsistence
sectors to high-productivity dynamic non-farm sectors, such as manufacturing or services. This is the
stylized Kuznets–Lewis process, which is used to characterize structural transformation (Kuznets 1955;
Lewis 1954). The detailed relationship between employment and output growth is discussed in Chapter 3.

2.3.1 Growth in employment

Table 2.1 highlights the dynamics of the employment and labour force growth cited in section 2.2.
Between 2000 and 2012, workforce growth and labour force growth moved in tandem but fell far short
of the population growth, resulting in a fall in the LFPR and the worker population ratio. Between 2012
and 2019, employment grew at a negligible rate – much below the rate of growth of the labour force,
which in turn fell far short of the population growth. This resulted in a rising unemployment rate and a
falling LFPR and worker population ratio. Between 2019 and 2022, workforce growth exceeded labour
force growth, which in turn far exceeded population growth. This led to the falling of the unemployment
rate and the rising of the LFPR and the worker population ratio.
20 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 2.1. Compound growth rate of the population, labour force, workforce and employment
across major sectors (%)

Compound rate of growth of 2000 to 2012 2012 to 2019 2019 to 2022

Population (aged 15+) 2.39 2.07 1.15

Labour force (aged 15+) 1.54 0.56 4.62

Workforce (aged 15+) 1.55 0.01 5.29

Agriculture -0.39 -2.55 8.93

Manufacturing 2.89 -0.33 3.00

Construction 9.15 2.18 6.37

Services -0.67 10.80 1.09

Total non-agriculture 3.86 2.09 2.61

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
Computations based on census-adjusted unit data.

Table 2.1 also demonstrates the sectoral picture of the employment growth. The agriculture workforce
declined at a growing pace between 2000 and 2019 but increased to a very high rate of 8.9 per cent
between 2019 and 2022. Non-farm employment grew at a slightly higher rate in 2019–22 than in 2012–
19. Employment thus showed a reversal towards agriculture (see the next section) during this period.
Non-farm employment growth was largely sustained during the latest period by growth in construction
employment, at nearly 6.4 per cent. Notably, while manufacturing employment also grew at a rate
slightly higher than total non-farm employment, services sector employment grew at a low rate of nearly
1.1 per cent during 2019–22.

2.3.2 Sectoral changes in employment and output

In the roughly two decades between 2000 and 2019, the Indian economy’s production structure
moved straight from agriculture to services-led growth without substantial expansion in the share
of manufacturing. The manufacturing sector underperformed compared to the overall gross value
added (GVA) growth (figure 2.6). As a result, the share of manufacturing in GVA stagnated, at around
15–18 per cent, which was much lower than in developed economies and even much lower than in East
and South-East Asian countries.9
India experienced some modest and relatively retarded structural transformation in terms
of employment during the same period, with an increase in the share of various non-farm
subsectors, such as construction, manufacturing, trade, hotel and restaurants, transport, storage
and communications, and finance, business and real estate services (see appendix table A2.5). These
employment shifts occurred at a slower pace than the change in output structure.
Largely due to impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, this trend reversed between 2019 and 2022. The
share of the primary sector in total GVA increased from 14.8 per cent to 15.6 per cent, respectively,
while the share of employment in agriculture experienced a significant reversal, rising from 42.4 per
cent in 2019 to 46.4 per cent in 2021 and then falling marginally to 45.4 per cent in 2022. There was a
corresponding decline in the share of the non-farm sector (except for construction and trade, hotels
and restaurants). Importantly, manufacturing was the second-largest employer after agriculture in 2019.
As of 2022, the construction sector had become the second-largest employer, followed by trade,
hotels and restaurants, with manufacturing relegated to the fourth spot. Although there was a sharp
increase in employment in agriculture during the pandemic years (2020 and 2021), it marginally declined
in 2022.

9 Asian Development Bank, Key Indicators Database, 2022.

 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 21

X Figure 2.6. Structure of economy (GVA at constant 2012 prices) and employment (UPSS,
aged 15+), 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)
100%

23%
27% 30%
32%
44%
75% 49%
54% 53%
16%

24%
25%
25%
50%

29%
32%
62% 31% 31%
25%
49% 43% 45%

27%
19% 16%
15%
0%
2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022

Employment GVA

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Note: Latest gross value added (GVA) was estimated as of 28 February 2023.
Source: Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation for 2023; employment computed from unit-level data of various Employment and
Unemployment Surveys and the Periodic Labour Force Surveys.

The recent changes in the production structure and employment suggest a reversal in the
Kuznets–Lewis process over the most recent (pandemic) period. The disaggregation of employment
by gender and location indicates that the primary or agriculture sector dominates in rural areas (at 59
per cent) while the tertiary sector dominates in urban areas (at 58.8 per cent). Notably, as of 2022, the
proportion of women employed in agriculture (at 62.8 per cent) was significantly larger than that of
men (at 38.1 per cent), highlighting the continued predominance of female employment in subsistence
farming (see appendix table A2.5).

X 2.4 Employment quality and conditions

In a developing country like India, neither the growth of employment or the decline of unemployment
signifies an improvement in employment conditions for the large mass of workers. Such improvement
occurs basically through the movement of workers from low-income or low-productive activities to
higher-income and higher-productive activities – through a change in the type of employment (Ghose
2016), which also involves improvement in other associated conditions of employment. Conceptually,
two types of movement can be distinguished: One type involves movement from the unorganized
(subsistence) sector to the organized sector, and the other type involves within-sector movement to
22 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

better types of employment, which is reflected in the activity status of employment (box 4), formality
and informality or improved earnings.

2.4.1 Status of employment

An important aspect of employment quality is the composition of the workforce in terms of employment
status. And as box 4 explains, the employment status has three categories: self-employment, regular
employment and casual work. Regular employment is generally regarded as providing better-quality
jobs due to the regularity of employment and associated social security benefits. In contrast, casual work
offers relatively poor-quality jobs due to its irregular nature and lower daily earnings. This is the lowest
category in terms of labour conditions among the three.

X Box 4. Employment status definitions Regular employment: All wage and salary workers
who are on relatively long job tenure and who are
Employment status is classified into three categories: usually paid wages or a salary on a weekly or monthly
self-employment, regular employment and casual basis.
employment. Casual employment: All persons who do not have any
Self-employed: All persons who are own-account tenure and are mostly employed on a daily wage basis.
workers, working employers, unpaid family workers Source: Annual Report: Periodic Labour Force Survey, 2020–21.
and home-based workers.

The dominant category of employment in India remains self-employment, followed almost

equally by regular and casual employment. In 2022, self-employment accounted for 55.8 per cent
of employment while casual and regular employment accounted for 22.7 per cent and 21.5 per cent,
respectively (figure 2.7). The share of self-employment remained almost stable, at around 52 per cent
between 2000 and 2019, and regular employment consistently and considerably increased, by nearly
10 percentage points, from 14.2 per cent to 23.8 per cent. But these trends reversed by 2022, with
an increase in the share of self-employment by 3.8 percentage points, to 55.8 per cent, while the
share of regular employment declined by 2.3 percentage points, to 21.5 per cent. The share of casual
employment consistently declined, from 33.3 per cent in 2000 to 22.7 per cent in 2022.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 23

X Figure 2.7. Share of employment (UPSS, aged 15+), by work status, 2000, 2012, 2019
and 2022 (%)

100%

24.2% 22.7%
33.3% 29.9%

75%

21.5%
23.8%
14.2% 17.9%

50%

52.5% 52.2% 52% 55.8%

25%

0%
2000 2012 2019 2022

Self-employed Regular Casual

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.

Women were engaged more in self-employment, especially in rural areas, while men were more
prominent in regular employment, particularly in urban areas. In 2022, the proportion of women
in self-employment (at 62 per cent) was significantly larger than that of men (at 53.1 per cent). The
opposite was true in the case of regular employment, with the proportion of men (23.6 per cent) much
larger than that of women (at 16.6 per cent). In casual work, however, the proportions of men (23.2 per
cent) and women (21.4 per cent) were similar. Women in rural areas (67.7 per cent) were considerably
more involved in self-employment than their urban counterparts (39.3 per cent), while men in urban
areas (46.2 per cent) engaged more in regular employment than men in rural areas (14.7 per cent) (see
appendix table A2.6).
The reversal in the trend towards declining self-employment was much more significant among
women than among men. Between 2000 and 2019, the share of women in self-employment declined
from 55.4 per cent to 53.2 per cent, while the share of men remained stable, at around 51 per cent. This
trend reversed in 2022, with the proportion of women in self-employment increasing by 8.8 percentage
points, to 62 per cent. The percentage of men also increased but only by about 2 percentage points, to
53.1 per cent (see appendix table A2.6).
The percentage of women in regular employment increased almost threefold, from 7.4 per cent in 2000
to 21.9 per cent in 2019, while the percentage of men increased from 17.3 per cent to 24.4 per cent. This
trend reversed in the pandemic years, with the share of women in regular employment declining by 6
percentage points, to 16.6 per cent in 2022, and the share of men declining marginally, by 0.6 percentage
points, to 23.6 per cent (see appendix table A2.6).
24 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Men and women experienced a declining trend in employment shares in casual work over the past
two decades. Self-employed fluctuations were more pronounced in rural areas, but changes in regular
employment were more visible in urban areas.
Women in rural areas were predominantly engaged in unpaid family work of the self-employment
category, which is considered the most vulnerable category of self-employment. The proportion
of women in unpaid family work declined between 2000 and 2019 but increased significantly between
2019 and 2022, indicating a rise in vulnerable self-employment. The proportion of own-account workers
within self-employment increased, from 30.7 per cent in 2000 to 36.6 per cent in 2019, but then slightly
declined, to 35.8 per cent in 2022. Conversely, the proportion of unpaid family workers, who worked
without receiving any payment, decreased from 20.5 per cent in 2000 to 13.2 per cent by 2019 but then
significantly increased to 17.4 per cent between 2019 and 2022. The proportion of the employer category
(individuals who hire employees to work for them) marginally increased, from 1 per cent in 2000 to 2.3 per
cent by 2019 and then further to 2.6 per cent as of 2022. Women dominated in the share of unpaid family
workers (at 36.5 per cent), and their share increased much more over time (by 5.7 percentage points) than
their male counterparts (by 1.8 percentage points). This category of employment was more pronounced
in rural areas (at 42.6 per cent) than in urban areas (at 12.6 per cent) (see appendix table A2.7).

2.4.2 Organized or formal and unorganized

or informal employment
A dichotomy between the informal and formal sectors, also known as the organized and unorganized
sectors, prevails in India’s labour market (see box 5 for definitions).
Informal or unorganized employment is a dominant feature of the Indian economy, whereby the informal
or unorganized sector is the dominant form of organization of production in the economy. A large portion
of all workers as well as informal workers engage in the informal or unorganized sector. Although there
has been a rise in the share of formal sector employment, there also has been an increase in the share of
informal workers within the formal sector, which is also referred to as the “informalization” of the formal
sector. This trend was accentuated between 2019 and 2022, as reflected in the decline in the proportion
of regular formal workers or better-quality work (see appendix table A2.6).
There was growth in (the share of) the formal sector between 2000 and 2019 (table 2.2). Around 11 per
cent of all workers engaged in the organized sector in 2000. This increased to almost 20 per cent in
2019, but the share declined to 18.9 per cent in 2022. The share of formal employment in the economy
also increased, although to much less extent. This indicates that a large part of the increasing number
of workers in the organized sector were informal workers. The share of informal employment in total
employment increased, from 8.5 per cent in 2000 to 10.5 per cent in 2019 but declined to 9.7 per cent in
2022 because a large share of the additional workforce was part of the informal economy. The share of
regular formal employment (which is considered of better quality) during 2000–19 in total employment
increased from 7.6 per cent to 10.2 per cent but dipped to 9.4 per cent in 2022.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 25

X Box 5. Unorganized and organized sectors and limited companies, autonomous bodies, cooperative
informal and formal employment definitions societies and trusts and other non-profit institutions
are all considered part of the organized or formal
The definitions for the unorganized and organized sector. Enterprises categorized as proprietary male
sectors and informal and formal employment are and female, partnerships with members from the
based on the International Labour Organization (2023) same household and partnerships with members from
and the National Commission for Enterprises in the different households having more than ten workers
Unorganised Sector (2009a) and modified for this are also part of the organized or formal sector. If the
report (see appendix tables A2.8a and A2.8b). number of workers in a particular enterprise type
is unknown but the workers in that enterprise are
Unorganized or informal sector: The unorganized
receiving social security benefits, those workers are
or informal sector includes persons categorized as
also considered part of the organized or formal sector.
“proprietary” male and female, partnerships with
members from the same household or partnerships Informal workers (or informal employment): All self-
with members from different households and fewer employed own-account workers, self-employed unpaid
than ten workers. Additionally, it includes the household workers and workers in the household sector are
sector, such as people employed in private households informal workers. Regular salaried workers and casual
as maids, nannies, security guards, cooks, etc. Even the workers who have no form of social security benefit
enterprises whose number of workers is not known are also informal workers. Self-employed workers who
or cannot be ascertained and that do not give their are employers in the informal sector are considered
workers any social security benefit are included in the informal.
unorganized sector. Formal workers (or formal employment): Formal
Organized or formal sector: Government or local workers include self-employed workers who are
bodies, public sector enterprises, public and private employers in the formal sector and regular salaried
and casual workers who receive social security benefits.

As noted earlier, there was a significant increase in the number of regular jobs, but they were
associated with a variety of conditions, including informality and lack of a stable or written
contract. Over the years, the percentage of regular workers without a contract increased by about 10
percentage points, from 59.6 per cent in 2005 to 69.8 per cent in 2019 (table 2.2). As the economy shed
vulnerable regular jobs during the pandemic, this decreased to 61.9 per cent in 2022. Yet, the percentage
of workers with a long-term contract (more than three years) declined consistently, from 35.9 per cent
in 2005 to 21.5 per cent in 2019, before reversing to 26.4 per cent in 2022. The recent decline in the share
of regular workers without a written contract and the increase in workers having a long-term contract
indicate a reduction of jobs for vulnerable regular workers during the pandemic period.
26 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 2.2. Status of employment (UPSS, aged 15+), 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

Share in total employment 2000 2012 2019 2022

Formal employment 8.5 7.8 10.5 9.7

Informal employment 91.5 92.2 89.5 90.3

Organized sector 10.9 17.5 19.6 18.9

Unorganized sector 89.1 82.5 80.4 81.1

Regular formal employment 7.6 7.5 10.2 9.4

(% of total employment)

Regular workers without written contract 59.6* 64.5 69.8 61.9

(% of regular employment)

Regular workers with long-term contract (more than 35.9* 29.1 21.5 26.4
3 years) (% of regular employment)

Note: *=The data are for 2005.

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Surveys and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.

2.4.3 Wages and earnings

Level and growth in wages

There were significant differences in the average level of daily earnings across status of employment
(self-employed, regular salaried and casual workers), gender (female or male) and location (rural or
urban) (table 2.3). The average earnings or wage rate for regular salaried workers was considerably
higher than that of self-employed and casual workers. In 2022, regular workers earned an average
of 19,010 rupees per month, followed by self-employed individuals earning 11,973 rupees and casual
workers earning 8,267 rupees. There was a gender gap in the average monthly earnings as well, with
self-employed individuals having the largest gender gap in earnings, followed by casual workers and
regular salaried workers. Although the gender and rural–urban gaps in regular earnings declined
over the years, it widened in the case of earnings from casual work and self-employment (see
appendix table A2.9).

X Table 2.3. Average monthly earnings of self-employed,* regular salaried and casual workers,
by location and gender, 2022 (rupees, nominal value)

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

Self- 11 397 4 814 10 201 19 992 7 733 17 991 13 386 5 424 11 973
employed

Regular 16 319 10 567 15 177 22 898 18 374 21 826 20 033 15 398 19 010

Casual 8 831 5 451 7 997 10 326 6 432 9 749 9 086 5 548 8 267
Note: *=Self-employed monthly earnings were recorded as gross value.
Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 27

Over the past decade, the average monthly real earnings of regular salaried and self-employed
persons either declined or remained stable. The average real earnings of casual workers only
slightly increased, pointing to poor-quality employment generation. The average monthly real
earnings for regular salaried workers declined annually by 1.2 per cent, from 12,100 rupees in 2012 to
11,155 rupees in 2019, and by 0.7 per cent as of 2022, to 10,925 rupees (figure 2.8). Similarly, the average
real earnings of self-employed individuals declined annually by 0.8 per cent, from 7,017 rupees in 2019
to 6,843 rupees in 2022. The average real monthly earnings of casual workers increased by 2.4 per cent
annually, from 3,701 rupees in 2012 to 4,364 rupees in 2019, and by 2.6 per cent annually, to 4,712 rupees
in 2022. A sustained rise in real earnings or wages of workers is a positive sign for the economy and an
indicator of better-quality employment generation (Drèze 2023). The declining real earnings of regular
salaried workers and the self-employed, along with only a small increase in real wages for casual workers
in India, indicates that the quality of employment generation was poor between 2000 and 2022.

X Figure 2.8. Average monthly earnings of regular, casual and self-employed workers, 2012, 2019
and 2022 (rupees, at 2012 prices)

11155 4364 7017

12100 10925 3701 4712 6843
Avg. monthly earnings (in rupees)

13000

9750

6500

3250

0
Regular Casual Self-Employed

2012 2019 2022

Note: Casual wages also included wages in public works, such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee. Wages were adjusted
using the consumer price index-R and consumer price index-U by taking 2012 as the base year.
Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.

Distribution of workers by their monthly wages

The analysis of the trend in the distribution of regular workers by their real monthly wages at constant
(2012) prices (table 2.4) for three years (2012, 2019 (being the year immediately preceding the COVID-19
pandemic) and 2022) revealed that the proportion of regular workers with monthly wages up to 5,000
rupees declined by 7.7 percentage points over the ten-year period, from 34.6 per cent in 2012 to 26.9
per cent in 2022, which is a positive development. A similar trend occurred for the casual workers (table
2.5), with a much sharper decline of 42.2 percentage points (from 75.4 per cent to 33.2 per cent) in the
proportion of such workers. The proportion of casual workers with real monthly wages above 10,000
rupees rose by 5 percentage points, reaching 8 per cent in 2022, from about 3 per cent in 2012.
28 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 2.4. Distribution of regular workers, by monthly wages (rupees, at 2012 prices), 2012, 2019
and 2022 (%)

Monthly wage range 2012 2019 2022

Up to 2 000 5.2 3.0 3.8

2 001–5 000 29.4 23.7 23.1

5 001–10 000 29.0 35.8 38.9

10 001–20 000 19.2 22.3 19.2

More than 20 000 17.1 15.2 14.9

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: Institute for Human Development’s calculations based on the unit-level data from the Employment and Unemployment Survey for 2012 and
the Periodic Labour Force Survey for 2019 and 2022.

X Table 2.5. Distribution of casual workers, by monthly wages (rupees, at 2012 prices), 2012, 2019
and 2022 (%)

Monthly wage range 2012 2019 2022

Up to 2 000 7.3 13.1 3.5

2 001–5 000 68.1 50.2 29.7

5 001–7 500 18.2 29.1 44.9

7 501–10 000 3.5 6.4 13.9

More than 10 000 2.9 1.2 8.0

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: Institute for Human Development’s calculations based on the unit level data from the Employment and Unemployment Survey for 2012 and
the Periodic Labour Force Survey for 2019 and 2022.

Trend in average monthly wages

Along with the trend in the proportion of workers across different wage classes, it is also of interest
to see whether there has been a rise in the average level of monthly earnings of workers for different
income (wage) quintiles. As shown in tables 2.6 and 2.7, there was a substantial rise in the average real
monthly earnings among the poorest quintiles during the ten-year period for regular workers and casual
workers, with the rise being much sharper for casual workers, although a decline in the average earnings
of casual workers did occur in 2019. Yet, during the four years between 2019 and 2022, the real average
monthly earnings of regular workers remained almost flat. But it increased by nearly 80 per cent for
casual workers. A substantial part of this rise is possibly explained by the base effect.
Regarding the richest quintile, the real average monthly earning declined for the regular workers in
2022 (from 2012) against the opposite trend observed for casual workers. As expected, there was a
great deal of variation in the average monthly earning levels of workers in the poorest and richest wage
quintiles. During 2022, the ratio of average monthly earnings of workers in the poorest quintile to that of
workers in the richest quintile was about 12 per cent for the regular workers and 30 per cent for casual
workers, depicting a larger inequality in terms of earnings among the regular workers as compared to
their counterparts working as casual labourers – which is to be expected.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 29

X Table 2.6. Average monthly wages of regular workers, by wage quintiles, 2012, 2019 and 2022
(rupees, at 2012 prices)

Average real monthly wage

Monthly wage range
2012 2019 2022

Q1 (poorest) 2 546 3 084 3 095

Q2 4 642 5 550 5 470

Q3 6 990 7 767 7 453

Q4 13 041 12 344 11 789

Q5 (richest) 31 094 27 420 26 890

Source: Institute for Human Development’s calculations based on the unit level data from the Employment and Unemployment Survey for 2012 and the
Periodic Labour Force Survey for 2019 and 2022.

X Table 2.7. Average monthly wages of casual workers, by wage quintiles, 2012, 2019 and 2022
(rupees, at 2012 prices)

Average real monthly wage

Monthly wage quintile
2012 2019 2022

Q1 (poorest) 2 042 1 670 2 991

Q2 3 049 2 938 4 403

Q3 3 785 3 976 5 831

Q4 4 796 5 150 7 047

Q5 (richest) 7 638 7 322 9 995

Source: Institute for Human Development’s calculations based on the unit-level data from the Employment and Unemployment Survey for 2012 and
the Periodic Labour Force Survey for 2019 and 2022.

Proportion of workers not receiving minimum wages

The Ministry of Labour and Employment regularly updates the daily minimum wage it prescribed for
workers engaged in various scheduled jobs across the country. The minimum wage (as of January 2017)
was fixed at 300 rupees for unskilled workers in the agriculture sector and at 350 rupees for unskilled
workers in the construction sector working in type C areas, which cover relatively smaller towns and the
rural areas of the country. The minimum wage was higher for workers in bigger cities and towns. Among
the various categories of workers based on their level of skill and sector or industry of work, the minimum
wage for unskilled workers in the agriculture sector was the lowest. The analysis of the proportion of
workers who might be deprived of even the minimum wage prescribed for unskilled workers in the
agriculture sector was based on the Periodic Labour Force Survey for 2022 (table 2.8) and revealed:
X At the all-India level, 40.8 per cent of regular workers and 51.9 per cent of casual workers did not
receive the average daily minimum wage prescribed for unskilled workers in the agriculture sector.

X Among the workers engaged in the construction sector, 39.3 per cent of regular workers and 69.5
per cent of casual workers did not receive the average daily minimum wage prescribed for unskilled
workers in the sector.
30 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 2.8. Percentage of workers not receiving average daily minimum wage, 2022
Regular workers Casual workers

Proportion not Proportion of Proportion of

Proportion not
getting minimum construction construction
getting minimum
wage prescribed for sector workers sector workers
wage prescribed for
unskilled workers in not getting not getting
unskilled workers in
the agricultural sector minimum wage minimum wage
the agricultural sector
by industry of work prescribed for prescribed for
unskilled workers unskilled workers
in the sector in the sector
Construction

Construction
Agriculture

Agriculture
All

All
India 73.9 27.2 40.8 39.3 76.2 36.5 51.9 69.5

Note: Major states entail Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand,
Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and West Bengal.
Source: Institute for Human Development’s calculations based on the unit-level data from the Periodic Labour Force Survey for 2022.

2.4.4 Change in the incidence of poverty

by household status of employment
The latest official estimates of poverty incidence, based on the concept of household consumer
expenditure, relate to 2012. The proportion of poor persons across households at the all-India level
during 2012 was 25.7 per cent for rural India and 13.7 per cent for urban India. By utilizing the unit-
level data of the Periodic Labour Force Survey for 2022, this report’s analysis sought to determine the
likely changes during the ten years (2012–22) in the proportion of poor persons across different types
of households classified according to status of employment, with the classification based on the source
of earning that brought maximum income to the households. The calculations involved the following
assumptions or steps.
X First, the official all-India poverty line for 2012 was inflated or adjusted separately (for the rural areas
and urban areas) to bring it to the level during the mid-point (January 2022) of the survey period of
the Periodic Labour Force Survey for 2022 to have the current (2022) adjusted poverty line by applying
the ratio of the Consumer Price Index number for the month of January 2022 to that for the month of
January 2012, which was the midpoint of the National Sample Survey 68th round (2012) on household
consumer expenditure, the data of which were used to derive the poverty line for 2012.

X Second, monthly household consumer expenditure based on the Periodic Labour Force Survey for
2022 was inflated by using an adjustment factor of 1.15 for the rural households and 1.12 for the
urban households to derive the adjusted monthly household consumer expenditure. Accordingly the
adjusted household monthly per capita expenditure was obtained by dividing the adjusted household
consumer expenditure by the household size. The adjustment factors used inputs from a study by
Manna and Mukhopadhyay (2024), who compared the National Sample Survey 68th round (2012) and
the Employment and Unemployment Survey for 2012 with the consumption expenditure round and
found that the latter underestimated the aggregate household consumer expenditure at the all-India
level by 10 per cent for rural India and 8 per cent for urban India. An allowance for a higher extent of
underestimation was considered in this report’s analysis because the Periodic Labour Force Survey for
2022 collected data on household consumer expenditure based on five items only, which was likely to
result in greater underreporting of the household consumer expenditure, as found from the National
Sample Survey’s 68th round.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 31

X Third, estimates on the proportion of persons with their adjusted household monthly per capita
expenditure below the adjusted or current (2022) poverty line was considered as the likely proportion
of poor persons across the different household types. This analysis in no way was an attempt to derive
either the current poverty line, which is a complex exercise by itself, or to find the exact proportion of
poor persons in the country. Instead, it was an attempt to infer the possible directional change in the
incidence of poverty across different types of households as per their employment status.

The broad findings regarding the likely change in the incidence of poverty across different types of
households are summarized in table 2.9. It may be reasonable to infer that there was a fair likelihood of
reduction in the incidence of poverty during the ten-year period, with the extent of reduction being much
more in rural India. The decline was much sharper among households whose major earnings come from
the engagement of household members as casual workers.

X Table 2.9. Change in the proportion of poor persons across household status of employment,
2012 and 2022 (%)

Sector Household employment status 2012 2022 Change

Rural Self-employed in non-agriculture 19.3 13.2 6.1

India
Self-employed in agriculture 16.8 11.9 4.9

Regular workers 7.6 7.2 0.4

Casual workers in agriculture 31.6 19.7 11.9

Casual workers in non-agriculture 27.8 21.6 6.2

Others 17.4 11.7 5.7

All 25.7 18.2 7.5

Urban Self-employed 15.3 10.0 5.3

India
Regular workers 7.4 5.7 1.7

Casual workers 33.0 20.8 12.2

Others 8.4 4.5 3.9

All 13.7 12.5 1.2

Source: Institute for Human Development’s calculations based on the unit-level data from the Employment and Unemployment Survey for 2012 and
the Periodic Labour Force Survey for 2019 and 2022.

X 2.5. Segmentation and inequality in the labour

market

Labour market segmentation is a dynamic process that categorizes workers into different groups.
Institutional, societal and structural factors contribute to this categorization (Srivastava 2019; Mazumdar
1978; Doeringer and Piore 1971). An early perspective of labour market theory proposed the concept
of “dual labour market segmentation”, with a primary and a secondary market. The primary market
has higher wages, better working conditions and more job security while the secondary market has
the inverse: lower wages, poor working conditions and lack of regulation. Later research focused on
formal and informal employment contracts, gender, race, ethnicity and class as determinants of labour
market segmentation (Papola 2012; Atkinson 1987). This section examines some basic facts about labour
market segmentation and inequalities based on social groups, income (household monthly per capita
32 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

expenditure) classes, gender and also differences across the geographical regions in terms of access
to better jobs, such as formal employment, organized sector employment, regular employment and
medium- and high-skill jobs (for definitions of skill types, see box 5).

2.5.1 Social groups

There is diversity in employment across the social categorizing in India. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes are lower in the social hierarchy than Other Backward Classes and General Category castes
(IHD 2014; Papola 2012). Despite affirmative action and targeted policies, the Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes still lag in terms of access to better jobs. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes have greater participation in work due to economic necessity but engaged more in low-paid
temporary casual wage work and informal employment (figure 2.9). They are also involved in low-skill
and no-skill jobs and have low levels of educational attainment. These factors contribute to their overall
lack of access to decent employment opportunities in the labour market (see appendix table A2.10a).

X Figure 2.9. Employment and other characteristics (UPSS, aged 15+), by social group, 2022 (%)
66.8 12.4 5.1 24.4
54.2 19.8 7.3 31.0
52.5 20.1 8.7 38.9
47.6 30.6 16.2 51.2

2.3 14.5 4.0 9.4

4.4 18.7 6.6 19.4
3.9 17.0 9.7 45.5
87.5
4.9 25.0 19.9 25.7

70

52.5
%

35

17.5

0
WPR UR RE ORG FOR HIGH/MED HEDU POP

ST SC OBC GC
Note: WPR=worker population ratio; UR=unemployment rate; RE=regular employment; ORG=organized sector; FOR=formal employment; HIGH/
MED=high- and medium-skill jobs (see box 5 for definitions); HEDU=secondary education and higher; and POP=population. The WPR and UR are rates
while the RE, ORG, FOR, HIGH/MED, HEDU and POP are shares. Scheduled Tribes (ST) and Scheduled Castes (SC) are regarded as lower in the social
hierarchy than Other Backward Classes (OBC) and the General Category castes (GC).
Source: Computed from the Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

2.5.2 Income classes

The distribution of employment characteristics across income classes, as proxied by household monthly
per capita consumption expenditure quintiles, reveals that workers from the lower-income categories
have lower educational endowments than workers in higher monthly expenditure quintiles. The former
are more involved in casual, informal and no-skill jobs, whereas persons from the higher categories
engage more in regular, formal and high- and medium-skill jobs that are of better quality (figure 2.10),
resulting in significant labour market inequality across the monthly expenditure quintiles. Workers from
the highest income categories have the lowest worker population ratio and the highest unemployment
rate, indicating that they can afford to wait longer for suitable jobs (see appendix table A2.10b).
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 33

X Figure 2.10. Employment (UPSS, aged 15+) characteristics, by income class (monthly per capita
expenditure quintiles), 2022 (%)

52.4 12.9 2.1 25.6

53.9 17.8 3.8 30.0
53.7 24.3 6.0 35.6
53.8 44.1 9.7 42.3
50.7 21.5 27.7 62.1

3.3 9.7 3.9

70.0
3.0 11.5 4.9
4.0 15.0 7.1
52.5 4.4 20.0 10.6
5.5 39.0 28.5
35
%

17.5

0
WPR UR RE ORG FOR HIGH/MED HEDU

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5

Note: Q1 (poorest); Q5 (richest). WPR=worker population ratio; UR=unemployment rate; RE=regular employment; ORG=organized sector; FOR=formal
employment; HIGH/MED=high- and medium-skill jobs (see box 5 for definitions); HEDU=education secondary level and higher; and POP=population.
The WPR and UR are rates while the RE, ORG, FOR, HIGH/MED, HEDU and POP are shares.
Source: Computed from the Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

2.5.3 Gender
Historically, women around the world have been denied opportunities in both society and the economy,
especially in developing countries like India, due to deep-rooted biases in the social system. As in many
countries, including India, gender discrimination is not limited to the domestic arena but also extends to
the labour market, leading to a range of inequalities. As discussed in the previous sections of this chapter,
women’s participation in work and their earnings are much lower than that of men, and they
overwhelmingly engage in self-employment, informal employment or no-skill manual jobs – much
more than their male counterparts (figure 2.11). Women had lower levels of educational attainment in
2022, with 33.6 per cent possessing a secondary education or higher, compared to 44.6 per cent of men
(see appendix table A2.10c). These factors contribute to the significant gender differences and barriers
in women’s participation in the Indian labour market.
34 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Figure 2.11. Employment (UPSS, aged 15+) characteristics, by gender, 2022 (%)

73.8 4.4 23.6 19.5 10.8 11.3 44.6 50.4

31.7 3.3 16.6 17.5 7.1 9.4 33.6 49.6

80.0

60.0

40.0
%

20.0

0
WPR UR RE ORG FOR HIGH/MED HEDU POP

Male Female
Note: WPR=worker population ratio; UR=unemployment rate; RE=regular employment; ORG=organized sector; FOR=formal employment; HIGH/
MED=high- and medium-skill jobs (see box 5 for definitions); HEDU=education secondary level and higher; and POP=population. The WPR and UR are
rates while the RE, ORG, FOR, HIGH/MED, HEDU and POP are shares.
Source: Computed from the Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

2.5.4. Regional distribution

There were considerable regional differences in India’s labour market as well. The geographical
distribution of employment characteristics shows that the share of regular, formal and organized
sector employment and high-skill jobs is significantly larger in the South, West and North-East
regions than in the East and Central regions in 2022 (figure 2.12). Some of the less economically
developed states, namely Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha, in the East and Uttar Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh in the Central region (see appendix table A2.10d) have poor employment outcomes. It is also
important to mention that the population aged 15 years and older in the East and Central regions also
had relatively poor educational outcomes when compared with the other regions(see appendix table
A2.10d).
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 35

X Figure 2.12. Employment (UPSS, aged 15+) characteristics, by geographical region, 2022 (%)
51.6 15.8 10.2 42.7
48.6 13.5 6.6 31.9
54.1 20.9 4.9 36.0
52.1 26.7 13.1 28.7
54.9 30.6 14.0 46.1
56.1 21.5 13.9 44.3

5.6 19.5 11.8 12.9

4.4 14.4 8.1 22.3
2.8 10.7 7.4 23.8
4.3 21.5 10.4 3.9
4.8 26.2 14.3 22.1
3.0 25.6 13.9 15.1
60.0

45.0

30.0
%

15.0

0
WPR UR RE ORG FOR HIGH/MED HEDU POP

North East Central North East South West

Note: The major 22 states were included in the analysis and divided into five regions: Central – Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh; East – Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand and Odisha; North – Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan; North-
East – Assam; South – Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Telangana; and West – Gujarat and Maharashtra. WPR=worker population
ratio; UR=unemployment rate; RE=regular employment; ORG=organized sector; FOR=formal employment; HIGH/MED=high- and medium-skill jobs
(see box 5 for definitions); HEDU=education secondary level and higher; and POP=population. The WPR and UR are rates while the RE, ORG, FOR,
HIGH/MED, HEDU and POP are shares.
Source: Computed from the Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

There is significant segmentation and inequality in the Indian labour market across various social and
income groups, gender and geographical regions. This implies that certain social groups or classes, such
as persons belonging to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes or persons in lower-income brackets,
face more formidable barriers to accessing formal and organized sector employment opportunities or
high-skill jobs. Similarly, women face discrimination or biases in hiring and promotion practices, resulting
in limited career advancement opportunities (Tabassum and Nayak 2021; Das and Kotikula 2019). The
geographical location of an individual also influences employment outcomes: Regions with lower
educational attainment or economic development may have fewer opportunities available, resulting in
large-scale migration of impoverished persons from the economically disadvantaged regions.

Migration rate and overall trends in migration

The discussion on employment pattern and growth in employment also requires looking at the trends
in the migration rate in the country and, more importantly, in the proportion of persons among the
migrants who migrated for employment-related reasons. During the past two decades (2000–21), the
overall migration rate in India increased marginally, by 2.1 percentage points, from 26.8 per cent to 28.9
per cent (figure 2.13). However, interestingly, the trend was opposite for men and women. While the
36 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

migration rate among women – being much higher than among men – increased by 5.5 percentage
points (from 42.4 per cent to 47.9 per cent) over the period, it declined by 1.4 percentage points (from
12.1 per cent to 10.7 per cent) for men.

X Figure 2.13. Migration rate in India, by gender, 2000, 2008 and 2021 (%)

28.5 10.9 47.2

26.8 28.9 12.1 10.7 42.4 47.9
50

37.5

25

12.5

0
Persons Males Females

2000 2008 2021

Source: Employment and Unemployment Survey for 2000; Employment, Unemployment and Migration Survey for 2007–08 and Periodic Labour Force
Survey for 2021.

X 2.6 Migration due to employment-related reasons

Among all migrants in 2021, about 10.7 per cent of them migrated due to employment purposes, which
included searching for employment or better employment, transfer, proximity to place of work and lack
of employment opportunities in the previous place of residence. This proportion, being as low as 1.7 per
cent among women (for which the analysis is not shown) was 49.6 per cent among the men, with the
states and union territories that had a corresponding larger proportion than the national average being
Delhi (87.1 per cent), Karnataka (63.2 per cent) and Maharashtra (59.5 per cent) (table 2.10).
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 37

X Table 2.10. Proportion of migrants who migrated for employment-related reasons and overall
migration rate, by major states and union territories, 2021 (%)

Proportion of persons
among the migrants
who migrated due to
State or union territory Overall migration rate
employment related
reasons among the
males

Andhra Pradesh 46.9 31.6

Andhra Pradesh including Telangana 50.2 29.0

Assam 54.7 23.7

Bihar 39.0 14.2

Chhattisgarh 54.9 30.4

Delhi 87.1 27.6

Gujarat 51.4 31.9

Haryana 54.7 29.0

Himachal Pradesh 49.3 38.1

Jammu & Kashmir 38.3 22.1

Jharkhand 44.6 28.3

Karnataka 63.2 32.5

Kerala 37.2 41.2

Madhya Pradesh 50.9 31.8

Maharashtra 59.9 29.3

Odisha 46.4 33.1

Punjab 44.4 29.3

Rajasthan 46.5 28.5

Tamil Nadu 46.3 36.3

Telangana 56.2 25.2

Uttar Pradesh 35.9 28.4

Uttarakhand 48.8 35.0

West Bengal 48.5 31.7

All India 49.6 28.9

Source: Computed from the Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2021.
38 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X 2.7 Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on

employment

As evident from the analysis in the preceding sections, there was a break in the structural trends in the
labour market and employment after 2019 due to the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdowns.
Although India recovered rather quickly, it seems that the impacts of the lockdowns persisted even when
the pandemic ended. This section analyses the impact of the pandemic on the Indian labour market,
based on short-term annual and quarterly trends of the employment characteristics available in the
Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2019, 2020, 2021 and 2022.

2.7.1 Employment trends during and after the pandemic

The Indian labour market showed considerable quarterly variation during the pandemic. Two of the
key labour market indicators – the LFPR and the worker population ratio – sharply declined while
the unemployment rate rose in the peak pandemic quarters in 2020 and 2021. They recovered in the
subsequent quarters, reaching the pre-pandemic levels and have shown continued improvement
in the post-pandemic period (figure 2.14). These changes are largely attributed to increased women’s
participation in the labour market in rural areas. However, other changes that show a retrogression in the
structure of employment do not indicate a full recovery in the final year (2022) covered in this report. Any
analysis of the labour market during the pandemic period must contend with these apparent opposing
realities.
The LFPR increased steadily over the years, from the 50.2 per cent in 2019 to the 55.2 per cent in 2022 (see
appendix tables A2.1–A2.3). Similarly, the worker population ratio also increased, from 47.3 per cent in
2019 to 52.9 per cent in 2022. In absolute terms, 63.5 million additional persons joined the labour force
and 68.1 million additional persons joined the workforce between 2019 and 2021. Consequently,
the unemployment rate and the number of unemployed persons declined by 1.6 percentage points
and 4.6 million, respectively. The female LFPR and worker population ratio increased significantly more
than what those rates did among their male counterparts between 2019 and 2020 and between 2020 and
2021, particularly in rural areas. Between 2021 and 2022, the LFPR increased at a similar pace for men
as well as women – from 77 per cent to 77.2 per cent for men and from 32.2 per cent to 32.5 per cent for
women. In absolute numbers, the labour force and the workforce increased much more in rural areas
(at 47 million workers and 51.3 million workers, respectively) than in urban areas (at 16.5 million and 16.8
million persons, respectively) between 2019 and 2021.
The post-pandemic recovery and the upward movement in the quarterly employment rates
suggest positive trends. But these results must be moderated on the basis of the quality of
employment generated and the changing structure of the workforce, which is examined in
sections 2.4 and 2.6.2. The quarterly data from the Periodic Labour Force Survey show the impact of the
pandemic on each quarter. The worker population ratio started declining, from nearly 48 per cent in the
fourth quarter of 2019 (October–December) to 42.6 per cent in the second quarter of 2020 (April–June),
which also included a nationwide lockdown period (figure 2.15). However, the worker population ratio
quickly recovered, to 49 per cent in the first quarter of 2021 (January–March), only to decline to 45.7 per
cent in the second quarter of 2021, coinciding with the second COVID-19 wave and local lockdowns. This
again recovered, to 48 per cent in the third quarter (July–Sept) of 2021 and showed further improvement
in the subsequent quarters. During the same period, the unemployment rate also increased significantly,
to 11.8 per cent in the second quarter of 2020 and then to 8.1 per cent in the second quarter of 2021, which
consistently reduced to 5.1 per cent by the second quarter of 2022.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 39

X Figure 2.14. Quarterly key labour market indicators (CWS, aged 15+), 2019Q3 (July-September)
to 2022Q2 (April–June) (%)

47.7 47.7 47.0 49.0 48.0 48.6

48.0 42.6 48.1 45.7 49.0 48.3
50

37.5

25
%

6.1 6.7 7.4 5.9 6.4 5.7

6.0 11.8 6.2 8.1 5.5 5.1
12.5

0
Q3_2019

Q4_2019

Q1_2020

Q2_2020

Q3_2020

Q4_2020

Q1_2021

Q2_2021

Q3_2021

Q4_2021

Q1_2022

Q2_2022
WPR UR
Note: The nationwide lockdown period began 25 March 2020 and ended on 17 May 2020 (2020Q1: January–March and 2020Q2: April–June). WPR=worker
population ratio; UR=unemployed rate.
Source: Computed from the Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2019 and 2021.

2.7.2 Impact of the pandemic on quality of employment and

sectoral change
The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic was evaluated using broad employment indicators, as previously
done by several scholars (Abraham et al. 2022; Behera et al. 2021; Ghose 2020; Kannan and Khan
2020; Kesar et al. 2020). The analysis presented here is based on the employment status and sectoral
employment patterns.
The number of workers in the self-employment category increased consistently during the
pandemic years and continued into 2022, particularly in vulnerable unpaid family work in rural
areas and among women. In contrast, the number of people engaged in regular formal, informal
and casual employment increased at a slower pace during the pandemic period and declined
afterward, with the exception of casual employment. The number of self-employed individuals
increased by 27.4 million in 2020, by 24.8 million in 2021 and by 10.8 million in 2022. Of the total additional
people who joined the workforce, self-employed persons comprised more than 69 per cent in 2020, 87
per cent in 2021 and nearly all in 2022, largely consisting of unpaid family workers (table 2.11). There
were more women involved in unpaid family work, while more men were involved in own-account
work. Working as an unpaid helper in a family-owned enterprise is a particularly inferior form of work
because it does not lead to independent income or increase women’s participation in the public sphere
(Deshpande 2020). The increase in employment in unpaid family work for women was more than three
times that of their male counterparts. More than three fourths of the additional people who joined self-
employment work were in rural areas (see appendix table A2.11).
40 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 2.11. Changes in status of employment (UPSS, aged 15+), pre- and post-pandemic,
2019–22 (millions)

Employed persons Additional employment

2019 2020 2021

2019 2020 2021 2022 to to to
2020 2021 2022

Regular employment 115.6 120.3 121.9 118.1 4.7 1.6 -3.8

Regular formal employment 47.5 48.7 52.4 51.6 1.2 3.7 -0.8

Regular informal employment 68.1 71.6 69.5 66.5 3.5 -2.1 -3.0

Casual worker 109.9 116.2 119.4 122.2 6.3 3.2 2.8

Self-employed 241.1 268.5 293.3 304.1 27.4 24.8 10.8

Own-account worker 170.1 179.3 193.5 195.5 9.2 14.2 2.0

Employer 10.7 11 11.3 13.9 0.3 0.3 2.6

Unpaid family worker 60.3 78.2 88.5 94.8 17.9 10.3 6.3

Total 466.5 506.1 534.6 544.5 39.6 28.5 9.9

Source: Computed from the Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2019, 2020, 2021 and 2022.

Other studies corroborate these findings: Abraham et al. (2022), Behera et al. (2021) and Deshpande
(2020) pointed out that women’s participation increased as they sought to supplement falling household
income at the time of the pandemic-related slowdown. A large part of this increase in employment
was due to rural women joining the workforce as self-employed workers in agriculture. Some studies
investigating the links between the pandemic-related income shocks and the female LFPR also found that
the probability of women’s employment increased in households that had experienced sharp negative
shocks induced by the lockdowns (see Bansal and Mahajan 2021). Women were several times more
likely to lose their paid job than men and far less likely to recover work after the restrictions were lifted
(APU 2021). In particular, women and youths, irrespective of the nature or industry of work, were more
vulnerable to losing work and not returning to paid work (ILO 2022c; Despande 2020).
There was some increase in less remunerative employment during the pandemic period, which
persisted to some extent into the post-pandemic years. The rise in employment in subsistence
agriculture, either as own-account workers or unpaid family workers, as well as in casual workers in the
construction sector, indicates that a large number of poor migrants returning to their native home and
marginal workers may have been compelled to work in these sectors in rural areas for their livelihood.
The changes in real monthly wages and earnings are shown in table 2.12. These results illustrate that
the negative impact of COVID-19 was felt strongly on wages during the peak pandemic years, with some
recovery in 2022. Casual wages grew slowly during the first year (2020), in which the last 14 weeks were
affected by a lockdown, and at a negligible rate during 2021. But the growth rate of casual wages revived
during the recovery year (2022). Both the growth rate of regular and self-employed earnings remained
low or negative right up to 2021 but grew during 2022. Overall, as mentioned in section 2.4.3, the regular
wages of both female and male workers experienced a small negative growth rate between 2018 and
2022. However, female self-employed workers experienced a considerably higher negative growth rate
in earnings compared with men. Additionally, women’s casual wages exhibited a slightly higher growth
rate than what it was for men.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 41

X Table 2.12. Annual growth rate of real monthly wages and earnings (rupees), 2018–22 (%)

Casual wages Regular wages Self-employed

Period
Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

2018–19 4.20 4.12 4.53 -0.29 -0.68 0.06 0.74 6.91 -1.05

2019–20 2.90 5.69 1.68 0.31 1.38 -0.61 0.52 -4.28 -1.95

2020–21 0.02 1.68 0.39 -2.02 -7.94 -3.03 4.83 -12.94 -6.07

2021–22 5.10 3.26 5.76 0.27 5.95 1.61 7.67 1.18 5.89

Source: Computed from the Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2019, 2020, 2021 and 2022.

The broad sectoral analysis found that the number of people engaged in construction, trade,
manufacturing and information and communication services either remained stable or had a small
increase between 2019 and 2022, whereas the agriculture sector had a consistent and considerable
increase in employment. The number of workers in the agriculture and allied sectors increased by
30.8 million in 2020, 12.1 million in 2021 and 12.9 million in 2022 (table 2.13). Yet, employment in the
construction sector also consistently increased, by 2.4 million, 5.7 million and 3.3 million, respectively.
The quarterly data indicate that people lost their jobs in manufacturing, construction, trade, hotels and
restaurants and even some in the farm sector during the nationwide lockdown. Once the lockdown was
lifted, employment in the agriculture and construction sectors considerably increased, confirming the
annual sectoral changes in employment during the pandemic period.
42 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 2.13. Changes in sectoral employment (UPSS, aged 15+ pre- and post-pandemic, 2019–22
(millions)

Number Additional employment

Sectors
2019 2020 2021 2022 2020 2021 2022

Agriculture, forestry and fishing 190.7 221.5 233.6 246.5 30.8 12.1 12.9

Mining and quarrying 2.0 1.4 1.7 1.8 -0.6 0.3 0.1

Manufacturing 57.8 58.1 61.5 63.2 0.3 3.4 1.7

Electricity, gas, water supply and 2.7 3.2 3.3 3.0 0.5 0.1 -0.3
other utility services

Construction 56.5 58.9 64.6 67.9 2.4 5.7 3.3

Trade 52.2 61.2 60.9 56.8 9.0 -0.3 -4.1

Hotels and restaurants 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 0.0 0.5 0.0

Transport and storage 22.7 23.3 23.7 22.7 0.6 0.4 -0.1

Postal and courier activities 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.9 -0.1 0.1 0.1

Information and communications 5.0 5.1 6.0 7.0 0.1 0.9 1.0
services

Financial services 5.8 5.7 6.0 5.6 -0.1 0.3 -0.4

Business services 4.5 4.2 4.3 10.6 -0.3 0.1 6.3

Public administration and defence 8.1 8.1 8.7 8.3 0.0 0.6 -0.4

Education and health 23.8 23.3 23.7 22.9 -0.5 0.4 -0.8

Other services 25.0 21.3 26.2 17.7 -3.7 4.9 -8.5

Total 446.5 505.1 534.6 544.5 38.6 29.5 9.9

Source: Computed from the Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2019, 2020, 2021 and 2022.

The analysis found that apart from causing loss of jobs of regular salaried workers, the COVID-19
pandemic also affected the quality of employment. The disruptions put pressure on households to either
start their own economic enterprise or involve other family members in unpaid work to cope with the
financial strain caused by the pandemic responses. Specifically, the pandemic pushed many workers
to return to their native rural home, where they primarily engaged in self-employment or casual work
in agriculture or construction. Non-working family members, such as women in urban areas prior to
the pandemic, were also pushed to engage in livelihood activities, resulting in a substantial increase
in self-employment in agriculture during the pandemic years. It has been argued that during times of
exogenous shocks, households, especially those who are poor and vulnerable, are forced to protect their
livelihoods by creating some form of economic activity (Chand 2023; Kannan and Khan 2020).
The significant increase in self-employment in rural areas during the pandemic years was accounted
for by the incremental workforce created by the exodus of migrant labourers from different parts of
the country back to their native rural areas, which was a troubling scene to watch. The poor quality of
additional employment and decline in underemployment during the pandemic and afterward was also
reflected in the decrease in the average real monthly earnings of regular and self-employed categories
of workers, along with only a small increase in casual wages, as discussed earlier in this section.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 43

X 2.8. Implications of technological advancement and

digitalization on employment

2.8.1 Technological advancement and employment

The economic disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic has changed work patterns and accelerated
the adoption and demand for digital technologies across various industries and the services sector. This
rapid integration of digital solutions offers potential for enhanced operational efficiency and productivity.
But the rise of digital technologies is causing significant changes in the structure of the global labour
market. Digital technologies are replacing or automating existing jobs and creating new ones, leading
to job polarization and income inequalities in developed countries (Autor 2019; Jaimovich and Siu 2018;
Acemoglu and Autor 2011). However, studies of those trends mostly focused on developed economies
and cannot be generalized to developing countries like India. It is thus important to understand the
impact of new technologies on skill demand and job polarization in the Indian labour market.
For that analysis, this section uses the National Occupational Classification (NCO) 2004 framework based
on labour tasks. Some studies have used this classification in developing countries to understand the
impact of technological change on the labour market (see Kuriakose and Iyer 2018; Sarkar 2018; Vashist
and Dubey 2018; Vashist 2017). Labour tasks are classified into routine and non-routine, cognitive and
manual tasks, and skill and no-skill categories, which are further divided into no-skill, low-skill, medium-
skill and high-skill categories (see box 6 for definitions). To perform long-term comparative analysis, the
NCO-1968 classification was converted to the NCO-2004 classification for 2000.

X Box 6. Skill level based on occupation or task workers, shop and market sales workers, craft and
performed related trade workers).
Medium skill (III): Typically involves performance of
The following are national classifications based on the complex technical and practical tasks that require an
National Classification of Occupations (NCO-04 and extensive body of factual, technical and procedural
NCO-15) regarding skill level, as defined in International knowledge in a specialized field (NCO code 3 for
Classification of Occupations-08. professional and technical associates).
No skill (I): Typically involves the performance of High skill (IV): Typically involves the performance of
simple and routine physical or manual tasks (NCO tasks that require complex problem-solving, decision-
code 9: elementary occupations or unskilled workers, making and creativity based on an extensive body of
such as domestic helpers, cleaners, street vendors and theoretical and factual knowledge in a specialized field
garbage collectors). (NCO code 2).The concept of skill level was not applied in
Low skill (II): Typically involves the performance of the case of NCO code 1 (legislators, senior officials and
such tasks as operating machinery and electronic manager who are grouped together) because skills for
equipment, driving vehicles, maintenance and repair of executing task and duties of these occupations varied
electrical and mechanical equipment and manipulation, to such an extent that it was not feasible to link them
ordering and storage information (NCO codes 4–8 for with any of the four broad skill levels.
low-skilled works, such as clerical workers, service Source: ILO 2012.
44 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

The share of high- and medium-skill jobs increased from 5.1 per cent in 2000 to 9.6 per cent in 2019, while
low-skill jobs increased from 60.5 per cent to 65.1 per cent. Simultaneously, the share of no-skill jobs
decreased from 34.4 per cent to 25.4 per cent. These trends suggest a rise in high- and medium-skill
jobs and a decline in no-skill or routine-type jobs. However, the trend shifted, with a consistent increase
in low-skill jobs and a decrease in high- and medium-skill jobs between 2019 and 2022 (figure 2.15).
This indicates a sustained increase in the supply of low-skilled labour in the job market because many
individuals were compelled to work to support their family income, as discussed in the previous section.

X Figure 2.15. Occupation-based skill structure of employment (UPSS, aged 15+), 2000, 2012,
2019 and 2022 (%)

34.4 25.4 60.5 65.1 5.1 9.6

29.5 25.0 63.0 67.2 7.5 7.7

70.0

52.5

35.0
%

17.5

0.0
Unskilled Low High/Medium

2000 2012 2019 2022

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.

The manufacturing sector consistently experienced an increase in the share of high- and medium-skill
(2.9–6.7 per cent) and no-skill jobs (9.7–20.4 per cent) between 2000 and 2022 (figure 2.16). However,
this trend did not apply to all enterprises. In the Indian manufacturing sector, more than 90 per cent of
enterprises are micro and small and informal, relying heavily on manual and unskilled labour for their
operations, as documented by Mehta, Laha and Sharma (2022), Goldar (2014) and Mazumdar and Sarkar
(2013). This trend was more prevalent in the formal, capital-intensive and modern manufacturing sectors,
such as automobiles, electronics and pharmaceutical units.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 45

X Figure 2.16. Skill level in manufacturing sector employment (UPSS, aged 15+), 2000, 2012,
2019 and 2022 (%)

9.7 18.7 87.4 75.5 2.9 5.9

13.6 20.4 81.4 72.8 5.0 6.7

90.0

67.5

45.0
%

22.5

0.0
Unskilled Low High/Medium

2000 2012 2019 2022

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.

In the services sector, the share of high- and medium-skill jobs in public administration, health and
education (45.1 per cent) and financial, business and real estate (42.3 per cent) is much higher than in
transport, storage and communication (19.7 per cent) and trade, hotels and restaurants (3 per cent) (table
2.14). On the contrary, the share of low- and no-skill jobs are predominant in trade, hotels and restaurants
(97 per cent). In particular, the share of high- and medium-skill jobs consistently increased among the
transport, storage and communication category between 2000 and 2022 (from 2.7 per cent to 19.7 per
cent), which includes information and communication technology-related services. The demand for high-
and medium-skilled ICT workers accelerated during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.

X Table 2.14. Skill level in services sector employment (UPSS, aged 15+), 2000–22 (%)

Trade, hotels and Transport, storage and Finance, business Public administration,
restaurants communications and real estate health and education

2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022

No skill 11.0 13.8 10.3 9.5 41.3 21.2 12.6 9.3 8.0 12.2 10.5 9.7 24.9 17.6 14.0 14.2
Low skill 86.7 79.3 82.3 87.5 56.1 66.6 72.6 71.0 52.6 38.9 45.4 47.9 31.7 35.4 36.7 40.7
High and
2.2 6.9 7.4 3.0 2.7 12.2 14.8 19.7 39.4 48.9 44.0 42.3 43.5 47.0 49.3 45.1
medium skill
Medium skill 1.7 1.6 2.2 1.3 1.9 3.7 6.0 3.5 21.0 29.9 27.0 20.9 25.1 23.2 25.8 8.4
High skill 0.5 5.3 5.3 1.7 0.8 8.5 8.8 16.2 18.4 19.0 17.0 21.4 18.4 23.8 23.5 36.7
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.

Technological changes have increased the employment of highly skilled labour and reduced employment
of low-skilled labour (often in absolute terms) in the manufacturing and services sectors over the past
two decades (Ghose and Mehta 2022). Unlike in developed economies, however, the technological change
46 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

has not reduced the employment of medium-skilled labour in absolute terms. In addition, technological
advancement in India has led to demand for high- or medium-skilled workers in select sectors, such
as large and medium-sized manufacturing enterprises and modern services, like information and,
communication and software services, but at a much lower level than in developed economies. The
robotization rate in India is still very low, accounting for only 0.8 per cent of the global robots, with 4,945
industrial robots in 2021, and is largely confined to capital-intensive industries and medium-sized and
large services units, where it is used in few tasks with a low chance of displacing low-skilled and unskilled
labour to a large extent in the near future (Ghose 2023; Mani 2022; Mehta et al. 2022). The impacts of
technological changes and capital intensity on output and employment are further examined in Chapter 3.

2.8.2 Digitalization and employment

The rapid growth of digitization in the form of advancements in internet data connectivity and the
availability of high-speed computers, laptops and smartphones are reshaping the world of work,
providing new opportunities for companies and individuals to hire the services of freelancers on a
flexible or temporary basis. This type of short-term contractual task-based work is commonly known as
the platform or gig economy and offers people with different skill sets income opportunities and work
flexibility, although it also often entails poor working conditions and no social security benefits. Despite
these challenges, the gig economy showed resilience even during the COVID-19 pandemic, when many
services were delivered directly to people’s doorsteps.
There are several estimates of the number of gig workers in India. In 2021, the Boston Consulting
Group (2021) estimated gig economy jobs in India at between 8 million and 18 million, with a
projection of more than 90 million in the next eight to ten years. According to a National Institution
for Transforming India (NITI Aayog) study,10 there were 7.7 million gig workers in 2021, constituting 2.6
per cent of the total non-farm workers, or 1.5 per cent of the total workforce in India. However, the
estimates of gig workers based on the Periodic Labour Force Survey data should be used cautiously
because the data lack sufficient indicators to estimate gig and platform workers.
Despite the potential for rather large employment opportunities, there are growing concerns
about the work offered in the gig economy. Working conditions on digital platforms are largely
regulated by the terms of service agreements, which often characterize the contractual relationship
between the platform owner and worker as something other than employment, making it difficult for
platform workers to access workplace protections and entitlements. It has been pointed out that on-
demand app-based service aggregator companies in India have poor working conditions.11 The lack
of job security, irregular wages and uncertain employment status for workers pose significant
challenges for gig or platform work (NITI Aayog 2022). This effectively reproduces or produces new
forms of informality and can further deteriorate working conditions. Further, the uncertainty associated
with work and income regularity also leads to increased stress and pressure for gig economy workers.

10 See www.niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2023- 06/Policy_Brief_India%27s_Booming_Gig_and_Platform_Economy_2706202.

11 As documented by the Fairwork Project initiated by Oxford University researchers, of 11 companies, only two (Flipkart
and Urban Company) scored 5 or more out of 10 in the fair work score, based on five principles: pay, conditions, contracts,
management and representation.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 47

X 2.9 Employment condition index

To assess the regional differences and progress in quality and conditions of employment, a composite
index – employment condition index (box 7) – was constructed for 22 major states of India.

X Box 7. Employment condition index methodology below the poverty line receive a better ranking in the
index.
Although this report uses the usual principal and Average monthly earnings of casual workers: This
subsidiary status (UPSS) criteria for employment represents the average monthly wages of casual
consistently, the usual principal activity status criteria workers. States offering higher casual wages receive a
were used to construct an “employment condition better ranking in the index.
index” for capturing employment conditions relatively
better than the UPSS because of longer duration of Unemployment rate of youths with a secondary
work in a year. The employment condition index was or higher level of education: This indicates the
constructed for 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022 using the proportion of youths who are educated above the
following seven indicators. secondary level but are unemployed. States with a low
educated youth unemployment rate receive a better
Percentage of workers employed in regular formal ranking.
work: This represents the proportion of formal workers
in the total workforce, with states that have a larger Youth not in employment, education or training.
proportion of regular formal workers receiving a better This propor tion addresses a broad array of
ranking in the index. vulnerabilities among youths, touching on issues of
unemployment, early school leaving and labour market
Worker population ratio: This represents the discouragement. States with a smaller proportion
proportion of working individuals in total population. of youths not in employment, education or training
States with a high worker population ratio receive a receive a better ranking.
better ranking in the index.
The employment condition index calculation employs
Proportion of casual workers: This indicates the the maximum–minimum range method, wherein the
percentage of casual workers in the total workforce. range is determined by the difference between the
States with a small proportion of casual workers receive maximum and minimum values of each indicator. The
a better ranking in the index. maximum and minimum values, referred to as the
Proportion of self-employed workers with income goalposts, are assumed at 20 per cent higher and 20
below the poverty line: This reflects the proportion per cent lower than the actual maximum and minimum
of self-employed workers living below the poverty values. The employment condition index values
line, calculated using the poverty line figures provided range between 0 and 1, with 1 denoting the highest
by the National Institution for Transforming India possible score. The composite index value is derived by
(formerly the Planning Commission). These figures averaging the values of all seven indicators.
were adjusted using the consumer price indices to Note: A similar index, the employment situation index, was constructed for the
determine the poverty line for 2019 and 2022. States India Labour and Employment Report 2014. Variables used in the 2014 index
(except unionization of informal workers) were kept in the 2024 index but an addi-
with a small proportion of self-employed workers living tional variable – youths not in employment, education or training – was added. For
details, see IHD 2014: 86–89.

Table 2.15 shows the employment condition index ranking for the 22 states for 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022.
Figure 2.17 depicts the index ranking for quintile of the 22 states in 2022, from the lowest quintile (1) to
the highest quintile (5). The overall employment condition index value suggests a gradual but consistent
improvement in employment conditions for all of India over the past 17 years, which increased from 0.40
48 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

in to 0.65 in 2022. Additionally, all 22 states showed improvement in their employment condition index
value, albeit to varying extent.

X Figure 2.17. Overall employment condition index

35

30

25

20

15

10

70 75 80 85 90 95

1 2 3 4 5 NA
Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.

Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Delhi, Telangana and Jammu and Kashmir in the northern regions
consistently ranked in the top positions in the employment condition index, reflecting their robust
economic and employment conditions. Specifically, the consistent top position of Himachal Pradesh,
Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir and Uttarakhand in the index can be primarily attributed to the improvement
in employment conditions among women (see appendix table A2.12b).
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 49

The economically underdeveloped states of Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand and West Bengal in the eastern
region, along with Uttar Pradesh in the northern region, consistently ranked lower in the employment
condition index. In particular, Haryana in the northern region ranked among the top ten states until 2019,
and then experienced a significant decline in its rank in 2022. This decline was attributed to a decrease
in the worker population ratio, an increase in the proportion of casual and self-employed workers living
below the poverty line and a rise in the share of youths not in employment, education or training. Punjab
in the north-western region, despite showing improvements between 2005 and 2012, fell into a consistent
decline in its index rank thereafter. This decline was linked to a decrease in the share of regular formal
employment and an increase in the proportion of casual workers and self-employed workers living below
the poverty line. The decline in the index ranking in Haryana and Punjab is credited to a deterioration of
employment conditions, particularly among men in these states (see appendix table A2.12a).

X Table 2.15. Employment condition index, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022

2005 2012 2019 2022

State

Score Ranking Score Ranking Score Ranking Score Ranking

Delhi 0.60 1 0.70 1 0.61 1 0.79 1

Himachal Pradesh 0.56 2 0.65 2 0.57 2 0.67 2

Uttarakhand 0.55 3 0.54 6 0.49 9 0.59 4

Jammu & Kashmir 0.53 4 0.53 9 0.52 4 0.55 8

Telangana 0.51 5 0.55 4 0.42 16 0.60 3

Rajasthan 0.49 6 0.51 11 0.43 15 0.55 9

Gujarat 0.49 7 0.52 10 0.51 6 0.57 5

Haryana 0.48 8 0.56 3 0.53 3 0.54 12

Tamil Nadu 0.48 9 0.50 12 0.52 5 0.56 7

Maharashtra 0.47 10 0.54 5 0.48 10 0.55 10

Karnataka 0.46 11 0.53 8 0.49 8 0.54 14

Madhya Pradesh 0.45 12 0.45 15 0.41 18 0.49 18

Punjab 0.45 13 0.54 7 0.48 11 0.53 16

Chhattisgarh 0.44 14 0.44 16 0.46 12 0.54 15

Andhra Pradesh 0.43 15 0.48 13 0.44 14 0.54 11

Jharkhand 0.42 16 0.39 20 0.36 20 0.49 20

Uttar Pradesh 0.40 17 0.41 17 0.38 19 0.49 19

Assam 0.39 18 0.40 19 0.44 13 0.54 13

West Bengal 0.35 19 0.41 18 0.42 17 0.51 17

Kerala 0.34 20 0.46 14 0.50 7 0.56 6

Bihar 0.32 21 0.33 22 0.29 22 0.41 22

Odisha 0.26 22 0.39 21 0.32 21 0.41 21

India 0.40 0.52 0.50 0.65

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
50 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

The economically advanced Kerala State in the southern region demonstrated consistent improvement
in its employment condition index ranking over time, landing among the top ten states in 2022. This
transformation was attributed to a reduction in the share of youths not in employment, education or
training and an increase in the proportion of formal regular workers, particularly among women (see
appendix table A2.13c). Similarly, both Tamil Nadu in the southern region and Gujarat in the western
region consistently improved their index ranking. Tamil Nadu achieved this by increasing its worker
population ratio and decreasing its share of casual workers and youth unemployment mainly among
men over time (see appendix tables A2.15b and A2.18b). Gujarat’s improvement was credited to an
increase in the share of regular formal employment and a decrease in the proportion of self-employed
workers living below the poverty line, a trend that was particularly pronounced among men in the state.
Some other states, such as Madhya Pradesh in the central region, experienced a decline in their
employment condition index ranking due to a decrease in the share of regular formal employment and
an increase in the share of youths not in employment, education or training. Rajasthan in the western
region improved its index ranking, primarily due to a decrease in the share of casual workers and the
proportion of youths not in employment, education or training. And Maharashtra’s index ranking
remained stable throughout the study period.

X 2.10 Summing up

The analysis of main trends and patterns in the Indian labour market covering the past two decades
(2000–22) in this chapter revealed interesting findings.
Since 2018, there has been an upturn in the key labour market indicators, which include labour force
participation, workforce participation and the unemployment rate. This upturn constitutes a structural
shift from the previous two decades. This trend continued during the COVID-19 pandemic and is all
the more marked for women workers. However, analysis of this seemingly positive feature must be
tempered by the nature of employment that was largely created during the recent period.
The basic long-term feature of the employment situation in India continues to be insufficient growth
of the non-farm sectors and the ability of these sectors to absorb workers from agriculture. This is
notwithstanding the fact that non-farm employment grew at a higher rate than farm employment over
the different periods prior to 2018. After 2018, there was a structural break in several labour market
indicators and it accelerated during the pandemic. These structural features were retained even during
the recovery from the pandemic in 2022. The shift was accompanied by other important changes in the
labour market. Contrary to the earlier period when there was a gradual shift from agriculture to non-
agriculture, agriculture employment significantly increased between 2019 and 2022, with the bulk of the
employment accounted for by an increase in women’s self-employment in unpaid family work, which is
essentially a subsistence activity. This increase may be seen as mainly a response to crises and implies
a reversal of the Kuznets–Lewis process of structural change over the most recent period (2019–22)
analysed in this report.
The LFPR declined between 2000 and 2019 mainly due to the decline in the female LFPR. But this, too, was
completely reversed during the pandemic years due to the significant increase in women’s workforce
participation. This also was mainly due to the huge rise in women’s self-employment activities. In a way,
however, it shows that a large number of women are ready to work due to economic compulsion and if
offered some remunerative opportunities. This increase in the female LFPR is an important indicator of
change regarding gender equality and improving livelihoods.
Before the pandemic, the aggregate employment slowly increased mainly due to a fall in agriculture
employment. Labour from agriculture was mainly absorbed by the construction and services sectors
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 51

and not manufacturing, unlike the historical pattern as experienced in the now-developed countries.
This led to a slow and rather stunted structural transformation in India, which is discussed in greater
detail in Chapter 3.
Employment conditions remain poor, with around 90 per cent of workers being informal. However,
over the years, there was overall improvement in employment conditions, as manifested by the growth
in regular and organized sector workers. This is also shown by the consistent decline in the incidence
of poverty among the various categories of households. The overall improvement in the quality
of employment over time is also manifested in the increase in the employment quality index. At the
same time, the economic slowdown that started in the second half of the past decade, followed by the
pandemic, resulted in a rise in the poor quality of employment, with declining real earnings among self-
employed and regular workers and that particularly affected the earnings of women, which remains a
huge concern.
There are widespread livelihood insecurities, with only a small percentage being covered with social
protection measures, precisely in the non-agriculture sector, but even in the organized sector. Worse,
there has been a rise in contractualization, with only a small percentage of regular workers covered by
long-term contracts.
The segmentation and inequalities in the labour market in terms of social groups, location (rural–urban),
gender and geographical regions remain rather high. Some of these inequalities somewhat narrowed
over time, but they require policy attention for generating greater employment opportunities for the
relatively disadvantaged populations.
New technologies are slowly changing the labour market structure, with increases in capital intensity in
various sectors. Skill composition has been gradually changing with the increase in jobs requiring high
skills and the decrease in jobs requiring limited skills. This has implications for the supply and demand
for skilled work, which is analysed in greater detail in the chapters that follow, but is worrisome for a
country like India and its large stock of workers lacking job-related skills.
In sum, the positive trends observed in the labour market will result in positive outcomes overall if the
pace and quality of jobs generated in the non-farm sectors can pick up considerably and if there is a
greater match between the demand and supply of skills in the context of technological change.
52 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills
X3
Growth and employment

X 3.1 Introduction

The relationship between economic growth and employment holds special significance as a key
outcome in the process of structural transformation for developing economies, such as India. Drawing
from the historical development experiences of today’s developed world, structural transformation
typically entails shifting the underemployed labour force from low-productivity sectors, notably within
agriculture, to high-productivity sectors within modern manufacturing and services (as outlined by Lewis
in 1954 and later by Kuznets and Murphy in 1966).12

12 For discussion on various theories and a sustainable framework for India, see Ghose 2021.
54 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

In this context, a central challenge in fostering a sustainable and equitable growth process in India
revolves around ensuring structural changes that not only contribute to higher growth rates but also lead
to a more productive utilization of the country’s underutilized labour force and an equitable distribution
of income. Successful structural transformation must address the dual objectives of achieving higher
growth and creating more productive and better-paying employment opportunities. This necessitates a
deeper exploration of the processes of structural transformation at the sectoral level within an economy.
This chapter extends the discussion initiated in Chapter 2, which comprehensively examined employment
trends and the quality of employment. It delves into the growth patterns and structural transformation
of the Indian economy over the past two decades, with particular focus on the nature and scope of the
sectoral and productive employment growth.
This chapter’s analysis draws from multiple data sources, including the Employment and Unemployment
Surveys and the Periodic Labour Force Surveys, the National Accounts Statistics, the Reserve Bank of
India-KLEMS and the Annual Survey of Industries database (see box 8). To highlight the broad trends,
the chapter provides estimates of growth rates in output, and employment at overall as well as broad
sectoral levels by using annual average compound growth rates for most purposes. It’s important to note
that, unless otherwise specified, all employment figures from Employment and Unemployment Surveys
and Periodic Labour Force Survey are based on UPSS criteria and encompass the entire working-age
population (15 years and older). The analysis in this chapter is conducted using four specific time points:
1999–2000 (2000), 2011–12 (2012), 2018–19 (2019) and 2021–22 (2022).

X Box 8. Reservice Bank of India-KLEMS and the such as output, employment, capital, energy,
Annual Survey of Industries databases materials and services, that can be used to analyse the
contributions of these factors to economic growth and
The Reserve Bank of India-KLEMS is an economic productivity in different industries.
database designed to provide comprehensive The Annual Survey of Industries is the principal source
information on the productivity and performance of of industrial statistics, covering manufacturing units
various sectors of the Indian economy. “KLEMS” is in the organized sector. It provides comprehensive
short for capital (K), labour (L), energy (E), materials (M) information relating to input, output, value added,
and services (S), which are key inputs to the production employment and assets of registered factories. It is
process in different industries. The database was conducted annually by the Ministry of Statistics and
developed by the Reserve Bank of India and is a Programme Implementation through its subordinate
valuable resource for researchers, policymakers and office, the Central Statistics Office. It covers all factories
analysts interested in understanding the sources of using electricity and employing ten or more workers
economic growth, productivity trends and economic and those employing 20 or more workers but do not
performance at the sector level. The RBI-KLEMS use electricity.
database includes data on various economic variables,

This chapter is organized into seven sections. Following the introductory first section, the second
section delves into the relationship between GVA and employment growth. The third section looks
at the relationship between growth, productivity and employment. The fourth section examines the
connection between sectoral GVA and employment of youth, and then the fifth section highlights the
interplay of sectoral growth, productivity and employment. The sixth section centres on important
employment-generating sectors. The seventh section explains the use of the employment structure
index before the eight section concludes by summarizing the main points.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 55

X 3.2 Relationship between gross value added and

employment growth

It is important to evaluate how the growth process affects the surplus labour pool within an economy like
India. If economic growth fails to create a sufficient number of employment opportunities that align with
the basic needs, qualifications and aspirations of the labour force, a growing problem of unemployment is
likely, leading to a gradual exodus of workers from the labour force due to a discouraged worker effect.13
Equally, without robust social safety nets in place, an economic crisis or a decline in the availability of
decent and well-paying jobs can lead to an increase in underemployment or engagement in work with
earnings that are below subsistence level. This, in turn, contributes to the expansion of the working-
poor population, ultimately exacerbating inequalities and causing further impoverishment for persons
trapped in such circumstances. It also adversely affects the rate and pace of growth (Ghose 2016; IHD
2014). In this context, the examination of links between India’s growth and employment is important.
As discussed in Chapter 2, employment grew by 1.6 per cent between 2000 and 2012, while GVA grew
at a much faster rate of 6.2 per cent (figure 3.1). In contrast, from 2012 to 2019, GVA continued to grow
at a relatively consistent rate of 6.7 per cent, but employment growth remained nearly stagnant, at just
0.01 per cent. This trend is further reflected in the employment elasticity to GVA, which declined from
0.26 between 2000 and 2012 to a mere 0.001 by 2019.14 The COVID-19 pandemic and the post-pandemic
periods (2020–22) are characterized by a distinct picture: Employment growth outpaced GVA growth,
resulting in a significant increase in the employment elasticity, which reached 1.95.

X Figure 3.1. Growth of employment (UPSS) and gross value added, 2000–22 (%)

7.00 6.7 6.4

6.2
5.3
5.25

3.50 2.7

1.6
1.75 1
0
0.00
2000-2012 2012-2019 2000-2019 2019-2022

Employment growth GVA growth

Note: GVA=gross value added.
Source: Estimates based on National Statistical Office (January 2023), Employment and Unemployment Survey data and Periodic Labour Force Survey
unit-level data.

13 Discouraged workers are those who drop out from the labour force due to their inability to find suitable work opportuni-
ties, which leads them to give up job searching.

14 The effectiveness of output growth in generating employment can be broadly measured by the elasticity of employment,
which is the ratio of employment growth to the growth of GVA, or output. But employment elasticity should be seen at disag-
gregated levels for a better understanding of growth and employment.
56 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X 3.3 Growth, productivity and employment

relationship

To get a broader picture of structural change in the growth and employment that accompanied the
country’s growth trajectory between 2000 and 2022, a simple decomposition exercise was undertaken.
Per capita growth was decomposed into its components by using the Shapley decomposition method.15
This exercise breaks down per capita output growth into the contributions of four components –
productivity growth, employment growth, labour force growth and change in working-age population.16
This exercise revealed broad aspects of the growth process between 2000 and 2019 (table 3.1). Changes
in productivity growth constituted the largest component of growth in per capita GVA over the
entire period (2000–22) and in two shorter periods (2000–12, 2012–19). Changes in the employment rate
were negligible in the first period and turned negative in the second period. Additionally, the decline in
LFPR overwhelmed the additions to the total working-age population in both shorter periods, thereby
negating a large part of the impact of demographic shifts in working-age population on the workforce.
This is in keeping with the trend analysis in Chapter 2, which pointed out the substantive withdrawal of
a large section of the working-age population from the labour force over the past two decades. This
decline also underlines the danger of bypassing the demographic dividend of a rise in youth population
in India.

X Table 3.1. Decomposition of growth in per capita value added, 2019–22

2000-12 2012-19 2019-22

Annual growth per capita value added 3.89 4.50 1.54

Change in labour productivity* 4.75 6.66 -2.45

Change in employment rate 0.01 -0.54 0.64

Change in LFPR -0.83 -1.48 3.42

Change in share of working-age population 0.73 0.86 0.12

Note: *=The productivity in this chapter generally refers to GDP per worker, which has a certain limitation, as explained in box 8. ILO (2023) offers a
detailed discussion of different productivity measures, their respective interpretations and their limitations.
Source: National Statistical Office (January 2023), Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.

A widely noted feature of growth in the Indian economy over the two decades is the rising labour
productivity accompanied by capital deepening at the economy level over time (table 3.2) (see also
Kapoor 2015; Sen and Das 2014; Goldar 2011; Kannan and Raveendran 2009).

15 The Shapely decomposition involves decomposing change in per capita GDP into its components by using an additive
method. It is the sum total of the growth that can be assigned to each of its components, presenting a consolidated way
of looking at all the components. This methodology is used extensively in job diagnostics analysis (Azevedo, Sanfelice and
Nguyen 2012).

16 Or equivalently, y=w* e* p* a (y=value added per capita, w=labour productivity, e=employment rate, p=labour force par-
ticipation rate, a=population aged 15–64 and total population).
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 57

X Table 3.2. Compound annual growth rate in economywide labour

productivitya and capital intensity,b 2000–12, 2012–19 and 2000–19

Labour productivity Capital intensity

growth growth

2000 to 2012 4.80 6.12

2012 to 2019 6.54 6.74

2000 to 2019 5.44 6.35

Note: a=Labour productivity throughout this chapter was measured by dividing total GVA per 10 million rupees per 1,000 employees. b=Capital inten-
sity was measured throughout this chapter by dividing the total value of capital stock per 10 million rupees per 1,000 employees.
Source: National Statistical Office data (January 2023), Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data and
the Reserve Bank of India-KLEMS database.

The rise in capital intensity in the economy when accompanied by growth in labour productivity is also
likely to be linked increasingly to growth in labour-saving capital-biased technological progress. Several
studies estimating total factor productivity growth in the Indian economy between 1999 and 2019 also
found a rise in total factor productivity estimates, which is seen as an indicator of rising technological
progress.17 Accordingly, some demand-side explanations link inadequate employment growth to growth
in productivity due to the process of technological change over time: that the opening up of the economy
led to rising international competition, which led firms to adopt labour-saving technologies developed
in advanced economies, not merely to meet international demand, but also to keep up with expanding
import penetration in the domestic economy.18 For instance, where exports are concerned, standardized
production technologies make it easier to meet standards and quality constraints for international
markets. This often leads to rising labour productivity brought about by technological diffusion, which
could be at the cost of employment growth when in the face of an insufficiently high expansion in
demand.

X Figure 3.2. Share of labour income, 1991–2020 (%)

0.55
Labour income and GVA

0.52

0.50

0.47

0.44
1990-91

1993-94

1996-97

1999-00

2002-03

2005-06

2008-09

2011-12

2014-15

2017-18

Note: GVA=gross value added.

Source: Reserve Bank of India-KLEMS database.

17 In a growth accounting framework, total factor productivity is measured as a residual (Jorgenson 1995), after adjusting
for growth in labour and capital (and if appropriate, intermediate inputs). Growth in total factor productivity is specifically
attributed to growth in technical progress in mainstream analysis. Recent studies, like those by Saha (2014) and Gulati et al.
(2020), found a trend rise in total factor productivity growth in the post-reform period in India. Gulati et al. (2020) noted that
except for a brief deceleration between 2008 and 2014, India’s total factor productivity estimates showed consistent growth
over time.

18 See, for instance, Dasgupta and Singh 2005. The argument in Patnaik (2009) also re-asserted this as resulting from both
the external and internal demand regimes that came into play after the opening up of the Chinese and Indian economies.
58 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

It has also been argued that increasing economic inequalities over time contributed to a shift in the
composition of aggregate demand and towards more technologically advanced capital-intensive goods
and services via a demonstration effect. This also led to an increase in the production of goods and
services, which involves greater use of labour-saving technology. In various studies, this was seen to be a
consequence of an absence of a broad-based growth in consumption demand due to growing economic
inequalities in the post-reform era and is corroborated by the trend rise in the already rather substantial
inequalities in income over the post-reform period (see, for example, Chancel and Piketty 2019).
As figure 3.2 illustrates, there was a trend fall in the share of labour income over the entire post-reform
period using the Reserve Bank of India-KLEMS19 database. The economywide share of labour incomes
(ratio of labour income to GVA) initially fell, then recovered somewhat between 2011 and 2019 but
remained substantially below its levels in the beginning of the post-reform period. On the supply side, it
has also been argued that the existence of capital subsidies of various kinds (including tax relief, interest
subvention and an overvalued exchange rate) led to a lowering of the relative cost of capital with respect
to labour, thereby encouraging increasing substitution of labour by capital (Sen and Das 2015). These
trends reversed completely between 2021 and 2022. An unprecedented rise in employment with a lower
overall GVA growth rate led to negative growth in labour productivity, a change in the employment rate
that was higher than what it was for the previous two decades as a whole and a rise in the LFPR far in
excess of growth of the working-age population. Given the fluctuations from the trend in a period of just
three years, essentially impacted by the pandemic, this warrants a closer look at the nature of this recent
transformation in the labour market. It also requires further mapping of this process at the sector level
to analyse where the employment rose and the quality of that rise in employment.

X 3.4 Sectoral gross value added and employment

growth relationship

As discussed in Chapter 2, the share of the agriculture sector in GVA exhibited continuous decline
between 2000 and 2019, while the manufacturing sector’s share experienced only modest growth,
remaining relatively stagnant in the decades following economic reform. In contrast, the services sector
enjoyed a significant rise in its GVA share. Simultaneously, the proportion of employment in agriculture
as a share of total employment consistently decreased, albeit at a slower rate than the decline in its
share of GVA. Most of the decline in agriculture was offset by a nearly equal and corresponding increase
in the share of construction and services in total employment. This imbalance in GVA and employment
shares is reflective of the disparities in productivity across the economic sectors, as detailed in table 3.3.
In particular, the non-farm sectors expanded between 2000 and 2019, with a shift of workers away from
agriculture, although there was some reversal between 2019 and 2022. Further elaboration of these
sectoral trends is discussed in the following sections, divided into three broad periods.
Period I (2000–12): The construction sector, with the services sector having a somewhat lesser role,
mainly absorbed the reduction in the agricultural workforce. The expansion in the construction sector
was marked by an average annual growth rate of 9.4 per cent in GVA and 9.2 per cent in employment.

19 For productivity estimates, the chapter uses the Reserve Bank of India-KLEMS database because it is geared towards
developing productivity estimates. The database version from 2021 covering 1980 to 2019 was constructed on the basis of
data compiled from the Central Statistical Office, the National Sample Survey Office, the Annual Survey of Industries and the
Input–Output tables. See the data manual at https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PublicationReport/Pdfs. The output, capital
stock, income shares and employment estimates for the disaggregated analysis for services and manufacturing as well as
the broad sectoral analysis at different points up to 2019 were used because it provides a consistent series of value measures
at constant 2012 prices.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 59

Likewise, the services sector’s GVA experienced an average annual growth rate of approximately 7.2 per
cent, but its employment growth rate was slow, at around 3 per cent (table 3.3).

X Table 3.3. Growth of employment and gross value added, by broad economic sectors,
2000–22 (%)

Employment growth GVA growth

2000–12 2012–19 2000–19 2019–22 2000–12 2012–19 2000–19 2019–22

Agriculture,
forestry and -0.38 -2.19 -1.05 8.93 2.90 3.25 3.03 4.59
fishing

Manufacturing 2.92 -0.28 1.73 3.00 7.49 7.43 7.47 3.50

Construction 9.18 1.87 6.43 6.37 9.44 4.06 7.43 3.22

Services 2.96 2.72 2.87 1.09 7.17 8.17 7.54 2.05

Note: GVA=gross value added.

Source: National Statistical Office data (January 2023), Employment and Unemployment Survey data and Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.

Period II (2012–19): Previous trends continued, with a substantial decline in employment in

agriculture, a marginal reduction in manufacturing, a smaller increase in construction and almost
a stable services sector. The annual average employment growth in manufacturing turned negative,
at nearly -0.3 per cent, despite maintaining a high GVA growth rate of approximately 7.5 per cent. Both
the GVA and employment growth in the construction sector experienced a significant slowdown, with an
annual average growth rate of about 4.1 per cent and 1.9 per cent, respectively. In contrast, the services
sector stood as an exception, with both GVA and employment showing relatively stable growth (table
3.3).
The trends from these two periods (2000–12 and 2010–19) suggest that without considerable expansion
of employment opportunities in the non-agriculture sectors, the movement of labour from agriculture
to the non-agriculture sectors decelerated over the years. The shift in labour primarily occurred in the
construction sector, albeit at a slower pace during the second period, and in the services sector.
Period III (2019–22): A departure from the earlier trends over the two decades occurred. This
transformation can be predominantly attributed to a substantial surge in employment within the
agriculture sector (at 8.9 per cent) and the construction sector (at 6.4 per cent), a recovery in the growth
of manufacturing employment (of 3 per cent) and modest employment growth within the services sector
(at 1 per cent). In terms of GVA, agriculture exhibited an average annual growth of approximately 4.6 per
cent, while the services, manufacturing and construction sectors experienced a deceleration, compared
to the prior two periods. As discussed in Chapter 2 and reiterated within this chapter, employment growth
during this period exhibited a considerable upturn from the two preceding periods. The average sectoral
employment growth rates in other sectors were akin to the employment growth observed from 2000 to
2012, with lower growth in services and higher growth in manufacturing. Nevertheless, the substantial
deviation in employment was a consequence of the high average annual growth in agriculture (table 3.3).
These fluctuations in employment and output growth appear to be closely linked to the crisis induced by
the COVID-19 pandemic, as elaborated in Chapter 2.
60 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X 3.5 Sectoral growth, productivity and employment

relationship

The asymmetry in the rate of change in employment and output across various sectors of the economy
bears significant implications on labour productivity (GVA per worker), as explained in section 3.3. Growth
in productivity is a pivotal factor contributing to the overall growth of the economy. Ideally, a robust
economy aims to increase employment alongside steady or rising productivity within a given sector. In
particular, the agriculture and construction sectors exhibited the lowest levels of productivity over the
past two decades, whereas manufacturing and services recorded substantially higher productivity levels.
The growth rates of the manufacturing and services sector experienced a substantial upswing between
2000 and 2019. Conversely, the productivity of the construction sector not only remained low but had
much lower growth. Intriguingly, both the agriculture and construction sectors recorded negative
growth rates in productivity between 2019 and 2022. This signifies that the growth in employment,
particularly in the long term within the construction sector and more recently in agriculture, primarily
consisted of low-productivity and low-paying jobs, as discussed in Chapter 2. The subsequent sections
here further discuss the broad sectoral trends.

X Table 3.4. Sector productivity, 2000–22 (rupees thousands, 2012 prices)

Value Growth

2000 to 2012 to 2000 to 2019 to

2000 2012 2019 2022
2012 2019 2019 2022

Agriculture,
forestry and 46 67 99 87 3.3 5.6 4.1 -4.0
fishing

Manufacturing 142 239 403 409 4.4 7.7 5.6 0.5

Construction 152 157 182 166 0.2 2.1 0.9 -3.0

Services 189 305 438 451 4.1 5.3 4.5 1.0

Source: National Statistical Office data (January 2023), Employment and Unemployment Survey data and Periodic Labour Force Survey
unit-level data.

3.5.1 Agriculture
The agrarian transition involves the transfer of labour from low-productivity, subsistence employment in
agriculture to high-productivity, better-quality employment in the modern manufacturing and services
sectors, especially when growth is led by the non-farm sectors. Except during 2019–22, there was a
slow but steady transfer of labour from agriculture to non-agriculture in India, although the sector still
accounts for about 45 per cent of the workforce and contributes only about 14 per cent of total GDP, as
explained in Chapter 2. Both the extent of the sectoral imbalance and the shift out of agriculture depend
on productivity and incomes in agriculture as well as shifts in relative income-sharing opportunities in
agriculture and non-agriculture. For instance, in the event of a slowdown in agricultural growth and
resultant non-expansion of employment opportunities, a small increase in formal sector employment
may result in large rural–urban migration and an exodus of labour from the sector over time (Roy 2009;
Harris and Todaro 1970).
Similarly, in times of a persisting crisis of employment growth and non-expansion of employment
opportunities in the non-farm sectors, there could be a return to more traditional forms of subsistence
employment within agriculture, which is what occurred during the pandemic. These rises in subsistence
farm-related activities in times of economic distress tend to fall in times of relative economic growth, as
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 61

experienced during the economic slowdown earlier, in the mid-2000s (Papola and Sahu 2012b; Abraham
2009; Reddy and Mishra 2008).
In the broader context, the long-term structural issues that plagued the agriculture sector in the post-
reform period are widely analysed in literature.20 They include the falling public investment in agriculture
and rural infrastructure, rising vulnerability of Indian farmers to the fluctuations in terms of the trade
in global primary commodities after India’s entry to the World Trade Organization, the input price
deregulation and the rising costs of cultivation along with declines in access to credit facilities. The impact
on rural communities was exacerbated by the rising trend in mechanization, with the interlinking of the
national agricultural markets to the global commodity markets, which also underlines the tendency
towards labour-saving technological (cum structural) change (in a country with substantial pools of
surplus labour in the rural economy) and which has become more widespread over time.21

3.5.2 Construction
Construction is the only sector in the economy that showed high employment elasticities throughout
the post-reform period, with output and employment growth mostly moving together, as discussed in
section 3.4. This sector is a catch-all sector that acts as a pool of surplus labour during crisis conditions
and amplifies employment growth during boom conditions by raising demand for infrastructure-related
growth. It is important to underline here that employment in this sector remains overwhelmingly casual
and informal in nature, with almost a negligible share of regular or formal employment (see appendix
tables A3.1–A3.3). The low wages, no job security and complete absence of any social protection networks
in these sectors with such casual employment are also well documented (Srivastava 2020; Tiwary et
al. 2012). Wages and productivity remain only higher than agriculture and, hence, for workers without
job-related skills it remains an important source of employment and a route to (partial) structural
transformation in India in the coming years.

3.5.3 Manufacturing
As discussed in Chapter 2 and in section 3.4, the relative share of manufacturing in GVA and employment
remained stagnant over the past two decades. Growth in manufacturing employment was recorded
between 2019 and 2022, along with a recovery of manufacturing GVA after an initial fall during the
pandemic years. While growth rates in manufacturing GVA were relatively high during 2000–19,
employment growth fell over time. In particular, the share of regular formal employment rose and the
shares of casual and self-employment fell in overall manufacturing over the two decades (see appendix
tables A3.1–A3.4). This indicates expansion of high-productivity employment in manufacturing when
compared to construction, agriculture and some services, such as trade, hotel and restaurant work
and transport (see appendix table A3.4). Formal employment and the formal and organized sector
employment, however, continued to be less in total manufacturing employment. According to the
Reserve Bank of India-KLEMS data, the share of organized manufacturing sector GVA constituted more
than half of total manufacturing GVA in 2019, though its share in total manufacturing employment
was just about one third of total manufacturing employment (table 3.5). This indicates an output and
employment imbalance in the organized manufacturing sector similar to the agriculture and some non-
agriculture sectors. However, there was some correction in this imbalance over time, with a consistent
rise in labour productivity.

20 See among others Banerjee 2017, Himanshu, Jha and Rodgers 2016, Nagaraj et al. 2014, Vaidyanathan 2010, Bhalla and
Singh 2009, Patnaik 2009 and Bhalla 2005.

21 A range of studies have highlighted an increase in farm mechanization practices, mostly in the southern and western
regions of the country in the production of both food grain (wheat, paddy, sugarcane) and non-food grain crops. It has also
been responsible for the declining labour force and workforce participation of women in agriculture after 2005 as well as the
rising rural–urban migration ( Mehrotra and Parida 2017; Rawal 2006).
62 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 3.5. Percentage organized manufacturing GVA to total GVA, and employment to total
employment

2008 2019

Organized sector GVA and total GVA 65.09 54.68

Organized sector employment and total employment 21.18 30.45

Note: GVA=gross value added.

Source: Estimated using Reserve Bank of India-KLEMS.

The organized sector is defined in a slightly different manner for manufacturing, as compared to the
manner in which the terms formal and informal sector are used in the rest of the report. As mentioned
in the introductory section, organized sector firms include all those firms covered in the Annual Survey of
Industries data. It covers all factories registered under sections 2m(i) and 2m(ii) of the Factories Act, 1948
– those factories that use electricity and employ ten or more workers; and those not using electricity and
employing 20 or more workers. The survey also covered bidi and cigar manufacturing establishments
registered under the Bidi & Cigar Workers (Conditions of Employment) Act, 1966. Certain servicing units
and activities, like water supply, cold storage, repairing of motor vehicles and other consumer durables
like watches, are also covered by the survey. The Reserve Bank of India-KLEMS data cover all industrial
units. Hence, use of the two datasets gives an estimate of the organized and unorganized sectors for
the relevant indicators. Here, the unorganized sector includes all units not covered by the Annual Survey
of Industries data. We accordingly used the terms “organized” and “unorganized” sectors instead of
“formal” and “informal” sectors in this section.
The Annual Survey of Industries data showed that organized factory sector employment grew at about
3.7 per cent annually from 2008 to 2019, which also contributed to the expansion of the organized
sector employment share in total employment. A large part of this growth, however, was in contractual
employment (nearly 5.6 per cent) (table 3.6). Some recent studies also found that the rise in organized
sector employment may be attributable to a shift in employment from the unorganized manufacturing
segment to in-house production within organized manufacturing through greater use of contractual
employment, given the substantive growth in contractual employment within the organized sector
(Goldar 2023; Mehrotra 2021). Goldar also attributed a part (about 10 per cent) of this growth in organized
employment to the formalization of informal manufacturing enterprises.

X Table 3.6. Growth in manufacturing, 2008-2019 (%)

CAGR

Growth in total manufacturing GVA 7.40

Growth in organized manufacturing GVA 5.17

Growth in total manufacturing employment 0.15

Growth in organized manufacturing employment 3.69

Growth in contractual employment in organized manufacturing 5.57

Growth in total emoluments (organized sector) 1.37

Note: CAGR=compound annual growth rate.

Source: Estimates based on the Annual Survey of Industries data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 63

The manufacturing GVA fell during the COVID-19 lockdown year of 2020, then recovered over 2021 and
grew at a rate of about 3.6 per cent in 2022. Employment growth accelerated over this period, to grow
at 1.6 per cent in 2021 and 7 per cent in 2022. Some studies and surveys conducted in different parts of
the country during this period also pointed to several adverse impacts of the pandemic on the micro,
small and medium-sized enterprises sector in manufacturing, with significant job and income losses,
especially for workers in the unorganized manufacturing sector (ILO 2021b; Ramaswamy 2020). Goldar
(2023) estimated that employment in India’s unorganized, or informal, manufacturing fell by 2.5–7.5 per
cent as of 2021, while the nominal GVA fell by 14.5–23.5 per cent. Some studies also found an expansion
in the organized and formal sector employment within manufacturing, especially from 2019 to 2022.

3.5.4 Services
India’s economic growth over most of the post-reform period (2000 onwards) is widely acknowledged
to be services-led. It was characterized by the relatively higher and stable growth in services GDP and its
share in overall GDP. The spectacular performance of services exports, especially in IT and IT-enabled
services, is often remarked upon in this context. It also generated much debate in the literature on the
sustainability of the process and its implications for employment. Services GVA rose steadily, with an
annual average growth rate of 7–8 per cent and an employment elasticity of about 0.3–0.4, which was the
highest after construction in the economy. Where the quality of employment is concerned, the regular (52
per cent in 2019) and formal employment (35 per cent in 2019) always constituted a significant proportion
of services employment. However, similar to the manufacturing sector, the informal employment and
organized and informal sector employment constituted about 77 per cent and 65 per cent, respectively,
of total services employment by 2019 (see appendix tables A3.1–A3.4).
The disaggregated subsector22 analysis using Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic
Labour Force Survey data and the Reserve Bank of India-KLEMS data found that trade, hotels and
restaurants, transport, storage and other services consisted of a relatively large proportion of informal
employment and a large share of the unorganized and informal sector in their total employment (more
than 80 per cent in 2019). The business and financial services and a large portion of the information and
communication services, also referred to as modern services, that emerged in the Indian economy and
were spurred by growth in IT-enabled services, had a large share of formal employment in their total
employment (more than 60 per cent in 2019). Public administration, defence, compulsory social security,
education, health and social work constituted the social sector. In almost all the new services and social
sectors, the share of regular formal sector employment was more than 80 per cent and 70 per cent,
respectively, in 2019 (see appendix tables A3.1–A3.4).
As table 3.7 shows, all the services subsectors experienced a GVA growth rate of roughly 7 per cent or
higher between 2000 and 2019 (except public administration and other services, where it was around
4–6 per cent). The growth was led by the modern business services sector (12.7 per cent), the post and
telecommunications sector (10.4 per cent), followed by the social sectors, such as health and education
(approximately 9 per cent) and trade, transport and hotels (7–8 per cent). At the same time, employment
growth was relatively high in business and financial services (9.5 per cent and 5 per cent) followed by
health and education (around 4.5 per cent), and hotels and restaurants (nearly 4 per cent). However,
public administration and trade, which constitute a large proportion of total services employment,
had relatively lower employment growth (with an absolute decline in public administration-related
employment).
Although growth rates in output were higher between 2000 and 2012, they fell slightly over the ensuing
seven years, except for trade and business services. The growth rates of employment fell more between
2012 and 2019, leading to lower employment elasticities of growth across most sectors in this period.

22 Unless otherwise specified, the broad services subsectors are trade, hotels and restaurants; transport and storage, post
and telecommunications; financial services, business services, public administration and defence; compulsory social secu-
rity, education, health and social work; and other services.
64 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Overall employment elasticities were highest in the financial and business services (at nearly 0.8 per
cent), followed by other services (0.6 per cent) and then hotels and restaurants as well as education
and health services (0.5 per cent). Thus, across the board, new services, such as finance, business and
communications, social sectors like health and education and sectors like hotels and restaurants and
transport and storage all showed growth in both output and employment (albeit much lower than the
growth in output in most subsectors). In addition, most of these sectors experienced growth in labour
productivity and capital intensity. Growth in capital intensity was expectedly higher in the more physical
infrastructure-intensive industries, like trade, transport, information and communications (tables 3.7
and 3.8).

X Table 3.7. Growth of value added, employment and employment elasticities in services,
2000–19 (%)

Average employment
CAGR in value added CAGR in employment
elasticity

2000-12 2012-19 2000-19 2000-12 2012-19 2000-19 2000-12 2012-19 2000-19

Trade 7.6 10.2 8.5 2.4 1.8 2.2 0.3 0.2 0.3

Hotels and 7.8 7.0 7.5 4.9 2.0 3.8 0.6 0.3 0.5
restaurants

Transport 8.4 6.7 7.8 3.4 2.8 3.2 0.4 0.4 0.4
and storage

Post and 12.7 6.6 10.4 2.9 0.1 1.9 0.2 0.0 0.2
telecommunica-
tions

Financial 7.0 6.8 6.9 6.0 3.8 5.2 0.9 0.6 0.8
services

Business 11.9 14.1 12.7 10.2 8.4 9.5 0.9 0.6 0.8
services

Public 5.6 5.7 5.6 -1.8 -0.3 -1.3 -0.3 -0.1 -0.2
administra-
tion

Education 9.2 8.5 8.9 4.6 3.8 4.3 0.5 0.5 0.5

Health and 10.0 8.1 9.3 4.4 4.7 4.5 0.4 0.6 0.5
social work

Other services 4.3 5.0 4.5 0.8 2.1 2.5 0.7 0.4 0.6

Note: CAGR=compound annual growth rate.

Source: Estimated based on Reserve Bank of India-KLEMS data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 65

X Table 3.8. Growth of labour productivity, capital intensity, value added and employment
status in select services, 2000–19 (%)

Value
CAGR in labour CAGR in capital Employment
added
productivity intensity share
share

2000-12 2012-19 2000-19 2000-12 2012-19 2000-19 2019 2019

Trade 5.1 8.2 6.2 10.1 18.4 13.1 22.7 32.5

Hotels and restaurants 2.8 4.9 3.6 7.3 9.1 8.0 2.1 5.6

Transport and 4.9 3.7 4.5 2.8 3.6 3.1 9.2 14.3
storage

Post and telecommuni- 9.5 6.5 8.4 5.4 17.2 9.6 2.9 1.1
cations

Financial services 0.9 2.9 1.6 -0.5 -0.1 -0.7 11.1 3.5

Business services 1.6 5.2 2.9 7.9 2.1 5.7 16.4 8.1

Public administra- 7.6 5.9 7.0 8.6 7.4 8.2 10.5 4.9
tion

Education 4.4 4.5 4.4 8.6 10.1 9.2 6.9 11.1

Health and social 5.4 3.3 4.6 9.9 7.9 9.2 2.8 3.9
work

Other services 1.5 2.8 2.0 3.9 1.8 3.1 15.5 15.0

Note: CAGR=compound annual growth rate.

Source: Estimated Based on Reserve Bank of India-KLEMS data.

The overall growth of the services employment fell from 2.7 per cent between 2012 and 2019 to 1.1 per
cent during 2019–22, while the GVA growth rate also fell, from 7.5 per cent to nearly 2.1 during the same
period (see table 3.3 and section 3.5). This trend reversal in output and employment growth within
services over 2019 to 2022, as a whole, was largely driven by the economic upheaval brought about by
the pandemic.

X 3.6. Important employment-generating sectors

There are several subsectors in construction, manufacturing and services that have expanded and
generated employment over the past two decades. These important growth subsectors were identified
based on their share in total employment, growth and additional employment generated over time, while
the quality aspect was considered by their employment status, as discussed in the following sections.

3.6.1 Construction
Over 2000–19, the most-important employment-generating subsectors in construction from highest
to lowest order (three-digit level) were building of complete construction or parts, followed by building
completion, building installation and site preparation (table 3.9 and appendix table A3.5a). The significant
employment growth in the construction sector during 2019–22 can be attributed to construction of
66 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

buildings, construction of roads and railways, construction of utility projects and building completion
and finishing (see appendix table A3.5b). However, the bulk of employment generated in construction
is of poor quality – casual and irregular types. It is also evident by the low earnings or wages in casual
work, as discussed in Chapter 2.

X Table 3.9. Important employment-generating sectors in construction, 2000–19 (%)

Net addition in
Growth
Share in total employment
(CAGR)
(%) 2019 (millions)
(2000–19)
(2000-19)

Site preparation (construction) 0.32 0.8 17.58

Building of complete construction or parts thereof; 18.13 34.63 8.79

civil engineering

Building installation 0.74 1.43 9.01

Building completion 1.28 2.32 7.98

Note: CAGR=compound annual growth rate.

Source: Employment and Unemployment Survey and Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.

3.6.2 Manufacturing
The most-important manufacturing subsectors based on the Employment and Unemployment Survey
data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey data at the three-digit level, which were identified in terms
of additional employment generated between 2000 and 2019 (highest to lowest) were: manufacture
of wearing apparel; manufacture of structural metal products, tanks, reservoirs and generators;
manufacture of furniture; and manufacture of basic iron and steel (table 3.10). The manufacturing
subsectors, which generated additional employment in 2019–22, include the manufacture of wearing
apparel; the manufacturing of jewellery, bijouterie and related articles; and the repair of fabricated
metal products, machinery and equipment. These subsectors generated largely regular and self-
employment types of employment, which are generally of better quality than construction sector
jobs.

X Table 3.10. Important employment-generating sectors in manufacturing, 2000–19

Net addition in
Growth
Share in total employment
(CAGR)
(%) 2019 (millions)
(2000–19)
(2000-19)

Manufacture of wearing apparel, 3.77 7.92 10.75

except fur apparel

Manufacture of basic iron and steel 0.51 0.73 5.38

Manufacture of structural metal products, tanks, 1.23 2.40 9.21

reservoirs and steam generators

Manufacture of furniture 0.96 1.90 9.42

Note: CAGR=compound annual growth rate.
Source: Employment and Unemployment Survey data and Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.

Employment in some manufacturing subsectors, however, declined substantially: spinning, weaving and
finishing of textiles; manufacture of grain mill products, starches, starch products and prepared animal
feed; manufacture of wood, cork and straw products and plaiting materials; and the repair of personal
and household goods (footwear, electrical appliances, TVs and VCRs, radios, watches and bicycles). This
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 67

indicates that the employment-generating capacity of traditional manufacturing subsectors that

largely relied on manual labour may have declined over the years, possibly due to the technological
changes or a reduction in demand for such goods – a dynamic that needs to be explored further
(see appendix table A3.5a).
The six important employment-generating23 subsectors in organized factory employment at the three-
digit level between 2009 and 2019 were (highest to lowest): the manufacture of parts and accessories
of motor vehicles; the manufacturing of plastic products; the manufacturing of knitted and crocheted
apparel; and the manufacturing of pharmaceuticals and medicinal chemical and botanical products
(table 3.11). They not only recorded a high growth rate each but also generated substantial additional
employment. The processing and preserving of fish, crustaceans and molluscs and the manufacturing
of refined petroleum products also recorded high growth, but with a smaller number of additional
employment generated and a smaller share in total organized manufacturing employment. These
important sectors constituted nearly 17 per cent of the total employment share and 29 per cent of the
total additional employment generated in the decade between 2009 and 2019.

X Table 3.11. Important employment-generating sectors in organized manufacturing, 2009, 2019

Net addition in Employment

Share in total
employment growth (CAGR)
(%) 2019
(2000-19) (2009–19)

Manufacture of plastics products 3.4 279 093 7.1

Manufacture of knitted and crocheted apparel 2.3 209 335 8.3

Manufacture of parts and accessories for motor 4.9 438 001 8.3
vehicles

Manufacture of pharmaceuticals, medicinal chemical 4.7 379 269 7.2

and botanical products

Manufacture of refined petroleum products 0.9 64 906 6.6

Processing and preserving of fish, crustaceans and 0.6 63 669 11.3

molluscs
Note: CAGR=compound annual growth rate.
Source: Annual Survey of Industries, 2009 and 2019.

3.6.3 Services
Most of the employment growth in the tertiary sectors occurred in business, finance, real estate,
health, education, communications and hotels and restaurants between 2000 and 2019, which
also had relatively higher employment elasticities (see appendix table A3.5a). However, there were
some changes in employment across the different services subsectors afterward, between 2019 and
2022. Specifically, employment in trade, hotels and restaurants as well as in transport, storage and
communications services increased, while employment in financial, real estate and business services as
well as in public administration, education, health and other services declined (table 3.12).

23 Employment here is measured in terms of total employees in any given industry and based on the Annual Survey of
Industries data.
68 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 3.12. Important employment-generating sectors in services, 2009–19

Net addition Employment

Share in total in employ- growth
(%) ment (mil- (CAGR %)
lions) (2009–19)

Wholesale and retail trade

Sale, maintenance and repair of motorcycles and 0.43 0.63 5.54

related parts and accessories

Wholesale of household goods 0.48 0.67 5.06

Wholesale of non-agricultural intermediate prod- 0.5 0.87 7.23

ucts, waste and scrap

Wholesale of machinery, equipment and supplies 0.23 0.52 12.49

Non-specialized retail trade in stores 2.21 3.98 7.82

Hotels and restaurants

Hotels, camping sites and other provision of 0.33 0.52 6.33

short-stay accommodation

Restaurants, bars and canteens 2.92 7.96 36

Transport, storage and communications

Supporting and auxiliary transport activities; 0.63 1.2 8.87

activities of travel agencies

Financial intermediation

Other financial intermediation 0.59 1.37 14.38

Insurance and pension funding, except compulsory 0.3 0.53 7.84

social security

Real estate, renting and business activities

1.01 2.64 22.68
Software publishing, consultancy and supply

Legal, accounting, bookkeeping and auditing 0.91 1.69 8.32

activities; tax consultancy; market research and
public opinion polling; business and management
consultancy

Business activities n.e.c. 1.97 4.69 15.15

Education

Secondary and senior secondary education 2.38 6.57 6

Higher education 0.67 0.95 5.3

Other education (correspondence, coaching centre 0.56 1.56 100

and tuitions, etc.)

Health and social work

Human health activities 1.94 2.9 5.74

Social work activities with accommodation 0.33 0.76 13.42

Other services

Motion picture, radio, television and other entertain- 0.55 0.8 5.52
ment activities

Activities of private households as employers of 2.16 4.39 9.98

domestic staff

Note: CAGR=compound annual growth rate.

Source: Employment and Unemployment Survey data and Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 69

At a more detailed level, the most notable services subsectors in terms of employment generation
between 2000 and 2019 (highest to lowest) were: restaurants, bars and canteens; secondary and
senior secondary education; activities of private households that employ domestic staff; business
activities not elsewhere classified, such as labour recruitment, investigation and security activities,
building cleaning and packaging; non-specialized retail trade in stores; human health activities;
software publishing, consultancy and supply; legal accounting, bookkeeping and auditing activities;
other educational activities, such as correspondence education, coaching centres and tuitions; other
financial intermediation; and supporting transport activities and activities of travel agencies and
others (see appendix table A3.5a). The most important subsectors in terms of additional employment
generation from 2019 to 2022 were: maintenance and repair of motor vehicles; other land transport;
other specialized wholesale and retail sale of food, beverages and tobacco in specialized stores; retail
sale of other household equipment in specialized stores; retail sale of other goods in specialized stores;
restaurants and mobile food services activities; beverage-serving activities; computer programming;
consultancy and related activities; and monetary intermediation (see appendix table A3.5b).
These services subsectors largely generated regular and self-employment types of employment
and mostly in the urban areas. Regular employment was predominant in software publishing,
consultancy and supply and business activities and other financial intermediation, while self-employment
was more common in restaurants, bars and canteens and educational activities.

X 3.7 Employment structure index

Based on six employment categories, an employment structure index (Ghose 2016) was constructed
for India Employment Report 2016. The six employment categories, in terms of best to worst, are: regular
formal, regular and informal employment in the organized sector, regular and informal employment in
the unorganized sector, self-employment, casual wage employment in the organized sector and casual
wage employment in the unorganized sector. These classifications capture the quality of employment
in the index over the 22 years covered in the analysis (divided into four points of time) between 2000
and 2022.
The employment structure index was constructed using the quality ranking of the different types of
employment (box 9). A higher value on the index indicates an improved employment structure resulting
from a favourable shift in distribution across categories. The estimated index values revealed that
between 2012 and 2019, the organized sector experienced improvement, followed by a deterioration
between 2019 and 2022. Conversely, the unorganized sector consistently improved. The overall
employment structure index for the economy improved during 2012–19 but marginally deteriorated
during 2019–22 (figure 3.3 and table 3.13).
70 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Box 9. Construction of the employment structure X ESI for the organized sector (ESI-O) = {a(6).6 + a(5).5
index + a(2).2} and {a(6) + a(5) + a(2)}

X ESI for the unorganized sector (ESI-U) = {a(4).4 +

To indicate the quality ranking of the different types of
a(1).1 + a(3).3} and {a(4) + a(1) + a(3)}
employment in the employment structure index, values
were given as follows: regular formal employment=6; X ESI for the economy (ESI-E) = {a(6).6 + a(5).5 + a(2).2
regular and informal employment in the organized + a(4).4 + a(1).1 + a(3).3} and 100 or, equivalently,
sector=5; regular and informal employment in the {(ESI-O). a(O) + (ESI-U). a(U)} and 100 [where a(O) =
unorganized sector=4; self-employment=3; casual a(6) + a(5) + a(2) and a(U) = a(4) + a(1) + a (3)]
wage employment in the organized sector=2; and
casual wage employment in the unorganized sector=1. The value of ESI-O would be somewhere between 2 and
The larger numbers indicate better quality. 6, the value of ESI-U would be somewhere between 1
and 4, and the value of ESI-E would be somewhere
Suppose a 6 is the percentage share of regular
between 1 and 6.
formal employment in total employment, a 5 is the
percentage share of regular informal employment in Note: ILER 2016: 30–32.

the organized sector in total employment and so on.

Thus, the employment structure index, or ESI, would
be determined as follows:

X Figure 3.3. Estimates of the employment structure index, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022

2.7 3.1 5.2 5.1 2.4 2.6

2.9 3.1 4.7 4.9 2.5 2.6

6.00

4.50
Index value

3.00

1.50

0.00
Index Organized Unorganized

2000 2012 2019 2022

Source: Employment and Unemployment Survey data and Periodic Labour Force Survey data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 71

X Table 3.13. Distribution of employment structure, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (% and number)

2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022

Employment status
% Millions

Regular formal (6) 7.6 7.5 10.2 9.5 29.3 35.2 47.5 51.5

Regular–informal 2.3 5.6 6.5 5.0 9.0 26.2 30.2 27.2

employment in the
organized sector (5)

Regular–informal 5.0 5.4 8.1 7.2 19.2 25.0 37.9 39.4

employment in the
unorganized sector(4)

Self-employed (3) 52.3 52.2 51.7 55.9 202.3 243.4 241.0 304.1

Casual wage employ- 1.9 4.1 2.8 3.9 7.2 19.2 13.2 21.1
ment in organized
sector (2)

Casual wage employment 31.0 25.1 20.7 18.6 120.0 117.2 96.6 101.2
in unorganized sector (1)

Total 100 100 100 100 387.1 466.3 466.5 544.5

Source: Employment and Unemployment Survey data and Periodic Labour Force Survey data.

It is important to stress that the employment structure in the organized sector remains significantly
better than what it is in the unorganized sector. Thus, transitions of workers from the unorganized to
the organized sector enhance overall employment quality in the economy. This transition occurred only
during 2012–19 but not during 2012–19. In the latter period, regular formal employment declined in the
organized sector while regular informal employment in the unorganized sector consistently increased.
This reinforces the points made in Chapter 2 and this chapter.

X 3.8 Summing up

The analysis found notable shifts and structural transformations in employment conditions, particularly
in the form of growth in productive and decent work within the services sector between 2000 and 2019.
On a positive note, there was an increase in regular formal sector employment in modern manufacturing
and services (as discussed in Chapter 2). This coincided with an economy-wide increase in labour
productivity and capital intensity, primarily within modern manufacturing and services. It resulted
in the expansion of the share of the formal sector in total services employment, encompassing the
modern services sectors (business and financial services, information and communication services)
and social sectors (education and health). However, there was also a relatively higher rise in informal
employment within the formal services sectors, indicating a growing trend of informalization in these
sectors. Moreover, there was a slowdown in employment growth and employment elasticities across
most services sectors, including in the modern services like finance, insurance, professional services
and information and communications, which were considered responsible for much of the dynamism in
India’s services-led growth trajectory.
Simultaneously, there was an increase in formal and regular employment and the expansion of the
organized sector within manufacturing industries. However, this shift was accompanied by an increase
in informalization of employment within the organized sector, as evident in the rise of contractual and
72 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

informal employment. Organized employment grew in various segments, such as pharmaceuticals,

transport equipment, electrical and optical instruments, and metals, machinery and related industries.
Conversely, industries that were among the largest employers in manufacturing, like wearing apparel,
leather, footwear, food products and beverages, experienced a formalization in employment conditions
and growth in organized employment. But, they also experienced an overall decline in employment
growth and, in some cases, an active shedding of labour. Consequently, there was a stagnation in the
shares of manufacturing in GVA and employment growth.
There was a resurgence in employment after the initial shock of the COVID-19 pandemic, leading to a
reversal in many long-term structural trends in employment growth between 2019 and 2022. The most
significant aspect of this structural reversal was the substantial increase in agricultural employment.
Within a span of just three to four years, the rise in agricultural employment surpassed the entire decline
in employment in the sector from 2000 to 2019. A significant portion of this increase involved rural women
workers, with the majority of them engaging in unpaid work, along with a substantial portion involved
in own-account work and casual work (also discussed in Chapter 2). This substantial rise in agricultural
employment might be attributed to return to subsistence activities in agriculture that resulted from a
shrinking of work opportunities outside agriculture and were exacerbated by the employment crisis
brought about by the pandemic.
A shedding of labour in agriculture, a relative slowdown in construction employment, a recovery in
employment growth in services and a significant rise in employment growth in manufacturing occurred
in the most recent year, 2022. While there was only partial recovery of regular employment growth in
services, the regular and organized sector employment grew in manufacturing. This could signify a
return to a growth trajectory marked by a slowdown in employment growth in services, particularly
in the IT and IT-enabled services sector, and an expansion of organized manufacturing employment
growth. The future trajectory of this development remains to be seen. But there is significant cause for
concern, given the massive increase in subsistence agriculture employment from 2019 to 2022, especially
in light of the slowdown in GVA growth in that sector during the recovery year of 2022. This points to the
persistent issue of expanding decent and productive work opportunities outside of agriculture, given the
persistently low levels of formal, regular and organized sector employment in the economy.
With Indian GVA growth rates returning to pre-pandemic levels that are expected to be sustained in the
future, it becomes imperative to steer the growth process towards generating decent employment. As
convincingly argued by experts, including Ghose (2021 and 2016), there is no alternative but to engage in
some form of structural transformation, where manufacturing would have a crucial role, as seen in other
countries. While manufacturing may not be as employment-intensive as in the past due to technological
advancements, the employment-intensity of services is also decreasing due to technological progress.
Given the changing landscape, both manufacturing and services should take a leading role, at least in
the medium term, to accommodate the significant number of unskilled labourers in the country. This,
however, should be accompanied by better employment conditions. In these circumstances, services
should link to manufacturing through the supply chains within the growth process.
74 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills
X4
Youth employment

X 4.1 Introduction

The discussions in the previous two chapters indicate overall positive trends of employment generation
in India, but they also emphasize concerns over the lack of quality and productive jobs. This challenge
of decent employment generation has been accentuated by the economic slowdown, the advancement
of digital technologies and the disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, a series of
overlapping crises – the conflict in Ukraine, the energy crisis and rising inflation – have slowed the pace
of the post-pandemic recovery in the labour market, particularly in developing countries (ILO 2022b).
Young people (aged 15–29)24 are particularly vulnerable to these economic disruptions due to their lack
of experience and limited resources, at least when compared with adults (aged 30 and older) (ILO 2023;
Verick 2023; ILO 2022b). These challenges have been even greater in India, which has the world’s largest
youth population (Sharma 2022; Mitra and Verick 2013). To manage these challenges, it is crucial to
identify the difficulties that Indian youths are experiencing in accessing decent employment.

24 Youth in India (as per the National Youth Policy 2014 and 2021) refers to people aged 15–29.
76 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

This chapter thus examines labour market outcomes for young people in India. The second section
starts with the changes in India’s demographic structure. The third section looks at the labour market
participation of youths, including activity status, the labour force participation rate, the worker population
ratio and the association between education and participation in economic activities. The fourth section
delves into the quality and conditions of employment and structural shift. The fifth section highlights
unemployment and labour utilization, including underemployment and youths not in employment,
education or training. The sixth section examines the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, followed by
the impact of technological changes and digitalization on youth employment in the seventh section.
The eighth section, and the ninth section describes the regional differences in the youth employment
situation. The final section sums up the main issues.
The analysis in this chapter is based on secondary data from the Employment and Unemployment
Surveys and the Annual Periodic Labour Force Surveys. Household- and individual-level survey data
from 2000, 2012, 2019, 2021 and 2022 were used, with a focus on the usual principal and subsidiary
(UPSS) status. To provide a comparative perspective, the labour market characteristics of young people
(aged 15–29) were analysed in comparison with those of adults (aged 30 and older). Additionally, to
better understand the heterogeneity among the youth population, it was divided into three age cohorts
(15–19 years, 20–24 years and 25–29 years). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the labour market
was examined using the Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2019, 2020, 2021 and 2022. Qualitative
information from available published reports, journal papers, newspaper articles and other sources was
used to complement the quantitative analysis.

X 4.2 Demographic structure

This section looks at the demographic structure of India from 2011 to 2036, based on projections, for
insight on the current and future working-age population. It also examines the changing trends and
patterns among the child, youth, adult and older person populations to better understand how India’s
labour force and dependency ratio are expected to evolve in the coming decades.
A large proportion of India’s population is of working age and is expected to remain in this
potential demographic dividend zone for at least another decade. This advantage enables more
people to participate in productive work and contribute to national income (Sharma 2022; Sasikumar
2019). India’s population is projected to increase from 1.36 billion in 2021 to 1.48 billion in 2031 and then
to 1.52 billion by 2036.
Over the past two decades, India experienced continuous decline in its crude birth and death rates,
resulting in its population growth rate reaching the lowest level since Independence. Between 2011
and 2021, the decadal growth rate was 12.5 per cent, with a projected decline to 8.4 per cent in the
2021–31 decade. Despite the decline, the proportion of India’s working-age population (aged 15–59)
increased from 61 per cent in 2011 to 64 per cent in 2021 and is projected to reach 65 per cent in
2036, with projected stability thereafter (figure 4.1).
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 77

X Figure 4.1. Broad age group distribution of the population, 2011, 2021, 2031 and 2036 (%)

100% 8% 10% 13% 15%

75% 33%
37%
41% 42%
50% 28%
27%
24% 23%
25%
31% 26% 22% 20%
0%
2011 2021 2031 2036

0-14 yrs 15-29 yrs 30-59 yrs 60+ yrs

Source: MHFW 2020.

Although the proportion of youths in India’s total population has started to decline, at 371 million
persons, it still accounts for a considerably large population size when compared with most other
countries and will remain significant for at least the next decade. India is at an inflexion point in its
demographic transition, where the proportion of youths, who constituted 27 per cent of the population
in 2021, is projected to decline to 25 per cent in 2031 and to 23 per cent in 2036. Unlike China, Japan and
the United States, which are today grappling with the challenges of an ageing population, India has the
advantage of a sizable youth and working-age population. But it also is experiencing significant regional
variations (NYP 2021).
Each year, around 12 million youths are added to the working-age population, representing a vast pool
of an available labour force, whose productive utilization could lead to India reaping a demographic
dividend. This large number, in the context of its impact on the worker population ratio and the
dependency ratio, has been called a “window of opportunity” for India’s growth and development – an
opportunity that must be seized before it closes (MSPI 2022). Because the youth population has started
declining, India has a final opportunity in the next few decades (with 2021 as the starting point) to exploit
this potential demographic advantage.
The demographic advantage in India varies across states, with three distinct phases: In the first phase,
states begin moving towards gaining the dividend; in the second phase, the window of opportunity opens
and widens; and in the third phase, the dividend is still being realized but gradually falling, eventually
closing (Srivastava et al. 2020; Kulkarni 2017). Most states are considered to be in phases II and III and
are expected to remain in these stages for the next two to three decades, which presents a tremendous
advantage. Yet, it is also argued that the working-age population’s proportion merely provides a window
of opportunity, which can only be turned into a dividend if labour supply rates and employment can be
maintained and if the productivity of the employed workforce is sufficiently high (this is discussed in
more detail in section 4.8.2).

X 4.3 Youth participation in the labour market

This section examines the activity status of youths, including their participation in both economic and
non-economic activities. It draws on the LFPR and the worker population ratio of youths to understand
their willingness to participate in the labour market and the extent to which they are currently
78 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

participating. Long-term trends in youth participation in the labour market are dominated by their rising
participation in education, which is examined in Chapter 5, whereas recent trends appear to be mainly a
response to the livelihood crisis posed by the economic slowdown and the COVID-19 pandemic. Gender
and age group disparities are evident throughout the period of analysis.

4.3.1 Activity status

Among youths, the students and unemployed persons dominate, while adults engage more in
economic activities and domestic duties. Notably, the number of young people pursuing education has
increased steadily over time, while their participation in economic activities has declined. The proportion
of youths pursuing education has more than doubled, from 18 per cent in 2000 to 35 per cent in 2022
(figure 4.2). In contrast, the percentage of youths involved in economic activities decreased from 52 per
cent to 37 per cent during the same period, although there was a bit of a reversal in the trend between
2019 and 2022.

X Figure 4.2. Activity status (UPSS) of youth (aged 15–29) and adults (aged 30–59), by economic
and non-economic activities, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

2% 1% 2% 1% 1% 1%
3% 3% 7% 5%
100% 10% 9% 11%
12%
24% 25% 22%
25%
24% 28% 26%
75% 30%
18%
30% 35% 35%
50%
66% 63% 62%
52% 56%
25% 42%
31% 37%

0%
2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022
Youth Adult

Employed Unemployed Student Domestic Duties Others

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

Among the youth population, a considerable proportion of individuals aged 15–19 were pursuing
education, whereas those aged 25–29 were significantly more engaged in economic activities. In
2022, for instance, approximately 72.4 per cent of youths aged 15–19 were pursuing education, while only
23.5 per cent in the age group of 20–24 and a mere 2.3 per cent in the age group of 25–29 were doing so.
Conversely, only around 15.2 per cent of youths aged 15–19 engaged in economic activities, compared
with 40.2 per cent of youths aged 20–24 and 58.6 per cent of those aged 25–29 (see appendix table A4.1a).
Young women mainly engaged in domestic duties, whereas male youths were more involved
in economic activities and also pursuing education. In 2022, about 45.1 per cent of female youths
engaged in domestic duties, whereas only 0.5 per cent of male youths were involved in domestic duties.
In numbers, 79.1 million young women engaged in domestic duties, compared with only 1 million men.
This phenomenon was more typical among youths living in rural areas than those in urban areas. And
53.5 per cent of young men were involved in economic activities, compared with only 19.1 per cent of
young women (see appendix tables A4.1b and A4.1c). Dedicated gender analysis and a breakdown of
youths not in employment, education or training is covered in section 4.5.4 to better comprehend the
non-participation of young women in economic activities.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 79

There was a reversal of youth participation in economic activities between 2019 and 2022, with a
corresponding reduction in their unemployment and their involvement in education and domestic
duties. The proportion of young women’s engagement in domestic duties decreased from 51.5 per cent
in 2019 to 45.1 per cent in 2022, while the proportion of men in education reduced from 38.8 per cent to
36.9 per cent (see appendix tables A4.1b and A4.1c). These trends were more pronounced in rural areas
than in urban areas (and discussed in detail in the next section).

4.3.2 Labour force participation rate

The LFPR is lower among young people than adults, especially for youths aged 15–19 than those
aged 20–24 and 25–29. In 2022, the LFPR for youths was 42 per cent and 62.4 per cent for adults (figure
4.3). Among the youths, the LFPR was only 17.5 per cent for those aged 15–19, but 48.4 per cent for those
aged 20–24 and 64 per cent for the 25–29 age group.

X Figure 4.3. Labour force participation rate (UPSS) of youths and adults, by gender, 2000, 2012,
2019 and 2022

74.0 54.0 42.0

63.0 44.0 35.0
59.0 38.0 28.0
61.2 42.0 38.7
34.0 90.0 66.0
24.0 90.0 63.0
16.0 85.0 57.0
21.7 86.3 62.4
90.0

67.5

45.0
%

22.5

0
Male Female Total Male Female Total
Youth Adult

2000 2012 2019 2022

Source: Computed from unit-level data of various Employment and Unemployment Surveys, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical
Office data.

The LFPR among youths declined over time, with a sharper reduction among the 15–19 age group
than the other two age groups. The youth LFPR dropped by 12 percentage points between 2000 and
2022, from 54 per cent to 42 per cent. Broken down by age group, the decline was 23 percentage points
among youths aged 15–19, then 15 percentage points for youths aged 20–24 and 10 percentage points for
those aged 25–29 (see appendix table A4.2a). This indicates that not only is the participation of younger
youths in the labour market lower but it has declined over time. However, when considering only non-
student youths, the LFPR was higher and relatively stable over the past two decades, with a marginal
decline of just 2.1 percentage points, from 66.8 per cent in 2000 to 64.7 per cent in 2022 (see Chapter 5).
This further indicates that the lower LFPR among young people, particularly younger male youths,
80 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

is primarily driven by their pursuit of education, which can enhance their prospects of achieving
better labour market outcomes in the future (ILO 2022a).
The declining trend in youth LFPR reversed between 2019 and 2022, with a greater increase among
women than men, particularly in rural areas. But the gender gap in the LFPR remained substantial,
even after the pandemic recovery, and was still lower than the 2000 level. The youth LFPR dropped
from 54 per cent in 2000 to 38 per cent in 2019, which reversed and increased to 42 per cent in 2022. The
female LFPR declined more sharply in the earlier period (by 14 percentage points) than the male rate (by
5 percentage points), but it increased to much higher among women (by 7 percentage points) than men
(by 2 percentage points) between 2019 and 2022. This fluctuation was much more pronounced in rural
areas than in urban areas (see appendix tables A4.2b and A4.2c).
There was a substantial gender gap in the youth LFPR that remained nearly consistent over the past
two decades, with the female LFPR much lower than the male rate. In 2022, the LFPR of young men (61.2
per cent) was almost three times higher than that of their female counterparts (21.7 per cent), and the
gender gap was similar in the rural and urban areas (see appendix tables A4.2b and A4.2c). The LFPR
among non-student youths was significantly higher for men (97 per cent) and women (32 per cent),
highlighting a persistent gender disparity. In numbers, the young male labour force amounted to 116.5
million, compared with 37.9 million women. As noted in Chapter 2, various demand- and supply-side
factors tend to suppress the LFPR for youths and adults, but especially for women.

4.3.3 Worker population ratio

Similar to the LFPR, the worker population ratio of young people was considerably lower than for
adults and much less among youths aged 15–19 than the other two age groups. In 2022, the worker
population ratio was 36.8 per cent for youths and 61.8 per cent for adults (figure 4.4). This was 15.2 per
cent for the 15–19 age group, 40.2 per cent for the 20–24 age group, and 58.6 per cent for the 25–29 age
group (see appendix table A4.2a).

X Figure 4.4. Worker population ratio (UPSS) among youths and adults, by gender, 2022 (%)

69.0 51.0 41.0

60.0 42.0 34.0
48.0 31.0 28.0
53.5 36.8 38.4
32.0 90.0 66.0
22.0 90.0 62.0
13.0 84.0 56.0
19.1 85.5 61.8
90.0

67.5

45.0
%

22.5

0
Male Female Total Male Female Total
Youth Adult

2000 2012 2019 2022

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 81

The worker population ratio for young people showed a declining trend in the preceding decades
between 2000 and 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic, and was much sharper among the age
group of 15–19 than the age group of 20–24 and 25–29. Between 2000 and 2019, the worker population
ratio among youths fell by 20 percentage points, from 51 per cent in 2000 to 31 per cent in 2019, with a
decline of 24 percentage points among the 15–19 age group, and 21 percentage points among the 20–24
age group but 14 percentage points among the 25–29 age group (see appendix tables A4.2a and A4.3a).
As discussed above in the case of the LFPR, the increasing enrolment, especially among younger youths,
was the principal driver of this declining youth worker population ratio, along with rising standards of
living and other reasons (ILO 2022a; Sharma 2022; Sharma and Mehta 2017; Mitra and Verick 2013).
The decline in the worker population ratio among young people reversed between 2019 and 2022,
and this trend was almost similar among all categories of youths. The worker population ratio among
youths increased by almost 6 percentage points, from 31 per cent in 2019 to 36.8 per cent in 2022, on par
with the increase observed among adults, and by approximately 5 percentage points across all three age
groups of youths (see appendix tables A4.2a and A4.3a). The COVID-19 pandemic crisis may have forced
many young people to work to support their family’s income (ILO and UNICEF 2020).
Young women exhibited a much lower worker population ratio than their male counterparts, and
the gender gap reduced only marginally over the past two decades (see appendix table A4.3a). As
discussed in Chapter 2, women in India face significant supply and demand constraints, including a lack
of non-farm jobs, especially in rural areas, which hinders their participation in economic activities when
compared with their male counterparts. In 2022, only 19.1 per cent of young women were estimated to
be employed, compared to 53.5 per cent of young men. This means that young men (102 million) were
estimated to be employed around three times more than young women (33.4 million).
The difference in the worker population ratios between young people living in rural and urban
areas decreased over the years. This was primarily due to a significant drop in the worker
population ratio among rural youths, particularly among women. The worker population ratio
among rural youths decreased by approximately 19 percentage points, from 56.8 per cent in 2000 to
38 per cent in 2022, while it decreased by about 5 percentage points among urban youths, from 38.4
per cent to 33.6 per cent during the same period. And the worker population ratio among rural young
women dropped by 19 percentage points, from 39.5 per cent in 2000 to 20.4 per cent in 2022, while the
ratio for urban young women remained almost stable around 15 per cent during the same period (see
appendix table A4.3b). This trend suggests that young people, especially young women in rural areas,
are experiencing declining employment opportunities and increasing participation in education.
The rising participation of youths in higher education is a positive development. However, the gaps in the
LFPR and the worker population ratio between youths and adults are substantial and have widened over
time. The gender gap in the LFPR and the worker population ratio among youths remains significantly
higher than that of adults, underscoring their vulnerability in the labour market. Even educated youths
who are employed may find themselves in a job of low quality and poor working conditions (see
Chapter 5).

X 4.4 Quality and conditions of youth employment

This section dissects the quality and conditions of employment through various indicators, including
employment status, formal versus informal employment, organized or formal versus unorganized or
informal sector employment, earnings or wages and sectoral shifts in employment. Certain patterns
emerged from this analysis: Youths are now less likely to be in self-employment but more likely to be in
unpaid employment. They are more likely to be employed in industry and services than adults, but also
82 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

more likely to be informally employed and employed in the informal sector. Regular earnings increase
with age group, although there are distinct differences based on age, gender and sector of origin.
As with overall employment, the trends in employment reversed during the pandemic period (up through
2022), with rising participation in self-employment, unpaid employment and in agriculture. The extent of
this retrogression, however, was more or less similar to what adults experienced.

4.4.1 Status of employment

Self-employed is the largest category of employment for both youths and adults. Young people
were more likely to be in unpaid family work in the self-employment category than adults, which
is considered an inferior form of work because it doesn’t lead to independent income or increase
women’s participation in the public sphere (Mehrotra et al. 2014). They were also less likely to be an
own-account worker or an employer than adults under the self-employment category. Interestingly, the
engagement of youths and adults in self-employment showed a contrary trend, which declined for the
former and increased for the latter over the past two decades. In 2022, 47.5 per cent of young people
were self-employed, compared with 58.5 per cent of adults. Of them, 59.6 per cent of youths were unpaid
family workers, while only 23.6 per cent of adults were (figure 4.5 and appendix table A4.4a). Conversely,
38.7 per cent of self-employed young people were own-account workers, compared with 71 per cent of
adults. Between 2000 and 2022, the portion of young people in self-employment decreased, from 50
per cent to 47.5 per cent, while the portion of adults in self-employment increased, from 53.5 per cent to
58.5 per cent. Notably, there was a reversal in this trend of youths in self-employment between 2019 and
2022, with a sharp increase in unpaid family work. This type of work, which includes “bottom-of-the-rung,
survivalist livelihood activities”, is typically undertaken by female workers (Deshpande 2020).

X Figure 4.5. Status of employment (UPSS) of youths and adults, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

100%
26% 25% 28% 23% 22%
33% 31%
37%
75%
23% 19%
28% 16% 17%
13% 21% 32%
50%
54% 58%
50% 48% 55% 55%
25% 46% 42%

0%
2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022
Youth Adult

Self-employed Regular Casual

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

Among youths, the 15–19 age group had a higher likelihood of being self-employed than the other
two age groups, and they also were more likely to work as unpaid family workers. Conversely, the
25–29 age group was more likely to have regular employment than their younger age cohorts. In
2022, 54.1 per cent of youths aged 15–19, 47 per cent of those aged 20–24 and 45.9 per cent of youths aged
25–29 were self-employed. In contrast, 16.5 per cent of youths aged 15–19, 28.5 per cent of youths aged
20–24 and 30.7 per cent of those aged 25–29 were in regular salaried employment. Young women aged
15–19 were more likely to be in unpaid household work (at 61 per cent) than their male counterparts (at
40.6 per cent) (see appendix table A4.4b).
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 83

Youths were more involved in regular salaried employment and casual wage work than adults.
The incidence of youths in regular salaried employment increased significantly more than what
it did among adults over the past two decades. In 2022, 27.8 per cent of young people were in regular
salaried work, compared with the 19.5 per cent of adults. And 24.7 per cent of youths were in casual
wage work, compared with the 22 per cent of adults. Between 2000 and 2022, the involvement of youths
in regular salaried employment increased by around 15 percentage points, compared with the 3.6
percentage-point increase among adults (see appendix table A4.4a). Conversely, the involvement of
youths in casual wage work declined by around 12 percentage points between 2000 and 2022. However,
this positive trend of increasing participation in regular employment for youths reversed in recent years,
with a decline by 3.8 percentage points, from 31.6 per cent in 2019 to 27.8 per cent in 2022.
There were noticeable gender gaps and rural–urban differences in the employment status of
young people. While the quality of employment improved over time, there was some deterioration
between 2019 and 2022, especially among women in rural areas. In 2022, young people were more
involved in self-employment activities in rural areas (at 53.9 per cent) than their urban counterparts (at
28.9 per cent). Conversely, they were more engaged in regular work in urban areas (at 57.7 per cent)
than in rural areas (at 17.5 per cent) (see appendix table A4.4c). Young women were more involved in
self-employment activities, especially unpaid family work, with 61.1 per cent of them compared with 42.9
per cent of men. Conversely, young men were more involved in regular salaried employment and casual
wage work, with 29.8 per cent of them compared with 22 per cent of women. And 27.3 per cent of men
engaged in casual wage work, compared with 16.8 per cent of women.
The proportion of young men and women in regular employment improved equally, by 15 percentage
points, between 2000 and 2019, but it declined sharply between 2019 and 2022, especially among the
women, who experienced an 8.6 percentage point decrease in the more recent period. While young
women in self-employment declined by 5 percentage points between 2000 and 2019, the decline was 11
percentage points between 2019 and 2022, especially among unpaid family workers in rural areas (see
appendix tables A4.4a, A4.4c and A4.4d). This suggests that the quality of youth employment in terms
of status improved in the long term but declined more among young women than men between 2019
and 2022.

4.4.2 Formal and informal employment and

the organized and unorganized sectors
Young people were more likely to engage in the unorganized sector and informal work. While there
was a rise in young people working in the formal or organized sector over the past two decades,
the trend reversed during the pandemic. In 2022, 79.1 per cent of young workers engaged in the formal
or organized sector, compared with 81.8 per cent of adults (table 4.1). And 89.9 per cent of young workers
were informally employed, compared with 90.4 per cent of adults. The proportion of youths informally
employed and those engaged in the unorganized sector declined considerably between 2000 and 2019,
by 6.6 percentage points and 14 percentage points, respectively. But then this trend reversed with a
marginal rise in both the share of informally employed youths (by 0.5 percentage points) and those
engaged in the unorganized sector (by 1.5 percentage points) between 2019 and 2022.
Although there was a rise in youths in regular employment over the past two decades, this does
not necessarily indicate improvement in employment quality: A large portion of them lacked a
written contract, a long-term (three or more years) contract and social security benefits. In 2022,
only 30.7 per cent of young regular workers had a written contract, and only 10.2 per cent were in regular
formal employment or receiving social security benefits. Additionally, only 15 per cent of the young
regular workers had a long-term written contract. Notably, the share of regular workers with a written
contract and a long-term written contract was much smaller among youths than adults. But there was
an upward trend in the proportion of all regular workers with written contracts and long-term contracts
between 2019 and 2022 (table 4.1).
84 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 4.1. Employment quality and conditions (UPSS) among youths and adults, 2000, 2012,
2019 and 2022 (%)

Youths Adults

2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022

Informal employment 96.0 94.7 89.4 89.9 89.1 91.2 89.5 90.4
(% of total employ-
ment)

Formal sector (% of total 91.8 82.0 77.6 79.1 87.6 82.7 81.3 81.8
employment)

Regular formal 3.0 5.1 10.4 10.2 10.0 8.6 10.1 9.2
employment (% of
total employment)

Informal within formal 70.0 55.5 72.8 53.6 31.1 45.7 51.3 49.5
sector (% of total formal
sector employment)

Written contract (% of 12.2* 23.1 21.7 30.7 34.2* 41.9 34 41.6

total Regular em-
ployed)

3+ years contract (% of 8.0* 13.9 11.3 15.0 31.8* 36.8 26.2 31.7
total regular employed)

Note: *=This data pertain to 2004-05.

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

The share of young informal workers within the formal sector increased between 2000 and 2019
but declined sharply between 2019 and 2022 (along with the declining share of formal sector
employment among youths). Among the young workers, the proportion of those informally employed
within the formal sector increased by around 3 percentage points during the first 19 years of the century
but decreased by around 16 percentage points between 2019 and 2022. This may be due to a decrease
in temporary workers or those without any contract or short-term contract who lost their job during
the COVID-19 crisis. Although the proportion of regular workers, formal workers and formal sector
workers among the youths was relatively larger than among the adults, they had a lower incidence of
written contract or long-term (three years or more) written contract, which implies higher vulnerability
in employment. This vulnerability makes them more susceptible to being easily fired during times of
crisis, such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

4.4.3 Average earnings and wages

The average monthly earnings from self-employment and average monthly wages from casual
wage work for youths had only a marginal gap, indicating poor-quality self-employment work and
low earnings among youths, with considerable variation between women and men. In 2022, the
average monthly earnings or wages for youths in regular salaried work was the highest, at 14,583 rupees,
followed by self-employment, at 10,100 rupees, and then casual work, at 8,315 rupees. For adults, the
average monthly earnings or wages was much higher than those of youths, at 21,372 rupees for regular
salaried work and 12,539 rupees for self-employment, while casual wage work was almost similar with
youths, at 8,404 rupees (figure 4.6). The gender gap in monthly earnings among youths was much greater
in self-employment (2.6 times) and casual wage work (1.5 times), while monthly earnings in regular
salaried employment was more than 1.1 times larger for women than men. The gender gap in wages
and earnings among adults was larger in casual work, but it differed in regular salaried work, where the
monthly earnings of men was 1.5 times greater than what it was among their female counterparts. This
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 85

indicates that the participation of young individuals in the labour market is low but that they are also less
engaged in earning activities than adults

X Figure 4.6. Average monthly earnings and wages among

youths and adults, 2022 (nominal values in rupees)

11607 10100 5603

14218 14583 15414
8648 8315 5577

4453 14113 12539

16124 23187 21372
5929 9433 8404

24,000

18,000
In rupees

12,000

6,000

0
Male Female Total Male Female Total
Youth Adult

Self-employed Regular Casual

Source: Computed from unit-level data of various Employment and Unemployment Surveys, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical
Office data.

The average real monthly earnings for both youths and adults engaged in regular salaried work
and self-employment remained nearly stable or declined between 2012 and 2022, whereas the
average real wages of those involved in casual work had a small increase. There also was a
narrowing of the gender gap among youths (figure 4.7). This trend underscores a high incidence
of low earnings and low-paying employment among youths in the labour market.
There was annual growth in real monthly earnings for youths in regular employment, of 0.4 per cent,
between 2012 and 2022, while average earnings for adults experienced a negative annual growth, at -1.6
per cent, over the same period (figure 4.7 and appendix table A4.5). Likewise, average real earnings in
self-employment for both youths and adults showed negative growth, at -0.7 per cent and -0.4 per cent
annually. But monthly earnings in casual work grew at an annual rate of 2.6 per cent for youths and 2.4
per cent for adults over the same period. There was a gender gap in real earnings for youths in casual
work, but it narrowed over the years. Interestingly, young women’s real earnings in regular employment
grew much faster than those of their male counterparts and even surpassed them over the years (see
appendix table A4.5).
86 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Figure 4.7. Average monthly real earnings and wages among youths and
adults, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (rupees, at 2012=100 constant prices)

8017 5901 3775

8477 5770 4428
8375 4791

3651 14368 7245

4367 12285 7168
4738 12511

16,000

12,000
In rupees

8,000

4,000

0
Regular Casual Self-employed Regular Casual Self-employed
Youth Adult
2012 2019 2022
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

4.4.4 Industrial structure

Young workers were relatively less engaged in the primary or agriculture sector than adults and
were more involved in the non-farm secondary or industrial sectors than adults. Both youths and
adult workers had almost similar presence in the tertiary or services sectors. In 2022, 38.6 per cent
of total young workers were in the primary sector, compared with 47.6 per cent of adult workers. Among
the youth workers, 30.3 per cent were in the secondary sector and 31 per cent were in the tertiary sector,
while among adults, 23.1 per cent were in the secondary sector and 29.2 per cent were in the tertiary
sector (figure 4.8 and appendix table A4.6a).
Among working youths,25 those aged 15–19 were more involved in the agriculture sector than the
older two age groups, whereas those aged 20–24 and 25–29 were more engaged in the services
sector. But an almost equal proportion of all age groups of youths were working in the industrial
sector (see secondary sector in figure 4.8). In 2022, 51.4 per cent of youths aged 5–19 were in agriculture,
compared with 38 per cent of youths aged 20–24 and 35.3 per cent of youths aged 25–29. But 34.8 per
cent of youths aged 25–29 were in services, compared with 31.1 per cent of the 20–24 age group and
18.6 per cent of the 15–19 age group (see appendix tables A4.6b and A4.6g). The share of youths in the
industrial sector was 30 per cent for all age groups. The larger share of the older young people (aged
25–29) in the services sector does not necessarily mean that young people tend to switch careers. Jobs in
the modern services sector generally require a high level of education, and young people tend to enter
the services sector at a later stage or as older youths. In contrast, agriculture does not require a high
level of education in most cases and allows for easy entry for younger youths, such as those aged 15–19
(ILO 2022a; Mitra and Verick 2013).

25 Those involved in economic activities only.

 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 87

X Figure 4.8. Industrial structure (UPSS) for youths and adults, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

100%
21% 27% 25%
31% 28% 33% 29%
36%
75% 19% 15%
30% 22% 23%
30% 24%
50% 31%

25% 60% 43% 60% 50% 43% 48%

39%
33%

0%
2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022
Youth Adult
Primary Secondary Tertiary
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

There was a significant gender gap in youth employment across the sectors. In the primary sector,
young women engaged more than their male counterparts in agriculture, especially in rural areas. In
2022, 56.7 per cent of young women were in agriculture, compared with 32.6 per cent of young men,
with a much larger proportion in rural areas, where 70 per cent of young women were in agriculture,
compared with 46.4 per cent of men. But working youths were slightly more engaged in construction
than in manufacturing, with a significant gender gap in the former in the secondary sector. In
2022, 15.1 per cent of youths were in construction and 14.3 per cent in manufacturing. Young men were
more than five times likely to be in the construction sector (at 19 per cent) than young women (at 3.6 per
cent), while both the male (14.1 per cent) and female (14.9 per cent) proportions were almost equal in the
manufacturing sector (see appendix tables A4.6c, A4.6d and A4.6e).
In the tertiary sector, working youths were relatively more engaged in trade, hotels, restaurants, public
administration, health, education, transport, storage and communications, with significant gender gaps
in these sectors. In 2022, 12.9 per cent of youths worked in trade, hotels and restaurants, while 7.8 per
cent of them were in public administration, education and health, and only 6.9 per cent of them were
in transport, storage and communications services. Young men were almost three times as likely
to be in trade, hotel and restaurant services (15.5 per cent) as young women (5.2 per cent), while
more than twice as many men (8 per cent) as women (3.5 per cent) were in transport, storage
or communications services. But young women were more than twice as likely to be in public
administration, education and health-related activities (13.1 per cent) as young men (6 per cent)
(see appendix tables A4.6d and A4.6e).
Between 2000 and 2019, youths shifted out of agriculture and into the industrial and services
sectors much more than adults did. The share of youths in agriculture declined by 27 percentage
points while it increased by 14.2 percentage points in the services sector and 12.8 percentage points in
the industrial sector. Young people worked in construction and manufacturing in the secondary sector
as well as transport, storage and communications and public administration, health and education-
related activities in the services sector to a greater extent than adults (see appendix tables A4.6c, A4.6d
and A4.6e).
The COVID-19 crisis reversed the long-term trend of expanding youth employment in the non-
farm industrial and services sectors and declining employment in the agriculture sector. Between
2019 and 2022, there was an increase in the proportion of young workers in the agriculture sector
and a decline in the industrial and services sectors. Between 2019 and 2022, the share of young
people in agriculture increased by 5.6 percentage points but declined by 4.6 percentage points in the
services sector and 1.1 percentage points in the industrial sector. The proportion of working youths
88 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

declined between 2019 and 2022 in the trade, hotel and restaurant sector (by 1.5 percentage points)
as well as public administration, education and health services (by 2 percentage points). These sectors
have traditionally been the main entry points into the labour market for young people. However, youth
employment did not diminish but instead expanded in the construction (by 0.4 percentage points) and
agriculture (by 5.6 percentage points) sectors, which emerged as a last-resort employer during the
pandemic (see appendix tables A4.6d and A4.6e and ILO 2022a).
Structural changes in the economy have the potential to create employment opportunities for
young people, particularly in the growing non-farm sectors, such as machinery and equipment
manufacturing, computer programming and information and communications technology and
specialized retail sales. To take advantage of these opportunities, young people must acquire the
necessary skills. The subsector analysis for this report revealed26 that the repair of fabricated metal
products, machinery and equipment in the manufacturing sector as well as construction of buildings and
electrical, plumbing and other construction installation activities in the construction sector hold potential
for creating new employment opportunities for youths. However, jobs generated in the manufacturing
subsectors tend to be of higher quality (mostly regular type) than those in the construction subsectors
(mostly casual type) (see appendix table A4.6f).
In the services sector, computer programming, land transport, secondary education, hospital activities,
retail sales of household and information and communication equipment and retail sales of other
goods in specialized stores are likely to generate new employment for young people. These sectors are
expected to offer good-quality jobs, particularly in urban areas. And the non-farm sectors are likely to
be in modern sectors with high levels of regular employment and located in urban areas (see appendix
table A4.6f ).

X 4.5 Youth unemployment and underemployment

This section discusses critical issues that youths are facing, including unemployment, unemployment
among educated young people, underemployment and youths not in employment, education or
training. Unemployment rates among youths were substantially higher than the overall population, but
among educated youths they were much higher. The rising trend in youth unemployment was partially
reversed between 2019 and 2022 as more youths, especially women, took up work, particularly in rural
areas. In 2022, the trends in gender unemployment were reversed in rural India, with female youth
unemployment rates becoming lower than the male rates.

4.5.1 Youth unemployment rate

The youth unemployment rate was significantly higher than the adult unemployment rate, which
increased over time. According to the ILO’s Global Employment Trends for Youth, 2022 report (2022b), the
worldwide youth unemployment rate was 15.6 per cent in 2021, which was three times higher than the
adult rate. In India, the youth unemployment rate (usual status) was an estimated 12.4 per cent in 2022,
which was more than 12 times higher than the adult rate. In terms of numbers, 14.5 million young men
were unemployed, compared with 4.4 million women in 2022.
The youth unemployment rate increased more than twofold between 2000 and 2019, from 5.7 per cent
to 17.5 per cent, but then decreased to 12.4 per cent in 2022 (figure 4.9). This decline was attributed to a
considerable increase in the female workforce participation rate, as discussed earlier, which resulted in
a lower unemployment rate for women (at 11.8 per cent) when compared with men (at 12.6 per cent) in
2022. This was a reversal from previous years, when the female unemployment rate was higher than the
male unemployment rate.

26 Sectors at the three-digit National Industrial Classification codes generated around 0.10 million net additions in employ-
ment, with an annual growth rate of more than 6 per cent between 2000 and 2019.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 89

X Figure 4.9. Unemployment rate (UPSS) among youths and adults, 2000, 2012,
2019 and 2022 (%)

6.2 5.7 0.3

6.0 6.2 0.6
17.3 17.5 1.3
12.6 12.4 0.8
4.4 0.5 0.4
6.8 0.3 0.4
17.9 1.4 1.4
11.8 1.0 0.9
18.0

13.5

9.0
%

4.5

0
Male Female Total Male Female Total
Youth Adult
2000 2012 2019 2022
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

The incidence of unemployment was much greater among young people in urban areas than in
rural areas and among younger youths than older ones. In 2022, the unemployment rate was 13.2 per
cent for the 15–19 age group, compared with 8.6 per cent for the 25–29 age group (see appendix table
A4.2a). This disparity could be attributed to several factors, including differences in the level of education,
work experience and relevant skills. The unemployment rate among youths in urban areas was 17.2 per
cent, compared with 10.6 per cent in rural areas. Notably, even after a sharp decline between 2019 and
2022, the female youth unemployment rate in urban areas (at 21.6 per cent) remained higher than their
male counterparts (at 15.8 per cent) (see appendix tables A4.7a and A4.7b).

4.5.2 Unemployment rate among educated youths

The youth unemployment rate increased with the level of education, with the highest among
graduates and higher among women than men. The educated unemployment rate increased over
the past 22 years, but with a sharp decline between 2019 and 2022. In 2022, the unemployment rate
among youths was six times greater for those who had completed secondary education or higher (18.4
per cent) and nine times higher for graduates27 (29.1 per cent) than for persons who could not read or
write (3.4 per cent). This was relatively higher among educated young women (21.4 per cent) than men
(17.5 per cent), especially among female graduates (34.5 per cent), compared to men (26.4 per cent) with

27 The National Sample Survey Office’s annual Periodic Labour Force Survey categorizes general education attainment levels
in India into the following: “not literate, literate without formal schooling or below literate, primary, middle, secondary,
higher-secondary, diploma/certificate course, graduate, post-graduate and above”. Persons with a technical education are
also listed as having a technical degree in: agriculture, engineering/technology, medicine, crafts, other subjects; or having
a diploma or certificate in those streams, which is further categorized as “below graduate level” or “graduate and above
level”. “Graduate” throughout the report refers to university graduates (with a bachelor’s degree) or persons with an
equivalent recognized diploma or certificate.
90 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

similar qualifications. The unemployment rate among educated youths grew from 23.9 per cent in 2000
to 30.8 per cent in 2019 but fell sharply to 18.4 per cent in 2022 (see appendix table A4.7c).
Unemployment in India was predominantly a problem among youths, especially youths with a
secondary level of education or higher, and it intensified over time. In 2022, the share of unemployed
youths in the total unemployed population was 82.9 per cent (figure 4.10). The share of educated youths
among all unemployed people also increased, from 54.2 per cent in 2000 to 65.7 per cent in 2022. Among
the educated (secondary level or higher) unemployed youths, women accounted for a larger share (76.7
per cent) than men (62.2 per cent). This indicates that the problem of unemployment in India has become
increasingly concentrated among the youth, especially educated youths and women in urban areas (see
Chapter 5 for detailed analysis of the link between education and skill levels and youth employment).

X Figure 4.10. Share of unemployed educated youths (secondary or higher)

in total unemployed persons (UPSS), 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

88.6 87.1
90.0 83.1 82.9

77.5
65.7
65.0 59.4
%

58.9
54.2

52.5

40.0
2000 2012 2019 2022

All Secondary+
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

4.5.3 Underemployment or labour utilization

A more comprehensive approach to capturing the lack of employment in India is to look beyond the
unemployment rate and consider other indicators, such as underemployment and the number of youths
not in employment, education or training Mitra and Verick 2013).28
The rate of time-related underemployment in India decreased over the years, although it remained
relatively higher among women and workers in rural areas. In 2022, the underemployment rate was
significantly high, at 16.8 per cent. The underemployment rate was slightly higher among women (17.3
per cent) than men (16.7 per cent) and more prevalent in urban areas (19.2 per cent) than in rural areas
(15.8 per cent) (see appendix table A4.8). Over time, there was a substantial rise in the underemployment
rate, from 13.9 per cent in 2012 to 20.8 per cent in 2019, which declined between 2019 and 2022, from
20.8 per cent to 16.8 per cent. This fluctuation was much higher among young women. These trends
prompt a question about the type of economic activities that youths increasingly participated in during
the slowdown period.

28 See also the International Labour Conference Resolution concerning statistics of work, employment and labour underuti-
lization.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 91

4.5.4 Youth not in employment, education or training

As enrolment rates for youths in higher education in India continue to rise, it is expected that more
young people will choose to stay in education before entering the job market. As a result, education and
employment accounted for a significant portion of the youth population. However, as previously noted,
there is a growing number of unemployed young people as well as those who are inactive. Therefore,
the share of young people not in employment, education or training becomes increasingly important
for understanding labour utilization in the labour market. In India, this category also includes youths
who are inactive by choice and those who have been preparing for public sector or white-collar jobs
for several years. It still helps to identify those who are at risk of not successfully transitioning to work
because they are not actively engaged in or preparing for employment. Youths not in employment,
education or training tend to experience varying degrees of social and economic marginalization and
are more likely to be left behind in mainstream policies (ILO 2021a).
The proportion of youths globally who are not in education, employment or training has been consistently
highest in South Asia, at an average of 29.2 per cent between 2010 and 2019 (ILO 2022a). One in three
young people was not in employment, education or training in India, which was almost equal in
rural and urban areas and increased over the years. In 2022, the proportion of youths with such status
remained high, at 28.5 per cent, with almost equal proportions in rural (28.7 per cent) and urban areas
(29.7 per cent) (figure 4.11). This proportion of youths increased from 29.9 per cent in 2000 to 33.4 per
cent in 2019 but decreased to 28.5 per cent in 2022 (see appendix table A4.9a). This indicates that many
young people missed out on a crucial early stage of their personal development and risk facing severe
disadvantages in the labour market in the future (ILO 2022a).

X Figure 4.11. Youth not in employment, education or training,

by gender, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

6.5 9.8 51.4 48.4 28.2 28.5

8 12.7 52.7 55.3 30 33.4
60.0

45.0

30.0
%

15.0

0
Male Female Total

2000 2012 2019 2022

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

Young women were much more likely to not be in employment, education or training than young
men, and this was especially pronounced among the older youths (aged 20–24 and 25–29) than the
younger ones (aged 15–19) in 2022. The women not in employment, education or training represented
almost five times more than their male counterparts (at 48.4 per cent versus 9.8 per cent) and accounted
for around 95 per cent of the total in 2022. There were 84.9 million young women not in employment,
education or training, compared with 18.5 million young men. Among all young people, youths not in
employment, education or training were 12.1 per cent for the 15–19 age group, compared with 36.3
92 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

per cent for the 20–24 age group and 39.1 per cent for the 25–29 age group (see appendix table A4.9b).
This could be attributed to greater participation of youths aged 15–19 years in education or training, as
discussed previously.
The not in employment, education or training category encompasses a small group of unemployed
youths who are better educated and a much larger group of youths who are out of the labour force
and less educated. Notably, the out-of-the-labour force group was dominated by women, with
most of them engaged in domestic work. In 2022, 17.9 per cent of youths not in employment, education
or training were unemployed, and 82.1 per cent were outside the labour force. Women accounted for
95.1 per cent of the total youth population out of the labour force and not in employment, education or
training, with most (93 per cent) of them engaged in domestic duties (see appendix table A4.9c). These
trends appear to be a consequence of gender disparities in participation in labour market (Kapoor 2022),
as discussed in Chapter 2.

X 4.6 Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on youth

employment

This section examines the impact of the COVID-19 crisis on youth employment by comparing labour
market characteristics during the pandemic with those of the pre-pandemic period. The COVID-19 crisis
peaked during the second half of 2020 and persisted through 2021, with some amelioration in 2022.
Young people in India are particularly susceptible to marginalization in the labour market due to their
limited work experience, inadequate job search skills, insufficient financial resources and lack of necessary
skills. As a result, they are more likely to experience higher unemployment rates and employment in less
secure or informal jobs. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated their already vulnerable position, leading
to job and income losses. According to the ILO (2022c), the pandemic resulted in the loss of jobs and
earnings for millions of young people worldwide and hindered their efforts to establish a career in the
labour market.

4.6.1 Pandemic impact on employment and unemployment

During the COVID-19 pandemic period, youth participation in the labour market in India declined,
and an estimated 6.3 million young people lost their job during the lockdown periods. But youth
participation in the labour market swiftly increased once lockdowns were lifted, and consistently
expanded – except in the second quarter of 2021 when the second phase of the pandemic peaked
– and the unemployment rate continued to decline (see figure 4.12 and appendix table A4.10a). The
quarterly data for urban India reflect a decline in the worker population ratio for youths, from 32.5 per
cent in the pre-pandemic fourth quarter of 2019 (October–December) to 26.8 per cent in the second
quarter of 2020 (April–June), which coincided with the nationwide lockdown period.
There was a swift recovery, with the worker population ratio for youths reaching 31.2 per cent in the
third quarter of 2020 (July–Sept) and expanding further, with fluctuations to 34.9 per cent in the second
quarter of 2022. The unemployment rate among youths also increased, from nearly 16 per cent in the
fourth quarter of 2019 to 25.3 per cent in the second quarter of 2020, but it decreased to 15.4 per cent
in the first quarter of 2021 and to 15.1 per cent in the second quarter of 2022. As noted previously, the
participation of female youths in the labour market increased in this period, particularly in rural areas,
while their participation remained relatively stable in urban areas (see appendix table A4.10b).
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 93

X Figure 4.12. Quarterly worker population ratio and unemployment rate for
youth (urban), 2019Q4 (October–December) to 2022Q2 (April–June)

33.7 34.9
36 32.5 33.2 33.2 32.6
31.3 31.2 31.7
30.2
26.8
27
18.3 25.3 18.4 18.2 19.1
17.0 17.5 17.0
18 15.8 15.4 15.1
%

0
Q4_2019

Q1_2020

Q2_2020

Q3_2020

Q4_2020

Q1_2021

Q2_2021

Q3_2021

Q4_2021

Q1_2022

Q2_2022
Quaters
WPR UR

Note: Nationwide lockdown period: 25 March 2020 to 17 May 2020 (2020Q1: January–March and 2020Q2: April–June). The urban data were used to
assess the COVID-19 lockdown impact. WPR=worker participation ratio; UR=unemployment rate.
Source: Computed from Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2019 and 2021.

4.6.2 Pandemic impact on quality and

condition of employment
The number of youths in self-employment expanded much more than in other categories of
employment during the pandemic and was mostly in household unpaid work, especially among
rural women. The annual Periodic Labour Force Survey data revealed that youth employment increased
by 19.9 million, from 114 million in 2019 to 133.9 million in 2021. More than three fourths (83 per cent) of the
additional youths were in self-employment. In numbers, around 16.5 million additional youths became
self-employed (see table 4.2). The additional young people who joined the workforce in self-employment
were mainly in the household unpaid category (13.3 million). The household unpaid category
dominated among women in this time period, while own-account work was more common among
men. Nearly 85 per cent of the additional self-employed individuals joined the workforce in rural areas,
and the majority were women in unpaid household jobs (see appendix table A4.11).
The number of young workers in regular salaried jobs declined during the pandemic period. The
number of youths engaged in regular work declined by 800,000 between 2019 and 2021, but their number
plummeted by 2.4 million in the pandemic years of 2020–21. Other studies have confirmed that youth
workers who previously had regular salaried jobs engaged in more precarious arrangements later (CEDA
and CMIE 2022; Dev and Sengupta 2022; Abraham et al. 2021). The number of youths engaged in casual
work also increased during the pandemic period, by 4.2 million between 2019 and 2021. This indicates
an increase in less remunerative employment among youths, as with adults (discussed in Chapter 2). A
partial recovery began in the post-pandemic period with a rise in regular employment, but the number
of youths in casual and self-employment were nearly stable.
94 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 4.2. Changes in employment by activity status (UPSS) for youths pre- and post-
COVID-19 pandemic, 2019-22 (millions)

Change in employment
Employment (Millions)
(millions)

2019 2020 2021 2022 2019-20 2020-21 2021-22

Regular 36.0 37.6 35.2 37.9 1.6 -2.4 2.7

Casual 29.9 31.4 34.1 33.1 1.5 2.7 -1.0

Self-employed 48.1 55.5 64.6 64.5 7.4 9.1 -0.1

Own-account work 22.7 23.7 26.0 24.9 1.0 2.3 -1.1

Employer 0.8 0.7 0.7 1.0 -0.1 0.0 0.3

Household unpaid worker 24.6 31.1 37.8 38.5 6.5 6.8 0.7

Total employment 114.0 124.5 133.9 135.4 10.5 9.5 1.5

Note: Own account workers, employer and household unpaid workers are the subgroups of self-employed category.
Source: Computed from Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2019 and 2021.

4.6.3 Pandemic impact on sectors of employment

The participation of young people in employment expanded in the subsistence agriculture and
low-productivity and low-wage construction sectors during the pandemic and remained more
or less stable in the industrial and services sectors. The annual Periodic Labour Force Survey data
revealed that approximately 79 per cent of additional young people joined the agriculture sector between
2019 and 2021 (table 4.3). In the agriculture sector, youth employment increased by 7 percentage points,
while youths’ participation declined in the industrial (by 2 percentage points) and in the services sector
(by 5 percentage points). This sectoral trend suggests an increase in less remunerative employment
during the COVID-19 period, which tended to be largely informal, unpaid or low-paid work, especially in
farming (for women) and in the construction sector. Similar increasing numbers of young people working
in agriculture from rural and impoverished households, especially in unpaid household work, were also
reported by the Young Lives study in 2021.29

29 See www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/presentation/wcms_835436.pdf.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 95

X Table 4.3. Changes in sectoral youth employment (UPSS), pre- and post-COVID-19 pandemic
2019–22 (millions)

2019- 2020- 2021-

Sector 2019 2020 2021 2022
2020 2021 2022

Agriculture, forestry and fishing 37.6 45.2 53.4 52.2 7.6 8.2 -1.2

Mining and quarrying 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.5 -0.2 0.0 0.2

Manufacturing 17.8 17.9 17.7 19.4 0.1 -0.2 1.7

Electricity, gas, water supply and 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.1 0.1 -0.2
other utility services

Construction 16.8 18.3 20.2 20.5 1.5 1.9 0.3

Trade 13.9 15.4 15.7 15.0 1.5 0.3 -0.7

Hotels and restaurants 2.6 2.7 2.4 2.7 0.1 -0.3 0.3

Transport and storage 6 6.4 5.8 5.6 0.4 -0.6 -0.2

Postal and courier activities 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0 0.1 0.0

Information and communications 2.3 2.1 2.5 3.4 -0.2 0.4 0.9
services

Financial services 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.9 0.1 -0.1 0.2

Business services 1.2 1.2 2.6 1.0 0 1.4 -1.6

Public administration and 1.4 1.7 1.5 1.5 0.3 -0.2 0.0
defence

Education and health 5.4 5.1 5.1 4.9 -0.3 0.0 -0.2

Other services 5.9 5.1 4.0 6.0 -0.8 -1.1 2.0

Total 114.0 124.5 133.9 135.4 10.5 9.4 1.5

X 4.7 Impact of technological changes and

digitalization

The fast-paced and ever-evolving demand for skills resulting from rapid technological advancement
and digitalization and the gig and platform economy are critical emerging issues affecting overall
employment, including for youths, as discussed in Chapter 2. This section zooms in on the emerging
impact of technological advancement and digitalization of work on youth employment in India.

4.7.1 Technological changes and youth employment

As discussed in Chapter 2, there is a gradual adoption of new technologies, such as Industry 4.0
technologies, across the medium-sized and large industries in India. These new technologies are likely
to displace routine, low- and medium-skill jobs while increasing the demand for high-skill jobs (FICCI,
NASSCOM and EY 2017). In this process, the adoption of these technologies will also generate a substantial
number of new jobs for skilled young people in the future (Ghose and Mehta 2023; Kapoor 2022; Mehta
and Awasthi 2019). For this analysis, labour tasks were classified into routine and non-routine, cognitive
96 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

and manual tasks and skilled and unskilled categories based on the NCO codes, which were further
divided into four skill types: no skill, low skill, medium skill and high skill (discussed in Chapter 2 and box
5 on definitions). The NCO-1968 was converted to the NCO-2004 for 2000 and the NCO-2012 for 2022.
Low-skill and no-skill jobs dominated with a marginally larger proportion among adults than
youths. Conversely, the proportion of high- and medium-skill jobs among youths was marginally
larger than what it was for adults. In 2022, 89.4 per cent of adults were in low-skill or no-skill jobs,
compared to 88.9 per cent of youths, while 11.1 per cent of youths were in high- or medium-skill jobs,
compared with 10.6 per cent of adults.
Between 2000 and 2019 (before the pandemic), youths in high-, medium- and low-skill jobs
increased at a consistent rate, while their involvement in no-skill jobs declined. But this trend
reversed between 2019 and 2022 for high-skill jobs, with a consistent increase in the low-skill job
category.
Empirical evidence shows that young people often struggle in their initial attempts to find employment
and may end up in positions that are not aligned with their educational or skill background, particularly
during an economic slowdown or crisis period (Verick 2023; Kahn 2010; see also chapter 5). The proportion
of youths in high- and medium-skill jobs in 2022 had increased by approximately 7 percentage points,
rising from 3.4 per cent in 2000 to 10.4 per cent in 2019, although it decreased to 8.9 per cent in 2022
(figure 4.13). In contrast, the proportion of youths in no-skill jobs consistently declined by 10 percentage
points, falling from 36.1 per cent in 2000 to approximately 26 per cent in 2022. But it increased in low-skill
jobs by 4.3 percentage points, rising from 60.5 per cent to 64.8 per cent during the same period. This
consistent increase in low-skill jobs may indicate economic compulsion and a lack of sufficient high-skill,
high-paying job opportunities, which leads young people to increasingly participate in low-paying, low-
skill positions. These findings align with the discussion in the previous sections, where it was highlighted
that the real earnings of youths either remained stable or declined over time.

X Figure 4.13. Distribution of jobs by level of skill (UPSS)

among youths, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

30.5 26.3 62.5 64.8 7.0 8.9

36.1 26.2 60.5 63.5 3.4 10.4
70.0

52.5

35.0
%

17.5

0
Unskilled Low High/Medium

2000 2012 2019 2022

Note: The high and medium categories are combined due to the small proportion in the medium category.
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

The likely demand for medium- or high-skill jobs in the agriculture and construction sectors was
expected to be very small., considering that most workers were engaged in no-skill and low-skill
jobs in 2022. The manufacturing and some services sectors were seen as high skill-demanding.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 97

In 2022, almost all of the youth workers in agriculture (99.9 per cent) and construction (97.9 per
cent) were in no-skill or low-skill jobs. In the manufacturing sector, the proportion of young people
in medium- and high-skill jobs also remained low, although much higher than in agriculture and
construction. Approximately 6.8 per cent of young workers were involved in medium- and high-skill jobs
in manufacturing, compared with 2.1 per cent in construction and a mere 0.1 per cent in agriculture in
2022. And 70.4 per cent were in low-skill jobs while 22.8 per cent were in jobs requiring no skill (figure
4.14). Over the years between 2000 and 2019, the proportion of youths in medium to high-skill and no-
skill jobs in manufacturing consistently increased, by 4.9 percentage points and 13 percentage points,
respectively, but decreased in low-skill jobs by 17.8 percentage points. The consistent increase in the
share of medium- and high-skill jobs, albeit at a slow pace, and the no-skill jobs in manufacturing explains
the growing demand for both low-end and high-end skills, also referred to as job polarization for youths
in manufacturing.

X Figure 4.14. Distribution of jobs by level of skill (UPSS) in the

manufacturing sector, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

14.4 22.8 81.1 70.4 4.5 6.8

9.8 20.8 88.2 73.8 1.9 5.4
90.0

67.5

45.0
%

22.5

0
Unskilled Low High/Medium

2000 2012 2019 2022

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

In the services sector, a substantial portion of young individuals worked in high- and medium-
skill jobs, particularly in transport, storage and communications; financial, business and real
estate; and public administration, health and education. Their numbers were growing, especially
in the modern transport, storage and communication services and in financial, business and real
estate services, which demand highly skilled individuals. This trend was evident in various sectors,
including also public administration, health and education (table 4.4). In 2022, nearly half of the workers
in public administration, health, and education (47.9 per cent) were engaged in high- and medium-skill
jobs, followed by the financial, business and real estate sector (42.6 per cent) and almost one third (31.7
per cent) in transport, storage and communications. However, only 2.9 per cent of youths in trade, hotels
and restaurants held high- and medium-skill jobs. Between 2000 and 2022, the proportion of youths
in high- and medium-skill jobs consistently increased in transport, storage and communications and
financial, business and real estate and public administration, health and education. Notably, modern
services, such as information and communication services, software and financial activities (included in
transport, storage and communications and financial, business and real estate) experienced substantial
growth in India during this period, resulting in increased demand for highly skilled human resources.
98 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 4.4. Distribution of jobs, by level of skill (UPSS) in the services sector for youth, 2000,
2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

Transport, storage and communica-

Trade, hotels and restaurants
tions

2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022

No skill 10.3 12.9 9.4 9.9 43.1 17.6 9.8 6.9

Low skill 88.0 81.7 83.8 87.2 55.3 66.3 67.7 61.4

High and medium skill 1.7 5.5 6.8 2.9 1.5 16.1 22.5 31.7

Medium skill 1.4 1.4 2.4 1.3 1.2 4.5 8.8 4.9

High skill 0.3 4.0 4.4 1.6 0.3 11.7 13.7 26.8

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Public administration, health and

Financial, business and real estate
education

2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022

No skill 11.4 13.3 7.5 7.5 30.4 17.2 9.8 10.5

Low skill 54.8 46.7 51.5 49.9 27.7 34.3 38.1 41.6

High and medium skill 33.8 40.1 40.9 42.6 41.9 48.6 52.1 47.9

Medium skill 20.1 25.3 27.5 19.7 24.6 24.0 26.6 10.4

High skill 13.7 14.8 13.4 22.9 17.3 24.6 25.5 37.4

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

These trends indicate an increasing demand for high-skilled youths in modern services, such as
communications, software and financial services. However, the availability of cheap labour in bulk and
the higher cost of automation, especially for the majority of micro and small informal enterprises, is
preventing or delaying technological change or the use of automotive machines in India (Kapoor 2020;
Mehta and Awasthi 2019). And the overall growth of medium- and high-skill jobs over time has been
much slower than the growth rate of highly educated or skilled youths. This link is discussed in greater
detail in Chapter 5.

4.7.2 Platform and gig work and youth employment

The rise of platform and gig work as a form of digitalization is creating new employment
opportunities for a large number of skilled and unskilled unemployed youths and women in many
developing countries, including India. The platform economy has had a significant impact on Indian
youths by creating more job opportunities. According to an ILO study (2021b), the majority of platform
workers in developing countries, including India, were younger than 35 in 2021. In these countries, a
considerable number of young individuals are motivated to engage in online platform work due to
their preference for flexible work arrangements, autonomy or the necessity of working from home.
This particularly benefits individuals with limited qualifications and experience as well as those who are
starting their career. This inclination was particularly notable among women, with 40 per cent of them
in 2021 opting for platform work, compared with 31 per cent of men. Moreover, around 21 per cent
of women with children younger than 6 years (in the 2021 ILO study) encountered challenges related
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 99

to expensive childcare and limited access to care facilities, which often restricts their ability to pursue
conventional employment opportunities in the labour market (Rani and Gobel 2022; ILO 2021b).
In this context, platform work provides women with the opportunity to earn income while simultaneously
fulfilling their caregiving responsibilities, effectively addressing their need for paid work (Rani, Berg and
Furrer 2018). Some available estimates in India put the number of gig workers in the country in a range
of 7.7 million to 18 million, and these numbers are expected to increase multiple times in the near future
(NITI Aayog 2022). Otherwise, there isn’t much information on the age-group profile (as discussed in
Chapter 2). Several studies highlighted the job creation potential of this sector for youths and women,
given the rising urbanization, widespread access to the internet and the availability of smartphones in
India (Nathan, Kelkar and Mehta 2023; NITI Aayog 2022; ILO 2021b).
Autonomy and flexibility in the platform and gig economy is non-existent due to algorithmic
management and control. Many recent studies showed that workers in the platform economy lack
autonomy and flexibility (see, for example, Rani and Furrer 2019 and Wood et al. 2019). The subjective
and unfair nature of ratings used through the algorithmic management in these platforms also creates
difficulties. Workers face penalties and a decline in incentives based on ratings given by customers,
which limits their freedom and flexibility. The lack of transparency in the nature of artificial intelligence-
powered algorithmic decision-making processes poses a serious challenge in protecting working
conditions and the rights of the workers.
The non-transparent algorithmic control system in the platform and gig economy leads to high
work intensity, which determines workers’ performance, income and incentives. The absence of
regulations on working hours and conditions forces many platform workers to work longer hours under
precarious circumstances. The long working hours have negative implications for workers’ health and
work–life balance. At the entry point, the platform provides several incentives to both customers and
workers. However, once the market stabilizes, the focus shifts more towards profit margins, resulting
in reduced of incentives. As a result, the burden is felt partly by consumers but mostly by the services
providers. In this case, consumers have other options, but the providers suffer because their income
drastically decreases. In recent years, the income of most service providers in the platform economy
has reduced multiple times, and they not only have had to work additional hours but ultimately went
on strike. The ILO study (2021b) found a high intensity of work in 2021, especially among workers in ride
hailing and delivery service: They worked an average of 65 hours per week, with the duration going as
high as 82 hours a week in countries like India. Delivery workers for an e-commerce company in India
called Blinkit went on strike due to the reduced payment of wages and poor working conditions.30
Multiple estimates are available on the population of gig workers in India. But most of the data
consist of rough estimates only and lack a systematic robust estimation on the size of gig and
platform workers. This lack of a comprehensive database on the number of workers in the platform
economy and their primary income source poses a huge challenge for policymakers (Nathan et al. 2023;
NITI Aayog 2022; BCG 2021). Additionally, there is a lack of national statistics based on the annual Periodic
Labour Force Survey or a database that provides reliable estimates of the number of workers in the
platform economy, the rate at which it is growing and whether it serves as the workers’ primary source of
income. Addressing these questions should be a priority for future research and data collection efforts.
The distinction between employees and the self-employed has become blurred in the platform
and gig economy, with the algorithmic management practices redefining the hiring, monitoring,
evaluation and payment processes. These control mechanisms resemble employee relationships,
sparking debates about worker classification. Platform work is often considered non-standard work and
an extension of informal employment, raising pressing issues regarding social protection for platform
workers. Efforts are ongoing to create a level playing field and establish a dedicated fund to address
this issue. Challenges also persist in differentiating between international and national platforms,

30 See www.financialexpress.com/industry/explainer-the-blinkit-gig-workers-strike/3053085/.
100 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

managing multiple employers and determining the principles and operations of the dedicated fund
(BCG 2021; ASSOCHAM 2020; Mehta 2020). The Indian Government has taken steps to classify gig workers
as unorganized workers, making them eligible for social security benefits, health insurance and old-age
benefits. There is a need to contextualize the legal confusion surrounding the employment status of
platform workers, allowing them to avail the benefits of all relevant national labour laws. Currently,
only the Social Security Code of 2020 is applicable to gig or platform workers in India. It is essential to
implement these measures quickly and effectively. The recent initiative by the government of Rajasthan
(box 10) is a welcome step.31

X Box 10. Welfare fund for gig workers collected from the companies that employ gig workers.
The levy is an additional charge on each trip or delivery
The government of Rajasthan State adopted the Gig that is set aside for gig workers. This money is to be
Workers Welfare Act and allocated 20 million rupees used to provide a provident fund, pension, health and
in funds for a gig workers' Welfare and Development accident insurance benefits for gig workers and their
Board in 2023. The Board ensures that a levy is families.

X 4.8 Regional analysis: Youth population and em-

ployment situation

This section highlights the regional differences in the youth population and the employment and
unemployment situation in India.

4.8.1 Regional demographic changes

There is significant regional disparity in the youth employment and unemployment trends as
well as the success in creating decent jobs and optimal realization of the demographic dividend.
Although India is a young country, the status and pace of population ageing varies across regions and
states, reflecting differences in age structure and in the level of employment and economic development.
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar have the largest share of youths in the population, both of which are
expected to increase by 2036. These two states, along with Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan, are expected to have the bulk of India’s youth population, which will increase from 49.2 per
cent in 2021 to around 51.5 per cent in 2036 (table 4.5 and appendix table A4.12). However, the shares
of the youth population in the total population in these states have started to decline and are expected
to decline further by 2036, indicating the likely closing of the “youth bulge” advantage in the coming
decades.
The major states from the eastern, central and northern regions of India – Bihar, Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh – have substantial numbers of youths
and working-age population. In contrast, the youth population in most southern states, such as
Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, is small and expected to decline further (table 4.5
and appendix table A4.12). The older-age population is expected to increase in these southern states,
resulting in a demand for a youth workforce that will not be available in sufficient numbers in the future
(IHD and UNDP 2021; Srivastava et al. 2020).

31 See Sonal Matharu, “India’s Gig Workers Score a Big Win Rajasthan First to Budget Rs 200 CR for Protection”, ThePrint, 10
February 2023.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 101

X Table 4.5. Projected youth population (aged 15–29) and their share in total population, by
state, 2021, 2031 and 2036 (%)

% in total state population % in total India's population

State
2021 2031 2036 2021 2031 2036

Uttar Pradesh 29.9 26.3 25.1 18.6 18.5 18.8

Bihar 28.8 27.7 25.5 9.5 10.9 11.0

Maharashtra 26.1 22.5 21.0 8.7 8.4 8.3

Madhya Pradesh 27.7 25.3 24.7 6.3 6.7 7.0

Rajasthan 28.7 25.8 24.6 6.1 6.3 6.4

West Bengal 26.2 21.6 19.6 6.9 6.2 5.8

Gujarat 26.4 23.4 22.6 5.0 5.1 5.3

Karnataka 25.3 22.2 20.8 4.6 4.4 4.3

Tamil Nadu 23.2 20.4 19.1 4.8 4.5 4.3

Jharkhand 29.1 26.5 24.5 3.0 3.2 3.2

Andhra Pradesh 25.1 21.0 19.6 3.6 3.2 3.1

Odisha 26.1 22.8 21.2 3.2 3.1 3.0

Assam 27.8 24.8 22.9 2.6 2.7 2.6

Chhattisgarh 27.7 25.2 24.2 2.2 2.3 2.4

Haryana 27.8 24.4 23.4 2.2 2.3 2.3

Telangana 26.4 21.7 20.2 2.7 2.4 2.3

Kerala 22.1 20.0 19.2 2.1 2.1 2.0

Punjab 26.2 21.5 19.9 2.1 1.9 1.9

Delhi 28.2 24.3 22.8 1.6 1.7 1.8

Jammu & Kashmir 29.3 25.4 21.0 1.1 1.0 0.9

Uttarakhand 29.2 23.9 21.9 0.9 0.8 0.8

Himachal Pradesh 25.1 21.4 19.5 0.5 0.5 0.4

Source: MHFW 2020.

4.8.2 Regional employment situation

To understand the regional differences in youth employment and unemployment situations in India,
a composite index was created for this reports analysis using four broad parameters that link to
labour market access. These parameters were carefully assessed and drawn from available literature
(IHD and UNDP 2021; PWC and YFF 2022; Rajiv Gandhi National Institute of Youth Development 2015).
The parameters are: (a) a measure of labour market access: unemployment among educated youths
(secondary level and higher); (b) a measure of work quality: regular formal employment; (c) a measure
of inactivity: youths not in employment, education or training; and (d) a measure of skill acquisition:
educated youths (secondary level and higher).
Based on the composite score, the states were divided into two groups: Group I – states with a composite
score lower than the all-India average; and Group II – states with a composite score higher than the all-
India average. The composition and characteristics of these states and regions are discussed in detail.
102 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Group I consists of Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Odisha and
West Bengal. As noted previously, these states are characterized by a youth bulge (table 4.5). They are
also relatively underdeveloped: with low per capita income; a small share of highly educated youths; a
significant prevalence of unemployment among the highly educated population; a small share of regular
employment; a large proportion of the population not in employment, education or training; and a
degree of informal employment higher than the all-India average, with an exception of Punjab in this
group (table 4.6). The situation is compounded by the relatively low rates of economic development
in these states, which makes it difficult to create enough local jobs for their youths, leading to high
outmigration of the workforce. The states with little employment opportunities will see a relatively higher
addition to their youth labour force in the future, leading to the challenge of generating new jobs.

X Table 4.6. Regional differences in youth employment, 2022 (%)

Highly Educated Regular Composite

State Not in NEET**
educated employed* formal score

Delhi 68.3 90.0 34.5 75.6 67.1

Himachal Pradesh 81.3 84.7 10.2 85.3 65.4

Tamil Nadu 80.8 76.1 29.6 70.5 64.2

Maharashtra 70.2 86.1 19.6 75.0 62.7

Kerala 88.1 66.8 22.9 72.9 62.7

Telangana 77.7 82.2 14.4 73.8 62.0

Karnataka 70.7 85.3 21.6 70.3 62.0

Andhra Pradesh 74.2 78.0 12.4 72.9 59.4

Uttarakhand 68.2 72.3 17.5 73.2 57.8

Chhattisgarh 56.4 88.0 3.9 79.8 57.0

Gujarat 51.2 90.6 11.5 73.0 56.6

Haryana 65.9 73.9 18.1 67.3 56.3

Jammu & Kashmir 58.7 79.0 6.3 80.8 56.2

India 58.2 81.6 10.0 71.5 55.3

Jharkhand 45.6 92.8 4.1 77.9 55.1

Punjab 64.6 74.2 5.6 69.6 53.5

Uttar Pradesh 52.8 87.2 2.9 69.9 53.2

Rajasthan 54.9 76.2 4.6 75.1 52.7

West Bengal 49.3 84.4 6.8 68.9 52.3

Madhya Pradesh 43.0 88.4 3.3 73.8 52.1

Assam 35.4 78.8 9.2 69.3 48.2

Odisha 51.8 67.0 7.2 63.6 47.4

Bihar 50.4 71.2 2.1 65.2 47.2

Note: *=The average composite score of the indicators was calculated after making all the indicators positive or unidirectional, such as educated youth
unemployment rate and the youth rate for not in employment, education or training reversed because educated employed youth and youths not in
employment, education or training (**NEET).
Source: Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 103

Group II comprises most of the southern states: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
Gujarat, along with Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Delhi, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand
and Telangana. These states experienced a decline in the proportion of their child and young populations
and a rise in the proportion of the older persons (see appendix table A4.6). They achieved a relatively high
level of economic development, as reflected in their high per capita incomes (IHD and UNDP 2021). In
most of the states, the share of youths with regular or formal employment and highly educated youths
was larger than the all-India average (table 4.5). However, the educated unemployment rate was highest
among youths in some states, such as Kerala, Himachal Pradesh, Telangana and Tamil Nadu, where the
share of the relatively more educated was also larger.
This suggests that most of the states in Group II have a highly educated young population and can
provide local employment opportunities. But these states are likely to face a shortage of less-skilled or
unskilled workers in the future as dependency on these categories of workers increases. The majority
of states in Group I have less-educated youths and are not able to generate enough employment
opportunities for the increasing youth population. The states in Group I require urgent attention to
create new job opportunities while states in Group II have been successful in generating new jobs but
struggle to provide decent employment opportunities for their highly educated population.

X 4.9 Summing up

More young people are pursuing higher education, which has led to a smaller proportion of youths in the
labour force compared to their share in the total population. But this is not the sole reason for the decline
in the labour force prior to the COVID-19 crisis. Younger youths (aged 15–19 years) are predominantly
engaged in education while older youths (aged 20–29 years) are relatively more engaged in economic
activities. It is important to develop targeted policies that cater to the needs of each youth cohort.
Although youths are more likely to be employed in industry or services and more likely to be in regular
wage employment and in high-skill jobs, the quality and condition of employment among them are
poorer when compared to adults. They are more likely to be engaged in self-employed unpaid family
work and casual wage work. They are more likely to be involved in informal work in the unorganized
sector, which typically offers lower wages or earnings. The increasing prevalence of informality and
temporary jobs in regular salaried employment raises serious concerns about the country’s trajectory
of youth employment.
The lack of quality employment opportunities is reflected in the high level of joblessness among young
people, especially among those who have achieved higher education. Many highly educated young
people are unwilling to take on low-paying, insecure jobs that are currently available and would rather
wait in the hopes of securing better employment in the future. It is crucial to focus on generating suitable
quality employment opportunities for the expanding population of educated youths.
India is facing the challenge of a substantial gender gap in the labour market, with low rates of female
labour force participation, although this gap is closing in certain segments of the labour market. The
unemployment challenge among young women, especially those who are highly educated, is enormous.
It is ironic that although India has one of the lowest LFPRs in the world, the unemployment rate among
educated young women entering the labour force is extremely high. However, the interpretation of this
high rate should be done with caution because the size of the young female labour force in the country
is very small.
Before the pandemic, young people were increasingly joining the non-farm sectors in greater
numbers than adults, such as construction, manufacturing, transport, storage, communications,
public administration, health and education activities. This shift away from agriculture is largely due
104 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

to farming activities not offering remunerative jobs for young entrants to the labour market who have
better education than their predecessors. This young and increasingly educated labour force seeks more
remunerative or productive jobs outside of agriculture. The Indian economy has so far failed to create
enough remunerative or productive jobs in the non-farm sector for these educated youths.
Technological changes are making labour markets increasingly complex. New employment patterns,
labour market issues and job opportunities are constantly evolving. The demand for highly skilled youths
has been increasing, particularly in modern services, such as communications, software, consultancy,
financial and business, administration, health and education services. These sectors have great
potential for generating new productive employment opportunities for young people and need further
encouragement through tax benefits and other incentives.
The demand for low-skilled youths is increasing in various low-wage services sectors, including trade
(including retail), hotels, restaurants, transportation services and gig and platform work. Additionally,
there is growing demand for young workers in micro and small manufacturing enterprises. Particularly
after the COVID-19 pandemic, the demand for youths in these job categories has risen rapidly. One
significant change brought about by digital platforms is the blurring of the traditional distinction
between employees and self-employed individuals. This transformation has created new challenges
regarding the well-being and working conditions of workers. The employment opportunities in the gig
and platform economy primarily offer low-paying and non-standard work, which can be seen as an
extension of informal work. This type of work often fails to meet the high aspirations of educated youths.
The Government has started to address some of these concerns by including gig and platform workers
in the Social Security Code of 2020, although they are not mentioned in the other three important labour
codes. It is necessary to classify the employment status of gig and platform workers in accordance with
the national labour laws to ensure their rights and protection.
Digital platforms are also revolutionizing the world of work through the implementation of algorithmic
management practices. These practices are transforming the hiring, monitoring, evaluation and
compensation processes for workers. Performance assessments are now conducted through ratings,
which serves as a new method of exerting control over workers. If their ratings are low, workers are
automatically removed from the platform without any explanation. Algorithms are not neutral; they
follow specific objectives and instructions. If biased inputs are introduced into the system, it can result
in discriminatory practices. It is crucial to ensure transparency and accountability in the management
of algorithms for gig and platform workers. Achieving this will require collaboration between the
Government, platform operators and stakeholders to safeguard the well-being and rights of workers in
the digital economy.
India faces significant challenge of a high rate of youths not in employment, education or training, which
is much greater among young women than young men. The majority of those women are also out of the
labour force, while the young men who are not in employment, education or training are unemployed.
These two heterogenous groups require different targeted strategies to address the challenge of not in
employment, education or training.
The COVID-19 pandemic brought about a reversing of the youth labour market trends, with a rise
in the LFPR and the worker population ratio and a fall in the unemployment and underemployment
rates between 2019 and 2022. However, this addition in employment is largely of poor-quality unpaid
household work in self-employment, informal low-paying or low-earning in regular salaried work and
casual wage work, which is much more pronounced among women in rural areas and in subsistence
agriculture. Many young people who engaged in regular salaried work in the pre-pandemic years are
now employed in more precarious employment arrangements. This indicates a partial recovery of the job
market in India, in contrast to more advanced economies, where massive economic stimulus packages
and specific targeted measures were introduced to sustain business and retain jobs for the workers.
There is considerable regional disparity in the youth employment situation. Many large states in the
eastern and central regions of India are characterized by a youth bulge, relative underdevelopment and
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 105

low per capita income. Additionally, these states have a small proportion of highly educated youths, a low
incidence of formal regular employment and a large proportion of youth not in employment, education
or training. This emphasizes the necessity of regional policies that reflect the regional differences in the
employment situation for the youths and thus promote more balanced opportunities.
106 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills
X5
Education and links with
employment

X 5.1 Introduction

The education and skill levels among young individuals prepare the way for their transition to the labour
market. Education and skills are also essential for economic growth and structural transformation
because workers who are more educated and skilled are more likely to make the transition from the
relatively less-productive agriculture sector to the more-productive manufacturing and services sectors.
The window of demographic advantage in India, discussed in Chapter 4, can only be fully utilized if
India maximizes this young pool of human resources by providing good education, skills training and
productive employment opportunities.
108 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

The importance of education in improving employability outcomes for young individuals has been
highlighted in research studies (see for example, Bisht and Patnaik 2021). The studies emphasized that
educational attainment among youths not only enhances knowledge acquisition but also nurtures
essential skills, such as critical thinking and problem-solving abilities, which are highly sought after by
employers. By acquiring the relevant knowledge and skills, young people become better equipped to
meet the demands of the labour market, particularly when their knowledge and skill set aligns with
the needs of employers. Several other scholars also argue that the acquisition of specific technical and
vocational training is instrumental in securing decent employment (Endow and Mehta 2022; Datta,
Endow and Mehta 2020; Srivastava and Jain 2017; Agrawal and Gaskov 2013). They suggest that young
individuals who possess a relevant skill set and align their capabilities with the demands of the labour
market are more likely to find suitable job opportunities. In this context, it is important to strike a balance
between the supply side (education and vocational training) and the demand side (employability) of the
labour market. This chapter thus explores the link between education and employability in the Indian
labour market. The analysis carried out was attentive to the distinctions that exist between different
segments of youths across gender, social groups, location and economic background.
This chapter is divided into eight sections: The second section delves into the supply-side factors
pertaining to young individuals, namely general education, technical education and vocational training.
The third section focuses on labour market outcomes of education through Mincerian function-type
analysis and examines the returns to different levels of education. The fourth section focuses on
demand-side factors and establishes connections between education and labour market characteristics,
such as employment and unemployment rates among young individuals. It then examines interactions
between social group and income class and levels of education and various other factors that determine
the employability of youths in the labour market. The fifth section brings attention to the quality and
conditions of work, such as status of employment, formal and informal employment and industrial
distribution, and how they relate to the level of education. The sixth section summarizes the results of a
survey of youths in low-income urban localities in two cities to analyse their pathways to employment.
The seventh section asks whether the mismatch between education level and jobs for education youths
has increased over time. And the eighth section summarizes the chapter’s main points.
For the macroanalysis, the unit-level data from the past two decades of the Employment and
Unemployment Surveys and the annual Periodic Labour Force Surveys (conducted by the National
Statistical Office) were used. The data refer to 1999–2000 (2000), 2004–05 (2005), 2011–12 (2012), 2019–20
(2020) and 2021–22 (2022). Other relevant literature was reviewed to supplement the quantitative analysis.

X 5.2 Changing profile of education and skills among

the youth

5.2.1 General education

Over the years, there has been a remarkable expansion in the proportion of young individuals with
high educational attainment, particularly those who have completed secondary or higher levels of
education. However, a substantial portion of the youth population – at four in every ten individuals
– still possesses a low level of educational qualifications, including those who are illiterate or have
received no formal education, even below the primary level. The proportion of young people with a
secondary or higher levels of education more than doubled in the past two decades, from 27.9 per cent
in 2000 to 58.3 per cent in 2022 (figure 5.1). The percentage of young individuals with a graduate-level
of education or higher also experienced great growth, rising from 5 per cent to 14.7 per cent between
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 109

2000 and 2022. But the share of youths who are not literate plummeted, from 29.5 per cent in 2000 to
5.4 per cent in 2022, and those with only a primary level of education also declined, from 20.7 per cent
to 10.7 per cent.
Although this progress is remarkable, at least in quantitative terms, still, 41.8 per cent of young individuals
in 2022 had only completed elementary education or had no formal education at all. This highlights the
persistent educational disparities within the youth population, indicating a need for targeted efforts to
improve educational access and quality for those still lacking proper qualifications.

X Figure 5.1. Changing education profile of youths (aged 15–29), 2000–2022

100%
5% 5.8% 8.7%
14% 14.7%

22.9%
25.3%
75% 36.4%

42.1% 43.6%
21.9%
23.3%
50%
22.7%
20.7%
23.4%
24.7%
25.7%
25%
19%

29.5% 12.1%
22.2% 10.7%
13.4%
7.1% 5.4%
0%
2000 2005 2012 2019 2022

Not literate Literate upto primary Middle

Secondary/higher secondary Graduate & above

Note: “Literate up to primary” includes literate due to attending non-formal education. “Secondary and higher secondary” and “Graduate or above”
include general as well as technical and professional education.
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2000, 2005 and 2012 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2019 and
2022.

The rising overall levels of education, along with rising participation of youths in education, has had
profound implications and interactions for the labour market. The trend of educational attainment
is examined in the next section on the basis of age categories, gender, location, monthly per capita
expenditure quintiles and social groups.

Education attainment by gender

Figure 5.2 shows how the education of men and women progressed over the past two decades. For
various levels of education, the gender gap closed over time, although men continued to have a small
advantage. But from 2019 onwards, it reversed for graduate and higher levels of education, with women
gaining a small edge over men. In 2022, the percentage of women with graduate or higher qualifications
exceeded that of men by 0.3 per cent. A larger proportion women made the transition from higher
110 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

secondary education to graduate and post-graduate education than men, who may be entering the
labour force at earlier stages.

X Figure 5.2. Share of youths (aged 15–29), by educational attainment and gender, 2000
and 2022 (% share of total)
100%
5.6% 4.3%
14.5% 14.8%
18.4%
27.2%
75%
18%
45.5% 41.4%

25.6%
50% 20.3%

22.6% 25.3%
25% 26.2%
39.1%
11.5%
19.1% 10%
3.8% 7%
0%
Male Female Male Female

2000 2022

Not literate Literate upto primary Middle

Secondary/higher secondary Graduate & above

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 111

Education attainment by rural or urban location

There remains a rural disadvantage in terms of educational attainment for the youths, but with the
improvement in education at all levels in both rural and urban areas, the rural disadvantage has declined
up to the secondary and higher-secondary levels of education (figure 5.3).

X Figure 5.3. Share of youths (aged 15–29), by educational attainment and location, 2000 and
2022 (% share of total)
100% 2.4%
10.9% 10.8%
17.9% 24.3%

75%
34.4%
21.4% 42.9%

45.2%
50%
23.2%
22.9%

28.4%
25% 17.4%
19.1%
35.1%
11.8%
14.4% 7.9%
6.1% 3.5%
0%
Rural Urban Rural Urban
2022
2000

Not literate Literate upto primary Middle

Secondary/higher secondary Graduate & above

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

The improvements and the narrowing of the gender gap occurred at the primary, middle and secondary
and higher-secondary levels. But the gap widened with an urban advantage for graduate or higher levels
of education (at 8.5 per cent in 2000 to 13.8 per cent in 2022).

Education attainment by region

The educational attainment analysis used six regions: Central, East, North, North-East, South and West.
All regions have progressed in terms of education achievement among youths. But disparities exist and
even grew for youths with a graduate or higher degree. Figure 5.4 presents the share of the graduate
youth population as a share of the total youth population. Regions where this share is above 1 had a
higher-than-average performance. In 2000, this held for the western, northern and southern regions.
By 2022, each of these regions had edged further ahead of the national average, with the South moving
far ahead of the other regions. The central, eastern and north-eastern regions slipped further, relative
to the national level.
112 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Figure 5.4. Share of youth with a graduate degree across regions as ratio to national average,
2000 and 2022

1.23
West
1.13

1.19
North
1.12

1.04
South
1.56

0.91
Central
0.89

0.84
East
0.6

0.64
North East
0.5

0.00 0.40 0.80 1.20 1.60

2000 2022
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey for 2022.

Education attainment by social group

Despite improvement in educational attainment among all groups, the hierarchy within social groups
persists. Although the Scheduled Tribes youth were the most advantaged, they were followed by the
Scheduled Castes and Other Backward Classes, while the most advantaged in terms of educational
attainment were General Category caste youths. As with the rural–urban differences, a closing of the
gap occurred up to the secondary and higher-secondary levels, but the gap between General Category
castes and other groups experienced a widening at the graduate or higher levels between 2000 and
2022 (figure 5.5).
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 113

X Figure 5.5. Education attainment among youths (aged 15–29), by social group, 2000 and 2022
(% share of total)
1.7 2.1 3.2 9.0 6.0 10.5 14.9 21.4
13.5 14.8 20.5 31.6 32.7 40.5 45.7 46.8
60.00

45.00

30.00
%

15.00

0.0
ST SC OBC GC ST SC OBC GC
2000 2022

Secondary to higher secondary Graduate or above

Note: ST: Scheduled Tribes; SC: Scheduled Castes; OBC: Other Backward Classes; GEN: General Category castes.
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Surveys 2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey 2022.

Education attainment by expenditure quintile32

Figure 5.6 shows educational attainment across the monthly per capita consumption expenditure
quintiles at the secondary and higher levels in 2000 and 2022. A clear pattern is evident, with poorer
households having much less educational attainment than the upper quintiles. Youths in the highest
expenditure quintile (Q5) had much greater educational attainment than other youths. Again, while the
gap was closing at all levels of education up to the secondary and higher-secondary levels, it widened
among youths at the graduate or higher levels.

X Figure 5.6. Education attainment among youths (aged 15–29), by quintile, 2000 and 2022,
(% share of total)

0.8 1.3 2.1 4.4 4.4 6.5 8.3 11.3 15.8 30.6
8.4 13.4 17.9 26.3 26.3 35.8 40.2 43.5 48.6 49.0
50

37.5

25
%

12.5

0.0
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
2000 2022

Secondary to higher secondary Graduate or above

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

32 The expenditure quintiles derived from the data on per capita monthly household expenditure.
114 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

These results indicate that the general education level of youths improved steadily over the past two
decades. Yet, even though education access expanded, the quality deficit in education continues to be a
concern. As reflected in the high unemployment rates (ILO 2021a), the increasing educational attainment
of youths is accompanied by problems related to employability of the educated youths (Bhandari 2021).
School completion and the quality deficit of education have remained thorny issues, leading to a debate
on whether there has been a quantity–quality trade-off (Kingdon 2015; UNICEF 2014) (box 11).

X Box 11. Quality concerns for education in India The quality of higher education is also a matter of
concern. Indian universities rank poorly in international
India’s school enrolment has expanded, but quality- comparisons and need to raise the standards of
of-education issues remain. The Annual Status of provision and quality assurance. The top-ranked
Education Reports, which are based on surveys in Indian university (IIT Bombay) falls below 150th in
rural areas, have shown that children have learning the world rankings. Within India, the ranking of the
achievement commensurate with the learning of a few top ten universities by region following the National
grades below the class in which they are enrolled. Institute Ranking Framework shows a dominance
of the southern states. The same is reflected in the
Learning achievement levels are not only low but have distribution of the top 100 universities in the country
been declining over time. At the national level, the (see the following figure 5.7).
percentage of children in Standard III in government
or private schools who can read at the Standard II level Figure 5.7. Distribution of the top 100 universities in
declined from 27.3 per cent in 2018 to 20.5 per cent in India, by region
2022. Nationally, the proportion of children enrolled in
Standard V in government or private schools who can
at least read a Standard II-level text declined from 50.5 50
44
per cent in 2018 to 42.8 per cent in 2022. At Standard
VIII, too, there was a decline between 2018 and 2022 in 38
the proportion of students who can read at least basic
text. Children’s basic arithmetic levels, also declined
25 23
from the 2018 levels for most grades.
The 2023 Annual Status of Education Report: Beyond 11
13 10
Basics explores the activity of youths aged 14–18 and 8
4
their ability to do basic and applied tasks. The survey
found that about 25 per cent of this age group could not 0
read a Standard II-level text fluently in their regional Central East North South West North-
language, while only 43.3 per cent could do division East
(three-digit by one-digit) problems. The latter skill
was expected in Standards III and IV. The report also Source: National Institute Ranking Framework, Ministry of Education, https://
www.nirfindia.org/2023/Ranking.html, https://asercentre.org/about-aser-2023
showed that while 86.8 per cent of youths at this age accessed 23 December 2023.
were enrolled in an educational institution, only 5.6 per
cent were taking vocational training or other related
courses.

The bulk of youths in India today have a secondary or higher level of education. This has had a profound
impact on their labour market participation. The educational hierarchy across groups largely continues,
with some differences across segments. While gaps in educational attainment continue across location,
social groups and income quintiles, in general, they have narrowed with the expansion of education at
all levels, except at the graduate or higher level, where they have increased. Education attainment across
gender is an exception to this: While a narrow male advantage persists at all levels of education up to the
higher-secondary level, it has reversed at the graduate or higher levels. And while the northern, southern
and western regions have edged further ahead, the southern region has moved much more ahead.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 115

5.2.2 Technical education and youths

Technical education comprises degree, diploma and certificate courses in agriculture, engineering,
technology, medicine, crafts and other professional and technical subjects. Because these subjects
centre on specific practice-oriented knowledge in fields directly related to technical and professional
areas that are in demand due to the structural transformation, they are expected to create greater
employability among youths.
Despite the increase in the proportion of youths with technical education over time, the level of
technical qualification among young people remains relatively low in India. In 2005,33 2.8 per cent
of youths had earned a technical degree, diploma or certificate (0.3 per cent for a degree, 1.7 per cent
for a graduate-level (below or above) diploma and 0.8 per cent for a certificate). By 2022, that proportion
of youths with a technical qualification had nearly doubled, to 4.6 per cent (1.9 per cent with a technical
degree, 0.8 per cent with a diploma and 1.9 per cent with a certificate) (figure 5.8).

X Figure 5.8. Technical degree or diploma among youths, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022
(% share of total)
0.4 0.7 0.6 0.9
0.9 2.1 1.7 1.9
0.2 0.5 1.6 1.8
100%

75%

50%
98.5% 96.7% 96.1% 95.4%

25%

0%
2005 2012 2019 2022

No tech Tech degree Below grad diploma Diploma above grad

Note: No tech=without technical education; Tech degree=has a technical degree; Below grad diploma=has a diploma or certificate below graduate
level; Diploma above grad=has a diploma or certificate above graduate level.
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and 2012 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2019 and 2022.

Technical and professional education is available to youths who completed their post-secondary
education. But figure 5.9 indicates that although the proportion of such youths with a technical degree
increased significantly between 2005 and 2022, the proportion of youths with a technical degree, diploma
or certificate has not increased. While the percentage of post-secondary youths with a technical degree
increased from 0.98 per cent to 4.1 per cent, the proportion of all such youths with a technical degree,
diploma or certificate declined, from 8.7 per cent to 7.8 per cent, mainly due to a significant drop in below-
graduate-level diplomas and certificates. A greater orientation of education towards technical and
professional education occurred at the graduate or higher level but not overall among youths who
completed their post-secondary education.34

33 Due to definitional changes, trends in technical education and skills training were analysed from 2004–05 onwards.

34 Technical education is dominated by engineering and technology education, which comprised 67.2 per cent of all technical
degrees (76.7 per cent for men and 51.9 per cent for women), followed by crafts and others (23.6 per cent), medicine (7.2
per cent) and agriculture (1.9 per cent) in 2022. With degrees, diplomas and certificates taken together, 55.1 per cent of all
technically educated youth had engineering and technology education (64.2 per cent among men and 37.9 per cent among
women), 35.3 per cent had taken up crafts and other education, 8.4 per cent had taken up medicine and 1.3 per cent had
taken up agriculture-related subjects.
116 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Figure 5.9. Technical qualification holders as a percentage of

youths with post-secondary education, 2005 and 2022
8.7
9 7.8

6.75
5.4

4.5
3.1 3.2
2.4
2.25 1.5
1.0

0
2005 2022

Technical degree Dipl/cert below grad Dipl/cert above grad Total

Note: Technica degree=has a technical degree; Dipl/cert below grad diploma=has a diploma or certificate below graduate level; Dipl/cert above
grad=has a diploma or certificate above graduate level.
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

Technical education across segments of youths

Table 5.1 shows the changes in the percentage of youths with technical education across gender and
location between 2005 and 2022. Although technical education progressed among both male and female
youths, a gender gap persisted, and the absolute gap increased over the 17-year period. Across rural and
urban areas as well, the proportion of youths with a technical education increased but rural areas lagged
far behind, with the urban advantage increasing over the years.

X Table 5.1. Share of youths (aged 15–29) with a technical education, by gender and location,
2005 and 2022 (% of total)

Gender Location

Male Female Rural Urban

2005 3.39 2.08 1.40 5.66

2022 5.71 3.30 3.01 8.43

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

Table 5.2 shows some progress in the proportion of youths with a technical education across all social
groups. But Scheduled Tribes youths, who had the smallest portion of such youths, also had the slowest
relative progress. The hierarchy among social groups remained the same, with the absolute gap between
them widening in the analysed time frame.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 117

X Table 5.2. Share of youths (aged 15–29) with a technical degree, diploma or certificate, by
social groups, 2005 and 2022 (% of total)

Social group

Scheduled Other Backward General

Scheduled Tribes
Castes Classes Category castes

2005 0.85 1.48 1.98 3.50

2022 1.51 3.42 4.63 6.72

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

Among all the regions, the South had the largest share of youths accessing technical education in 2005,
followed by the West. But by 2022, the South had moved ahead of all the other regions, including the
West (table 5.3). This was reflected in a gap of nearly 7 percentage points with the all-India average and
was higher compared with the other regions. While the West and North exceeded the all-India average
in 2022, the Central, East and North-East regions continued to show a significant lag.

X Table 5.3. Share of youths (aged 15–29) with a technical degree, diploma or certificate, by
region, 2005 and 2022 (% of total)

Social group

Central East North North-East South West India

2005 1.33 1.06 1.98 0.91 5.11 4.95 2.76

2022 2.30 1.73 4.57 1.00 11.31 5.71 4.55

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

There was improvement in the proportion of youths with a technical education across all monthly per
capita expenditure quintiles (table 5.4). But again, the absolute inter-quartile gaps widened: The largest
quintile group (Q5) accounted for the major share of technically educated youths, although this share
declined from 90.8 per cent to 66 per cent for technical degrees and from 68.2 per cent to 55.1 per cent
for youths with a technical degree, diploma or certificate.

X Table 5.4. Share of youths (aged 15–29) with technical degree or technical diploma or
certificate, by monthly per capita expenditure quintile, 2005 and 2022 (% of total)

Quintile

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5

2005 0.36 0.64 0.94 2.33 8.26

2022 0.88 1.58 2.85 4.80 12.30

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

Unlike access to general education, for which the absolute gap on the basis of gender, location,
social groups and monthly expenditure quintile narrowed over time for certain levels of
attainment, the gaps in access to technical education increased, although the share of technically
educated youths in the well-performing youth segments declined somewhat Despite much
118 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

emphasis on expanding basic education and its increasing affordability, the same has not been true for
technical education due to costs and entry barriers.

5.2.3 Vocational training

Vocational and technical training, as defined in the Employment and Unemployment Survey, focuses on
the development of skills in a specific vocation or trade. Formal vocational training follows a structured
training programme that leads to a recognized degree, diploma or certificate. Informal training does not
follow the same criteria and is acquired in jobs that pass from one generation of worker to another within
a family (hereditary jobs), on the job, through self-learning or through other means. Informal training is
generally acquired while working in full-time or part-time capacity and has implications for upward job
mobility and workers’ earnings. Skills training statistics, based on the National Statistical Office surveys,
primarily capture formal skill acquisition and may not fully capture the wide range of skills that are
informally acquired (Srivastava 2016b and 2008). Government policy has promoted skilling in a mission
mode since 2007, with the objective of expanding skills training and increasing the marketability of skills
through standardization and certification (ILO 2018a; NCEUS 2009). Chapter 6 provides more detailed
analysis of government skills training initiatives.
Despite the Government’s promotion of skills development since 2007–08, the data indicate that uptake
has been low. And the rates are considerably lower compared with most developed economies, where
an average of 60–70 per cent of young people have received formal vocational or technical training
(ILO 2018a). This is possibly due to the lack of a clear-cut link between vocational and skills training and
employment and earnings for the youths who opt for this route.

X Table 5.5. Share of youths (aged 15–29) accessing vocational training, 2005, 2012,2019,2022 (%
share of total)

Formal training Non-formal Non-formal Total non- Total voca-

Year
hereditary jobs other* formal tional training

2005 3.86 3.91 3.84 7.75 11.61

2012 3.80 2.18 5.06 7.24 11.04

2019 2.86 1.27 5.10 6.37 9.23

2022 4.09 3.02 8.51 11.52 15.62

Note: *=includes self-learning, learning on the job and other non-formal training. Hereditary jobs are those dependent on family background.
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and 2012 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2019 and 2022.

Among the youth population (aged 15–29), the share of formally trained youths had little increase (table
5.5) over the 17-year time frame. The total non-formal training rate jumped in 2022 from previous years,
mainly as a result of self-learning, learning on the job and other non-formal training ). This could be
due to better probing and reporting or to an increase in the significance of on-the-job learning and
unstructured training in some labour market segments.

Vocational training across segments of youths

Access to vocational training among the youth population (aged 15–29) by gender indicates that women
had a disadvantage in comparison to men in terms of accessing vocational training (table 5.6). The
gender gap almost closed between the two sexes between 2005 and 2022 for formal training. But the
gap widened for informal training, with relatively more men than women accessing informal training in
2022 than in 2005.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 119

Across urban–rural areas, the large urban advantage for formal skills training persisted across the
years, although it slightly lessened in 2022. But the informal training levels were similar across location,
although slightly higher in rural areas.

X Table 5.6. Vocationally trained youths (aged 15–29), by gender and location, 2005 and 2022 (%)

Year Formal training Informal training

Male 4.55 9.48

2005
Female 3.19 5.86
Sex
Male 4.28 15.95
2022
Female 3.90 6.71

Rural 2.16 7.95

2005
Urban 7.58 7.28
Location
Rural 2.93 11.62
2022
Urban 7.03 11.29

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

Table 5.7 shows the proportion of youths with skills training across the social groups. Access to formal
skills training was an advantage among the General Category castes, followed by Other Backward
Classes, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. This hierarchy was maintained in 2022, with little change
in the gaps across groups. Informal training, however, was more evenly distributed, with a slightly larger
proportion of informally trained youths among the Other Backward Classes.

X Table 5.7. Vocational training among youths (aged 15–29), by social group, 2005 and 2022 (%)

Social groups

Year Other General

Scheduled Scheduled
Backward Category
Tribes Castes
Classes castes

Formal training 1.40 2.83 3.59 5.55

2005
Informal training 7.95 7.15 8.66 6.89

Formal training 1.79 3.66 3.60 6.43

2022
Informal training 13.40 10.83 11.95 10.49

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

The uptake of vocational training among the youth population across regions was relatively greater in the
West and the South for formal vocational training in 2005, but by 2022, only the West maintained a larger
share of youths accessing such training than the other regions (table 5.8). The distribution of informal
vocational training and its change over the time period was very different across regions, with the Central
and northern areas having the larger proportions of informally trained youths in 2022.
120 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 5.8. Vocational training among youths (aged 15–29 years), by region, 2005 and 2022 (%)

Type of Region
Year vocational North-
training Central East North South West
East

Formal 2.08 2.00 3.22 1.36 6.05 7.20

2005
Informal 9.45 5.70 4.69 2.72 9.66 8.69

Formal 2.42 3.75 3.83 1.16 4.36 8.59

2022
Informal 17.90 8.73 11.03 6.63 8.91 8.33

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

Skills training among the youth population by education level followed an interesting pattern: Formal
skills training was highly concentrated among youths with higher education levels in 2005 and in 2022
(table 5.9). The proportion of youths with a graduate or higher level of education with formal training was
as large as 28 per cent in 2005 but came down to 14 per cent in 2022. Among youths with a secondary
or higher-secondary education, the proportion of formally trained youths was 5.7 per cent in 2005 and
nearly 4.3 per cent in 2022. For youths with less than a secondary education, access to formal skills
training was negligible across the years. The proportion of informally trained youths was greater among
the less-educated youths in 2005. This dynamic continued into 2022, but the proportion of youths with
informal skills training significantly increased among youths with a graduate or higher level of education.
It could be that unstructured and on-the-job training became more important in jobs taken up by this
segment of youths.

X Table 5.9. Vocational training for youths (aged15–29), by general education levels, 2005 and
2022 (% of youths)

2005 2022

Formal Non-formal Formal Non-formal

Less than primary 0.25 8.18 0.08 14.98

Primary or middle school 1.05 9.26 0.52 14.03

Secondary or higher secondary 5.71 6.04 4.27 8.95

Graduate or higher 27.98 3.56 13.99 11.55

Total 3.89 7.74 4.09 11.52

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

Table 5.10 shows the extent and distribution of vocational training by monthly per capita expenditure
quintile groups. While the distribution of informal training was relatively even across the years and the
quintile groups, the incidence as well as distribution of formal vocational training was highly concentrated
in the higher quintiles, both in 2005 and in 2022. In 2005, the top 40 per cent of households accounted for
84.6 per cent of the formally trained youths, but that level declined to 68.7 per cent in 2022.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 121

X Table 5.10. Proportion of vocationally trained youths, by household monthly per capita
expenditure and quintile, 2005 and 2022 (%)

% of youth with vocational training Distribution of trained youth across quintiles

MPCE
2005 2022 2005 2022
quintile
Formal Informal Formal Informal Formal Informal Formal Informal

Q1 0.5 8.5 1.2 10.0 1.9 18.0 5.3 16.3

Q2 1.0 7.9 1.8 11.3 5.0 19.0 8.8 19.5

Q3 1.6 8.2 3.4 12.6 8.5 21.9 17.2 22.5

Q4 3.8 7.7 4.8 11.4 21.2 21.6 23.8 20.2

Q5 10.8 6.6 9.0 12.1 63.4 19.5 44.9 21.5

Total 3.9 7.7 4.1 11.5 100 100 100 100

Note: MPCE=monthly per capita expenditure.

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

Thus, the analysis of formal vocationally training found that it remained concentrated in more privileged
groups of youths, although there was a slight amelioration in the gaps between groups between 2005
and 2022. Given the policy emphasis of designing vocational training so that more vulnerable persons
can access opportunities, the current picture indicates that a renewed focus on providing vocational
training to less socio-economically and educationally privileged youths is required.

5.2.4 Youth with ICT skills

ICT skills provide crucial advantage to youths in the labour market due to the increasing digitalization of
the economy. The Multiple Indicator Survey report of the 78th round of the National Sample Survey (2021)
provides detailed information on ICT skills among the youth population in India. But the picture for ICT
skills is only full when seen in conjunction with the situation for access to computers as well as internet
connectivity. The information for these indicators was captured in the 75th round of the National Sample
Survey on education (July 2017–June 2018).

Access to computers and the internet

The findings from the 75th round of the National Sample Survey on education highlighted the rural–
urban gap in access to computers. While 23 per cent of urban households possessed a computer, only
4 per cent of rural households had a computer. On average, nearly 24 per cent of all households had
internet access35 in 2017–18: 15 per cent among the rural households and 42 per cent among the urban
households.
Only around one third (35 per cent) of the youth population in 2018 reported using the internet during the
30 days prior to the survey interview (table 5.11). This broke down to 25 per cent of youths in rural areas
and, at more than double, nearly 58 per cent among urban youths. Additionally, the access amounted to
a gender gap and a gap among the social groups. Overall, use of the internet was reported least from
rural women (at 16.5 per cent) and most from urban men (at 64.7 per cent), which reflects a huge gap of
48 percentage points.

35 “The Internet ...provides access to a number of communication services…irrespective of the device used (not assumed
to be only via a computer − it may also be by mobile telephone, tablet, personal digital assistant, games machine, digital TV,
etc.). Access can be via a fixed or mobile network.” See www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/NSS75252E/KI_Education_75th_
Final.pdf.
122 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 5.11. Proportion of youths (aged 15–29) who used internet during the 30 days prior to
the survey interview, by location, gender and social group (% of total)

% of youth

Location

Rural 25.30

Urban 57.53

Gender

Male 43.03

Female 26.45

Social group

Scheduled Tribes 20.39

Scheduled Castes 24.96

Other Backward Classes 34.28

General Category castes 50.15

Total 35.13

Source: Computed from the 75th National Sample Survey’s education round in 2017–18.

ICT skills among youth in 2021

As of 2021, the Indian youth population could be described as possessing low ICT skills (figure 5.10).
Just around two fifths could copy and move a file or folder or use the copy-and-paste tool to duplicate
or move information within a document. Nearly three fourths of the youths were unable to send an
email with attached file, whereas more than 90 per cent of youths could not use arithmetic formulae in
spreadsheets, make PowerPoint presentations with presentation software or write a computer program
using specialized programming language.
The rural–urban disadvantage far outstripped the disadvantage for women in relation to men in terms of
ICT skills. For instance, 61 per cent of urban youths had capability of copying or moving a file and folder
while only 34 per cent of rural youths had similar skill. And one fourth of urban youths could connect
and install new devices (camera, modem, printer, etc.), while only 8 per cent of rural youths could do so.
Among the social groups, the Scheduled Tribes youth had the least computer-related abilities, followed
by Scheduled Caste and Other Backward Classes. The other youths (General Category castes) had the
most skill level in this area. For instance, around one fourth of the Scheduled Castes youth could copy
and move a file and folder or use the copy-and-paste tool to duplicate or move information within a
document. For youths in the General Category castes, the corresponding share was 53–55 per cent.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 123

X Figure 5.10. Computer skills among the youth population (aged 15–29), by urban–rural gap
and gender gap, 2021 (%)

41.7 39.5 26.7 20.9 19.9 12.7 10.0 8.6 2.4

27.3 27.9 26.1 18.5 21.6 16.6 14.5 12.5 3.9
13.7 13.07 9.01 8.0 7.73 5.4 3.01 2.5 1.2
50.0

37.5

25.0
%

12.5

0.0
tools to duplicate or move info

Ability to use basic arithmetic

install, & configure software

Ability to connect and install

Ability to copy/move a file/

Ability to write a computer

Ability to use copy & paste

Ability to create electronic

Ability to send e-mail with

specialized programming
new devices (eg. Modem,
between a computer and
Ability to find, download,

formulas in spreadsheet

presentation software
Ability to transfer files

programme using a
presentations with
within a document

camera, printer)
other devices
attached file

language
folder

Total 15-29 years U-R gap Gender gap

Note: U-R=urban–rural gap.
Source: Computed from the 78th Multiple Indicator Survey data for 2021.

The sharp disparity in ICT skills among the youth population is evident in the comparison of skills across
expenditure quintiles (table 5.12). For most of the common ICT skills presented, there was a 38–53
percentage point gap between Q5 and Q1. Ability to prepare a presentation was low across all the
expenditure quintiles.
124 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 5.12. ICT skills of the youth population (aged 15–29), by monthly per capita expenditure
quintile, 2021 (%)

Gap
ICT skills Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
(Q1–Q5)

Ability to copy and move a file or 20.40 27.89 37.54 52.06 72.57 52.17
folder

Ability to use copy-and-paste tool to 18.15 25.46 35.09 49.63 70.91 52.76
duplicate or move info within a document

Ability to send e-mail with attached 9.58 14.35 21.70 33.18 56.75 47.18
file

Ability to transfer files between a 6.58 10.35 14.88 24.46 44.95 38.37
computer and other devices

Ability to create electronic presenta- 2.04 3.08 5.54 10.09 23.16 21.12
tions with presentation software

Source: Computed from the 78th Multiple Indicator Survey data for 2021.

ICT skills of youths across regions

There was wide variation in ICT skills among youths across the regions in India (table 5.13). The South led
all regions in terms of ICT skills among youths, followed by the West and the North. The North-East and
the East lagged, while the Central region had the lowest incidence of ICT skills.

X Table 5.13. ICT skills of youths (aged 15–29), by region, 2021 (%)quintile, 2021 (%)

North-
ICT skills Central East North South West
East

Ability to copy and move a file or 26.41 33.13 47.28 30.76 64.50 53.14
folder

Ability to use copy-and-paste tool to 24.79 30.95 43.72 29.79 61.92 50.85
duplicate or move information within a
document

Ability to send email with attached 15.32 17.42 28.51 18.91 49.85 33.64
file

Ability to find, download, install and 12.46 16.10 22.18 16.35 34.92 26.66
configure software

Ability to transfer files between a 12.24 11.73 21.24 13.69 35.57 27.79
computer and other devices

Ability to connect and install new devices 6.13 6.81 11.50 9.39 27.09 17.95
(modem, camera, printer)

Ability to use basic arithmetic 4.21 5.55 10.68 5.28 21.09 14.03
formulae in a spreadsheet

Ability to create electronic presentations 2.88 4.28 6.75 4.80 22.02 11.55
with presentation software

Ability to write a computer program 0.96 1.06 1.88 1.49 6.21 3.26
using specialized programming
language

Source: Computed from the 78th Multiple Indicator Survey data for 2021.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 125

Appendix figures A5.1–A5.4 depict the state variation for some commonly used ICT skills. It is evident
that the southern states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu are far ahead of other states in terms of all skills.
Karnataka is better off than the other states in most of the skills except for the ability to transfer files
between a computer and other devices, where it is equivalent to the northern states, like Punjab and
Haryana. Telangana and Maharashtra also show good ICT skills among youths, comparable to Punjab
and Haryana, but the same cannot be said for Gujarat. With the exception of West Bengal, youths in
the eastern states, along with the northern states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and the central states of
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh have the largest deficits in ICT skills.

5.2.5 Changing education and skills profile of youths –

Implications for the labour market
As this section explains, there has been substantial overall progress in educational attainment, with
the majority of youths now having a secondary or higher level of education. The numbers of technically
educated youths more than doubled between 2005 and 2022, and the proportion of youths with technical
education at the graduate or higher level increased as a share of all youths with a graduate or higher
degree. Although this quantitative expansion of education is not adjusted for quality, the youth
population appears to be better equipped for a labour market undergoing technological change.
Access to computers, the internet and digital skills has also picked up among the youth population,
although the level remains inadequate. Unfortunately, the expansion of formal skills training has
been slow.
On the flip side to this expansion, inequalities in access to general and technical education and acquisition
for formal and digital skills remain large across location, gender, social groups, regions and monthly per
capita expenditure quintiles, with the absolute gaps closing only in a few cases. Thus, youths from socio-
economically deprived groups and less-dynamic regions are much less likely to take advantage of
emerging labour market opportunities.

X 5.3 Returns to education among the youth

Human capital, comprising both education and training, can explain wage and earnings differentials in
an economy (Srivastava 2008; Mincer, 1974; Becker 1962). The Mincer equation explains earnings as a
function of schooling and labour market experience and provides an estimate of the average monetary
returns of one additional year of schooling (Patrinos 2016). The earnings premium associated with level
of education suggests that an individual with a higher level of education has higher productivity, but
an alternate view suggests that the reason for higher earnings is the credentials attained such that
education merely sorts workers or that employers select workers with higher qualifications.
Many studies have involved estimating the returns to education and have shown that individuals with
a high level of education, better skills and greater experience have higher incomes after correcting
for individual, household and other differences (Chen, Kanjilal-Bhaduri and Pastore 2022; Sianesi and
Van Reenen, 2000; Mankiw, Romer and Weil 1992; Psacharopoulos 1985). Although many older studies,
notably Psacharopoulos, found the returns to be highest at the primary education level, somewhat
recent studies indicated that this result no longer holds. Kingdon (1998) found in her review of other
empirical work on the returns to education in India that the rates of return tend to rise with education
level; Duraisamy (2000) found it to be the highest for secondary education, while Agrawal (2011) and
Dutta (2006) found it to be highest among graduates (Singhari and Madheswaran 2016). Substantial
gender and rural–urban differences in the returns were found in the study by Duraisamy (2000). This
126 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

study also found that the returns to women’s education for the primary and middle school levels declined
while those for secondary and college levels increased between 1983 and 1994.

5.3.1 Model specification and main findings

The rates of return to education were estimated for youths engaged in regular employment, based on
average weekly estimated earnings. To analyse the return to education, the Mincerian log-linear earnings
function were estimated for three rounds of employment surveys: 2005, 2019 and 2022. This analysis
aimed to determine how educational qualifications impact the earnings of an employee while controlling
for various factors, such as years of experience, gender, sector, social group, general education, technical
education, vocational education and geographical differences. Average weekly earnings (long) were
used as outcome variables, while years of experience (age minus 15 years as a proxy), gender, sector,
general education, technical education, vocational training, geographical region and social group were
explanatory variables in the Mincerian log-linear earnings function. All the explanatory variables in the
earnings function were statistically significant, at 1 per cent, except for youths with less than a secondary
level of education (see appendix table A5.1).
A substantial difference emerged in the return among youths with a secondary level of education or
higher, even after controlling various background factors, such as years of experience, gender, sector,
social group, general education, technical education, vocational education and region. The return
to education among youths with a graduate degree was 5.6 times higher than that of youths with a
secondary or higher-secondary level of education. Similarly, the return to education among youths
with a post-graduate qualification was 9.2 times higher than that of youths with a secondary or higher-
secondary education. Over time, the returns to education among youths, categorized by their education
level (secondary or higher-secondary, graduate and post-graduate) declined between 2005 and 2022.
However, the relative difference in the returns between the educational levels of young individuals –
between secondary and higher secondary and between graduate and post-graduate – widened over
time (see appendix table A5.1). This indicates the increasing importance of higher levels of educational
qualification among youths in accessing higher-paying jobs in the labour market.
Among technically qualified youths, there was a significant difference in returns to education based on
their level of technical qualification, even after controlling for various background factors, as discussed
previously. The returns to education among youths with a technical degree was 3.4 times higher than
that of youths with a diploma or certificate below the graduate level and 1.2 times higher than that of
youths with a diploma or certificate above the graduate level. Over time, the returns among youths
categorized by their level of technical education (diploma or certificate below graduate level and technical
degree) declined. However, the relative difference in returns to education between youths with a diploma
or certificate below the graduate level and a technical degree widened between 2005 and 2022 (see
appendix table A5.1). This reflects the rising importance of higher technical qualification among youths
in terms of returns or earnings.
Additionally, the return to vocational training also showed interesting patterns, especially in 2022. For
the earlier years, the returns were insignificant, but in 2022, the returns among youths with informal
vocational training and formal vocational training were estimated as 5.4 per cent and 9.3 per cent higher,
respectively, than for youths with no vocational training (see appendix table A5.1). This indicates that the
Government’s intensive efforts to expand skills training might have led to better returns for youths with
vocational training in the labour market.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 127

X 5.4 Education, training and employment

This section reflects on the worker population ratio and the unemployment rate in relation to different
levels of education and vocational training, thus providing insights into the demand side and the
interconnections between education, skills training and employment. Because education participation
has been increasing over the years, the analysis considered only the non-student youth population in
the search for a deeper understanding of any link. By focusing on the non-student youth population,
the analysis better captured the dynamics and patterns of employment and unemployment among
individuals who had completed their formal education. This approach allowed for more targeted analysis
of the relationships between education, skills training and employment outcomes (Eurostat 2020; OECD
2020, ILO 2019a).

5.4.1 General education and employment

Over time, there was considerable expansion in the general education level among non-student
youths in India. The proportion of youths with a secondary or higher-secondary education nearly
doubled, and there was more than fourfold increase in the graduate or higher attainment between
2000 and 2022. However, the worker population ratio declined across all education levels, with a
more significant decline among youths without any education or only a low level of education
(figure 5.11). The worker population ratio among youths with less than a primary level of education
experienced a sharper decline from 2000 to 2022, at 9.3 percentage points, than among youths with
a primary or middle school level (elementary henceforth) of education (at 5.3 percentage points), a
secondary or higher-secondary level of education (at 23.4 percentage points) or a graduate degree (at
3.2 percentage points). These findings highlight a decrease in employment opportunities for youths,
with a disproportionate impact on youths with a low level of education.

X Figure 5.11. Workforce participation rate for non-student youths,

by level of general education (UPSS), 2000 and 2022 (%)

70.0 63.6 64.3

59.0 61.2
54.3 55.2
52.0
52.5
37.8
35.0

17.5

0
Below primary Elementary Secondary/ Graduate &
higher above
secondary

2000 2022
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.
128 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

The relationship between levels of education and the worker population ratio among non-student
male youths and all youths exhibits an inverted U-shaped curve, indicating that youths with low
and high levels of education tend to participate less in the labour market. This finding is consistent
with previous studies (UNESO 2019; World Bank 2018). In 2022, the worker population ratio for youths
with an elementary or a secondary or higher-secondary level of education was 59 per cent and 57.8 per
cent, respectively, indicating relatively greater participation rates (figure 5.12). Youths with less than
a primary education and youths with a graduate degree had a lower worker population ratio, at 54.3
per cent and 52 per cent, respectively (figure 5.11. Interestingly, when analysing the worker population
ratio by education level among young women, a slightly U-shaped curve emerged, reflecting a different
pattern than that of the men and aligning with the findings from several previous studies (see for
example, ILO 2020a). The previous studies also showed that as the level of education increases, the
likelihood of women finding better-quality employment increases, particularly after obtaining a graduate
degree. Women with a graduate degree have a 20–30 per cent greater chance of obtaining a decent job
than other women (Mehta and Awasthi, 2019; Kapos, Silberman and Bourmpoula 2016; Chaudhary and
Verick 2014).

X Figure 5.12. U-shaped curve of the workforce participation rate for non-student youths,
by level of general education, 2022 (%)

89.4
84.4 86.5
90.0
73
72.5
59 57.8
54.3 52
55.0

34.5
37.5 29.7
27.6 25.4

20.0
Below primary Elementary Secondary/ Graduate &
higher above
secondary

Male Female All

Source: Computed from Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

5.4.2 Technical education, vocational training and employment

The share of technically qualified individuals among non-student youths expanded over time,
although it remained relatively low. However, the worker population ratio among youths with
technical degrees experienced a more substantial decline than youths with a technical training
diploma. In 2022, the worker population ratio among youths with a technical degree (62.3 per cent) or
a below-graduate-level diploma (66.5 per cent) was relatively higher than youths without any technical
qualification (56.3 per cent) or graduates with a diploma (60.6 per cent) (figure 5.13). However, the worker
population ratio among youths with a technical degree and those without any technical qualification
declined more sharply than among diploma holders between 2005 and 2022 (ILO 2022a).
These findings suggest two important factors: First, there has been an increase in the supply of youths
with technical degrees, indicating expansion in technical education (ILO 2022a). However, the declining
worker population ratio among technical degree holders suggests challenges, such as a lack of suitable
job opportunities or a mismatch between their skills and the demands of the labour market (ILO 2022).
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 129

Second, the declining opportunities for non-technically trained individuals in the labour market further
contribute to the complexities of the employment landscape (ILO 2022). These observations underscore
the need to address skill mismatches, enhance job creation and ensure the relevance of technical
education to improve the labour market outcomes for both technically qualified and non-technically
trained youths.

X Figure 5.13. Worker population ratio for non-student youths, by level of technical education
and vocational training (UPSS), 2005 and 2022 (%)

56.3 62.3 66.5 60.6 63.3 89.4 49.2

66.2 75.9 72.3 65.8 69.4 88.2 64.0
90.0

67.5

45.0
%

22.5

0.0
No tech Tech Below Grad Grad with Formal VT Informal VT No VT
degree with diploma diploma

2005 2022
Note: No tech=without technical education; Tech degree=has a technical degree; Below grad diploma=has a diploma or certificate below graduate
level; Grad with Diploma=has a diploma or certificate equivalent to graduate or higher level; Formal VT=has formal vocational training; Informal
VT=has informal vocational training; No VT=has no vocational training.
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.Source: Computed
from Employment and Unemployment Surveys 2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey 2022.

The worker population ratio was higher among youths with vocational training than youths without
vocational training. Additionally, the worker population ratio was higher among informally trained
youths than among those who had had formal training (figure 5.13). Most workers (67 per cent) who had
had informal vocational training acquired their skills either through on-the-job training (43 per cent) or
self-learning (24 per cent) in 2022. This indicates that informal vocational training was predominantly
acquired by young individuals while working. However, there was a decline in the worker population
ratio among youths with formal vocational training, with a decrease of 6.1 percentage points between
2005 and 2022, while the worker population ratio among youths with informal vocational training had a
slight increase, of 1.1 percentage points. These findings highlight the need to reassess and adapt formal
vocational training strategies to better align with the changing demands of the labour market and to
ensure that formal training programmes effectively equip young individuals with the skills required for
employment (see chapter 6).

5.4.3 General education and unemployment

The unemployment rate increased among youths with a high level of education and was highest
among youths with a graduate degree or higher in 2022. This trend was consistent with the patterns
observed in the overall youth population, as discussed in chapter 4. In 2022, the unemployment rate
among youths with a graduate degree was significantly higher, at 28.7 per cent, than among youths
with less than a primary education, at 3.2 per cent – almost nine times greater (figure 5.14). The share
and number of unemployed graduate degree holders increased substantially between 2000 and 2022,
130 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

while the share of unemployed youths with a low level of education declined. This indicates a problem
of unemployment for highly educated youths, who accounted for nearly half of the total unemployed
non-student youths in 2022. These and other findings in this section need to be considered with
the caveat that they do not cover underemployment, which was higher among less-educated and
poor youths.

X Figure 5.14. Unemployment rate for youths, by level of general education (UPSS),
2000 and 2022 (%)

30.0 28.7
24.5
22.5

15.0 12.2 11.5

7.5 5.1 6.1

3.2
1.2
0
Below primary Elementary Secondary/ Graduate &
higher above
secondary

2000 2022
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

5.4.4 Technical education, vocational training and unemployment

The unemployment rate among youths with a technical training degree or a graduate diploma
was even higher than among general graduates36 and had increased over time. In 2022, the
unemployment rate among youths with a graduate diploma was the highest, at 31.1 per cent, closely
followed by those with technical training degree, at 29.4 per cent (figure 5.15). This indicates the
challenges faced by youths with technical qualifications in finding suitable employment opportunities.
The unemployment rate among technical degree holders increased more sharply than it did for graduate
diploma holders and among youths with less than a graduate diploma over time. This suggests a growing
issue of unemployment among youths with higher technical qualifications.

36 A general graduate is a university graduate who does not have a professional or technical degree or equivalent qualifica-
tion.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 131

X Figure 5.15. Unemployment rate for youths, by level of technical education and vocational
training (UPSS), 2005 and 2022 (%)

10.8 29.4 25.5 31.1 22.4 2.1

5.1 18.3 19.8 22.5 18.9 1.6
40

30
%

20

10

0
No tech Tech Below Grad Grad with Formal VT Informal VT
degree with diploma diploma

2005 2022

Note: No tech=without technical education; Tech degree=has a technical degree; Below grad diploma=has a diploma or certificate below graduate
level; Grad with Diploma=has a diploma or certificate equivalent to graduate or higher level; Formal VT=has formal vocational training; Informal
VT=has informal vocational training; No VT=has no vocational training.
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

The unemployment rate among youths with formal vocational training was significantly higher than
among youths with informal vocational training, again underscoring that informal training is acquired
on the job. The unemployment rate among youths with formal vocational training increased by 3.5
percentage points over time. The unemployment rate among youths with formal vocational training
could be attributed to various factors, such as lack of alignment between the skills acquired through
formal training and the demands of the labour market, inadequate job placement support or a mismatch
between the skills acquired and the available job opportunities (Singh and Siddiqui 2020).

5.4.5 Factors affecting youth participation in the labour market

There are several supply-side factors that considerably influence the employment of young people,
either as a wage earner or self-employed, in the labour market. These factors include age, gender, sector
of employment, the monthly per capita expenditure quintile (a measure of income), social group and
geographic region (Bist and Patnaik 2021; Brooks 1997), which were used in this analysis to proxy the
underlying social, cultural and economic factors, the latter of which included economic necessity and
ownership of assets.
To examine the factors that affect the likelihood of young individuals being employed in the labour
market, a probit regression analysis was conducted for 2005 and 2022 to make a comparison over time.
The dependent variable in this analysis was the employment status of youths, coded as 1 for “employed”
and 0 for “out of the labour force and unemployed”, while the explanatory variables included age, gender,
sector of employment, income class (represented by the monthly per capita expenditure quintile as a
proxy), social group and geographic region. The results of the probit regression analysis showed that
all the explanatory variables were statistically significant (see appendix table A5.2). The multivariate
model allows for a more comprehensive analysis by capturing the joint effects of multiple factors on the
dependent variables. Therefore, it is important to interpret the multivariable probit regression results in
light of the controlling effect and consider the influence of other variables included in the model.
132 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

The probability of youth employment tended to increase with age, particularly in the 25–29 age group,
which experienced an increase from 8 per cent in 2005 to 9 per cent in 2022. This indicates an upward
trend in employability as youths enter their late twenties, likely influenced by their highest level of
education completion (Kroupova, Havranek and Irsova 2021). However, a substantial gender gap was
apparent, with men having 2.2 times higher probability of employment than women in 2022. This gap
clearly widened over time, from 1.2 times in 2005. Across sectors, rural youths had 1.1 times higher
probability of employment than their urban counterparts in 2022. This difference in probability declined
over time, likely due to limited non-farm job opportunities and rural youths’ disinterest in farming (ILER
2014; Papola and Sahu 2012b).
For general education, the probability of youth employment decreased with the level of education (see
appendix table A5.2). In a comparison with youths having less than a primary education over the analysed
period, the probability declined by 1 percentage point for youths with only an elementary education,
3 percentage points for those with a secondary or higher-secondary education and 10 percentage
points for individuals with a graduate degree or higher. In a comparison with youths having no technical
qualifications, the probability of youth employment improved slightly – by only 0.3 percentage points
– for those with a technical degree and by 1.1 per cent for those with a graduate degree or diploma.
The probabilities of employment for both technical degree holders and graduates with diplomas in
comparison with youths having no technical qualifications increased over time.
With vocational training, the probability of employment among youths with formal and informal
training was 1.2 times and 1.5 times higher, respectively, than those without any vocational training.
This highlights the importance of formal skills training despite the high unemployment rates among
trained youths. However, the probability of employment was higher for youths informally trained than
formally trained. Social group also had a role, with the Scheduled Tribe and Scheduled Caste youths
having greater probabilities of employment compared with other categories. Scheduled Tribe youth,
for instance, showed a 14–15 percentage point higher probability than other social groups. Over time,
employment probabilities for youths from a General Category declined marginally.
In terms of income classes, the probability of youth employment remained stable or marginally
decreased among the higher monthly per capita expenditure quintiles, indicating greater challenges
for youths in the lower quintiles in accessing employment. Over time, the probability of employment
among youths in the highest quintile increased in a comparison with youths in the other quintiles. And
across the geographical region, youths residing in the southern and western regions, which have higher
levels of industrialization and urbanization, exhibited relatively greater probability of employment when
compared with youths residing in the eastern, north-eastern, central and northern regions. Importantly,
regional differences in employability gradually decreased over time, likely influenced by increased
mobility and youth migration in search of employment opportunities.

5.4.6 Educated youth unemployment and the intersection of

income classes and social groups
Research suggests that lower-income and disadvantaged social groups face specific challenges when
it comes to finding suitable employment. The limited availability of job opportunities and economic
constraints force youths from lower-income backgrounds and from the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled
Tribe groups to accept any type of available work in the job market (Sharma 2022; ILER 2014). Contrary
to previous findings, recent studies indicated that highly educated youths, regardless of their social
or economic background, aspire for decent or white-collar jobs that align with their educational
qualifications and provide better socio-economic prospects. These aspirations are driven by personal
ambition, career expectations and the desire for upward social mobility (Ghose and Kumar 2021; section
5.6 in Srivastava 2016). Understanding the interplay between these factors is crucial for developing
inclusive policies that address the specific needs and aspirations of educated youths from diverse
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 133

backgrounds. This section explores the intersectionality of income classes and social groups in relation
to the employment prospects of educated youths.
The unemployment rate for highly educated youths from lower-income families was either equal
to or higher than what it was for youths from higher-income families. In 2022, the unemployment
rate among youths with a graduate degree or higher in the lowest monthly per capita expenditure
quintile was almost equal to that of similar youths in the highest quintile (at 11.5 per cent and 11 per cent,
respectively) (figure 5.16). The unemployment rate among youths with a secondary or higher-secondary
education in the lowest monthly per capita expenditure quintile (at 29.4 per cent) was higher than what
it was for similar youths in the highest quintile (at 25.8 per cent).
The upshot is that the high unemployment rate among youths may be partly due to aspirations for white-
collar jobs, which are not available in sufficient quantity. The poorer youths who lack a quality education,
resources and social capital are bigger sufferers (see section 5.6 in Srivastava 2016). As discussed in
Chapter 2, the economy is not generating enough suitable employment for the increasing number of
highly educated youths who aspire to secure well-paid public sector or white-collar jobs.

X Figure 5.16. Youth unemployment rate, by monthly per capita expenditure quintile and level
of education, 2022 (%)

40
33.4
31.7
29.4 30.0
30 25.8

20
13.1 12.8
11.5 11.0
9.3
10

0
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
(Lowest) (Highest)

Secondary/higher secondary Graduate & above

Source: Computed from Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

The unemployment rate among highly educated youths from a marginalized Scheduled Caste or
Scheduled Tribe group was higher when compared with similar youths from Other Backward Class
or General Category. Among youths who had completed secondary or higher-secondary education in
2022, the unemployment rate for those from a Scheduled Caste (13.4 per cent) was higher than for those
from an Other Backward Class (10.5 per cent) and almost equal to those from a General Category caste
(14 per cent) (figure 5.17). Among youths with a graduate degree or higher, the unemployment rate for
those from a Scheduled Caste (35 per cent) or Scheduled Tribe (33.4 per cent) was higher when compared
with youths from an Other Backward Class (28.7 per cent) or a General Category caste (26.5 per cent).
The high unemployment rates among socially marginalized youths indicate the challenges they face
in translating their aspirations into suitable employment opportunities. This trend perpetuates social
disparities and hampers upward social mobility.
134 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Figure 5.17. Youth unemployment rate, by social group and level of education, 2022 (%)

40 35.0
33.4
28.7
30 26.5

20
13.4 14.0
10.5
7.8
10

0
ST SC OBC GC
(Others)

Secondary/higher secondary Graduate & above

Note: ST=Scheduled Tribes; SC=Scheduled Castes; OBC=Other Backward Classes; GC=General Category.
Source: Computed from Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

X 5.5 Education and type of employment

This section examines the quality and conditions of employment for youths in comparison with their
educational profiles. It examines the status of employment, formal–informal employment and the
sectoral distribution of employment to provide insights into the overall quality of youth employment.

5.5.1 Employment status and general education

Youths with a secondary or higher-secondary education and those with a graduate degree were
engaged more in regular salaried jobs, while youths with less education (less than a primary or
elementary level) were involved more in casual work. It is well documented that individuals with
higher levels of educational qualification associate with a higher likelihood of obtaining a regular salaried
job (ILO 2020a). And in this analysis, indeed, the share of youths in regular employment increased with
higher levels of education. In 2022, the largest share of youths in regular employment was among youths
with a graduate degree or higher, reaching 57.8 per cent (figure 5.18). Conversely, the smallest share of
youths in regular employment was found among youths having less than a primary education, accounting
for only 12.5 per cent of the youth population. The distribution of youths in casual work exhibited an
inverse pattern when compared to regular employment. The largest share of youths engaged in casual
work was found among those with less than a primary education, comprising 43.6 per cent of the youth
population. The smallest share of youths in casual work was among those with a graduate degree or
higher, with only 3.4 per cent involved in such employment. The share of youths in self-employment had
a mixed trend based on education level: The proportion of youths in self-employment increased from the
primary to secondary education level, but among those with a graduate or higher, it declined by around
10 percentage points.
Over the years between 2005 and 2022, the share of youths in regular employment increased more
significantly for those with a graduate degree or higher than youths with other education levels.
This suggests a relatively greater improvement among more educated youths in accessing regular
employment opportunities. There also was a notable decline in the share of casual workers among
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 135

youths with less than a primary education and among those with a graduate degree or higher in self-
employment (see appendix table A5.9). The distribution of the youth employment across different
education levels highlights the disparities in employment types. Higher education levels are associated
with a higher likelihood of regular employment, which offers stability and better job security. Conversely,
lower education levels more closely associate with casual work, which often lacks job security and social
protection. The decline in self-employment among youths with a graduate degree or higher may indicate
a preference for formal employment options.

X Figure 5.18. Employment status of youths, by level of general education (UPSS), 2022 (%)

100% 3.4%
18.5%
33.1%
75% 44%
29.4% 57.8%
18.2%
50% 12.5%

25% 48.7% 52%

43.5% 38.8%

0%
No Tech Tech degree Diploma below Diploma-graduate
graduate or higher

Self-employed Regular-employed Casual worker

Source: Computed from Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

5.5.2 Employment status with technical education and

vocational training
The youths with a technical training degree or a graduate diploma had a significantly larger share
of regular employment compared with those without a technical qualification. Technical training
degree holders and youths with a graduate diploma had a larger proportion of regular employment
opportunities due to their specialized skills and knowledge (figure 5.19). This trend indicates the value of
technical education in accessing stable and regular employment. Conversely, youths without any technical
qualification tended to have a larger share of self-employment and casual work. Self-employment may
provide an alternative avenue for income-generation, while casual work often represents less stable and
less secure employment.
Over the years, there were notable changes in the distribution of employment types among the
technical education categories. The share of regular employment increased considerably for youths
with a technical training degree or a graduate diplomas while the share of self-employment this declined
among them.
136 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Figure 5.19. Employment status of youths, by level of technical education (UPSS), 2022 (%)

100% 0.6% 0.2%

9%
25.9%
75%
24.8% 56.5% 74.8%
82.7%
50%

25% 49.2%
34.5%
25%
16.6%
0%
No Tech Tech Degree Diploma below Diploma–Graduate
Graduate or higher

Self-employed Regular-employed Casual worker

Source: Computed from Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

Over time, the share of formally trained persons among regular youth workers increased slightly, to
around 12 per cent in 2022 (see appendix table A5.11). But the youths with informal vocational training
were more involved in regular employment than youths with formal vocational training. The share of
informally trained regular workers increased by 9 percentage points, indicating that on-the-job training
had a greater role in the training of workers than other channels. The other categories of workers had
large shares of informally trained youths and small shares of formally trained youths. It is interesting
that among the unemployed youths, a large share, at 10.5 per cent, had formal training in 2012, which
increased to 11.5 per cent in 2022. As with general and technical education, many of the youths with
formal skills training remained unemployed.

5.5.3 Education and other factors affecting youth participation

in regular employment
Another probit regression analysis was carried out to examine the probability of youths being in regular
employment versus casual work, using 2005 and 2022 to make a comparison over time. The dependent
variable in this analysis was the regular–casual status of youths, where “regular salaried employment”
was coded as 1 and “casual work status” was coded as 0. The independent variables were the same as
discussed in section 5.4.5.
The regression results showed that age (experience) had an influential role in youth employment,
with older-age groups having a greater probability of being in regular employment: Individuals in the
20–24 and 25–29 age groups had a 1.2 percentage-point and 2.2 percentage-point, respectively, greater
probability than the 15–19 age group (see appendix table A5.3). Over time, this probability marginally
declined for the 25–29 age group. Men and women had almost equal probability of being in regular
employment. Over time, the probability for women increased, indicating their rising participation in
regular employment. Across sectors, youths from urban areas had 1.5 times greater probability of being
in regular employment than rural youths. This can be attributed to factors like the availability of more
non-farm employment opportunities in the industrial and services sectors in urban areas. Over time,
the probability of youths being in regular employment declined by 4 percentage points in urban areas
compared with rural areas.
Educational hierarchy impacted the probability of youths being in regular employment, with those having
a graduate degree or higher having 2.4 times greater probability than those with less than a primary
education. Similarly, the probability of youths who had an elementary or secondary or higher-secondary
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 137

education increased by 1.3 times and 1.6 times, respectively. Over time, there was a decline in the
probability of educated youths being in regular employment, with the decline being sharper among
youths having a graduate degree. Technical qualification was also important for youths in accessing
regular employment in the labour market. Youths with a technical degree or a graduate diploma had
1.4 times and 1.5 times greater probability of being in regular employment than individuals with no
technical qualification. Additionally, formal vocational training also impacted the probability of youths
being in a regular job, which was 1.2 times greater for those with formal training and 1.1 times greater for
those with informal training when compared with youths without any vocational training. Over time, the
probability of youths being in regular employment increased for all technically and vocationally trained
individuals than for youths with no technical training.
Income levels (monthly per capita expenditure quintiles) also affected the probability of youths being in
regular jobs, with the probability rising with income level. Youths in the highest quintile had a 1.6 times
higher probability of being in regular employment than those in the lowest quintile, but this probability
declined over time. Across social groups, the probabilities of youths being in regular employment for
youths from Other Backward Class or General Category were 1.2 times and 1.3 times, respectively, higher
than for someone from a Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe. Over time, this probability remained
relatively stable. Across regions, the western and central areas had greater probability of youths being
in regular employment when compared with other regions, but this gap also declined over time.

5.5.4 Formal and informal employment status and general

education
The share of youths in formal employment in 2022 was notably larger among those with a graduate
degree or higher (36.1 per cent) when compared with youths having a secondary (9.1 per cent),
elementary (2.3 per cent) and less than primary (1.3 per cent) level of education (figure 5.20). This
disparity underscores the educational advantage enjoyed by individuals with a higher level of education
in accessing formal employment opportunities.
There were changes over the years in the distribution of the formal employment shares among different
education levels. The share of youths in formal employment for those with a graduate degree or higher,
at 36.2 per cent, increased by 10.2 percentage points, indicating a positive trend in accessing formal
employment opportunities for highly educated youths (see appendix table A5.12). In contrast, the
shares of youths in formal employment for other education levels – secondary, elementary and less
than primary – declined during the same period. This suggests a relative disadvantage for individuals
with low educational attainment in securing formal employment.
138 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Figure 5.20. Formal employment status of youths, by level

of general education (UPSS), 2000 and 2022 (%)

40.0 36.1

30.0 25.9

20.0

9.3 9.1
10.0
1.7 2.9 2.3
1.3
0.0
Below primary Elementary Secondary/ Graduate &
higher above
secondary

2000 2022
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

5.5.5. Formal and informal employment status and technical

education
It is argued that youths with technical education, such as a technical degree or graduate diploma,
have a higher likelihood of securing formal employment when compared to those without a technical
qualification (Kumar, Singh and Gupta 2020). In this analysis, the share of youths in formal employment
was 66 per cent for technical degree holders and 52.3 per cent for those with a graduate diploma in
2022 (figure 5.21). In contrast, the share of formal employment among youths with less than a graduate
diploma was smaller, at 30.5 per cent, and only 7.3 per cent for those without any technical qualification.
These findings highlight the significant advantage that technical education provides for accessing formal
employment.
The share of formal employment among youths with a technical degree or graduate diploma increased
between 2000 and 2022. This indicates a positive trend in the availability of formal employment
opportunities for individuals with technical qualifications (see appendix table A5.13). The increase
in the share of formal employment among youths with a graduate diploma or technical degree was
comparatively larger than the increase observed for those with less than a graduate diploma or no
technical qualification. This suggests that technical education has a crucial role in enhancing the
prospects for formal employment for youths.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 139

X Figure 5.21. Formal and informal employment status of youths,

by level of technical education (UPSS), 2000 and 2022 (%)

100%

34%
75% 48.6% 47.7%
69.5% 68.1%
80.1%
50% 97.4% 92.7%

66%
25% 51.4% 52.3%
30.5% 31.9%
19.9%
2.6% 7.3%
0%
2000 2022 2000 2022 2000 2022 2000 2022
No tech Tech degree Below Grad with Grad with
diploma diploma

Formal Informal
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

5.5.6 Education, training and other determinants of youth

participation in formal employment
Probit regression analysis was also used to examine the probability of youths being in formal or
informal employment for 2005 and 2022 to make a comparison over time. The dependent variable in the
regression model was the formal–informal status of youths, coded as 1 for “formal” and 0 for “informal”.
The independent variables were similar to what was discussed in section 5.4.5.
The regression analysis examined various factors affecting youth employment in India and revealed
several trends (see appendix table A5.4): The probability of youths being in formal employment increased
with age (experience). Youths aged 20–24 and 25–29 had 1.4 times and 1.7 times, respectively, greater
probability of being in formal employment when compared with those aged 15–19. Importantly, the
probability of youths being in formal employment increased only for the two older age groups over time.
The probability of being in formal employment was nearly equal for men and women. Across sectors,
the probability of youths from urban areas being in formal employment was 1.8 times greater than for
their rural counterparts, with the rural–urban difference declining over time.
The level of education also had a crucial role in accessing formal employment because the probability
of youths being in formal employment increased with the level of education: Youth with an elementary,
secondary or higher-secondary level of education or a graduate degree or higher had 1.3 times, 2.8
times and 6.3 times, respectively, greater probability of being in formal employment when compared
with youths having less than a primary education. However, over time, the probability of youths being
in formal employment declined. Similarly, the probability of youths with technical training education
being in formal employment was greater than that of young individuals with no technical training.
Additionally, the probability of youths with formal or informal vocational training was 1.5 times and
1.2 times higher, respectively, than for those without any vocational training. Over time, the relative
difference in probability across categories of technical and vocational training decreased.
Across income levels (monthly per capita expenditure quintiles), the probability of youths being in formal
employment increased in the higher quintiles. Youths in the highest quintile had 2.3 times greater
140 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

probability when compared with youths in the lowest quintile. However, over time, the probability of
youths being in formal employment across the quintiles declined.
Social group also influenced the probability of youths being in formal employment, with youths from
a Scheduled Caste, Other Backward Class or a General Category group having marginally greater
probability than someone belonging to a Scheduled Tribe. Regional disparities were evident in the
probability of youths being in formal employment: Youths residing in the southern, western and
north-eastern regions had greater probabilities of being in formal employment than those from the
northern, eastern and central regions. Over time, the regional differences in probability of being in
formal employment decreased.

5.5.7 Industrial structure of employment

and general education
It is well documented that highly educated youths tend to be more involved in the tertiary sector,
which includes industries such as services, finance and information technology. On the other hand,
less-educated youths are more likely to be employed in the primary and secondary sectors, which
encompass industries like agriculture, manufacturing and construction (Rani and Nair 2017). In 2022,
63.5 per cent of youths with a graduate or higher education were engaged in the tertiary sector. This
reflects the preference for white-collar jobs and the demand for skilled professionals in services-based
industries. In contrast, the involvement of highly educated youths in primary and secondary sectors was
relatively low, with 12.2 per cent of youths having less than a primary education and 32.7 per cent at the
secondary level (figure 5.22). Among less-educated youths, a larger proportion was found to be engaged
in the primary or agriculture sector. In 2022, 51.7 per cent of youths with less than a primary education
and 43.8 per cent of elementary-educated youths were employed in the primary sector. This highlights
their reliance on agricultural activities for livelihood. The involvement of less-educated youths in the
secondary sector, including construction, was also notable, with 37.5 per cent at the secondary level.
From 2005 to 2022, the share of less-educated youths employed in the secondary sector increased,
particularly in construction. This could be attributed to the growing demand for labour-intensive
construction activities and infrastructure development projects. In contrast, the share of highly educated
youths in all sectors remained relatively stagnant over time. This suggests that despite their higher
educational qualifications, the employment opportunities for highly educated youths did not grow much
across sectors.

X Figure 5.22. Industrial distribution of youth workers, by level of general education

(UPSS), 2022 (%)

100%
12.2%
21.1%
32.7%
75%
36.1% 63.5%
35.1%
50% 29.8%

25% 51.7% 16.6%

43.8% 37.5%
20%
0%
Below primary Elementary Secondary/higher Graduate &
secondary above

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Source: Computed from Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 141

5.5.8 Industrial structure of employment and technical

education
Youths with technical degrees and graduate diplomas had relatively greater involvement in the
tertiary sector. In 2022, a significant percentage of technical degree holders (75.3 per cent) and
youths with a graduate diploma (46.9 per cent) were employed in the tertiary sector (figure 5.23).
This trend indicates their preference for professions requiring specialized knowledge and skills. Over the
years, there was an increasing share of technical degree holders and youths with a graduate diploma in
the tertiary sector, suggesting a growing demand for skilled professionals in services-oriented industries
(see appendix table A5.15).

X Figure 5.23. Industrial distribution of youth workers, by level of technical education (UPSS)
, 2022 (%)

100%
28.7%
75% 46.9%
75.3% 79.4%
30.8%
50%
34.5%
25%
40.5%
17.2% 12.8%
18.6%
7.5% 7.8%
0%
No tech Tech degree Below Grad with Grad with
diploma diploma

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Source: Computed from Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

X 5.6 Education, employment and job search among

youths in low-income localities: Findings from a
2020 survey

Chapter 4 and the previous sections highlighted patterns of education, training and employment among
different segments of youths, including youths from social groups and poor households and women.
Although educational levels have improved for all segments of the youth population, unemployment and
the rate for not in employment, education or training among educated youths were very high among
the disadvantaged sections of youths. Little is known about the demand among youths for further
education, skills or training to improve their prospects in the labour market. As well, little is known about
their job aspirations or job search processes, waiting periods or why a large proportion of educated
young women opt out of the labour force.
This section summarizes the conclusions of a survey (IHD 2021) carried out among youths in low-income
localities in two cities: the urban agglomeration of Delhi and Ranchi city in Jharkhand State (which has
142 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

an estimated population of about 1.5 million). The survey aimed to analyse the following questions.
What kind of jobs do youths aspire for?
X How do the unemployed as well as other categories of youths engaged in a job search go about
trying to find a job?

X How do youths look at additional training and education? What are the kinds of education and
training that young people are looking at and why?

X How long does it take before youths take up their first employment?

X Does the employment of currently employed youths match their initial job expectations? If not,
how do youths go about further job search, education or training, or do they simply adjust their
expectations?

X Who are the young women and men who are not prepared to seek a job, even after they have
completed their education or training?

X What restrains youths from joining the labour force or, alternatively, if they have been in
employment, why did they opt to drop out?

X What are the steps that can bring the job leavers back into the labour force?

The survey was carried out by the Institute for Human Development in 2019 and 2020. A total of 1,920
youths (1,245 from Delhi and 675 from Ranchi) were interviewed – 53.1 per cent of them men and thus
46.9 per cent of them women. And 31 per cent of the female youths and 16.6 per cent of the male youths
(aged 15–29) were married. Among all the respondents, 28.2 per cent were from a Scheduled Caste,
14.2 per cent from a Scheduled Tribe, 34.1 per cent from an Other Backward Class, 21.7 per cent from a
General Category caste and 1.8 per cent from other groups. The proportion of Scheduled Caste youths
was larger in Delhi while it was larger among Scheduled Tribe youths in Ranchi. And 78.6 per cent of the
surveyed youth respondents were Hindu and 15.1 per cent were Muslim, with the remaining respondents
from other religions.

5.6.1 Education and skills training survey findings

Of the total respondents, 6.2 per cent had less than a primary level of education, 9.1 per cent had a
primary education and 18.2 per cent had a middle school-level of education. But 22.2 per cent were
educated up to the secondary level and 25.1 per cent had studied up to the higher-secondary level. And
14.5 per cent of them had a graduate degree, 2.2 per cent had a post-graduate degree, 1.5 per cent had
a technical or professional degree and 0.6 per cent had a technical or professional diploma. There were
more women with a general graduate or higher degree (17.8 per cent) than men (15.9 per cent), but 3.4
per cent of the men had a technical or professional degree or diploma, compared with 1.2 per cent of
the women.37
While 78.9 per cent of the youths had studied in the Hindi medium, 17 per cent had studied in English-
medium institutions. Among those who had opted for specific education streams at the higher-secondary
level, 71.9 per cent had studied arts and humanities, 13.2 per cent in natural sciences and mathematics;
5.1 per cent in engineering, technology or management, 1 per cent in medical sciences and 10.5 per cent
in commerce or law.
Across both cities (Delhi and Ranchi), 84.9 per cent of the respondents were enrolled in government
or public educational institutions, followed by 13.4 per cent in private aided and 1.4 per cent in private

37 For further details for this and the next section, see IHD 2021 and www.ihdindia.org/pdf/Book-EDUCATION-SKILL-AND-
JOBS-IN-URBAN-INDIA.pdf.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 143

unaided institutions.38 In addition, women in both cities were enrolled in greater numbers than men in
government education institutions.
Many of the youth respondents (60.2 per cent) were not studying at the time of the survey. Among the
others, 39.4 per cent of them were studying in general or tech-based courses and only 0.3 per cent were
in vocational training. A small number of them (0.1 per cent) were pursuing both general courses along
with vocational training. Only a tiny percentage of all respondents had undertaken formal training (1.5
per cent). Around 90.3 per cent of the student respondents were financing their education through
household resources, while 8.9 per cent of them relied on a scholarship and 0.3 per cent had a loan.

5.6.2 Activity status of surveyed youths

Many of the female respondents were in higher education, while the number of working men was more
than four times that of working women. Most women reported either being a student (42.8 per cent) or
in domestic duties (44.1 per cent), and only 1.2 per cent reported being unemployed (table 5.14).

X Table 5.14. Activity status during the year prior to the survey (primary economic activity),
in Delhi and Ranchi, 2020 (%)

Activity status Male Female Total

Worker 45.0 10.3 28.8

Unemployed 5.8 1.2 3.6

Student 41.3 42.8 42.0

Only domestic duties 1.8 44.1 21.6

Other 6.1 1.5 4.0

Total 100 100 100

Source: IHD 2021.

Among the youths who were working, slightly more than half of them, at 56 per cent, were regular
salaried or wage workers, 14.8 per cent were casual wage workers and 29.2 per cent were self-employed,
including 4.7 per cent unpaid family workers.

5.6.3 Aspirations of the surveyed students

About 85 per cent of the student respondents expected to continue their studies. And around 44 per cent
of the respondents wanted to pursue a non-technical or professional graduate or post-graduate course
(bachelor’s or master’s degrees), followed by graduate teacher training (11.7 per cent), professional or
technical degree (9 per cent), secondary or higher-secondary education (8.9 per cent), other short-term
courses (7.6 per cent) and professional and technical diploma (4.4 per cent). Nearly a fifth of the women
wanted to pursue teacher training, while 12 per cent of the male youths wanted to pursue a technical or
professional course. This suggests a high demand for professional and employment-oriented courses
among youths.
As many as 91 per cent of the student respondents, both men and women, said they were
interested in seeking employment and joining the labour market after completing their education.

38 Private aided institutions are privately managed but receive regular government financial support, whereas private un-
aided institutions do not receive any government financial aid.
144 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

More of the female respondents (10.6 per cent) than male respondents (0.5 per cent) indicated wanting
to marry and raise a family after their education.
More than one fourth of the student respondents planned to eventually take up a government job (26.9
per cent), followed by a teaching job (15 per cent), a high-end professional or technical job (10.2 per cent),
a private salaried job (8.7 per cent), a low-end professional or technical job (7.8 per cent), a banking job
(5.9 per cent), a computer-related job (3.5 per cent) or a job in the army or police (2.6 per cent) or with
the railway (1.8 per cent) (table 5.15). This shows that the demand for white-collar jobs, particularly
government jobs, was high among the respondents and particularly in banking, police or army
and railways in smaller town and cities, such as Ranchi. The preference for teaching and banking
jobs was high among female respondents, while men preferred professional and technical jobs.

X Table 5.15. Type of employment aspiration among surveyed students after completion
of their education, 2020 (%)

Male Female Total

Any government job 28.3 25.4 26.9

Teacher 8.7 22.0 15.0

Professional and technical (high end) 11.8 8.4 10.2

Any private job 11.6 5.5 8.7

Professional and technical (low end) 8.2 7.2 7.8

Bank 4.4 7.5 5.9

Computer operators 3.9 3.2 3.5

Army and police 3.1 2.0 2.6

Railway 2.6 0.9 1.8

No response 17.5 17.9 17.7

Total 100 100 100

Note: The data do not apply to all 1,920 respondents but only to 806 student respondents.
Source: IHD 2021.

About half (51.9 per cent) of the respondents indicated that a good salary was the main reason behind
them choosing a certain vocation, followed by better career growth opportunity (15.5 per cent), stability
offered by the job (11 per cent), convenient location (5.8 per cent) or other reason (5 per cent), such as
the job being challenging or the brand name of a company (table 5.16).

X Table 5.16. Reasons for choice of employment, 2020 (%)

Male Female Total

Good salary 52.9 50.7 51.9

Better career growth opportunities 15.7 15.3 15.5

Stable job 13.7 8.1 11.0

Convenient location 3.0 8.9 5.8

Other reasons 5.3 4.4 5.0

No response 9.4 12.5 10.9

Total 100 100 100

Source: IHD 2021.

 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 145

5.6.4 Job search, waiting period and reasons for not

finding employment among surveyed jobseekers
Among the surveyed youths who were unemployed or actively seeking employment, around 80 per cent
had been looking for a job for more than a year. Only about 4 per cent of the respondents said they were
looking at a job that differed from their first job.
Almost half of the youth respondents reported searching for a job through the internet or other online
application, followed by newspaper advertisement and applications (17.8 per cent), then word of mouth
and personal contacts (14 per cent). Social networking sites, registration with employment exchanges
and online placement agencies were not popular avenues of job search for these youths.
Only around 7 per cent of the youths surveyed had turned down a job offer in the past. The major
reasons for doing so was either non-availability of job near their residence (43.8 per cent) or the low
salary offered (25 per cent).
The major constraints reported in finding a jobs were non-availability of jobs matching with education,
skills or experience (35 per cent), high competition (14.6 per cent), unavailability in local area (12.7 per
cent) and lack of regular employment (10.2 per cent). In addition, some of them also reported lack of
communication skills (4.5 per cent), lack of information on new jobs (1.9 per cent) or inability to adapt to
new or changing technology and skills.
Women in both cities experienced more hurdles in accessing a job than men due to non-availability of
jobs matching with their education, skills or experiences and the high competition.
Around 18 per cent of these youths said that further education would have been helpful in accessing
the right job, which was a response relatively more common among the female respondents (at 21.4 per
cent) than the male respondents (at 16.7 per cent). About 18 per cent of all respondents reported that
formal vocational training would have been most helpful in accessing jobs (IHD 2020a).

5.6.5 Currently employed youths: Job search and satisfaction

survey findings
The survey respondents included youths who were employed but looking for another job. Contrary
to the job aspirations of youths who were studying, the youths who were employed engaged in
a variety of jobs in low-paying no-skill categories, such as delivery boy, helper, sweeper, tea stall
owner, vegetable seller, small shop owner. Some of them were in jobs requiring certain skill, such as
driver, computer operator, data entry operator, auto mechanic, accountant, salesperson or bank clerk.
And some were in high-skill jobs, such as engineering, manager and teaching. Nearly all of them (96.3
per cent) were in a full-time position. Around 4 per cent of the youth respondents who were employed
reported that they had had some structured training provided by their employer.
Only 8.4 per cent of the respondents reported that they were looking for another job, while the others
wanted to retain their then current job. About half of those looking for another job cited no upward
mobility or financial growth in their job (48.8 per cent), one fourth (26.8 per cent) said they had a
contractual job that would end, followed by termination of the job contract (7.3 per cent) or they had
been laid off (4.9 per cent). The main avenues of job search among them were internet searches and
online applications (55.3 per cent), followed by newspaper advertisement (13.2 per cent) and word of
mouth or personal contacts (31.6 per cent).
The constraints faced in finding a better jobs were the non-availability of jobs matching with their
education, skills or experience, followed by the unavailability of a job in the local area, as well as lacking
communications skill, lack of regular employment, lack of information about new jobs and the non-
availability of adequate remuneration.
146 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

5.6.6 Surveyed youths not in education, employment

or training
One fourth of the total youths surveyed were not in education, employment or training. Women
dominated among them (at 44.5 per cent), compared with 7.5 per cent of the young men. Just 1.2 per
cent of the youth respondents not in employment, education or training were ever in employment.
Only 8.9 per cent of these youths ever wanted to be in employment (20.7 per cent of men and 6.7 per cent
of women). While 90 per cent of them preferred a full-time job, 10 per cent (all women) said they would
prefer a part-time job.
The two main reasons for opting out of employment that respondents reported were family or
childcare responsibilities and the family or spouse did not want them to work or participate in
the labour market (table 5.17). These reasons were more pronounced among the female respondents
than the men in both cities. Other reasons were non-availability of jobs near their residence, unsuitable
work or environment, the company had gone out of business, the non-availably of transport and they
were financially well-off with no need to earn money. Among the female respondents, family views
and responsibilities kept them out of the job market in 74.8 per cent of cases, while lack of suitable
opportunity applied in 2.8 per cent of cases.

X Table 5.17. Reasons for surveyed respondents not being in the labour force, 2020

Male Female Total

Family or spouse did not want me to 4.9 35.4 30.9

Family and childcare responsibilities 9.8 39.4 35.0

Unsuitable work and work environ- 6.6 2.8 3.4

ment

Non-availability of jobs near to residence 6.6 6.2 6.3

Non-availability of transport facility 0.0 0.6 0.5

to the workplace

Financially well-off and no felt need for 6.6 0.6 1.4

earning money

Laid off and company closure and 3.3 0.3 0.2

expiry of job contract

Other (specify) 62.3 14.7 21.7

Total 100 100 100

Source: IHD 2021.

When the women who were not in employment, education or training were asked about other
constraints and what could be done to support their entry into the labour force, 33.3 per cent of them
mentioned safety concerns outside the workplace; 25.9 per cent cited the need for a creche facility; 11.1
per cent mentioned security concerns inside the workplace; and 14.8 per cent mentioned better and
more adequate transport arrangements.
Overall, the youths surveyed in the low-income localities of Delhi and Ranchi showed a high propensity
for education but mostly in lower-quality institutions. Formal skills training was very low. Among the
youths in education, more than 90 per cent aimed to join the labour force after completing their studies
and mainly aspired for public sector white-collar jobs, with some differences in job preferences between
the men and women. The main reasons cited for their job preferences were higher income, career growth
opportunity and job stability.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 147

Among those currently working, the actual profile differed from the aspirations expressed by
the cohort of students: 56 per cent were regular salaried or wage workers, 30.2 per cent were self-
employed, 14.8 per cent were casual wage labourers, 7.3 per cent were employers and 4.7 per cent were
unpaid family workers.
Among the jobseekers, 80 per cent had been waiting for more than a year to find employment. Among
the major groups of reasons cited for not getting a job were non-availability of jobs matching with their
education, skills or experience, high competition and lack of appropriate skills or education. Nearly 18
per cent said that more education and training would have helped them secure a decent job.
Among the youth respondents not in employment, education or training, women predominated and
family attitudes and domestic work were cited as the main reasons for their remaining out of the labour
force. The women not in employment education or training reported that, apart from more equitable
sharing of domestic responsibilities and an encouraging family attitude, a safe and secure environment,
creche childcare support and better transport options to work could be conducive to their joining the
labour force.

X 5.7 Has the mismatch between education level and

jobs for highly educated youths increased over
time?

There is increasing focus on qualification mismatch and skills mismatch in labour markets due to their
impact on productivity, growth and workers’ income (ILO 2018b). Qualification mismatch comprises
the mismatch between the level of educational attainment and the field of study or job. Mismatched
workers may either be overqualified or underqualified. Skills mismatch is the discrepancy between the
skills possessed by a worker and the skills required by their job (ILO 2019b and 2018b; Quintini 2011).
Skills can be acquired both formally and informally. A distinction is further made between job-specific
or technical skills, basic skills and transferable skills. As a result of such mismatches, there can be over-
skilling, described as a situation in which a worker’s skills are greater than what is required by their job.
Under-skilling is a situation in which a worker’s skills are insufficient for what is required by their job. Skills
mismatch is considered one of the factors causing unemployment and underemployment among highly
educated youths (ILER 2014). Skills mismatch is further discussed in the context of vocational education
and training in Chapter 6.
With the increase in educational attainment among youths, a disturbing feature of the labour market that
emerged in recent years is the large imbalance between the demand for jobs by youths and their supply,
leading not only to higher levels of unemployment and longer waiting periods but also the educated
youths with a graduate degree or higher have readjusted their expectations to take up jobs for which
they would otherwise be treated as overqualified. This is most manifested in low-grade public sector
jobs, where the eligibility qualifications are a primary level or, at the most, secondary level of education.
As noted in box 1, job advertisements can attract up to several hundred thousand applicants, many of
whom have a graduate or post-graduate degree, an engineering graduate degree and even PhD holders.
The explosive gap between qualifications and aspirations and jobs has also been leading to discontent
and massive protests. While these examples are common in somewhat less-dynamic states, they have
also been reported from the more economically dynamic states.
Because of the explosive nature of this problem, even though underqualification is considered more
problematic than overqualification in developing countries (ILO 2019b), the analysis focused on
overqualification in terms of education level. This section thus looks at the nature of the imbalance that
148 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

is resulting in a larger proportion of youths with high educational qualifications (graduate degree or
higher) accepting poorer-quality jobs and whether this trend has increased over time, with more youths
acquiring higher education degrees.

5.7.1 Occupation levels and education

The International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO-08) defines occupation as a “set of jobs
whose main tasks and duties are characterized by a high degree of similarity”. Skill is defined as the ability
to carry out the tasks and duties of a given job. For the purposes of the ISCO-08, two dimensions of skill
are used to arrange occupations into groups: skill level and skill specialization.
Skill level is defined as a function of the complexity and range of tasks and duties to be performed in an
occupation. Skill level is measured operationally by considering one or more of the following:
X nature of the work performed in an occupation in relation to the characteristic tasks and duties
defined for each ISCO-08 skill level;

X level of formal education defined in terms of the International Standard Classification of

Education (ISCED-97) (UNESCO 1997) required for competent performance of the tasks and
duties involved; and

X amount of informal on-the-job training and/or previous experience in a related occupation

required for competent performance of these tasks and duties.

As per ISCO classification, jobs based on task and occupations and educational qualification are divided
into four broad levels of skills: no skill (I), low skill (II), medium skill (III) and high skill (IV). ISCO-08 mapped
major occupation groups to skill and education levels (ISCED- 97). The classification recognizes that
countries may need to customize the skill and education levels according to their specific characteristics.
The Indian Standard Classification of Occupation (2015) provides the following correspondence between
occupation groups, skill levels and education.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 149

X Table 5.18. Definition of levels of skill and corresponding educational requirements

Educational
Skill NCO code
Skill definition require- NCO (single digit)
level (1-digit)
ments
I Typically involves the performance Primary Elementary workers 9
of simple and routine physical or education
manual tasks

II Typically involves the performance Secondary Plant and machine operators 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

of such tasks as operating education Craft and related trade workers
machinery and electronic
equipment, driving vehicles, Skilled agricultural workers
maintenance and repair of Service workers and shop and
electrical and mechanical market sales workers
equipment, and manipulation, Clerks
ordering, and storage information

III Typically involves performance of First Associate professionals 3

complex technical and practical university
tasks that require an extensive degree
body of factual, technical and
procedural knowledge in a
specialized field

IV Typically involves the performance Post- Professionals 2

of tasks that require complex graduate
problem-solving, decision-making university
and creativity based on an degree
extensive body of theoretical and
factual knowledge in a specialized
field

Source: National Classification of Occupations Volume I, 2015.

In this section, the assessment of the mismatch between education level and occupation is based on
educational qualification using a normative approach. The general minimum eligibility requirements
for many jobs in occupational group 4 would be a graduate degree or equivalent. The analysis
treated occupation groups 3 and 4 as on par and, for simplicity due to interest in the occupation
profile of highly educated individuals, occupation groups 5–8 were combined with group 9.39
Apart from formal education, a job and occupation may also require skills acquired through experience
or training that enhances a candidate’s employability, which a large proportion of the youth population
has lacked in the past (Teamlease 2007). Quintini (2011) argued that education is only a rough proxy
for skills due to the following factors: “i. at each qualification level, student performance varies
significantly and so does field of study, particularly for tertiary graduates; ii. qualifications only
reflect skills learnt in formal education and certified training; iii. skills learnt on the job through
labour market experience are not measured; and iv. some of the skills reflected in qualifications
may deteriorate over time if they are not used or kept up to date”.
The analysis carried out here focused on whether highly educated youths (with a graduate degree or
higher qualification) had taken up jobs for which they were overqualified and whether this was happening
on a larger scale over time. This issue was examined for 2005 (based on National Sample Survey data),
2019 and 2022 (based on Periodic Labour Force Survey data). Table 5.19 gives the percentage of youths
with a graduate or post-graduate degree according to occupation category covered in the analysis.

39 The skill-based classification followed in this chapter differs from what was followed in section 2.7, where NCO group 4 is
treated as low-skilled. Both in Chapter 2 and here, elementary workers are grouped with other low-skilled workers, leaving
three skill levels: low, medium and high.
150 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 5.19. Distribution of youths with high educational qualification across skill and
occupation categories, 2005, 2019 and 2022 (%)

Male Female Person

Skill and occupa-
Year
tion category Post- Post- Post-
Graduate Graduate Graduate
graduate graduate graduate

High skill and 10.6 22.4 11.4 29.3 10.7 23.4

occupation

Medium skill and 43.7 40.6 51.4 35.0 44.8 39.8

occupation
2005
Low skill and 45.8 37.0 37.2 35.7 44.5 36.8
occupation

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

High skill and 19.6 39.9 26.9 41.7 21.4 40.5

occupation

Medium skill and 27.9 28.1 49.3 45.5 33.0 34.4

occupation
2019
Low skill and 52.4 32.0 23.8 12.8 45.6 25.1
occupation

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

High skill and 22.5 42.8 41.4 65.0 27.5 52.6

occupation

Medium skill and 19.1 24.1 21.7 15.2 19.7 20.2

occupation
2022
Low skill and 58.4 33.1 36.8 19.7 52.8 27.2
occupation

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2019, 2022.

Men: There was a rapid sliding down of male youths with graduate degrees. Already in 2005, 45.8 per
cent youths were in occupation groups 5–9. This increased to 52.4 per cent in 2019 and 58.4 per cent
in 2022. Occupational polarization among graduate degree holders increased, with an increase in the
percentage of youths in the high-skill category increasing from 10.6 per cent in 2005 to 22.5 per cent in
2022.
Male youths with a post-graduate degree increased their proportion in the high-skill occupation NCO
group over time, with a more rapid fall in the medium-skill category (from 40.6 per cent in 2005 to 24.1 per
cent in 2022) and a smaller decline in the proportion of such youths in the lowest category. Even in 2022,
33.1 per cent of such students were in blue-collar occupations while 24.1 per cent were in occupations
for which they were overqualified.
Women: Employed female youths with a graduate degree were better matched in their job than their
male counterparts in 2005. But a similar sharp deterioration was apparent in the occupational distribution
of female youths with a graduate degree between 2019 and 2022. Compared to 37.2 per cent of female
youths with a graduate degree (a smaller portion than among male youths) in low-skill occupational
categories in 2005, the respective percentages fell to 22 per cent in 2019 and increased very sharply to
36.8 per cent in 2022. Due to the small sample size in the initial years, the occupational distribution of
female youths with a post-graduate degree was subject to less definitive analysis, but broadly, their
proportion in occupation groups 5–9 increased. But there also was a polarization in occupations, with
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 151

a decline in the percentage of female youths with a graduate degree in a medium-skill job. Among
the female youths with a post-graduate degree, the pattern was different, with jobs in the high-skill
occupation category gaining at the expense of both the medium- and low-skill category occupations.
Overall, the occupational distribution of male and female youths reflected the same pattern. Among
graduate degree holders, an increasing occupational polarization was evident; but among youths with
a post-graduate degree, those in high-skill category occupations gained at the expense of youths in the
middle- and low-skill categories.

5.7.2 Technical education

This section looks at the extent to which youth workers (aged 15–29) with a graduate or higher technical
degree or diploma were overqualified for their job and whether this trend increased after 2005. Table
5.20 shows the skill and occupational distribution of these youths.

X Table 5.20. Distribution of youths (aged 15–29) with technical education, by skill and
occupation categories, 2005, 2019 and 2022 (%)

Diploma or
Technical degree certificate above Total
graduate

2005 High skill and occupation 32.11 18.21 21.31

Medium skill and occupation 42.03 42.60 42.47

Low skill and occupation 25.86 39.19 36.22

2019 High skill and occupation 52.96 35.30 47.53

Medium skill and occupation 27.89 48.53 34.24

Low skill and occupation 19.15 16.17 18.23

2022 High skill and occupation 59.99 65.43 61.54

Medium skill and occupation 20.84 15.57 19.34

Low skill and occupation 19.17 19.00 19.12

Source: Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2019 and 2022.

Among the youth workers with a technical degree or a graduate or higher diploma or certificate, there
was an increase in the high-skill occupation categories. Among degree holders, 32.1 per cent were in the
high-skill occupation category in 2005, and this increased to nearly 60 per cent in 2022. Among diploma
holders, 18.2 per cent were in the high-skill occupation category in 2005, and their portion increased
significantly, to 65.4 per cent in 2022. Jobs in NCO 3 and 4 do not require a technical degree, which
suggests a still greater degree of overqualified technical graduates in the labour market.
Although this trend is encouraging, nearly two fifths of the technically qualified students were still in
those occupations in 2022, for which they were overqualified.
Overall, the expansion of technical education has not contributed to more technically educated students
joining the workforce at the lower end of the occupational pyramid. But the sizeable proportion of
overqualified technical training graduates in lower NCO levels remains a concerning issue.
Although youths with high levels of education aspire for suitable and decent jobs, the labour market
pushes many of them into low-skill and blue-collar occupations, where the eligibility requirements are
much lower. The analysis revealed this to be true for youths with a graduate or post-graduate degree
as well as holders of a technical training degree or diploma. With the expansion of higher education, a
greater proportion of youths with a graduate degree took up such jobs.
152 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X 5.8 Summing up

This chapter explores the intricate link between education and the labour market. It shows that
educational attainment among youths improved significantly over the past two decades and that all
sections of youths experienced improvement. The proportion of technically educated youths among
those with a graduate or higher degree also increased. This indicates that youths are generally better
equipped to deal with technological change and emerging labour market opportunities. The analysis also
points out that although all segments of youths experienced improvement in educational attainment,
in most cases, gaps persist and have even grown across social groups, monthly per capita expenditure
quintiles, location and region. This demonstrates that the different segments are placed very
differently in terms of the emerging labour market opportunities.
The analysis of returns to different levels of education found that improvements at the lower levels of
education brought little incremental returns. The highest jump occurred for employed youths who
had a graduate degree or higher or technical training. Of course, returns to education were also
influenced by the gender of the youths, their location, social origin and economic background.
Due to youth participation in education having nearly doubled in the two decades covered by the analysis,
this chapter examined the worker population ratio among non-student youths. There was a declining
trend in that ratio that is now more marked among youths having a low level of education. The worker
population ratio among all as well as male non-student youths exhibited a weak inverted U-shaped
pattern in relation to their educational attainment (the female worker population ratio continued to
exhibit the familiar U-shaped curve), highlighting the dual challenges faced by individuals with low and
high levels of education in terms of their participation in the labour market.
The worker population ratio among technically qualified non-student youths experienced a steep
decline, raising concerns about the quality of technical education in the country. Formal vocational
training among young individuals in India continued to associate with a low worker population ratio.
Unemployment rates among youths showed a disturbing trend, increasing as the level of education
rises, with the highest rates among youths with a graduate or technical training degree. In particular,
the concern is the disproportionately higher unemployment rate among youths with a technical degree
or diploma, which has surpassed even the rate among youths with a general graduate degree. What is
even more alarming is that these rates consistently have been on the rise.
Unemployment rates among highly educated youths from lower-income families are a particular cause
for concern because they face equal or even higher unemployment rates than their counterparts
from higher-income families. Among other issues, this trend reflects the growing aspirations of
youths for white-collar jobs regardless of their income class, which the survey results featured in this
chapter brought out. Additionally, unemployment rates are disproportionately higher for youths from
marginalized social groups, such as Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, in comparison with Other
Backward Classes and the General Category castes. This disparity sheds light on the intersection of
social group and unemployment, where individuals from historically marginalized communities face even
greater hurdles in securing employment, even when they possess a high level of education.
The analysis found that the highly educated youths with a secondary or higher-secondary or graduate
level of education were predominantly employed in regular salaried jobs. Youths with less than a primary
or elementary level of education were more likely to be in casual or informal work. Youths with a technical
degree and a graduate-level diploma were more likely in regular or formal employment than those
without a technical qualification. Although there was a rise in the unemployment rate among highly
educated and technically qualified youths in the time frame covered, it is widely acknowledged that
education has a vital role in accessing quality employment opportunities. As individuals attain higher
levels of education, they are more likely to have access to more secure and formal employment options,
leading to higher average returns.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 153

Highly educated youths tend to be more actively engaged in high-productivity sectors, primarily the
tertiary sector. This sector encompasses a range of services, such as business, telecommunications,
finance and information technology. The skills and knowledge acquired through higher education equip
these individuals with the expertise required to excel in these sectors, which contribute significantly
to economic growth and development. Less-educated youths are more likely to find employment in
the primary and secondary sectors. The primary sector includes activities related to agriculture while
the secondary sector comprises manufacturing and construction. These sectors often require manual
labour and may have lower levels of productivity than the tertiary sector. Youths with technical degrees
and graduate diplomas are involved more in the tertiary sector. This can be attributed to the specialized
skills and technical knowledge they acquire through their education, which aligns with the demands of
industries within the tertiary sector.
The probit regression analysis provided further insights into the factors influencing youth employment
and thus complemented the descriptive findings. After controlling for several factors, the analysis
revealed that the probability of being employed rose with age and that it was higher for men and in rural
areas and for socially deprived groups. It also increased for youths in the higher expenditure quintiles. It
was lower as the education level rose but higher for youths with a technical education. And it was higher
for the more economically dynamic regions – the North, West and South. Additionally, regression analysis
also revealed that the likelihood of highly educated youths being engaged in regular formal employment
increased with the level of education and technical qualifications.
The results of a field survey carried out by the Institute for Human Development among youths in low-
income localities in Delhi and Ranchi cities supplemented the analysis of secondary data. This study
found that the student participation rate in these localities was close to the national average. The student
respondents in the survey largely studied in government institutions and the Hindi medium, and more
than 90 per cent of them reported an aspiration for employment after studies. Their employment
preferences were largely white-collar public sector jobs, and this preference was dictated by their
aspiration for a high income and job stability, with some gender differences among those findings. But
these aspirations differed considerably from the actual labour market outcomes of other respondents,
in which only 56 per cent of youths were in regular salaried or wage jobs.
Among the active jobseekers, most had waited more than year to find a job. The major constraints
reported in finding employment were non-availability of jobs matching with their education, skills and
experience, the dearth of regular jobs, the high competition and unavailability of a job in the local area.
In addition, some of them also reported lack of communication skills, lack of information on new job
opportunities and inability to adapt to new or changing technology and skills. Nearly a fifth of these
respondents reported that further formal education would have improved their prospects in the labour
market, and an equal percentage said that formal training would have helped them.
Women dominated among youths not in employment, education or training in these survey findings.
The female respondents reported that the main two reasons for opting out of employment were either
family or childcare responsibilities or their family or husband did not want them to work or participate
in the labour market. Supportive measures that would help the women join the labour force were led by
safety inside and outside the workplace, a creche facility for childcare and affordable transport.
Given the large number of widely reported instances in which highly educated youths had applied
for blue-collar public sector jobs, the analysis examined the extent to which highly educated youths
(graduate degree or higher) had actually taken up such jobs (defined as those in the NCO groups 5–9).
The actual percentage of youths with a graduate, post-graduate or technical training degree or diploma
who had taken up such jobs was quite high, even in 2005. Between 2005 and 2022, the proportion of
youths with a graduate degree with a low-skill category job went up considerably, whereas youths with
a post-graduate or technical training degree or diploma retained their proportion of jobs in the high-skill
occupation categories.
154 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

These findings further underscore the multifaceted nature of youth employment, influenced by age,
gender, location, education, vocational training, regional disparities, social group background and
economic status. Although educational attainment increased overall in the 17 years analysed, there
appeared to be sharp constraints on the demand side that pulled down the employment rates (for youths
with high and low levels of education), pushed up the unemployment rates and required even highly
educated youths to take up blue-collar jobs. Understanding these dynamics will aid in the formulation
of policies and interventions that more succinctly address the complex challenges surrounding youth
employment and promote inclusive and equitable opportunities for all.
156 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills
X6
Skills and active labour
market policies

X 6.1 Introduction

India has the significant advantage of a young population offering huge potential for a demographic
dividend (Chapter 2). However, the high unemployment rate and the low LFPRs among non-student
youths demonstrate that the process of economic growth has not been able to efficiently absorb an
expanding share of youths into the labour force. This calls for short-term as well as long-term reform
measures, both on the supply and demand side.
158 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

This chapter begins by discussing the current skills development scenario. Skills development aims
at addressing the skill shortages and the skills mismatches through short-term training. It also aims at
the strengthening of a long-term skills ecosystem that increases the employability of youths, in line
with changing requirements. Over the past quarter century, deficiencies in the vocational education
and training ecosystem have been acknowledged, and Indian policy has actively sought to build up
a dynamic ecosystem for technical and vocational education and training (TVET), which is integrated
by standard setting and certification, is inclusive and market-oriented, is predicated on public–private
partnerships and caters to a rapidly changing employment scenario. More recent attention has included
the mainstreaming of skills training into all levels of education.
Although short-term skills training to bridge the mismatch between supply and demand for a skilled
workforce in the current labour market scenario is an important active labour market policy, this chapter
looks at other active labour market policies that have been adopted in India. This includes the recent
policy thrust on the demand side, particularly for the development of entrepreneurship and expanding
self-employment. Digital databases are being developed and deployed to reduce job search and
recruitment costs. The effectiveness of the active labour market policies in India is assessed through
macro-level analysis and evaluation studies.
Decades ago, social protection systems were typically implemented in developing economies in the form
of passive labour market policies or short-term interventions (Sabates-Wheeler and Devereux 2011), such
as unemployment insurance and welfare benefits paid to unemployed persons. These aimed to provide
replacement income during periods of crisis. However, rising unemployment and poverty stressed the
need for strong and stable labour market interventions concerned with employment promotion and
poverty reduction (Malo 2018). Such interventions, termed as active labour market policies (ALMPs),
sought to improve employment conditions and income-earning capabilities and thus break the poverty
cycle. Their aim encompassed the labour market integration of youths (Pignatti and Van Belle 2018;
Meager 2009). Thus, ALMPs now include vocational training, public works programmes, employment
subsidies and job matching.
ALMPs can be divided into three main categories (McKenzie, 2017; Meager 2009): (a) policies operating on
the supply side of the labour market that seek to increase the employability of youths through training
and skills development schemes; (b) policies to increase the demand for a young labour force through
employment-generation schemes and the provision of subsidies to employers; and (c) job search
assistance schemes to match jobseekers with employers (see box 12 for recognition of how ALMPs have
helped improve labour market outcomes for youths globally).
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 159

X Box 12. Role of active labour market policies supply- and demand-side labour market interventions
to support youths.
Several studies of active labour market policies (ALMPs) Escudero et al. (2019) assessed impact evaluations of
have demonstrated their positive impacts. active labour market programmes in Latin America
Card, Kluve and Weber (2010), for instance, carried and the Caribbean and thus compiled a novel meta
out meta-analysis of micro-econometric evaluations database based on the review of 51 studies. Those
of ALMPs in 26 countries that had been conducted results indicated that training programmes are slightly
between 1995 and 2007. They concluded that job more effective than other types of interventions in
search assistance programmes yield relatively raising participants’ employment prospects. The
favourable impacts, whereas public sector employment evidence in those studies revealed that ALMPs in
programmes are less effective. Training programmes in Latin America and the Caribbean were more effective
their study were associated only with positive medium- for youths than for prime-age workers and that the
term impacts. intensity and quality of services provided should be
prioritized to increase their effectiveness.
Kluve et al. (2017) reviewed impact evaluation studies
conducted worldwide between 1990 and 2014 to And in their survey of 106 studies of ALMPs in low- and
examine the effectiveness of ALMPs towards improving middle-income countries across different regions, Niño-
labour market outcomes of youths. They found Zarazúa and Torm (2022) found that the combination
that the impact of active labour market measures, of two or more components of active labour market
on average, was higher in low- and middle-income programmes tends to increase their effectiveness. In
countries than in high-income countries. This was other words, youths who completed a comprehensive
true for the employment and earnings outcomes and package of active labour market programmes
after controlling for the regional differences across (vocational training, employment subsidy, job
interventions. In other words, due to the presence matching) were twice as likely to be formally employed
of large cohorts of disadvantaged youths, marginal when compared with youths who had only public works
investment in skills and employment opportunities led participation. Training is generally associated with
to large positive outcomes in the low-income countries. positive labour market outcomes, but it is important to
This study also found merit in combining both consider separate categories of training programmes
based on provider types, programme duration and
target group (gender, youths, etc.).

The remaining chapter is structured as follows: The next three sections cover the context of skills
development in India, its evolution, progress and challenges. The fifth section overviews entrepreneurship
development programmes, and the sixth section discusses schemes for job matching. In summing up
the main issues, the final section also examines future priorities and policy actions. Public employment
programmes, such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme, form
an important component of public employment programmes in India, but they are not discussed here
because they do not specifically target youths.

X 6.2 Current context of skills development in India

The term skills covers a range of attributes in the literature – but there is no clear definition of a skilled
worker. According to the World Employment Report (ILO 1998), skill refers to an acquired and practised
ability or to a qualification needed to perform a job or certain task competently. The term has now
evolved and refers to the ability to perform a task or a job, including the knowledge, competence and
experience needed (ILO 2021c). The term marketable skill is commonly understood as any skill, expertise
160 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

or ability that has market value or the potential of being utilized for generating income and employment,
irrespective of whether it is acquired formally or not.
India has a large informal sector employing about 82 per cent of its workforce, and the rationale for
skills and skill creation must be viewed differently for this sector (NCEUS 2009). Youth in India acquire
skills mostly through informal channels (see Chapter 5). However, when reference is made to levels
of availability of skilled labour in the context of economic development, it is viewed from the prism of
the formal sector, and the processes of formal skill acquisition and training for employment become
important. These processes fill the general education system, which provides foundational and cognitive
skills, and the TVET systems that link to more specific trades and occupations. TVET includes both
vocational education and initial vocational training undertaken by young people prior to entering the
labour market as well as continuing vocational training by adults while in work or during periods when
they are economically inactive. Thus, it encompasses both initial skills development and various forms
of reskilling and upskilling.
In contemporary production systems, increased global competition, labour market flexibility and
technological change, embedded in new knowledge systems, have changed the nature of the demand
for specific skills while giving greater importance to basic, soft, foundational and transferrable skills.
Several countries in East Asia demonstrate the necessity as well as possibilities in the area of skills
development for developing economies. A vast volume of literature on the sources of sustained high
growth in these economies have located this growth in endogenous processes that enable a highly
skilled workforce to adapt technology to country requirements, innovate at the level of the enterprise
and meet ambitious targets in a short period of time (NCEUS 2009). For example, the Republic of Korea
implemented a Comprehensive Plan for Lifelong Education and Learning, which allows communities
in provinces to enter and exit the learning and training process, in line with the requirements of the
economy and with their own need for improvement. Similarly, Singapore made major changes in its
skills strategy through the introduction of a National Continuing Education and Training Framework and
a Lifelong Learning Endowment Fund (NCEUS 2009).
In comparison to several developing countries and developed countries, India is lagging in the provision
of formal vocational skills to youths (NPSDE 2015; NCEUS 2009). This is all the more telling in the context
of the supply–demand gap that emerged over the past few decades. Several earlier studies and policy
documents highlighted the acute mismatch between the workforce skill characteristics and the availability
of skilled workers to sustain the economy’s growth rates. In India’s post-liberalization growth trajectory,
the need for large numbers of skilled people is felt more acutely in the context of the country’s need to
compete internationally in manufacturing as well as in services and to emerge as a formidable player
in the knowledge economy. From the demand side, although the economy experienced rapid growth
as of the 1990s, skill shortages emerged across the board, drawing urgent attention to the problem of
skills development. A Confederation of Indian Industry and McKinsey & Company report (2004) indicated
the need for an increase of an estimated 20 million skilled workers by 2015, or incremental skilling of 1.5
million people every year.
The technological changes associated with Industry 4.0 that are unfolding are likely to lead to a
substantial restructuring of the workforce. At the global level, Chadha and Chapman (2020) and the
World Economic Forum (2020) shed light on the impact of technology on workforce demand. The
World Economic Forum (2020) estimated that, by 2025, 85 million jobs may be displaced by a shift in
the division of labour between humans and machines, while 97 million new roles may emerge from the
new division of labour. It is expected that in the coming years, technological change may lead to net
job creation – not job loss. The whole focus is expected to be on automation of repetitive tasks, time
optimization, maximizing productivity, creation of digital platforms for online access to job opportunities
and formalizing informal operations. It is critical for the workforce to keep themselves updated with the
technological changes in their sphere of work. Digital skills are becoming an essential component for
employees to perform their jobs proficiently. The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated this digitalization
journey for businesses as well as individuals. Harnessing the potential generated due to the digital
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 161

revolution may be the key to reducing the skills gaps and increasing the growth and productivity of
India. Currently, vocational training is associated with the subsequent employment in jobs more liable
to automation. Thus, modernization of TVET programmes is important so that young people are better
able to meet the demands of the digital economy (ILO 2020a).
In the coming few years, according to an Observer Research Foundation report (2020), technology
design, accounting and auditing, IT, digital privacy and security and business analysis and strategy will
be the technical skills in demand by companies in India (Chadha and Chapman 2020). But in addressing
the demand and supply gaps in technical skills, only 22 per cent of companies surveyed by the Observer
Research Foundation in their report indicated their willingness to train workers on the job, and just 6 per
cent of companies were willing to work with vocational education centres to fulfil their skills requirements.
A McKinsey Global Institute report (Kaka et al. 2019) examined the opportunities for India’s future digital
growth and estimated that, by 2025, the digital economy may create 60 million to 65 million jobs, many
of which will require functional digital skills. The jobs of 40 million to 45 million workers may be displaced
or transformed, necessitating retraining and redeployment efforts.
In contemporary analyses of systems for skills development in developing countries, the commonly raised
issues entail developing effective skills training systems in the interest of enhancing productivity (leading
to higher incomes for individuals) and sustaining high rates of growth; changing skill requirements of
economies that are experiencing fast changes in the nature of economic activity and work; matching
skills to markets; and the role of different agents (firms, private actors and the government) in delivering
skills training efficiently and effectively.
Skills development is an area in which markets typically might not deliver optimum volumes of skills that
economies need due to externalities in training provision. Youths may not be prepared or able to invest
in training due to the financial costs and perceived low returns, at least in the short run. Although this
may make the role of public or collective institutions necessary, training systems must be flexible to cater
to changes in market demand. The issue of matching skills to markets has led to a call for dismantling
existing systems of skills provisioning or an overhaul of the TVET systems in many countries, including
India.

X 6.3 Evolution of skills training and development

Skills development for youths features prominently in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. For
example, Sustainable Development Goal target 4.4 calls for a significant increase in the number of youths
and adults with relevant skills and target 8.6 urges a significant decrease in the percentage of youths who
are not in employment, education or training. India’s draft National Youth Policy 2021, underscores the
importance of providing new skills and life skills to the youth population (box 13).
162 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Box 13. National Youth Policy 2021 employability and reduce the mismatch between skills
supply and demand.
The draft National Youth Policy 2021 seeks to replace The National Youth Policy also envisages measures that
the 2014 National Youth Policy, aligning it with the will support youths not in employment, education or
Sustainable Development Goals to “unlock the training and that will enable their reintegration into the
potential of the youth to advance India”. It articulates a education system and the labour market.
ten-year vision for youth development that India seeks
to achieve by 2030: The National Youth Policy recognizes the enormous
potential of youths to transform the economy but
The National Youth Policy envisages an education notes that nearly half of the world’s unemployed
system that will ultimately “enable all youths to take persons are youths and that India is no exception to
charge of their futures through equitable access to the global trend. While recognizing youth employment
quality education”. as a major priority, it further notes that technology
It recognizes that future jobs in the twenty-first and globalization are changing the employment
century will require new skill sets and that the youths landscape in India. The policy seeks to ensure
of the country will need to reskill and upskill regularly. that youths have access to sustainable livelihood
It envisages an education system in sync with the opportunities through multiple routes, including the
National Education Policy 2020, with its promises generation of employment via microregion-specific
of career opportunities and life skills to all young strategies, fostering entrepreneurship and social
people. Skills required for a future work scenario entrepreneurship and supporting the informal and gig
will be integrated as a core part of the curricula for economies.
secondary and higher education. Vocational education Source: See https://static.pib.gov.in/WriteReadData/specificdocs/docu-
will be scaled up in Classes 6–12 education to increase ments/2022/may/doc20225.

Vocational education and training comprises programmes that prepare youths for jobs based in manual
or practical activities and are totally related to specific trades or occupations. Skills in India have largely
been imparted through informal learning in hereditary occupations (dependent on family background),
informal apprenticeships and on-the-job learning. The general education and the vocational education
and training systems in India largely operate as separate verticals, with little interaction between them.
This is reflected in the findings analysed in Chapter 5 that indicated that although the general education
level of youths had improved steadily over the years, the proportion of youths with TVET had not
undergone much improvement over the past two decades and that the proportion of formally trained
youths in the labour force was very small when compared with developed countries and even several
developing countries (NCEUS 2009).
Various past reports reviewed the system of vocational education and skills training in India, which is
largely available through vocational schools or a vocational stream at the post-secondary level in some
schools, the Industrial Training Institutes or centres, apprenticeship schemes or smaller schemes run
by different ministries (see for example, Planning Commission 2007; World Bank 2006; ILO 2003). Some
of the common findings included low efficiency and poor outcomes, low cultural acceptability and a
disjuncture between supply and demand. Recommendations associated with those findings included
industry participation and market linkage, standardization, modular training and building of pathways
between education, employment and training. More recent studies echoed these findings: Tara, Kumar
and Pilz (2016) reported multiple problems with training, including lack of adequate infrastructure,
equipment and qualified teaching staff in the Industrial Training Institutes and inadequate industry links
to impart high-quality and relevant vocational skills. Singh, Parida and Awasthi (2020) found a decline
in workforce participation of vocationally and technically trained youths in India, with a considerable
proportion of them employed in either agriculture and allied sectors or in the low-paying and informal
services sector.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 163

The increase in India’s GDP growth rate after the 1980s over previous decades led to a substantial
expansion in the demand for both unskilled and skilled labour. A simultaneous increase in the share
of working-age population in total population resulted in a rise in the supply of workers in the labour
market. However, the vocational education and training system of the country lagged in terms of the
supply of both quality and quantity of workforce with requisite skills (Mehrotra and Saxena 2014).
The economic liberalization of the 1990s led to an increase in the demand for skilled workers that led
to a major gap with the supply. Several important steps were taken to revamp skills training from 2007
onwards. The Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2007–2012) marked the beginning of a systematic, focused and
coordinated approach towards skills development in India. The plan emphasized the need for public–
private partnerships in skills development. Several institutions were set up or redesigned in view of the
new goals. A National Policy on Skill Development was formulated in 2009 that helped to strengthen
the skilling of institutional infrastructure and funding mechanisms to some extent. The institutions set
up after 2007 were further re-engineered after 2014, when, under the rapidly changing scenario, the
Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship was created with the underlying aim of coordinating
the efforts of all stakeholders in the field of skills development and to give stimulus to entrepreneurships
development. It provided a unifying force to the sector. Soon, the Directorate General of Employment
Training, the National Skill Development Agency and the National Skill Development Corporation were
brought under its purview.
Subsequently, in 2015, a National Skill Development Mission was launched. Organizations like the National
Skill Development Corporation, the National Skill Development Fund, the National Skill Development
Agency and the Directorate General of Training launched now work towards implementing the Mission.
The Skill India programme was launched to provide adequate training in market-relevant skills to more
than 400 million youths by 2022. Initiatives under it include the National Skill Development Mission, the
Skill Loan Scheme and the National Policy on Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (box 14).

X Box 14. National Skill Development Mission The Mission has seven sub-missions, proposed initially
to act as building blocks for achieving its objectives: (a)
The National Skill Development Mission was launched institutional training, (b) infrastructure, (c) convergence,
in 2015 on World Youth Skills Day to provide a strong (d) trainers, (e) overseas employment, (f) sustainable
institutional framework at the national and state livelihoods and (g) leveraging public infrastructure.
levels for skilling activities. The Mission has a three- The Mission Directorate is supported by three other
tiered, high-powered decision-making structure. At institutions: (a) the National Skill Development
its apex is the Governing Council, chaired by the Prime Agency (now merged with the National Council for
Minister, which provides overall guidance and policy Vocational Training), (b) the National Skill Development
direction. The Steering Committee, chaired by Minister Corporation and (c) the Directorate General of Training.
in Charge of Skill Development, reviews the Mission’s States have created State Skill Development Missions
activities in line with the direction set by the Governing along the lines of the National Skill Development
Council. The Mission Directorate, with the Secretary Mission with a Steering Committee and Mission
of Skill Development as Mission Director, ensures Directorate. In turn, states are supported by District
implementation, coordination and convergence of Committees at the functional tier.
skilling activities across ministries, departments and
Source: MSDE 2015a.
state governments.

The National Policy on Skill Development and Entrepreneurship 2015 superseded the policy of 2009. It
marked an important step in enriching the skills ecosystem of India. Its core objectives include aligning
skills development with required competencies, connecting the supply of skilled resources with the
national and global demands and fostering entrepreneurship, particularly women’s entrepreneurship.
It provides an umbrella framework to all skilling activities carried out within the country and aligns them
with common standards (box 15).
164 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Box 15. National Policy for Skill engagement, operationalizing a quality assurance
Development and Entrepreneurship 2015 framework, leverage technology and promoting
greater opportunities for apprenticeship training.
The National Policy for Skill Development and (c) The focus on equity targets skilling opportunities
Entrepreneurship acknowledges the need for an for socially and geographically marginalized and
effective road map for promoting entrepreneurship as disadvantaged groups. (d) Skills development and
the key to a successful skills strategy. The vision of the entrepreneurship programmes for women are a
policy is “to create an ecosystem of empowerment by specific focus of the policy. In the entrepreneurship
skilling on a large scale at speed with high standards domain, the policy seeks to educate and equip
and to promote a culture of innovation-based potential entrepreneurs, both within and outside the
entrepreneurship which can generate wealth and formal education system. It also seeks to connect
employment so as to ensure sustainable livelihoods entrepreneurs to mentors, incubators and credit
for all citizens in the country”. It provides an umbrella markets to foster innovation and an entrepreneurial
framework to all skilling activities carried out within culture, to improve the ease of doing business and to
the country, aligning them to common standards and promote social entrepreneurship.
linking skilling with demand centres.
The policy states that “one nation one standard”
To achieve this vision, the policy has four thrust areas: should be implemented to ensure that a uniform
(a) It addresses obstacles to skilling, including low set of nationally accepted standards can be aligned
aspirational value, lack of integration with formal globally and that Indian youths can find jobs and career
education, lack of focus on outcomes and the low progression opportunities at the local, national and
quality of training infrastructure and trainers. (b) international levels.
The policy seeks to align supply and demand for
skills by bridging the skill gaps, promoting industry Source: MSDE 2015b.

The Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship functions through several institutions and
bodies highlighted here.
The Director General of Training was brought under the Ministry in 2015. The Industrial Training Institutes
and Industrial Training Centres are affiliated to it. Short- and long-term courses are implemented
under its aegis. It has responsibility for the framing of policies, carrying out skills gap analysis, training,
accreditation, assessment and evaluation, particularly for the courses run by the institutions under its
affiliation.
The National Council for Vocational Education and Training was established in 2018 as an overarching
regulatory body for regulating the functioning of entities engaged in vocational education and training,
both long- and short-term, and for establishing minimum standards for the functioning of such
entities. It subsumed the functions of the erstwhile National Skill Development Agency and the National
Council for Vocational Training and became fully operational in August 2020. Its primary functions are
recognition, ensuring discipline, de-recognizing and regulation of awarding bodies, assessment agencies
and skill-related information providers. The National Council is responsible for implementing the
National Skills Qualification Framework, maintaining the National Qualification Register and approving
the Qualifications and National Occupational Standards in each qualification. The National Council is
also responsible for monitoring, evaluating and supervising entities and the grievance redressal of
stakeholders. Since 2020, the National Skills Qualification Committee has been anchored in the National
Council.
The National Skills Qualifications Framework, notified in December 2013, is a competency-based
framework that organizes all qualifications according to levels of knowledge, skills and aptitude. These
levels, graded on a scale of 1 to 10, are defined in terms of learning outcomes that learners must
possess regardless of whether they are obtained through formal, non-formal or informal learning. The
Framework is implemented through the National Skills Qualifications Committee, which approves the
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 165

qualifications submitted by various submitting bodies, such as the Sector Skills Council, the Directorate
General of Training, ministries and state governments. As of December 2021, the National Skills
Qualifications Committee had aligned 4,922 qualifications to the Framework. A National Qualifications
Register is housed at the National Council and is a repository of all Framework- aligned qualifications,
with their corresponding Framework levels.
The National Council is also working on the adoption of a unified credit framework to facilitate migration
between the vocational and academic streams.

National Skill Development Corporation

The National Skill Development Corporation was established in 2008 as a not-for-profit company but in
the public–private partnership mode. It has an equity base of 100 million rupees, with a private sector
contribution of 51 per cent. The Corporation works closely with the Ministry of Skill Development and
Entrepreneurship and an investment management agreement with the National Skill Development Fund.
It provides viability gap funding to build scalable, for-profit vocational training initiatives. Its mandate is to
enable support systems, such as quality assurance, information systems and train-the-trainer academies
either directly or through partnerships. Its objective is to contribute towards meeting the overall target
of skilling and upskilling, mainly by creating large-scale private sector partnerships and fostering private
sector initiatives in skills development programmes. The Corporation operationalized 37 Sector Skill
Councils for this purpose. These Councils are tasked with bridging the gap between industry demand
and the supply of skilled workers, assessing industrial trends and managing current and future skill
needs in various sectors. The Corporation works closely with private agencies and organizations, such
as the National Association of Software and Service Companies, to develop skills training in advanced
Industry 4.0 technologies.

Sector Skill Councils

As noted, the National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship of 2015 envisaged the creation
of Sector Skill Councils. They were set up as autonomous bodies and not-for-profit organizations by the
National Skill Development Corporation and are led by industry leaders in respective sectors. They create
occupational standards, develop competency frameworks, conduct training-of-trainers programmes,
affiliate vocational training institutes, conduct sector-specific skill gap studies, maintain the labour market
information system and, most importantly, assess and certify trainees on the curriculum aligned with
the National Occupational Standards, which they developed. The Sector Skill Councils are also expected
to support placements and apprenticeships as well as activities to increase industry connections, such
as demand aggregation and industry membership.

Centres of Excellence
More than half a dozen Centres of Excellence in the skilling ecosystem, envisioned to be one-stop resource
centres, have been established and work in partnership with industry to raise training standards, boost
productivity, address emerging skill gaps and align training and research with industry needs. The
Centres provide leadership, best practices, research, support, training of trainers and skills training for
specific sectors.

Links with formal education

To make the acquisition of skills aspirational and thus increase the employability of youths, the National
Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship aims to introduce skills training in 25 per cent of
schools within the next five years. It also aims to set up national skills universities and institutes in
166 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

partnership with states for skills development and training of trainers. Polytechnics and 25 per cent of
higher educational institutions will offer skill development courses that comply with the National Skills
Qualifications Framework and the credit frameworks to offer horizontal and vertical mobility.

Common norms
Although several ministries run skills development schemes, the Ministry of Skill Development and
Entrepreneurship has notified common norms for bringing about uniformity and standardization among
them.

6.3.1 Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana

Under the Skill Development Mission, the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship is
implementing the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) scheme; the Jan Shikshan Sansthan
scheme; the National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme (for short-term skills development training; and
the Craftsman Training Scheme for long-term training of youths. Several ministries also conduct training
programmes developed by the Sector Skill Councils that are based on National Occupational Standards
and the Qualifications Packs.
The Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship, through its various agencies, oversee
the functions of standard setting and quality assurance, accreditation, affiliation, assessment and
certification. Otherwise, state governments rely on their own systems and processes for implementing
skills development schemes, particularly the PMKVY, with the National Skill Development Corporation
having an enabling and facilitating role.
The PMKVY is a prominent central scheme for formal skills training of youths. It was initially framed with
the objective of enabling youths who are either unemployed or school drop-outs to take up industry-
relevant skills training that would help them secure better employment. Under the central component
of PMKVY, 85.9 billion rupees was disbursed between its inception in 2015 and December 2021 to its
implementing agency, the National Skill Development Corporation. Under the state component, 12.24
billion rupees was disbursed to the State Skill Development Missions for implementing the scheme.
The scheme has been implemented in four phases. PMKVY 1.0 (2015–16) was launched as a pilot activity
in 2015 and was designed as a skill certification and reward scheme. The National Skill Development
Corporation also established training partners for implementing training projects. The training partners
constitute private companies, not-for-profit companies and universities. Between 2015 and 2016, nearly
2 million candidates were trained under the scheme. After the successful implementation of PMKVY 1.0
and based on its learnings, the scheme was approved for another four years (2016–20), as PMKY 2.0,
with an outlay of 120 billion rupees. PMKVY 2.0 was launched to augment the scope of the scheme to
numerous sectors and geographies and align it with other government missions, such as Make in India,
Digital India and Swachh Bharat Mission. The scheme was implemented through two components –
central and state managed, with an allocation of 75 per cent and 25 per cent of funds, respectively. Under
PMKVY 2.0, nearly 9 million candidates were certified from 2016 to 2020.
PMKVY 3.0 (2020–23) was launched to energize the skilling ecosystem by shifting the focus from a
supply-based approach to a demand-based approach. In the wake of damage caused by the COVID-19
pandemic response, the scheme had a major focus on upskilling and reskilling and future skills (Industry
4.0) courses to increase productivity of the workforce and provide online and a digital mode of training
for wider coverage. The scheme was implemented in a more decentralized structure with greater
responsibilities and support from states, union territories and districts. District Skill Committees are
under the guidance of the State Skill Development Missions. In this phase, “skill hubs” were established
with a focus on integration of vocational education with general education, as envisioned in the National
Education Policy 2020 and as an expansion of skilling programmes in the education ecosystem, in
consultation with the Ministry of Education and other ministries and departments.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 167

PMKY 4.0 (2023) was launched in February 2023 (with no fixed time frame) to make the scheme more
relevant to the economic landscape. Several new elements have been embedded into the scheme,
including on-the-job training, inclusion of new-age Industry 4.0 courses and expansion of the delivery
network for skilling.
The PMKY has both long-term and short-term components. The long-term components include
the Craftsmen Training Scheme provided through the Industrial Training Institutes and the
Industrial Training Centres and the Craftsmen Instructors’ Training Scheme, provided through the
National Skill Training Institutes. The short-term components include short-term training, recognition
of prior learning, special projects, Kaushal and Rozgar Melas (skill and employment fairs) and placement
assistance.
X Short-term training is the main pillar of the short-term component of the PMKY. Short-term
training (two to six months) at the National Skills Qualifications Framework’s national level 2 or 3
is available at the PMKVY Training Centres. It is primarily expected to benefit candidates who are
school or college drop-outs or unemployed. A fixed subsidy after successful completion of the
course is offered. Placement assistance is provided through the training partners. The Training
Centres also offer training in soft skills, entrepreneurship and financial and digital literacy.

X Recognition of prior learning is a platform to assess and certify an individual already skilled in
a particular job role and trade. This skill may have been acquired by the individual via formal and
informal or non-formal training and experience in the past.

State Skill Development Missions and District Skill Committees

The National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship of 2015 proposed the creation of Skill
Development Missions to implement the state component of the central scheme. Since 2020, there has
been a further thrust to decentralize the implementation of the scheme to the district level through a
district committee. The district committee is set up under the aegis of the district administration, with
public and private sector participation, a role in the administration of the schemes, identification of skill
demand within districts, mobilization and counselling of candidates, post-training support, monitoring
and addressing grievances.
The State Development Missions in several states have also taken on additional skilling responsibilities.
The Uttar Pradesh Skill Development Mission runs five central government and one state government
skills development schemes in an integrated and standardized way. Priority is given to candidates aged
15–35 from socio-economically deprived groups, with minimum quotas for women and minorities.
A State Skill Development Fund (a top-up fund) was created to cover additional expenses needed to
ensure integration. Following the common minimum norms adopted by the Mission, 70 per cent of the
successfully certified candidates will be the minimum target for placement, of which wage employment
should be no less than 50 per cent in any case.
The Bihar Skill Development Mission launched the Kushal Yuva programme to increase the employability
skills of youths who have passed at least Class 10. Under the programme, the state government will set
up a skill development centre in each Development Block to offer soft skills and basic computer literacy
training for a course duration of 240 hours and develop a strong pool of certified trainers through a
mandatory Trainers Online Certification Programme.
By mid-June 2023, a total of 14.26 million candidates had enrolled under all the PMKY schemes; 12.45
million of them had been assessed, and 11.03 million had been certified. However, only 2.42 million
candidates (21.9 per cent) had been placed in jobs or as self-employed workers.40

40 See the National Skill Development Corporation website and www.pmkvyofficial.org (accessed 5 July 2023).
168 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

The skilling programmes under the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship have been
subject to internal reviews and critiques. In 2016, a committee set up by the Ministry of Skill Development
and Entrepreneurship (MSDE 2016) recommended ways to improve the effectiveness of the Skill India
Mission. It suggested broadening the training to everyone, not only those who are unable to complete
formal education or those from disadvantaged communities. It also suggested having a separate stream
for vocational education (in secondary education), creating vocational schools and vocational colleges
for upward mobility and having a central university award degrees and diplomas.
The committee observed that the skilling ecosystem in India was marred with overlaps in roles and
responsibilities. It suggested that the problem of duplication be addressed and that the number
of Sector Skill Councils be reduced. The committee also recommended that sector-specific data be
collected on a regular basis to assess skill gaps and guide evidence-based policymaking. Information
should be collected from stakeholders on the actual value addition by the skilling initiative. Given the
low participation of the private sector in skills training, the committee recommended a reimbursable
industry contribution model for the organized sector. This would ensure reimbursements for those
companies undertaking training.
The committee also noted that various constraints had been reported by industry partners and
stakeholders to increasing the uptake of the trained candidates in job roles. The training course and
curriculum under PMKVY have not been aligned with the actual industry requirements, and the practical
skills imparted under PMKVY training are not in sync with industry needs. The committee expressed
the need for a more rapid roll-out of the decentralization of the PMKVY scheme to the District Skill
Committees.
A report of the National Skill Development Corporation (2019) found that 30 per cent of the people trained
under a short-term training programme were interested in pursuing education further rather than taking
up employment. The report noted the continuing mismatch between the demand and supply of skills at
the sector and spatial levels and recommended allocating sector- and job role-specific training targets
in each geography, which would require coordination between different skill development programmes
and multiple training providers operating in the same geographies. The report also advised that skills
development cannot happen without developing a credible, sound and aspirational national system that
is quality assured and internationally compatible.
The Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (2022b) made some important observations on
the implementation of PMKY 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0: About 20 per cent of the total enrolled candidates dropped
out of the training programme due to distance, the short duration of training and the perception
regarding job placements.

6.3.2 Skills development efforts by ministries

As mentioned earlier, nearly 20 ministries are involved in skill creation, often at highly subsidized
rates. The Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY) is a demand-driven
placement-linked skills training initiative launched by the Ministry of Rural Development in 2014. It is
part of the National Rural Livelihoods Mission, offering placements to rural youths aged 15–35 from poor
households. It aims to increase the coverage of skills development programmes in remote rural areas
and build up the capacity of rural poor youths to ultimately address the needs of domestic and global
skill requirements.
The scheme ensures social inclusion through the provision of mandatory coverage of stipulated
percentages of disadvantaged groups (Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, other minorities, women
and persons with different abilities). It seeks to fill the skills gap by offering a specific set of modular
employable skills needed to access full-time jobs in the formal sector. It has benchmarks for minimum
standards and quality benchmarks in service delivery through its framework of guidelines and standard
operating procedures. The DDU-GKY approves training programmes with a curriculum as recommended
by the National Council for Vocational Training or as identified by the Sector Skills Council or National
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 169

Skill Development Council based on the national occupational standards. Under the programme, training
partners are mandated to ensure placement of at least 75 per cent of the successful candidates in jobs
that offer a minimum salary of 6,000 rupees per month. After its initial year (2014–15), the programme
trained about 250,000 persons annually between 2016 and 2020; but these numbers fell drastically during
the pandemic years, when placements were available to about half the trainees, including self-employed
persons.41

6.3.3 Green skills development programme

Green skills contribute to preserving or restoring environmental quality and include jobs that protect
ecosystems and biodiversity, reduce energy and minimize waste and pollution. The 2018 ILO report
on Skills for Green Jobs in India makes recommendations towards generating a green jobs environment
in India. To begin with, it is important that academic institutions design courses and curricula that are
aligned with emerging green technologies and the demand for green skills. There is a need to create new
skills development centres for renewable and green technologies. On the demand side, it is important
to create attractive employment opportunities for green technology experts. Focus is required on
increasing female participation in the green sector. Given the considerable size of the youth population in
India, it will be beneficial to attract youths into green jobs by generating awareness and concern among
them towards a green environment and the need for green innovation.
In line with the Skill India Mission, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has taken
up an initiative to skill youths in the environment, forestry, wildlife and climate change sectors. The
programme aims to enable India’s youths to find gainful employment and/or self-employment.

6.3.4 Apprenticeship training

Apprenticeship training is one of the steps towards creating skilled human resources and contribute
towards making India the “skill capital of the world”. It is one of the most efficient ways of fulfilling
the skilled human resource requirements of the industry by utilizing the training facilities available in
establishments without incurring extra expenditure on separate training infrastructure. This helps to
address the demand and supply skills mismatch by imparting on-the-job vocational training to youths,
thereby increasing their employability.
The Apprenticeship Act 1961 was framed to provide practical training to technically qualified persons in
various trades and promote newly skilled human resources. Currently, two apprenticeship schemes are
being implemented in the country: (a) The National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme was launched
in 2016 to provide financial support to establishments undertaking apprenticeship training. It is
implemented by the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship. (b) The National Apprenticeship
Training Scheme is implemented by the Department of Higher Education (in the Ministry of Education)
and offers apprenticeship training for engineering graduates, diploma holders and general stream
graduate degree holders.
The National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme covers the rest of the categories of apprenticeships.
According to the year-end review of the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship, a total
of 223,000 apprentices were trained between 2021 and the end of 2022. The top five sectors engaging
apprentices were retail, automotive, electronics, IT and IT-enabled services and in the banking, financial
services and insurance sectors. And the top five states engaging apprentices were Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Haryana.
The number of apprentices in the country increased over the past decade, from 290,000 in 2021 to 580,000
in 2022, and government expenditure went from 1.2 billion rupees to 2.17 billion rupees. Additionally, the

41 See see https://kaushalpragati.nic.in.

170 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Government organized 250 apprenticeship awareness workshops and monthly apprenticeship melas
throughout the country to create awareness of apprenticeship opportunities among students.
The implementation of the two apprenticeship schemes was evaluated by the Ministry of Skill
Development and Entrepreneurship (2022a)). According to the evaluation report, 42 low apprentice
enrolment against the stated targets was a concerning issue. Of the 119,168 establishments registered
on the National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme portal, only 24,603 establishments had engaged
apprentices. As of 30 September 2023, nearly 2.7 million apprentices had been engaged under the
National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme.43 This implies that concrete efforts are required for
generating public awareness about apprenticeship programmes and to counsel and orient students
and establishments on the usefulness of such skill-based training. Similar suggestions regarding the
necessity to incentivize the industry to participate in the apprenticeship scheme, appropriate steps for
motivating youths to undertake such training and a mechanism for regular monitoring of the scheme
were made by Gayithri, Tantri and Rajasekhar (2019).

6.3.5 National Education Policy and technical and vocational

education and training
It is important to recognize the complementary relationship between the different levels of general
education and varied types of skills and to provide pathways between education and training.
Employability of educated youths has remained a challenge for India’s education system. At the centre
of the debate on education policy is the missing link between higher education and employment (Khare
2014). According to the India Skills Report 2022 (Wheebox 2022), only 48.7 per cent of educated youths
were employable, reflecting a severe apprehension towards existing policies. The National Education
Policy 2020 provides a framework for closing this gap through its aim to provide multidisciplinary skill-
based education to generate employment.
In the National Education Policy 2020, the schemes of internship and vocational education were
introduced from Class 6 onwards. This empowers students to gain clarity and experience regarding the
work environment and helps them to improve their social skills as well as practical knowledge.
The policy aims to integrate vocational education into all school and higher education institutions in a
phased manner over the next decade. Initiatives and targets underlined in the policy include: by 2025,
at least 50 per cent of school learners gain exposure to vocational education; collaboration between
secondary schools and Industrial Training Institutes, polytechnics and local industry; setting up of
skill labs and creating a hub-and-spoke model in schools to allow other schools to use the facility;
offer vocational education by higher education institutions or in partnership with industry and non-
government organizations; offer vocational courses to students enrolled in all other bachelor’s degree
programmes, including the four-year multidisciplinary bachelor’s programmes; and higher educational
institutions to conduct short-term certificate courses in various skills, including soft skills.
For integration of vocational education into the higher education system, guidelines are issued to
enable such institutions to offer an apprenticeship and internship-embedded degree programme. Also,
the scope of the National Apprenticeship Training Scheme was broadened to give apprenticeships to
students from humanities, commerce and science course streams in addition to engineering students.
The policy focuses on the development of twenty-first century skills. These skills include enabling
creativity, stimulating intellectual curiosity and encouraging deep thinking in students. This requires
investment in providing quality higher education to students. The National Education Policy seeks to
integrate humanities and arts with science, technology, engineering and math. Consequently, it will help
students by enabling innovation, critical thinking and well-rounded thinking capacity. The policy also

42 According to 33rd Report of the Standing Committee, 2022.

43 Ibid.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 171

allows collaboration with the top 100 foreign universities to each set up a campus in India. It thus aims
to transform the education system in India to make it at par with international standards.
Most importantly, the policy aims at the inclusion of socio-economically disadvantaged groups, broadly
categorized as girls, transgender persons, children with special needs, children from rural areas,
Dalits and victims of trafficking. Additionally, it recommends measures for ensuring that teachers are
adequately trained and equipped to address the learning needs of children with disabilities.
Given the enormity of India’s education system as well as the country’s regional, cultural and linguistic
diversity, universal implementation of the policy remains a challenge. Kumar, Prakash and Singh (2021)
noted that the restructuring of the education system into what the policy envisions will require concrete
steps towards: (a) governance of many higher education institutions (government, private and foreign)
and (b) availability of a well-trained workforce capable of fulfilling the innovative and multidimensional
teaching requirements. Adequate budgetary allocations and infrastructural facilities are other areas of
concern.

X 6.4 Challenges to skills development

As pointed out in the previous section, over the past few decades, particularly since 2008 and on an
accelerated pace since 2016, decisive steps have been taken to meet the goals of the National Skills Policy
and to overcome the structural, institutional and other challenges in skills creation and entrepreneurship.
These have included greater focus on short-term training and apprenticeships; improvement of the
ecosystem of skills training for the youth population by linking skills creation to market demand and
changes in the labour market; increasing private sector participation in the design of course curricula;
provision and assessment of training and post-training placements; standardizing the course content for
specific occupations; financing skills creation; linking TVET with secondary school and higher education;
entrepreneurship development; creating a new governance structure at the national, state and district
levels; and fostering new institutions and centres of excellence for trainees and trainers.
Some weaknesses of the skills development programmes were noted in the previous section. This
section assesses and discusses some of the major persisting challenges despite the progress that has
been achieved. In includes references from a few independent evaluations of the impacts of the policies
and programmes, although some of this research is recent and represents work in progress.

Limited uptake of training

Results from the annual Periodic Labour Force Surveys, also cited in the National Policy on Skill
Development and Entrepreneurship and other documents, continues to show that the training capacity
has not expanded commensurate with the targets in the policy and the mission objectives. The policy
objective was to provide skills training to 104.62 million fresh entrants to the workforce between 2015 and
2022 (about 14.9 million per year). In addition, the policy acknowledged that an estimated 298.25 million
farm and non-farm sector workers will need to be skilled, reskilled or upskilled.
Under the Government’s flagship PMKVY initiative, a total of 10.8 million youths were trained and certified
between 2015 and December 2021 (or about 2.5 million per year). The Employment and Unemployment
Survey and the Periodic Labour Force Survey results showed that in 2005, 3.84 million youths were
receiving training. In 2019 and 2022, 2.9 million and 3.5 million youths, respectively, had completed
training in the previous one year. The total number of vocationally trained youths was estimated at
7.14 million in 2005, 10.39 million in 2019 and 14.97 million in 2022. This achievement is much below the
172 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

target. According to the most recent Periodic Labour Force Survey, only about 4 per cent of youths were
vocationally trained (Chapter 5).
Apart from the supply-side reasons identified by the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship,
such as shortage of trainers, poor training infrastructure and insufficient participation by industry (MSDE
2022), poor placements, a low demand for skills training, a low premium on skills training by employers
and low returns are the main reasons for the limited uptake.
Rigorous research on the impact of skilling on employment is scant, and little is known about the
determinants of skills training take-up in the Indian context (Afridi 2023). Most previous studies found
limited impact of training on employment and/or returns.
In an intervention study, the impact of providing vocational counselling and training to girls (aged 14–19)
and assistance with opening savings accounts was examined in slum communities of Allahabad, Uttar
Pradesh. It was found that the impact of the short-term livelihoods programme was limited because it
could not reduce deeply entrenched gender disparities and alter the structure of opportunities available
for women (Mensch et al. 2004).
A macro-level study by the World Bank (Meky 2015) involved reviewing the organization, system and
processes of five national skills development programmes for skilling youths in India. The study covered
the five states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan. It found that although
the programmes increased the employability of the trainees and helped them enter the labour market,
it did not ensure good-quality jobs for them. This was reflected in the subsequent quitting of jobs by
the employed trainees. The qualitative findings detected lags in the quality assurance mechanisms, the
monitoring and evaluation and the placement and post-placement support. The effectiveness of the
programmes varied across the five states, with Andhra Pradesh standing out in terms of performance.
The reasons for the Andhra Pradesh performance lay in factors like: (a) a clear demarcation of roles
and responsibilities for better harmonization and coordination among stakeholders as well as avoiding
duplication in terms of targeting beneficiaries; (b) linking the reimbursement of 75 per cent of the training
cost to successful placement and post-placement support to beneficiaries; (c) an effective e-governance
system that facilitates monitoring, reporting and evaluation of the programme; and (d) the hiring of
qualified trainers.
Elsewhere, the provisioning of a subsidized vocational education programme in stitching and tailoring
had a highly positive impact on women who lived in certain disadvantaged areas of Delhi. The evaluation
study (Maitra and Mani 2017) found that the women who were randomly selected for the training
programme were almost 5 percentage points more likely to be employed afterward and 6 percentage
points more likely to search for employment than those who did not receive the training.
Chakrabarty and Bedi (2019) analysed the effect of a training programme sponsored by the Deen Dayal
Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushal Yojana youth employment scheme in rural Bihar on employment and
earnings. They found that although the training programme was well-targeted towards rural youths
from poor households, the initial impact of a 29-percentage point increase in the employment rate
among those who had graduated from the programme was subsequently lost. Around two to six months
after the training, a third of the placed graduates left their jobs due to caste-based discrimination, and
another third left due to a mismatch between the salary offered and their living costs.
As described in Chapter 5, unemployment rates were higher among youths with formal skills training
than those with informal training or no training. Although the worker population ratio was higher among
the former, it had fallen over time. The quality of jobs among youths with formal skills tended to be
better – such youths were 27 per cent more likely to be in regular wage and salaried jobs, and 45 per cent
were more likely to be in formal jobs than those without any vocational training. However, the Mincerian
earning functions, which were controlled for several background variables, showed that in two of the
three years for which results were analysed (2005 and 2019), vocational training had an insignificant
impact on outcomes, but more recently (2022), formal training contributed to an additional return of 9
per cent.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 173

As pointed out by the Planning Commission (2007), the National Skill Development Corporation (2020)
and the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (2022), the weak social perception of
TVET and employers’ tendency to give a low premium to workers with formal vocational training also
contribute to the low demand for such training among youths.

Persisting gap between supply and demand for skilled youths

Paradoxically, along with the low uptake of skills training, the problem of the supply–demand gap and
the mismatches in training persist and are likely to grow in sectors where there is an increased demand
for skills due to technological change.
Despite the plethora of recent changes, the present system of education, training and skills development
is still not sufficiently equipped and responsive to the pattern of demand for various kinds of skills arising
in the process of globalization and technology-induced growth of the economy. The supply–demand
skills mismatch is not only due to the difference between the skills acquired by the educated and trained
labour force and what employers are asking for but also because of the poor quality of education,
training and skilling of workers (Mehrotra et al. 2013).
In the India Skills Report 2022, Wheebox (2022) estimated that the unemployability rate of Indian youths
(status of employment readiness among young graduates) had decreased to 53.8 per cent in 2021 from
54.1 per cent in 2020. The researchers suggested that the explanation had to do with the widening
skills gap in the Indian ecosystem of higher education. Despite abundant job opportunities, the report
emphasized a dearth of graduates with industry-relevant skills. Of the 150 corporations surveyed, 75 per
cent expressly reported a skills gap in their workforce. This indicates a lack of awareness among new
workers of current job requirements. In the IT and tech industry, 80 per cent of employers cited the skills
deficit as a problem, and among engineering and manufacturing employers, 80 per cent agreed there
was indeed a skills gap. The least deficit was found in the pharmaceutical and health care sector, where
only 50 per cent of employers voiced concern about the skills gap. In the retail sector, 100 per cent of the
surveyed employers recognized a skills gap.

Demographic regimes and spatial imbalances in training

As previously noted, India can take advantage of a potential demographic dividend because the
proportion of its working-age population is expected to grow until 2040. The potential can only be
realized if the youths entering the labour market are employable and can be provided with productive and
decent jobs. This puts pressure on education and training. However, due to differences in demographic
regimes, the potential demographic advantage varies across states (Srivastava and Bhaskar 2020; DEA
2019; NCEUS 2009). According to the Economic Survey, between 2031 and 2041, the proportion of the
working-age population will decline in 11 of 22 major states. Given this scenario, there is an urgent
need to focus training in the states where there is a youth bulge. The National Skills Mission emphasizes
regional inclusiveness in skills development through policy instruments, such as special projects. Yet,
despite some positive changes in this direction, the percentage of trained youths continues to be low
in these states (Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and
Rajasthan, which account for a projected youth population of 46.7 per cent in 2021). According to the
National Statistical Office and the Periodic Labour Force Survey data, the share of youths with formal
skills training in these states increased somewhat between 2012 and 2022, from 20.4 per cent to 26.7
per cent. But in the Government’s flagship PMKVY initiative, these states accounted for only 38.8 per
cent of trained and certified youths. Overall placements in these states were also lower, at 13.7 per cent,
compared with 19.5 per cent in the states that are in a more advanced stage of demographic transition.
These differentials persist partly because, being less economically dynamic states, the market-linked
demand for skills training as well as the training capacity continues to be low.
174 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Low levels of socio-economic inclusion

Socio-economic inclusion is a major objective of the National Skill Policy of 2015 and the National Skills
Mission. The analysis of formal skills training (discussed in Chapter 5) along the axes of education, gender,
social groups and monthly per capita expenditure quintiles shows the limited progress in achieving
greater inclusiveness in skills training. These results indicate that formal training continues to highly
correlate with educational attainment and economic status. Youths with a graduate degree or higher
level of education were several times more likely be vocationally trained than youths with less than a
secondary level of education. And nearly two thirds of trained youths were in the top three monthly per
capita expenditure quintiles. Gaps between social groups have remained large, and the gender gaps in
formal training have persisted, although they have narrowed somewhat in recent years.
These results fall far short of the objective of the National Policy on Skill Development and
Entrepreneurship to achieve socio-economic inclusion in and through skills training.

Overarching context of informality

A report of the National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector (2009) pointed out that
the predominance of the informal sector in India led to a situation of market failure in formal skills
training because workers in that sector did not see investment in formal skills as leading to a higher
income for them, even though skills could lead to higher productivity. Similarly, the persistence of large-
scale informal employment even in the formal sector resulted in a situation in which the private sector
was unwilling to invest in skilling their informal workforce and workers reaped little return from formal
skills training.
There are considerable concerns regarding the high level of informal employment in India (ILO 2022a).
The youth workforce faces more risks of exposure to non-standard, informal and less secure forms
of employment than workers from other age cohorts. The poor quality of jobs manifests in income
instability, precarious working conditions, job insecurity, lack of legal and social protection and limited
opportunities for training and career progression. These challenges are also now being experienced
by workers in newly emerging forms of non-standard work, such as gig and platform work (NITI Aayog
2022). These conditions impede skills training among youths – both as workers and pre-entrants to the
labour market – and reduce the incentive for employers to invest in training.
Overall, although the skill ecosystem in India has made enormous strides in providing marketable skills
in India and in bridging the supply–demand gap in the emerging sectors, tremendous challenges remain
in terms of low penetration due to poor placements and returns, insufficient industry participation, low
levels of socio-economic and regional inclusion and, above all, high and growing informality in the youth
labour market.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 175

X 6.5 Entrepreneurship development and employment-

generation programmes

Employment generation through public employment programmes and self-employment, supported by

hand-holding support (entrepreneurships and skills training, credit and financial support) has been a
feature of government policy and programmes. The creation of the Ministry of Skill Development and
Entrepreneurship in 2014 and the National Policy on Skill Development and Entrepreneurship in 2015
emphasized entrepreneurship training and development as an important policy tool in dealing with
unemployment and accelerating growth. The National Policy cited five pillars of an ideal environment
for entrepreneurship: access to funding, entrepreneurial culture, supportive regulatory and tax regimes,
educational systems that support entrepreneurial mindsets; and a coordinated approach that links the
public, private and voluntary sectors. The policy notes that, globally, a sizeable proportion of young
people are turning to entrepreneurship (NITI Aayog 2022: 9) and cites three types of entrepreneurship
– factor driven, efficiency driven and innovation driven. India has a large proportion of the first two due
to necessity and based primarily on self-employment initiatives.
The policy promotes entrepreneurship among all sections of society and seeks to stimulate aspirational
and innovation-based entrepreneurship. It articulates a nine-part strategy that includes educating and
equipping early-stage entrepreneurs; connecting them with peers and supporting them through e-hubs;
promoting entrepreneurship among underrepresented groups of society; improving the ease of doing
business; improving access to finance; and promoting social entrepreneurship. It has proposed several
steps as part of this strategy.
The Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship has undertaken consistent and strategically
planned efforts to promote entrepreneurship and provide necessary support to skilled youths interested
in starting an enterprise. As a first step, Common Norms for Skill Development 2015 recognizes self-
employment at par with placement as an outcome benchmark of skills training. Additionally, a 20-
hour mandatory module on entrepreneurial training has been included in short-term skills training
programmes. And the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Kendras have been converted to Entrepreneurship Hubs
to facilitate entrepreneurship in districts by providing interested trainees with mentoring and hand-
holding support. The National Institute for Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development and the
Indian Institute of Entrepreneurship under the Ministry provide innovative training programmes to
entrepreneurs, trainers and other interested individuals. A programme for strengthening women-led
enterprises and start-ups was initiated in 2018. A system of rewards and competitions has been set up
to promote a culture of entrepreneurship. The Ministry has also collaborated with the Department of
Financial Services, the Small Industries Development Bank of India, the Rural Self-Employment Training
Institutes and civil society organizations to provide information and know-how on enterprise start-ups,
mentorship and hand-holding and to facilitate credit linkages.
During the 2022–23 financial year, a total of 1,419 programmes were conducted by the National Institute
for Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development across different programme categories, focused
on areas of stimulation, support and sustenance of entrepreneurship development. A total of 44,557
participants attended these programmes, which included entrepreneurship awareness programmes,
entrepreneurship development programmes and entrepreneurship cum skill development programmes
(MSDE 2023).
As mentioned previously, several ministries initiated programmes for employment generation and
the promotion of self-employment, with components of training and credit support. These include
the Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises, the Ministry of Rural Development, the Ministry
of Finance and the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development. Some of the major programmes are
the Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Guarantee Programme, the National Livelihood Mission, the
Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana scheme, the Prime Minister’s Employment Guarantee Programme and
176 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

the Entrepreneurship and Skill Development Programme. Not all of these programmes focus only or
primarily on youths. Hence, only a few are reviewed here.
There are many employment-generation programmes in India, but the next sections examine the ones
that have targeted youths.

6.5.1 Entrepreneurship and Skill Development Programme

The Entrepreneurship and Skill Development Programme is an initiative of the Ministry of Micro, Small
and Medium Enterprises, launched in 2018. The objective of the programme is to motivate youths,
particularly those belonging to the disadvantaged sections of society (such as Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes, women, differently abled and former servicemen), to consider entrepreneurship or
self-employment as a career option. The ultimate objective is to promote new enterprises, build up the
capacity of micro, small and medium-sized enterprises and inculcate an entrepreneurial culture in the
country.
Short-term schemes (two days to six weeks) are conducted under the programme. These include
industrial motivation campaigns, entrepreneurship awareness courses, a two-week entrepreneurship-
cum-skills development course and a one-week management development course. All these activities
are organized in the Industrial Training Institutes, the polytechnics and other technical institutions,
business schools and the Enterprise Facilitation Centres to motivate youths towards self-employment.
Although the programme has contributed to the skills development ecosystem of the country, it seems to
lag in fulfilling its objectives: Only 10 per cent of its beneficiaries are from a Scheduled Caste, Scheduled
Tribe or Other Backward Class groups while women entrepreneurs are few and their businesses are
restricted to microenterprises.

6.5.2 Prime Minister’s Employment Guarantee Programme

The Government launched the Prime Minister’s Employment Guarantee Programme in 2008 by
subsuming two schemes: the Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana and the Rural Employment Generation Fund
for generating self-employment opportunities for unemployed youths in both rural and urban areas.
The programme is implemented by the Khadi and Village Industries Commission under the Ministry of
Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises. It is a major credit-linked subsidy programme to facilitate youths in
establishing a microenterprise in the non-farm sector. The programme assists unemployed beneficiaries
to set up economic projects costing up to 2.5 million rupees in the manufacturing sector and 1 million
rupees in the services sector. Margin money subsidy is provided to the beneficiaries, which is a higher
percentage of the project cost in rural areas and for those belonging to special categories, such as
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Castes, women, ex-servicemen and people who
are physically challenged.
Between 2008 and December 2021, more than 738,000 new micro units were assisted, generating
employment opportunity for an estimated 6.07 million persons. The available data indicate an increase
in that time period in the number of projects assisted and employment generated under the programme.
In 2021, more than 74,415 projects were assisted and estimated employment generated engaged more
than 595,000 persons, the peak year since the programme’s inception (MSME 2021).
According to the Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises’ 2021 annual report (MMSME 2021),
the performance was constrained by several structural gaps in the programme: Procedural delays by
banks as well as the administrative machinery, absence of monitoring and evaluation of the quality of
employment generated and sustainability of the jobs generated were some of the issues. It is important
to assess the impact of the Prime Minister’s Employment Guarantee Programme on a regular basis and
make provisions for changes and improving the results, help the units performing and provide support
to distressed units. The 31st Report of the Public Accounts Committee recommended setting up help
desks and call centres to assist potential entrepreneurs.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 177

6.5.3 Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana

The Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana launched in 2015 to provide credit of up to 10 million rupees to
small entrepreneurs. Mudra targets young educated or skilled workers and entrepreneurs, including
women entrepreneurs, with assistance for their working capital as well as investment requirements.
The loans are accessible in three categories: Shishu, Kishore and Tarun to signify the stage of growth
and development and funding needs of each beneficiary micro unit or entrepreneur and also provide a
reference point for the next phase of graduation or growth.
The Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency Bank was set up under the scheme as a wholly
owned subsidiary of the Small Industries Development Bank of India. It offers a refinancing facility to
microfinance institutions and non-bank financial companies that are outside the regular banking sector
to assist their loans to micro and small enterprises. A Credit Guarantee Fund was set up to reduce credit
risk to the financial institutions providing loans under this scheme.
From the launch of the scheme to March 2023, about 23.2 trillion rupees were sanctioned in 40.82 billion
loan accounts. About 68 per cent of accounts under the scheme belong to women entrepreneurs and
51 per cent of accounts belong to entrepreneurs from a Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribe or Other
Backward Class. And 82 per cent of the loan accounts are small, at less than 50,000 rupees (Shishu
category) (PIB 2023).

X 6.6 Job search assistance programmes

With training and skills distribution spread across geographies and distinct from the pattern of growth
and demand for skilled workers, it is important to have instruments that can guide workers and other
stakeholders and reduce the search costs for both employers and workers. The National Policy on Skill
Development and Entrepreneurship proposed the creation of an ambitious national labour market
information system as an integrated database, with data on the supply and demand of labour and focus
on skills and occupational shortages. It was proposed that the labour market information system use
a business intelligence tool to generate analysis and reports that will determine policy interventions
by different government entities and the industry at large. In the past few years, the following policy
instruments and databases emerged with this aim.

6.6.1 National Employment Service

The National Employment Service began operating in India in 1945 through a network of employment
exchanges. Its primary objective is employment for jobseekers, either through regular jobs or through
self-employment. Over the years, the functioning of the employment exchanges has weakened due to
structural infirmities, alternative agencies for meeting the intermediation needs, the declining role of
government as a key employer and the changing nature of the labour market (Abraham and Sasikumar
2018). These issues necessitated restructuring the employment service. In 2015, the Government
launched the National Career Service as a Mission Mode Project for transformation of the National
Employment Service. It is a one-stop solution that provides a wide array of employment and career-
related services, such as career counselling, vocational guidance, information on skills development
courses, apprenticeships and internships. The project consists of three components: (a) National Career
Service Portal;44 (b) model career centres; and (c) interlinking employment exchanges.

44 See www.ncs.gov.in.
178 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

With the launch of the online job portal, the share of posted entry-level vacancies increased consistently,
from 43 per cent in 2015–16 to 67 per cent in 2019, thus indicating a shift towards entry-level vacancies by
employers using a public portal (ILO 2020a). Between 2015–16 and 2019, more than 10 million jobseekers
registered with the National Career Service portal. Among them, nearly 64 per cent were men and 83 per
cent were youths aged 15–34. According to the monthly e-newsletter of the National Career Service, as
of end February 2023, around 935,170 employers had registered on the portal and the active vacancies
stood at 469,540. Despite several advantages, a drawback of the portal is that it doesn’t provide profile
information for people who found employment after registering on the portal (Sasikumar 2019).

6.6.2 Aatmanirbhar Skilled Employees Employer Mapping portal

The Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship launched the Aatmanirbhar Skilled Employees
Employer Mapping portal as a directory of skilled workers. It serves as a platform for matching the supply
of skilled workers with the market demand for them. This helps jobseekers access suitable employment
opportunities and helps employers find skilled human resources. The candidate and jobseeker interface
helps them to create their profile, look for better livelihood opportunities and connect with people of
similar interests as well as with the alumni network for quick guidance and support. It also acts as a
document repository that manages work history, current job details, location and other relevant
information. This interface also identifies skill gaps and suggests to candidates to upskill or reskill based
on market trends and their requirements. The employer and industry interface assists in aggregating
demand by industry, location, skill sets, etc. It also helps in auto-matching with relevant candidate
profiles.
Policy interventions designed to facilitate matches between jobseekers and potential employers
have been found to have a modest effect on youth employment due to the mismatch between their
expectations and job offers received through the online job search platforms (Kelley, Ksoll and Magruder
2022).

6.6.3 Rozgar Mela (job fair)

A Rozgar Mela is a half-day event, aimed at bringing together employers from high-growth sectors
and jobseekers in an area or state for fast-tracking applications and recruitment. It is organized by the
National Skill Development Corporation with the help of the Sector Skill Councils and the Pradhan Mantri
Kaushal Kendras. The melas cater to youths aged 18–35 with at least a middle-school education and
include trained and certified youths, including those with a diploma or graduate degree. Jobseekers are
mobilized through various channels.
The Rozgar Melas also include counselling sessions, registration of youths under fresh skill development
training (PMKK and PMKVY), Mudra Loan Facilitation Counters and skill exhibitions, where the Sector
Skill Councils demonstrate training models, equipment and job roles. According to its website, around
563,000 youths registered in the 1,524 melas in different parts of the country between 2018 and 2020,
and about 249,000 youths were either shortlisted or selected for jobs.45
The 36th Report of Standing Committee (2022) assessed the Aatmanirbhar Skilled Employees Employer
Mapping portal and the Rozgar Melas. The Committee thought that the functioning of the portal was
not up to the mark due to the large gap in the number of candidates registered and those who actually
secured employment. The Committee suggested corrective action to boost the number of employers
across all sectors registered on the portal and to encourage them to make use of the portal for the
purpose of hiring and employing more skilled candidates. The Committee observed that only 257,767
candidates had been shortlisted (as of its review) by the participating employers in the 1,577 Rozgar
Melas that were organized. That translated into only 163 candidates shortlisted for every Rozgar Mela

45 See https://nsdcindia.org/rozgarmela.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 179

organized. The Committee was of the view that the number of candidates finding employment through
the Rozgar Melas could be substantially increased by encouraging greater participation of industries and
establishments and other employers to participate and to offer employment opportunities.

X 6.7 Summing up

India’s potential demographic dividend, which began in the early 1970s, may be available only until around
2040 (DEA 2019; Mehrotra, Gandhi and Sahoo 2013; see also Chapter 2 of this report). Unemployment
and the rate of youths not in employment, education or training are high, and working conditions among
a majority of employed youths are poor, although the economy has been growing at a high rate. This
severely constrains the realization of this potential. Rapid technological changes and high growth have
increased the gap between skill supply and demand. It is therefore essential for Indian policymakers to
take adequate and timely steps for ensuring rapid integration of youths into the labour market through
well-targeted supply and demand measures.
The supply-side measures should focus on improving both the quantity and quality of the youth labour
force. Improving the quality of training programmes requires a careful strategy for the selection of
training providers as well as applicants within the target group of youths, with a focus on social and
economic inclusion. Thus, selection of qualified trainers and motivated trainees will ensure efficient
utilization of resources and positive outcomes in the form of a higher employment rate. In addition to
unemployed youths, providing reskilling opportunities to employed youths may facilitate adjustment
of the labour force to the changing needs of industry. To achieve stable employment and reduce the
duration of unemployment between jobs, effective post-placement tracking and support are required.
The demand-side interventions should aim to not only raise the demand for labour but also enable
access to decent working conditions. Sector policies for promoting investment in key sectors, wage
subsidies and incentives for fostering innovation through research and development in new areas
may spur demand for young entrants into the labour market. An integrated strategy is required to
generate a sufficient number of decent jobs for young people and ensure appropriate wages, suitable
working conditions and a social protection framework, together with collective bargaining power and
representation in tripartite dialogue.
There is a need for concerted action to ensure that skills formation takes place in a demand-driven
manner. The presence of a labour market information system operating at the state level may help in
customizing training courses to local needs. An increase in the use of apprenticeships may be helpful to
ensure that the training programmes are responsive to the needs of the labour market. It is essential to
update educational and skills development curricula so that they take into account the changes, such as
the growing importance of digital and soft skills. In other words, curricula for skills development must
be reoriented on a continuing basis to meet the demand of industry and to align it with the available
employment opportunities. Skills development centres can be established in educational institutions.
Also, any skills training programme that does not result in a substantial improvement in the employability
and bargaining power of its trainees needs to be evaluated and the training curriculum must be revised.
At present, industry involvement in training is still low. Only 36 per cent of companies conduct in-house
enterprise-based training programmes. Thus, skills training in India is still largely government driven,
with inadequate industry participation. In comparison, as much as 86 per cent of companies in Germany,
85 per cent in China, 52 per cent in the Russian Federation and 51 per cent in Brazil and Mexico train
their workers themselves (NSDC 2020). Being major job creators in the country, the private sector’s
involvement is required in the form of expansion in on-the-job training, internships and apprenticeships
180 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

for youths. The private sector can take on a game-changing role in overcoming the challenges of market
failures, information asymmetry and gender exclusion.
Given the barriers faced by youths in finding formal employment, direct or indirect wage subsidies – the
latter in the form of employer–employee social security contributions – could also take on a significant
role in formalizing production and providing avenues for youths to formal employment. This was tried
during the pandemic period to incentivize the retention of workers and could be implemented on a
regular basis.
Digital technologies present an excellent opportunity to strengthen the job matching services provided
by the public employment services, particularly for youths. The development of these services, however,
remains at an early stage. It is important that these services are built up from the local level, especially
because women are less prone to move a long distance from their home. In the provisioning of such
services, it is essential to ensure that digitally illiterate persons are not excluded or left behind. Face-to-
face contact with career advisers is equally essential. Public employment services institutions should
combine digital services delivery with traditional counselling activities that involve regular meetings
between jobseekers and employers and career counsellors. Effective career counselling initiatives may
help youths identify their strengths and skill gap and make a realistic assessment of the available jobs
in the market.
During the pandemic, both passive (unemployment benefits) and active labour market policies had
an important role in sustaining and expanding employment. This was primarily the promotion of self-
employment through special schemes, such as the expansion of the Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana
scheme and the Prime Minister’s Employment Guarantee Programme, which provided a collateral-
free loan for working capital to street vendors during the pandemic. The thrust on innovation-based
entrepreneurship has also brought rich dividends through the expansion and growth of start-ups.
In the post-pandemic economic environment, the ILO (2022b) believes the future of work will be
influenced by technological innovations, demographic shifts, environmental threats, climate change
and globalization. Investment in green economies, care economies and digital economies thus can create
sustainable pathways of opportunity for youths. With growing concerns around green technology and
a sustainable environment, dedicated policies and investments aimed at improving energy efficiency in
buildings and appliances, decarbonizing electrical power generation through a shift to renewable energy
and expanding electric vehicles and associated infrastructure may help generate an additional 8.4 million
jobs globally in the green sector for youths by 2030.
The digital economy is expected to add an estimated 6.4 million jobs by 2030 for youths (ILO 2022c).
However, such jobs are more likely to be concentrated in urban areas and require high levels of technical
proficiency among youths.
The care economy is largely characterized by informal work arrangements. In the years to come, it will
be a major source of employment for young women. Hence, policies need to ensure access to decent
work opportunities in the sector, including adequate monetary benefits to make the sector attractive
for female employment.
Constituting more than a quarter of India’s population, youths are a part of a demographic dividend.
Tapping this demographic advantage depends on the country’s ability to realize the aspirations of
youths, harness their productive potential and help them build successful economic trajectories.
X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 181
182 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills
X7
The future of jobs for
youths and pointers for the
way ahead
The youth employment problem is central to national policy agendas around the world, including India.
Addressing the problem is necessary to meet the Sustainable Development Goals, including the specific
targets for (a) increasing the number of youths and adults who have relevant skills for employment,
decent jobs and entrepreneurship; (b) achieving full and productive employment and decent work for
all women and men, including youths with disabilities, and equal pay for work of equal value; and (c)
substantially reducing the proportion of youths not in employment, education or training. The progress
towards these targets not only stopped but regressed during the COVID-19 pandemic and, hence,
requires extra efforts now to put it back on track.
184 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

This chapter summarizes the analysis and suggests policy pointers for the future of jobs for youths in
India. The country’s youth employment is influenced by the pattern and growth of the youth labour
supply, the quality of education and training imparted, the emerging nature of employment due to
technological advancement and the changing aspirations of the youths. The labour market behaviour of
young women is also influenced by various socio-cultural factors as well as state policy. On the demand
side, the nature of job growth is influenced by the nature of economic growth, regional developments
and state policy.

X 7.1 Major employment developments

The following describes the major employment developments over the past two decades that emerged
from the analysis for this report.

Last-window of opportunity remains to exploit the

demographic advantage.
Notwithstanding the significant decline in the rate of population growth, India is still a young country
with a large share of a youth population (371 million persons aged 15–29 years in 2021) and the large
labour force. Demographically, the Indian economy has entered the stage of demographic transition,
which is unevenly sequenced across its states, and provides only a last-window opportunity (a little
more than a decade) to exploit the potential demographic advantage through the implementation of
appropriate policies.

Despite improvements in employment conditions, they remain poor.

Over the years, slow but consistent improvements in employment conditions – until onset of the
COVID-19 pandemic. This is reflected in the steady growth of regular and organized sector jobs, non-
farm jobs and regular formal jobs, albeit very slowly, until 2019. An employment condition index based
on seven labour market outcome indicators that capture the employment conditions and quality showed
that the overall employment quality score has improved, from 0.40 in 2005 to 0.65 in 2022. However,
there was a reversal in this overall trend after 2019, mainly due to the adverse impacts of the pandemic.
Otherwise, the employment conditions remain poor. During the past decade, there was only a small
increase in the real wages of casual workers and a decline in the real earnings of regular salaried workers
and self-employed persons. Although the proportion decreased over the years, a large percentage of
workers still do not receive the prescribed daily minimum wages. The proportion of such unskilled casual
workers in agriculture at the all-India level was around 62 per cent in 2022 and as high as 70 per cent in
the construction sector. Despite improvements in employment and the labour market conditions, they
remain poor in India.

Participation of women is low and gender inequality is high in the

labour market.
There is a low and declining LFPR and worker population ratio among women, especially in rural areas,
which experienced reversals in the pandemic years. India has one of the lowest LFPRs for women in the
world while the unemployment rate among educated young women is very high.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 185

Low generation of new jobs persists.

India’s employment growth has been falling across most sectors despite relatively high output growth,
reflected in the rising labour productivity and capital intensity across the board. The expansion of the
working-age population was much greater than the growth in the labour force and workforce during the
past two decades, reflected in the increase in open unemployment until 2019.

Slow process of structural transformation, with the manufacturing

sector lagging.
India has experienced a stunted process of structural transformation, which undermined its desired
sectoral distribution in output, employment, productivity and resultant increase in productive
employment. Although there has been a slow transfer of labour from the agriculture to the non-
agriculture sectors, the broad sectoral output and employment imbalances persist. A large section of
the workforce is still trapped in low-productivity agriculture and the transfer of surplus labour to higher-
wage and more productive non-agricultural employment has been slow and even reversed after 2019
due to the pandemic. As much as 45 per cent of the workforce was engaged in agriculture and related
activities in 2022, contributing only 15.5 per cent to gross value added. The share of the manufacturing
sector stagnated at around 12 per cent of total employment.
While the manufacturing sector lagged, job creation over the past few decades was driven largely by the
construction and services sectors. The contours of growth in output (and productivity) and the changing
structure of employment show a weak relationship – manifested in the low creation of jobs, particularly
good jobs. Since 2019 and due to the shocks generated by the pandemic, even this slow transition has
been reversed. An employment structure index comprising various employment categories in the
organized and unorganized sectors as well as the economy showed that between 2000 and 2019, values
as a whole rose, reflecting a slow but steady structural transformation. After 2019, however, there was
a break in the progress. A substantial portion of the relatively low-skilled non-working population that
has withdrawn from the labour force, and which is amply reflected in the large proportion of people not
in employment, education or training due to the discouraged worker effect, needs to be productively
employed while the country also manages the agrarian transition.

Structural labour market constraints include increasing

informalization, contractualization and flexible jobs.
Over the years, there has been a rise in the share of regular and organized employment and a decline
in unorganized employment, self-employment and casual employment. However, India’s labour market
continues to be predominantly characterized by informal employment (approximately 90 per cent of
adult and youth workers) and informal sector employment. A very large proportion of workers who
are in regular and salaried employment are without any written contract, and only a small proportion
has a long-term written contract. There has been increasing informalization of the regular workforce.
Informalization in the labour market is not restricted to the informal sector but has also spread within the
formal manufacturing and services sectors. The high informality and temporary nature of jobs reflect a
high level of uncertainty in livelihoods and pose serious questions about the nature of the employment
challenge in the country.

The open unemployment rate is high, especially among educated

youths and young women.
Open unemployment is rising, with a very high unemployment rate among educated youths, especially
since 2011–12. Youth unemployment rates in India are now higher than the global levels. The Indian
186 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

economy has not been able to create enough remunerative jobs in the non-farm sectors for new educated
youth labour force entrants, which is reflected in the high and increasing unemployment rate. The
employment opportunities for the less-educated youths and those from poor households are declining,
while highly educated youths are waiting for suitable jobs. The unemployment rate among youths with
a graduate degree is nearly nine times higher (at 29.1 per cent) than that among illiterate youths (at 3.4
per cent). Young women with a graduate degree (at 34.5 per cent) experience a comparatively higher
unemployment rate than young men (at 26.4 per cent) with similar qualifications.

A huge category of youths, especially women and older youths,

are not in employment, education or training.
Nearly one third of all youths are note in employment, education or training, with a significantly larger
proportion among the women (48.4 per cent) than the men (9.8 per cent). The majority of women in this
status fall into the out-of-labour force category while their male counterparts fall into the unemployed
category. Among young individuals, the rate for not in employment, education or training was much
higher among youths aged 25–29 (39.1 per cent) and 20–24 (26.3 per cent) when compared to the younger
cohort, aged 15–19 (12.1 per cent).

Education, skills and jobs mismatch among all workers is

considerable.
Over time, the educational profile of tzhe working-age population has risen. At the same time, around 42
per cent of youths have less than a secondary level of education. Thus, a large proportion of the Indian
workforce has remained poorly educated and consequently ill-prepared for new jobs that require new
skills. In addition, less than 5 per cent of youths possess formal vocational training. Although the gender
gap and the gap between social groups have declined, large disparities persist across consumption
quintiles and rural–urban locations, particularly at high levels of education (without adjustment for
quality differences).
These disparities are also very high for youths with technical education and for formal skills training.
With higher education levels (and to some extent, a greater professionalization of education), educated
youths aspire for well-paying jobs, job security and social security. But there has not been commensurate
growth in formal, decent and high-skill jobs, leading to a growth in educated unemployed youths. The
job market for youths also places a high premium on a small proportion of high-skill jobs, leading to high
wage and income inequality among those youths who enter the labour market.
Apart from the lower level of education, the quality of education remains relatively poor in India.
Although there is a dearth of reliable data, the limited evidence indicated huge learning deficits at school
as well as college and university levels in the country, with considerable differences across regions and
rural and urban areas. According to the recent ASER survey (ASER Centre, 2024), a large proportion
of youths aged 14–18 cannot perform even basic and applied tasks. Indian universities rank poorly in
international comparisons. There are huge regional disparities, with few institutions from the eastern
and central regions in the top 100 universities, leading to migration of youths from these regions to
others, particularly the southern and northern areas. The poor quality of education is an important
reason behind the lack of “employability” of educated youths.

Returns on education among the youth are declining.

Returns on education among wage and salary-employed youths are higher among urban youths than
rural-residing youths; among men than women; and among youths from a General Category caste than
youths from a Scheduled Tribe. Interestingly, the returns from education show a decline from 1999–2000
to 2018–19 at all levels of education, although they were still high at the diploma, certificate and graduate
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 187

degree or higher level of education. This also reflects the rising oversupply of youths in various segments
of the labour market in relation to the aggregate employment opportunities.

Skills mismatch among youths is worrying.

There is a mismatch between the numbers of youths with specific education and skill attainments and
the jobs being created in the economy. This has two dimensions: From a demand-side perspective,
employers perceive a shortage of youths with specific skills, which is seen as a crisis of employability.
From the perspective of the jobseeking youths, there are not enough jobs of requisite quality and
characteristics. In recent decades, this has led to a high demand for scarce public sector jobs, especially
in slow-growing regions, thus leading to tension and unrest, sometimes even violence.

Labour market segmentation and regional differences in

employment and unemployment remain concerns.
Along with labour market segmentation across social groups and gender, which relegate the
disadvantaged groups to poor-quality jobs with limited upward mobility and access to higher education,
differences in demographic regimes and the historical growth performance have resulted in disparities in
decent employment opportunities and average earnings and wages across geographical regions. There
are huge regional differences in youth employment and unemployment, wherein the underdeveloped
states in the eastern, northern and central regions are lagging behind the southern and western states
in terms of decent employment conditions for youth workers. These differences also create the basis for
the mobility of many youths – at different ends of the spectrum – from one area to another in search of
livelihood and better job opportunities.

The COVID-19 crisis increased less remunerative employment.

Responses to the pandemic triggered a reverse movement of a large number of migrant workers and
their families, back to their community of origin. The total workforce increased during the pandemic
years, mainly as a result of marginal workers joining the workforce in agriculture and self-employment.
Youth were also hit hard during the COVID-19 crisis due to their vulnerable situation in the labour market.
Many people were pushed into self-employment, unpaid household and own-account type jobs, mainly
in the agriculture sector (at 66 per cent of the total additional jobs) during the crisis, when youths were
more involved in the former and adults in the latter. This indicates an increase in employment, whereby
many youths were compelled to engage in unpaid household work after returning to their native rural
community. While jobs requiring personal contact and face-to-face interaction were hit hard, remote
working was encouraged and received incentives. The pandemic also accelerated the technological shift
towards high-skill and automated jobs.

Employment in emerging sectors is expanding.

The skill composition of the total workforce has been improving slowly over the years, and youths are
more likely to take advantage of the newly emerging sectors. While some of these sectors (such as
security services and jobs in households) are at the low end of the skill spectrum, the newly emerging
sectors cited in the analysis of this report are at the higher end of this spectrum – in manufacturing and
in services.

New technologies have great potential for employment.

Like elsewhere in the world, the new technologies have immense implications for labour markets and
employment. Even before the advent of new technologies, the employment generation was becoming
188 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

increasingly labour-saving and capital-intensive as a result of technology use. There has been a
consistent rise in demand for high-skill jobs, especially in modern communication, software and financial
services, as well as for low-skilled and unskilled workers in e-commerce, delivery services and the food
industry, which have grown at a much faster rate since the pandemic. Industry 4.0 technologies are
more prevalent in capital-intensive manufacturing units and among large and medium-sized service
enterprises, although it is still limited. Some smaller and medium-sized enterprises are slowly moving to
more affordable automotive machines and so-called cobots and chatbots.
The availability of cheap labour in bulk and the higher cost of automation, especially for the majority
of micro and small informal enterprises, is preventing or delaying automation in India. The youth
involvement in no-skill or low-paying jobs has increased considerably, from 19 per cent in 2019 to 25.7
per cent in 2022, possibly to supplement or even provide family income during the COVID-19 crisis. The
impacts of new technologies on employment have not been systematically studied, but certainly they
are going to have immense implications. Artificial intelligence is a new and unknown factor that will
certainly have huge impact on employment, both its quality and quantity. Despite the rapid technological
growth of digital infrastructure, India is still much less prepared than the other G-20 countries to meet
the challenge posed by artificial intelligence.46
The outsourcing industry in India could be disrupted because some back-office tasks would be taken
over by artificial intelligence. But given that India has a lot of vibrant start-ups, tech developers and
a reasonably good digital infrastructure, it is fully possible to create new jobs. Artificial intelligence
stands to transform lives in the emerging world, too. It offers immense opportunities to increase the
productivity of labour, even unskilled and semi-skilled workers, which is urgently required in India.
Artificial intelligence could help the income levels significantly, thus bridging the gap with rich countries).

Digitalization and new forms of work is creating opportunities

and concerns.
The emerging platform or gig economy is creating new economic opportunities for youths who are
entering the labour market. Although it is expanding in various activities of the services sectors, there
is hardly any systematic study measuring the magnitude of gig and platform work. Various surveys and
estimates indicated that such employment increased at a rapid rate in the past few years, especially
since the pandemic. But there is significant disparity in ICT access and digital skills among youths: Rural
youths exhibit lower ICT access and proficiency compared with their urban counterparts, and women
lag behind men. Additionally, youths from a Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe face greater challenges
compared with other social segments. Addressing these disparities will be pivotal for promoting inclusive
digital literacy and ensuring that youths from all socio-economic backgrounds have equal opportunity
to engage with and contribute to the digital landscape. However, the gig economy, to a large extent, is
an extension of informal work and creates largely temporary and non-standard work, based on a short-
term relationship between workers and companies. This new form of work lacks access to formal social
protection mechanisms.
The labour process at the centre of the platform economy is largely controlled through non-transparent,
artificial intelligence-powered algorithms. This poses a substantial challenge in upholding the working
conditions and the rights of platform workers. And it further blurs the distinction between being an
employee and engaging in self-employment, thus complicating employment status. This disparity
between perception and actuality underlines the complexity of issues within the realm of platform and
gig work.

46 “AI for All”, Economist, 27 January 2024.

 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 189

Employment challenge remains an issue for youths.

Around 7–8 million youths will be joining the labour force annually in the next decade or so, a large
proportion of whom will be educated (nearly half of them). Providing suitable jobs to the existing
unemployed and underemployed youths as well future entrants to the labour force is indeed a huge
challenge before India, more so in the context of the increasing uncertainties in the labour market
due to the fast-changing technologies, including artificial intelligence. The transition to a low-carbon
economy to which India is committed needs also to be taken into account because it will have immense
implications for the nature of employment creation. The employment generation is becoming more and
more capital-intensive as well as skill-intensive.
Technologies need to be adopted to enhance labour productivity, especially of the low production
sectors. But given the abundance of surplus labour in the country, there is no alternative other than to
have a growth process led by labour-intensive manufacturing, at least for next one decade, to absorb the
abundant skilled labour in the country. Because the nature of manufacturing has considerably changed
and now services have become important in employment generation, services need to be given due
emphasis in the growth strategy.
The rates of urbanization and migration are also expected to accelerate in the future. India is likely to
have an urbanization rate of around 40 per cent in 2030 and will have an urban population of around 607
million, which is a substantial increase from the 461 million in 2018 (United Nations 2019). A substantial
part of this increase in urban population will be from increasing migration because India’s total fertility
rate is now almost equal to its population replacement level.

Regional differentials in the labour market lead to unequal labour

market outcomes.
India has considerable differences in the labour markets across its regions and states. This is reflected
in its labour market outcomes. Various labour market outcomes indicated that states of eastern and
central India perform poorly when compared to outcomes in the southern and northern regions. The
employment condition index prepared for this report showed that although quality of employment in
all states has been improving, the differences between states remain large. Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand,
Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh were at the bottom of the employment condition index in 2005 and
remained there in 2022. These states also have a much larger proportion of youth not in employment,
education or training than what the relatively more prosperous states have. In terms of digital
infrastructure as well as access to digital skills, youth from the north-eastern, eastern and central regions
have much less access than their counterparts in other regions.

X 7.2. Emerging policy agenda

The policy agenda emerging from the analysis for this report and the challenges discussed in the
previous section are highlighted next. These pointers of a necessary way forward are concerned with
meeting the needs of decent work, particularly for youths, and require policy action by the government
at all levels and other stakeholders. The recommended policy agenda is grouped into the following five
policy missions.
190 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Mission 1: Make production and growth more employment-

intensive.
Integrate the employment-creation agenda with macro and other economic policies to boost productive
non-farm employment, especially in the manufacturing sector and emerging services sectors. Different
ministries need to incorporate the task of job creation in all their programmes and policies. Even the
period of high economic growth did not create enough high-quality jobs in the country.
The employment benefits of service-led growth alone are likely to be inadequate in meeting the current
employment challenge. Industry and manufacturing absorb the relatively low-skilled labour moving out
of agriculture at a productivity premium. In addition, a great merit of manufacturing-led growth is that
it can be sustained by synchronous increases in domestic demand for manufactured goods (through
the growth of employment and income) and in domestic production of manufactured goods (under
increasing returns to scale).
The nature of manufacturing employment has considerably shifted due to higher levels of automation
and technological changes, including recent developments related to the so-called Industry 4.0
technologies, and is increasingly becoming more capital-intensive. But it still needs to be recognized as
a driver of growth for India, at least for the next decade or so (Ghose 2016). Manufacturing has stronger
links with other sectors and also has multiplier effects. Rapid growth of organized manufacturing will
require rapid expansion of the domestic market for manufacturers.
This does not mean that the agriculture and services sectors should be neglected. Modernization and
prosperity in agriculture will significantly contribute to the growth of both manufacturing and services.
Similarly, there are some modern services, such as information technology and business services, that
are mainly export-driven and also generate new employment opportunities. Given the changed context,
India needs manufacturing-led growth for at least one decade more to absorb the abundant unskilled
labour in the labour-intensive manufacturing sector. At the same time, the services sector needs to create
decent jobs and be integrated into the growth process.
Encourage important emerging employment-generating sectors in the modern manufacturing
and service sectors through appropriate policies and other benefits. The emerging services and
manufacturing subsectors generating additional quality employment include information technologies,
communications services, business and financial services, real estate, activities of households as
employers of domestic personnel, private security activities, pharmaceuticals, electrical and optical
instruments, machinery and related industries. The Government’s umbrella scheme, Make in India, and
its flagship scheme, Production Linked Incentive, aim to make the country a manufacturing hub, thus
inserting India into global value chains and fostering industrial growth (see box 16). The Production
Linked Incentive is based on creating industry leaders with large-scale investment who can benefit from
economies of scale and become globally competitive. Although positive outcomes and the focus on
new technologies, automation and digitalization are noted, with obvious implications for the youth skill
demand, these strategies are of recent origin and will need to be carefully assessed in terms of longer-
term parameters. And although there is twin focus on emerging small and medium-sized enterprises,
high capital intensity is likely to be less favourable to large-scale employment growth. Hence, emerging
sectors that are labour-intensive should be encouraged through appropriate policies, such as subsidized
loans, employment subsidies, rebates in taxes (goods and services) and infrastructure and other support
to help them to grow further.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 191

X Box 16. Boosting industrial growth 100 were small or medium-sized enterprises), with an
through Make in India expected investment of 3.65 trillion rupees. The actual
investment so far has been 625 billion rupees, resulting
With the heightened risk of supply chain shocks, in incremental production of 6.75 trillion rupees and
India has a unique opportunity to become a global reported employment generation of 325,000 jobs.
manufacturing hub this decade. The Make in India Incentive claims of 34.2 billion rupees have been
initiative was launched in 2014 to turn the country received from eight sectors.
into a hub for manufacturing, design and innovation. As part of the multipronged effort to boost industry and
Since then, the Government has facilitated investment, to eliminate the disadvantage to Indian manufacturing,
fostered innovation and built world-class infrastructure. steps have been taken to improve logistics and
To further enhance India’s integration into the global physical infrastructure and well as the business-
value chain, Make in India 2.0 now entails 27 sectors, friendly environment. The Government has also taken
which include 15 manufacturing sectors and 12 service steps to foster innovation through incubation, hand-
sectors. Among them, 24 subsectors have been chosen holding, funding, industry–academia partnerships and
while keeping in mind the Indian industries’ strengths mentorships. The Government has also strengthened
and competitive edge, the need for import substitution, and modernized its intellectual property rights regime
the potential for export and increased employability. and has taken steps to facilitate intellectual property
The Production Linked Incentive scheme offers an filing for start-ups, women entrepreneurs, small
incentive to domestic and global manufacturers to industries and others, leading to a growth in the filing of
expand production through higher investment in patents. A National Research Foundation is being set up
selected sectors covered by the Make in India scheme. with seed money of 500 billion rupees for the 2023–28
The scheme was initiated in 2020, initially in three period. Reforms have been made to enhance the ease
sectors, and has expanded to 14, which include mobile of doing business and facilitate investment inflows.
telephones, medical devices, telecom and networking With the advent of Industry 4.0, the Government is
products, automobiles and auto components, setting up Smart Advanced Manufacturing and Rapid
pharmaceuticals, white goods, specialty steel, electric Transformation Hubs. India has already created about
products, solar PV modules, advanced chemistry 900,000 direct jobs by the ministry-recognized start-ups
cell battery and drones and drone components. An (self-reported), with a notable 64 per cent increase in
incentive is offered as a percentage of incremental sales 2022 over the average number of new jobs created in
over benchmarked base values. Eligible manufacturers the past three years. About 48 per cent of the start-ups
are defined in terms of threshold (minimum) levels are from tier II and III cities. The Government has
of investment. The objective of the scheme is to provided targeted incentives to start-ups that include
encourage domestic production, boost exports, tax benefits, easier compliance, intellectual property
reduce imports and create manufacturing jobs. As of rights fast-tracking and a fund for financing.
March 2023, the scheme has an allocation of 1.97 trillion Source: DEA 2023.
rupees, had seen approval of 733 applicants (of whom

Focus more on micro, small and medium-sized enterprises. Enhancement of the Credit Guarantee Fund,
schemes such as the Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana and the downstream impact of the Production
Linked Incentive scheme have no doubt increased the credit flow to the micro, small and medium-sized
enterprise sector and enhanced its growth prospects. Nevertheless, given the importance of this sector
in sustaining non-farm employment and promoting exports and the adverse impact of demonetization
and the goods and services tax on the informal segment within the micro, small and medium-sized
enterprise sector, there is urgent need to prioritize the growth of these enterprises through a more
supportive decentralized approach. This requires a close examination of local policies and the regulatory
environment, support for marketing, technology enhancement (including digitalization) and a cluster-
based approach in manufacturing.
192 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Increase agriculture productivity, create more non-farm jobs and promote entrepreneurship.
Employment within the agriculture sector is characterized by low productivity and subsistence-level
conditions. These pre-existing challenges of underemployment were further exacerbated by the
pandemic. This situation accentuates the prevailing issue of underemployment in agriculture and
underlines the lack of job opportunities in non-farm sectors in rural areas. To address this concern,
efforts should encompass greater focus on promoting entrepreneurship, particularly in agroprocessing,
by facilitating access to finance and cutting-edge technology. Investment in the development of rural
infrastructure and establishment of an integrated market would also contribute significantly to the
revival of employment in the farm and non-farm sectors in rural areas.
Expand and invest in the green and blue economies. These economies have huge potential for youth
employment. A report from the World Economic Forum underscores that India’s transition to the green
and blue economies could contribute more than 1 trillion dollars to its general economy and generate
around 50 million jobs by 2030. The Indian Government has been showing a keen interest in the growth
of the green and blue economies. Through strategic investments, capacity-building initiatives and
conducive policy frameworks, the potential of these sectors can be harnessed to their fullest.
Adopt effective policies and measures to take advantage from the new technologies. Fast-changing
technological advancements, particularly artificial intelligence, are going to be important disruptive
factors in the labour market, with positive and negative consequences. Although on a good footing,
India still needs to do more to prepare itself for the challenges posed by new technologies. Artificial
intelligence offers immense opportunity to enhance labour productivity and incomes of even unskilled
and semi-skilled workers. The disadvantaged states are less prepared for this, and active policies and
programmes need to be formulated and implemented for training youths in these states. Marginalized
social groups and women should be important components of such policies.

Mission 2: Improve the quality of jobs.

Invest in and regulate the emerging care and digital economies, which could be an important source
of productive employment for youths. Digital platforms and the gig economy are creating many new
jobs, but these jobs are largely temporary, informal and non-standard work. Additionally, the ongoing
demographic transition is poised to increase the demand for childcare and elderly care services. As
highlighted by the simulation exercise conducted by the ILO and the Institute for Human Development
(forthcoming), targeted investments, especially in early childhood care and education and in long-term
health care services, could potentially generate approximately 16 million new jobs for youths in India
by 2030. It is imperative that these employment opportunities are accompanied by a commitment to
promoting decent working conditions, with necessary investment in infrastructure and other areas.
Make urbanization and migration policy inclusive. Migration today constitutes a little over one fifth of
the urban expansion in India, but a large number of migrants – mostly youths – are circular migrants and
are not counted in these figures. In the aftermath of the reverse migration that took place during the
pandemic in 2020, the country has been grappling with elements of a comprehensive migration policy
that aims at providing civic citizenship, proper living and working conditions and social protection to
vulnerable migrants. India is likely to experience a higher rate of urbanization and migration in the future
as more and more youths seek decent employment, which would be available mostly in urban areas.
An inclusive urban policy is required to address the needs of migrants, women and workers from poor
households, especially considering that migration flows are dominated by young people. Urban planning
and migration policies have been neglected in the country. These issues should form an important part
of the agenda for generating jobs for youths in the future. The development of small and medium-sized
towns with better infrastructure should also be an important component of this agenda, which will help
in preventing youths from migrating to larger cities for work.
Give labour policy and labour regulation a supportive role. Labour policy and labour regulation should
ensure that a minimum quality of employment is maintained and that the basic rights of workers are
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 193

respected. An integrated approach needs to be pursued to increase the level of formalization of the
economy. Informal sector enterprises need to be incentivized to grow and formalize. Steps that have
been taken to formalize job contracts by incentivizing and facilitating access to social security provisions
and introducing regulated fixed-term contracts must be strengthened to provide a basic degree of job
security and career trajectory to workers. These steps were initially aimed at the organized sector, which
should also be encouraged to share gains of higher productivity with workers.
As India aspires to become a middle-income country and the third-largest economy globally, the
Government has rightly declared its intent, through the Code on Social Security, to provide universal
social protection to all workers. The goal of universal social protection should be achieved within a
specified time frame. The Code on Wages promises a floor wage below which no minimum wage can be
set in the country. These steps constitute important movement towards what the National Commission
of Enterprises called the creation of a social floor for all workers (NCEUS 2007). The institution of a social
floor with decent working conditions will act as an effective measure towards enhancing the quality
of employment and alleviation of poverty in the country and provide youths with more suitable job
avenues.

Mission 3: Overcome labour market inequalities.

Use policy to boost women’s participation in the labour market with quality work. There is a need to
follow a comprehensive approach to expand women’s participation in the labour force. More and more
educated young women from all socio-economic strata will be seeking good jobs in the future. The
survey of young women and men in Delhi and Ranchi (reported on in Chapter 5) found that most of the
female respondents still studying had job aspirations, but most educated young women eventually did
not remain in the job market. And many women were concentrated in low-visibility self-employment or
low-quality jobs.
Although employment opportunities for young urban highly educated women are opening up, the overall
environment is still not friendly to women. This is mainly due to the patriarchal social values, gender
stereotyping and the double burden of work on women. Policies must thus be formulated to cater to
the needs of future female workers. These policies should include larger provision for institutional care
facilities, adaptable work arrangements, improved public transport, improved amenities and enhanced
workplace safety. These policy measures should be seamlessly integrated into the urban planning and
development agenda. Moreover, the Government’s proactive role in job creation for women must extend
beyond the public sector to encompass outsourced services, activities and supply chains. Facilitating
the growth of women as entrepreneurs is equally vital. Women are engaged more in self-employment
activities, especially in rural areas, often leading to low earnings and inadequate social security
safeguards. To counter this, the Government should focus on creating more opportunities for women
in regular salaried employment, and it should devise skills training programmes for young women that
are tailored to their requirements.
Adopt different strategies to tackle the problem of youths not in employment, education or training.
The high percentage of young people, particularly women, is a waste of human and economic potential.
India needs different strategies for two components of youths: those not in employment, education
or training, who comprise a minority of the unemployed group who are now largely better educated,
mainly better-off and male-dominated; and those not in employment, education or training and out of
the labour force, which is predominantly female. For the first category, both demand- and supply-side
interventions discussed in this chapter should be embraced. The second category includes women who
are interested but are unable to find full-time employment near their place of residence. As mentioned
earlier, addressing care responsibilities through institutional and social interventions and creating
more suitable job opportunities to encourage more women to participate in the labour market needs
to become a priority.
194 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Adopt active policies to enhance quality of education. India has immense potential to become an
education hub. Active policies and programmes need to be formulated and implemented to enhance
the quality of education at the school and higher educational levels. For disadvantaged states of the
eastern and central regions, there should be a special package to improve the quality of education. In
such a scheme, the training of teachers at all levels should be the most important component.
Impart quality training and mainstream skills training into the education system to improve
employability. The quality of education needs to be augmented at all levels, with equitable access to all
sections of society and in all regions. A minimum level of good-quality education (at the least, secondary
or higher-secondary education) will lay the foundation for youths to acquire necessary skills as well as to
compete in the changing labour market in which cognitive skills are at a premium. The National Education
Policy is attempting an overhaul of education at all levels and mainstreaming skills training into the
education system with the aim of fulfilling Sustainable Development Goal 4, unleashing the creative and
employment potential of individuals and meeting the developmental challenges confronting India. This
will require, as the policy recognizes, critical changes in educational governance and substantial human
and financial resources, with a focus on implementation and outcomes.
Improve ICT access and bridge the digital divide. Initiatives to improve access to computers and
internet connectivity, particularly for youths in rural and remote areas and especially those from poor
households or marginalized groups, need to be put in place. There is also a need to invest even more to
extend broadband access into remote areas and give ICT access to people from marginalized groups
by providing them digital literacy and ICT training programmes, especially targeting rural youths and
women. To reap the possible benefits from artificial intelligence, active policies need to be formulated,
and youths from disadvantaged states as well as marginalized groups must be targeted.
Create a non-discriminatory labour market. Concrete measures are required to address labour market
discrimination against women and deprived social groups. Even after controlling for education and
other characteristics, differences persist in labour market outcomes for woman and deprived social
groups. Part of the reason for these differences lies in labour market segmentation and the assignment
of women and certain social groups to poorly paying jobs. But labour market discrimination exists even
within the same occupations and job roles. This can be curbed only if there is conscious effort by public
and private employers to build a more diversified and equitable workplace, following the example of
peers and selected sectors. But public policy can also take on a role by identifying sectors and firms and
incentivizing affirmative action and employment diversification across the board.
Adopt regional policy approaches to reduce the labour market inequalities. The states differ in terms
of demographic transition, economic potential and performance, infrastructure and educational
attainment. The growing regional disparities have created significantly different outcomes for young
women and men that need to be resolved. Given the differences in labour market conditions and
development trajectories among the various states, there is a need for a differentiated policy approach.

Mission 4: Make systems for skills training and active labour

market policies more effective.
Use skill development and active labour market policies to bridge the supply–demand gap in jobs and
in making labour markets more inclusive. According to a World Economic Forum report (2023), more
than half of the Indian workforce will require reskilling to meet the changing skills demand. Skills training
has been a major priority of governments, both at the central and state levels, for the past 15 years.
The central Government introduced several short-term skills development training programmes, with
private sector inputs, that have been revamped periodically in response to reviews and evaluations. But
the uptake to the skills training programmes has been inadequate in relation to the ambitious goals.
This seems mainly due to the poor returns to skills training, poor placement support and poor quality
of jobs on offer. There are large disparities in skills training across socio-economic groups, gender and
regions. Accelerating skills training (while upgrading the traditional skill base) will require a larger and
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 195

more concerted effort by governments, taking into account the changing requirements and demands
for skills locally, nationally and globally.
The global market for skilled Indian workers has large potential for youths. Growth in skills training
will need the active participation of all stakeholders, including corporations, education and training
institutions, non-profit organizations and the Government. The private sector is a major non-farm job
creator in the country, and its involvement is required in the form of expansion in on-the-job training,
internships and apprenticeships for youths. An initiative whereby the Government encourages or makes
it mandatory for the private sector and industry to participate in providing training and employment
opportunities for youths will benefit not only them but industry as well. The private sector can contribute
through its corporate social responsibility initiatives by providing required skills and employment
opportunities, particularly for young women and youths from rural and disadvantaged groups.
Unemployment among highly educated youths (with a graduate degree or higher) from disadvantaged
groups (Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and poor households), who are also aspiring for well-paid
white-collar jobs is even higher than for other groups. They suffer the most from the lack of quality
education or relevant training, resources and social capital. The skills training environment must become
even more sensitive to the requirements of youths, including budding entrepreneurs from socio-
economically deprived sections. Women generally prefer jobs locally. Therefore, after skills training,
emphasis should be directed towards ensuring placements closer to their communities or in relevant
industries, with a focus on promoting local entrepreneurship.
Expand job search information and career counselling. Efforts should be made to help youths connect
with work opportunities through labour market and job search information. This assistance would be
especially beneficial for youths from marginalized segments so that their job search process is facilitated.
In these times of increased digitalization, technology can act as a great enabler in job searching.
Private sector participation can help in this regard so that youths not conversant with the increasingly
digitized processes can benefit. Such an instrument for job search should link to the National Career
Services platform. In addition, face-to-face contact with career advisers is equally essential. Thus, public
employment service institutions should work with education and training institutions to organize regular
meetings between jobseekers and employers. Effective career counselling initiatives may help youths
identify their strengths and skill gaps and make realistic assessments of available jobs in the market.
Streamline recruitment processes for jobs in the public sector. The Government should address the issue
of unfilled vacancies in the government-run sectors, such as the railways, by streamlining recruitment
processes. Simplifying and expediting the hiring process will help fill the vacancies in a timely manner,
ensuring the smooth functioning of essential services and infrastructure. This can be achieved by
leveraging technology, conducting efficient assessments, and implementing transparent and merit-
based selection procedures.

Mission 5: Bridge the deficits in knowledge on labour market

patterns and youth employment.
Provide reliable labour market statistics on emerging new forms of jobs to draft more effective
policies. Rapid technological developments are making labour markets increasingly complex and
uncertain. Implementation of effective policy thus entails effective mapping and documentation of the
labour market and employment trends. New employment patterns and labour market issues, as well
as new income opportunities and new institutions, are constantly emerging, such as gig or platform
work. The diverse and complex character of work and employment in India needs to be analysed
more comprehensively. Despite concerted efforts, credible labour market statistics are still far from
satisfactory. In-depth studies of new developments in the labour market and access to high-quality
and intuitive data will help in better addressing the problem of employment in general and of youth
employment in particular.
196 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Use implementation and monitoring data more effectively for estimates of youth and formal jobs.
Social security registration data are now dynamically collected and released. This is a significant positive
step. However, there are diverse assessments on how the data, specifically Employees’ Provident Fund
Organisation data, can be used to assess formal youth employment in the organized sector because
there is also a compelling argument that the data do not adequately capture formal job creation and
turnover in the organized sector. It is possible to address this issue through incorporation of more
comprehensive indicators as well as this report’s analysis of data collected, as the analysis did with the
Periodic Labour Force Survey data. This will lead to more realistic and comprehensive analysis of the
formal employment of youths in the organized sector as well as the creation and destruction of formal
jobs in that sector.

X 7.3 Summing up

India’s youth employment challenge has entered a qualitatively new phase with the expansion of
education while the growth of aggregate employment opportunities is thinning. This has led to a
sharp increase in youth unemployment, particularly among educated youths. The challenge is much
bigger for women and for socio-economically deprived groups among the young and for youths from
comparatively low-income regions. The situation can be converted into an advantage by shaping
macroeconomic, industrial and sectoral investment and trade policies to expand jobs in labour-
intensive sectors, including manufacturing and the social sector. In many of the emerging sectors,
both in services and manufacturing, capital intensity is high. Labour policy and social policy need to
support this macroeconomic agenda by instituting a social floor and by facilitating an environment in
which gender and social inclusion are mainstreamed. This will make a much wider category of jobs
acceptable to youths and will provide a basis for sustainable and equitable growth, building on both
domestic and international demand. All elements of policy will need to be regionally contextualized. The
expansion of education and skills, in partnership with the private sector and other stakeholders, needs
to be cognizant not only of the changing technological environment domestically and the need to be
build a more sustainable future but also of global demand, which is being shaped by demographic and
economic factors.
198 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills
X8
Postscript:
Highlights of the Periodic
Labour Force Survey for 2023
This postscript highlights insights from the recently released annual report of the sixth Periodic Labour
Force Survey for 2023. This report and data were released after the India Employment Report 2024 had
been prepared. Its main conclusions, which reflect a continuation of the trends analysed in the report,
are summarized here. The analysis focuses on adults (aged 15 years and older) and youths (aged 15–29
years) as per their usual status (UPSS) of employment.47

47 All results presented in this postscript are based on analysis of unit-level data from the Periodic Labour Force Survey,
adjusted for census-based projected population estimates.
200 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X 8.1 Labour market indicators

8.1.1 Labour force participation rate

Adults: The LFPR among adults exhibited a consistent upward trend, increasing by 2.7 percentage points,
from 55.2 per cent in 2022 to 57.9 per cent in 2023 (table 8.1). This increase was evident in both rural and
urban areas, with a substantial rise in the former (3.3 percentage points), compared to the latter (0.7
percentage points). This increase can largely be attributed to women, whose LFPR experienced a 4.2
percentage point increase, much greater than the 1.3 percentage-point increase observed among men.
The female LFPR demonstrated a higher increase in rural areas (at 4.9 percentage points) than in urban
areas (at 1.6 percentage points).
Youths: The LFPR among youths also went up by 2.5 percentage points, from 42 per cent in 2022 to
44.5 per cent in 2023 (table 8.1). This positive shift was particularly significant among rural youths,
with an increase of 3.3 percentage points, and occurred among both sexes, with women showing a 3.5
percentage-point increase and men with a 3.4 percentage- point increase. These findings suggest a
sustained trend of greater inclusion of adult women and youths, in the labour force, especially in rural
areas, over recent years.

X Table 8.1. Labour force participation rate among adults and youths, by rural or urban location
and gender, 2022 and 2023 (%)

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

Adults

2022 78.2 36.6 57.5 74.7 23.8 49.7 77.2 32.8 55.2

2023 80.2 41.5 60.8 74.5 25.4 50.4 78.5 37.0 57.9

Youths

2022 62.1 22.3 42.6 58.9 20.2 40.6 61.2 21.7 42.0

2023 65.5 25.8 45.9 58.4 20.8 40.7 63.5 24.5 44.5

Source: Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022 and 2023.

8.1.2 Worker population ratio

Adults: The worker population ratio among adults exhibited a sharper increase compared with the LFPR,
increasing by 3.1 percentage points, from 52.9 per cent in 2022 to 56 per cent in 2023 (table 8.2). This
acceleration was more pronounced in rural areas, registering a 3.8 percentage-point increase, compared
to a 1.1 percentage-point increase in urban areas. This increase in the worker population ratio was
evident among both men and women, with women experiencing a much higher rise (at 4.2 percentage
point) than men (at 2.2 percentage points). The female worker population ratio in rural areas increased
significantly more (at 4.9 percentage points) than their urban counterparts (at 1.6 percentage points).
Youths: Similar to the LFPR, the worker population ratio among youths also demonstrated improvement,
increasing by 3.3 percentage points, from 36.8 per cent in 2022 to 40.1 per cent in 2023 (table 8.2). This
increase was relatively greater among youths than adults. This change was particularly attributed to
youths in rural areas, with a substantial increase of 4.3 percentage points, as opposed to the modest
0.7 percentage points in urban areas. Young men in rural areas experienced a higher increase (5.1
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 201

percentage points) than their female counterparts (3.5 percentage points), which is opposite to the trend
observed among adults.

X Table 8.2. Worker population ratio among adults and youths, by rural or urban location and
gender, 2022 and 2023 (%)

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

Adults

2022 75.3 35.8 55.6 70.4 21.9 46.6 73.8 31.7 52.9

2023 78.0 40.7 59.4 71.0 23.5 47.7 76.0 35.9 56.0

Youths

2022 55.0 20.4 38.0 49.6 15.9 33.6 53.5 19.1 36.8

2023 60.1 23.9 42.3 50.3 16.3 34.3 57.3 21.9 40.1

Source: Periodic Labour Force Survey, 2022 and 2023.

8.1.3 Unemployment rate

Adults: The increasing trends in the LFPR and the worker population ratio among adults over recent
years has resulted in a consistent reduction in the unemployment rate among adults. It reached a six-
year low, decreasing by 0.9 percentage points, from 4.1 per cent in 2022 to 3.2 per cent in 2023 (table 8.3).
This decline was evident across both rural (by 0.8 percentage points) and urban areas (by 0.9 percentage
points), with a relatively higher reduction among men (at 1.1 percentage points) than women (at 0.4
percentage points). The declining trends in the unemployment rate can be attributed to the increasing
and converging LFPR and worker population ratio trends, particularly in rural areas.
Youths: The unemployment rate among youths experienced a more significant decline than for adults,
yet the unemployment rate among the former (at 10 per cent) remains three times what it was for the
latter (3.2 per cent). The unemployment rate for youths decreased by 2.4 percentage points, dropping
from 12.4 per cent in 2022 to 10 per cent in 2023 (table 8.3). The reduction in the unemployment rate was
more pronounced among young men (at 2.9 percentage points) than women (at 1.2 percentage points),
with the decrease almost doubling in rural areas (by 2.6 percentage points) when compared with urban
areas (by 1.5 percentage points). The youth unemployment rate was more stubborn among youths with
higher levels of education. The unemployment among youths with a secondary or higher-secondary
education was 18.4 per cent in 2022 and 19.7 per cent in 2023. Among youths with a graduate degree or
higher, the unemployment rate was 29.1 per cent in 2022 and 28.4 per cent in 2023, with female youths
having a graduate or higher degree experiencing an unemployment rate of 34.8 per cent in 2023.
202 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 8.3. Unemployment rate, by adults and youths, rural or urban location, gender and
education level, 2022 and 2023 (%)

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

Adults

2022 3.8 2.1 3.2 5.8 7.9 6.3 4.4 3.3 4.1

2023 2.7 1.8 2.4 4.7 7.5 5.4 3.3 2.9 3.2

Youths

2022 11.4 8.5 10.6 15.8 21.6 17.2 12.6 11.8 12.4

2023 8.3 7.4 8.0 13.8 21.7 15.7 9.7 10.6 10.0

Youths with secondary education or higher level of education

2022 16.2 18.1 16.6 20.0 26.7 21.9 17.5 21.4 18.4

2023 16.3 22.5 17.9 20.5 29.0 23.0 17.8 25.1 19.7

Youths with graduate degree or higher level of education

2022 27.0 37.3 29.7 26.3 32.2 28.4 26.7 34.5 29.1

2023 25.1 36.9 28.4 25.9 32.9 28.4 25.4 34.8 28.4

Source: Periodic Labour Force Survey, 2022 and 2023.

X 8.2 Sector of employment

Adults: There was marginal increase in the employment share of adult workers in agriculture (0.3
percentage points) and industry (0.4 percentage points) between 2022 and 2023, while the share in
services declined by 0.7 percentage points (table 8.4). In the manufacturing sector, there was a decrease
of 0.2 percentage points, contrasting with a 0.6 percentage-point increase in the construction sector.
Noteworthy changes in rural areas included a rise of 0.3 percentage points in the share of women in
agriculture and a 2.3 percentage-point increase in men’s share in construction, with marginal increases
of 0.3 percentage points for both men and women in manufacturing (table 8.5).
Youths: Conversely, youths’ share in agriculture decreased by 1.8 percentage points while their share
in industry increased by 3.3 percentage points and declined in services by 1.5 percentage points. In the
industrial sector, youths’ share in manufacturing declined by 0.5 percentage points, while significantly
increasing by 3.8 percentage points in the construction sector (table 8.4). The decline in employment
in services and the increase in the industrial sector, especially in construction, were more pronounced
among youths than adults. In rural areas, there was a notable decline in the share of young men in
agriculture (by 5.1 percentage points) and sharp increase in their share in construction( by 7.2 percentage
points), while the share of young women increased in manufacturing by 1.9 percentage points (table 8.6).
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 203

X Table 8.4. Industrial distribution of employment (UPSS) among youths and adults, by gender,
2022 and 2023 (%)

Youths Adults

Male Female Total Male Female Total

2022

Agriculture 32.6 56.7 38.6 38.1 62.8 45.4

Composition of industry sector 34.2 18.8 30.3 28.5 16.5 24.9

Industry

Manufacturing 14.1 14.9 14.3 11.8 11.2 11.6

Construction 19.0 3.6 15.1 15.6 5.0 12.4

Service 33.2 24.5 31.0 33.5 20.7 29.7

2023

Agriculture 29.2 57.7 36.8 37.1 64.3 45.7

Industry 39.0 18.9 33.6 30.0 15.3 25.3

Manufacturing 13.1 15.8 13.8 11.5 11.1 11.4

Construction 24.8 2.9 18.9 17.3 4.0 13.0

Service 31.8 23.4 29.5 32.9 20.4 29.0

Source: Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022 and 2023.

X Table 8.5. Industrial distribution of employment (UPSS) among all adults (aged 15+), rural or
urban location, 2022 and 2023

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

2022

Agriculture 51.0 75.9 59.0 5.4 11.1 6.7 38.1 62.8 45.4

Industry 25.4 13.4 21.6 36.2 28.8 34.5 28.5 16.5 24.9

Manufacturing 7.9 7.9 7.9 21.5 24.3 22.2 11.8 11.2 11.6

Construction 16.7 5.3 13.0 12.9 3.9 10.8 15.6 5.0 12.4

Service 23.6 10.8 19.5 58.3 60.2 58.8 33.5 20.7 29.7

All 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2023

Agriculture 49.1 76.2 58.4 4.7 11.7 6.4 37.1 64.3 45.7

Industry 28.1 12.6 22.8 34.9 27.5 33.1 30.0 15.3 25.3

Manufacturing 8.2 8.2 8.2 20.5 23.9 21.3 11.5 11.1 11.4

Construction 19.0 4.2 13.9 12.6 3.1 10.3 17.3 4.0 13.0

Service 22.8 11.3 18.8 60.4 60.8 60.5 32.9 20.4 29.0

All 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey and Periodic Labour Force Survey data.
204 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 8.6. Industrial distribution of employment (UPSS) among youths (aged 15–29),
2022 and 2023

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

2022

Agriculture 43.0 71.5 50.5 3.7 6.2 4.3 32.6 56.7 38.6

Industry 32.3 16.1 28.1 39.3 28.0 36.8 34.2 18.8 30.3

Manufacturing 10.3 11.9 10.7 24.8 25.0 24.8 14.1 14.9 14.3

Construction 21.2 3.9 16.7 13.1 2.7 10.8 19.0 3.6 15.1

Service 24.7 12.4 21.5 56.9 65.8 58.9 33.2 24.5 31.0

All 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2023

Agriculture 37.9 70.3 47.0 2.8 6.3 3.6 29.2 57.7 36.8

Industry 39.2 17.0 33.0 38.3 26.6 35.7 39.0 18.9 33.6

Manufacturing 9.8 13.8 10.9 23.0 23.8 23.2 13.1 15.8 13.8

Construction 28.4 3.1 21.3 13.7 2.1 11.1 24.8 2.9 18.9

Service 22.9 12.7 20.0 58.9 67.1 60.7 31.8 23.4 29.5

All 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey and Periodic Labour Force Survey data.

X 8.3 Quality of employment

8.3.1 Status of employment

Adults: The proportion of self-employed workers saw a 1.5 percentage-point increase, rising from 55.8
per cent in 2022 to 57.3 per cent in 2023 (table 8.7). Conversely, the share of regular salaried workers
declined marginally, by 0.6 percentage points, from 21.5 per cent to 20.9 per cent, and casual employment
decreased by 0.9 percentage points, from 22.7 per cent to 21.8 per cent during the same period. The
increase in the share of unpaid family labour (by 0.5 percentage points) and employers (by 0.6 percentage
points) in rural areas was the driver behind the overall rise in self-employment (table 8.8). Specifically,
there was an increase in the share of women in own-account work and men in unpaid family labour
categories of self-employment in rural areas (table 8.8).
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 205

X Table 8.7. Employment status (UPSS) among youths and adults, by gender, 2022 and 2023 (%)

Youths Adults

Male Female Total Male Female Total

2022

Self-employed 42.9 61.1 47.5 53.1 62.0 55.8

Own-account worker 18.5 18.1 18.4 40.5 24.8 35.8

Unpaid family labour 0.9 0.3 0.8 3.4 0.7 2.6

Employer 23.5 42.6 28.3 9.3 36.5 17.4

Regular employee 29.8 22.0 27.8 23.6 16.6 21.5

Casual worker 27.3 16.8 24.7 23.2 21.4 22.7

2023

Self-employed 41.8 65.7 48.2 53.5 65.3 57.3

Own-account worker 17.3 21.6 18.4 40.0 27.3 35.9

Unpaid family labour 1.2 0.2 1.0 4.3 0.6 3.1

Employer 23.3 44.0 28.8 9.2 37.4 18.2

Regular employee 27.5 19.8 25.4 23.2 15.9 20.9

Casual worker 30.7 14.5 26.4 23.3 18.8 21.8

Source: Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022 and 2023.
206 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table 8.8. Employment status (UPSS) among all adults (aged 15+), rural or urban location 2022
and 2023

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

2022

Self-employed 58.5 67.7 61.5 39.5 39.3 39.5 53.1 62.0 55.8

Own-account 44.6 24.5 38.2 30.0 25.9 29.1 40.5 24.8 35.8
worker

Employer 11.2 42.6 21.3 4.5 12.6 6.4 9.3 36.5 17.4

Unpaid family 2.7 0.6 2.0 5.0 0.8 4.0 3.4 0.7 2.6
labour

Regular 14.7 8.1 12.6 46.2 50.3 47.1 23.6 16.6 21.5
employee

Casual worker 26.8 24.2 26.0 14.3 10.3 13.4 23.2 21.4 22.7

All 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2023

Self-employed 58.8 71.0 63.0 39.3 40.3 39.6 53.5 65.3 57.3

Own-account 44.3 27.5 38.6 28.3 26.2 27.8 40.0 27.3 35.9
worker

Employer 10.9 43.0 21.9 4.6 12.7 6.6 9.2 37.4 18.2

Unpaid family 3.5 0.4 2.5 6.5 1.4 5.2 4.3 0.6 3.1
labour

Regular 14.4 8.0 12.2 47.1 50.8 48.0 23.2 15.9 20.9
employee

Casual worker 26.8 21.0 24.9 13.6 8.9 12.4 23.3 18.8 21.8

All 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey and Periodic Labour Force Survey data.

Youths: The increase in the share of self-employed individuals was less pronounced than among adults,
rising by only 0.7 percentage points, from 47.5 per cent in 2022 to 48.2 per cent in 2023. In contrast, the
share of regular workers declined relatively more than among adults, dropping by 2.4 percentage points,
from 27.8 per cent to 25.4 per cent. Conversely, the share of casual workers among youths exhibited a
contrasting trend when compared with adults, increasing by 1.7 percentage points, from 24.7 per cent to
26.4 per cent. Notably, the share of female employers (by 0.3 percentage points) and female own-account
workers (by 4.4 percentage points) categories, especially in rural areas, increased between 2022 and 2023
(table 8.9). The trend of a relatively higher increase in the share of employer and own-account worker
categories of self-employment, compared to the unpaid category, among youths as well as a rise in the
share of casual workers differed from the earlier trend.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 207

X Table 8.9. Status of employment (UPSS) among all youths (aged 15–29), rural or urban location
2022 and 2023

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

2022

Self-employed 48.5 69.3 53.9 27.6 33.2 28.9 42.9 61.1 47.5

Own-account 19.5 17.6 19.0 15.8 19.9 16.7 18.5 18.1 18.4
worker

Employer 28.2 51.4 34.3 10.5 13.0 11.0 23.5 42.6 28.3

Unpaid family 0.8 0.4 0.6 1.4 0.3 1.1 0.9 0.3 0.8
labour

Regular 20.0 10.4 17.5 56.6 61.7 57.7 29.8 22.0 27.8
employee

Casual worker 31.5 20.3 28.6 15.8 5.1 13.4 27.3 16.8 24.7

All 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2023

Self-employed 46.2 73.8 53.9 28.4 32.9 29.4 41.8 65.7 48.2

Own-account 17.8 22.0 19.0 15.5 19.8 16.5 17.3 21.6 18.4
worker

Employer 27.4 51.7 34.2 10.9 12.4 11.2 23.3 44.0 28.8

Unpaid family 1.0 0.0 0.7 2.1 0.7 1.8 1.2 0.2 1.0
labour

Regular 18.1 9.3 15.6 56.1 62.6 57.6 27.5 19.8 25.4
employee

Casual worker 35.7 16.9 30.4 15.5 4.5 13.0 30.7 14.5 26.4

All 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey and Periodic Labour Force Survey data.

X 8.4 Wages and earnings

Adults: Among adults, the average monthly real wages and earnings either stagnated or continued a
consistent decline over the past two years (table 8.10). For regular salaried workers, there was a decline
from 10,925 rupees in 2022 to 10,790 rupees in 2023, while real wages for casual workers experienced
a marginal drop, from 4,712 rupees to 4,671 rupees. In contrast, the real earnings for self-employed
individuals increased, from 6,843 rupees in 2022 to 7,060 rupees in 2023. In particular, female youths’ real
earnings and wages in self-employment and casual work declined, 'while male youths' real earnings in
self-employment increased marginally and real wages in casual work remained stable. The real earnings
for regular salaried workers declined for both men and women between 2022 and 2023.
208 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Youths: The real earnings and wages for youths consistently lagged those of adults. The real earnings
for youths experienced a marginal increase in self-employment, inching up from 5,770 rupees in 2022
to 5,781 rupees in 2023, while youths’ real wages in casual work increased from 4,738 rupees to 5,094
rupees. Conversely, real earnings for youths in regular salaried jobs declined from 8,375 rupees in 2022
to 7,971 rupees in 2023. Real wages by gender in casual work exhibited an opposing trend, with an
increase for men and a decrease for women. Similarly, real earnings in self-employment for young men
experienced a rise while it decreased for women between 2022 and 2023. In contrast, the real earnings
for both young men and women in regular salaried work declined. There was a substantial decline in real
earnings in regular salaried jobs among women, with casual wages rising among men between 2022 and
2023, which was much higher than among adults.

X Table 8.10. Average real monthly wage and earnings among adults and youths, by status of
employment, 2022 and 2023 (rupees)

Casual workers Regular workers Self-employed

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

Adults

2022 5 180 3 158 4 712 11 510 8 861 10 925 7 651 3 098 6 843

2023 5 179 3 077 4 671 11 390 8 806 10 790 8 169 2 991 7 060

Youths

2022 4 928 3 374 4 738 8 161 9 281 8 375 6 630 2 546 5 770

2023 5 345 3 017 5 094 7 913 8 193 7 971 7 082 2 363 5 781

Source: Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022 and 2023.

X 8.5 Summing up

The Periodic Labour Force Survey 2023 findings revealed a continuation of the recent past trends of
increasing participation in the labour market, with a rising LFPR and worker population ratio and a
declining unemployment rate between 2022 and 2023. Adult women experienced a relatively higher
increase in the LFPR and worker population ratio when compared with men, particularly in rural areas.
Among youths, there was a noticeable rise in men when compared with women, indicating a widening
gender disparity over the years. However, there was a persistently high and increasing unemployment
rate observed among highly educated young individuals.
There was an increase in the employment share of adults in agriculture and industry and a decline
in services, with rural areas experiencing relatively greater changes. But there was a decline in the
employment share of youths in agriculture and services while their presence increased in industry.
Specifically, the employment share of young men increased in agriculture and construction while the
numbers of young women increased in manufacturing. The employment status reveals an increase in
self-employment among adults, primarily attributed to unpaid family labour and employers in rural
areas, and a decline in regular salaried and casual employment. Among youths, the share of self-
employed also increased but relatively less so than among adults, while their share in regular salaried
jobs declined and increased in casual work. In particular, the share of young women showed an increase
in the employer and own-account worker categories in self-employment, differing from the earlier trend
of a substantial rise in unpaid family labour.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 209

In addition, the average monthly real wages and earnings among adults and youths continued to either
stagnate or decline. For adults, the real earnings for regular salaried workers declined, with a marginal
increase among the self-employed individuals. However, the real earnings and wages of women in self-
employment and casual work declined, while a marginal increase was observed in the real earnings of
men in self-employment. In comparison, youths’ real wages and earnings were consistently lower than
those of adults, with marginal increases in real earnings and wages from self-employment and casual
work and a decline in real earnings from regular salaried jobs. The gender disparities in real wages
and earnings widened among youths in casual work and self-employment, with men experiencing an
increase while there was a decline among women.
This increase in labour market participation, especially in rural areas, in self-employment and in casual
work, especially among youths in agriculture and the construction sector, in informal employment and in
the informal sector, with stagnant or marginally rising real wages and earnings between 2022 and 2023,
only highlights the continuation of the past four to five years of trends in the Indian labour market. It is
also interesting to see the recent rise in the participation of adults and young individuals as employers
and own-account workers in self-employment, as well as in the manufacturing sector. This and the rise in
real earnings and wages from self-employment and casual work, especially among men, indicates some
improvement in the labour market – which needs further exploration.
210 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

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X Appendix
Additional statistical tables

Appendix Chapter 2
X Table A2.1. Labour force participation rate (UPSS, aged 15+), 2000, 2005, 2012 and 2018–22 (%)

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

2000 85.4 45.4 65.6 78.8 78.8 51.0 83.6 38.9 61.6

2005 85.9 49.4 67.7 79.2 79.2 53.0 84.0 42.7 63.7

2012 81.3 35.8 58.7 76.4 76.4 49.3 79.8 31.2 55.9

2018 76.4 24.6 50.7 74.5 74.5 47.6 75.8 23.3 49.8

2019 76.4 26.4 51.5 73.7 73.7 47.5 75.5 24.5 50.2

2020 77.9 33.1 55.5 74.6 74.6 49.3 76.8 30.0 53.5

2021 78.1 36.5 57.4 74.6 74.6 49.1 77.0 32.5 54.9

2022 78.2 36.6 57.5 74.7 74.7 49.7 77.2 32.8 55.2

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey and Periodic Labour Force Survey data.

X Table A2.2. Workforce participation rate (UPSS, aged 15+), 2000, 2005, 2012 and 2018–22 (%)

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

2000 83.9 44.9 64.6 75.2 19.7 48.6 81.5 38.3 60.2

2005 84.6 48.5 66.6 76.3 22.7 50.6 82.2 41.6 62.2

2012 80.0 35.2 57.8 74.1 19.5 47.6 78.1 30.5 54.7

2018 72.0 23.7 48.1 69.3 18.2 43.9 71.2 22.0 46.8

2019 72.2 25.5 48.9 68.6 18.4 43.8 71.0 23.3 47.3

2020 74.4 32.2 53.3 69.9 21.3 45.8 73.0 28.7 50.9

2021 75.1 35.8 55.5 70.0 21.2 45.8 73.6 31.4 52.6

2022 75.3 35.8 55.6 70.4 21.9 46.6 73.8 31.7 52.9

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey and Periodic Labour Force Survey data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 225

X Table A2.3. Unemployment rate (UPSS, aged 15+), 2000, 2005, 2012 and 2018–22 (%)

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

2000 1.8 1.1 1.5 4.6 5.7 4.8 2.5 1.7 2.3

2005 1.6 1.8 1.7 3.7 6.9 4.4 2.1 2.6 2.3

2012 1.7 1.6 1.7 3.0 5.3 3.4 2.1 2.3 2.1

2018 5.7 3.8 5.3 6.9 10.8 7.7 6.1 5.6 6.0

2019 5.5 3.5 5.0 7.0 9.8 7.6 6.0 5.2 5.8

2020 4.5 2.6 3.9 6.4 8.9 6.9 5.1 4.2 4.8

2021 3.8 2.1 3.3 6.1 8.6 6.7 4.5 3.5 4.2

2022 3.8 2.1 3.2 5.8 7.9 6.3 4.4 3.3 4.1

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey and Periodic Labour Force Survey data.

X Table A2.4. Underemployment or labour underutilization, 2018, 2019 and 2022 (%)

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

LU1

2022 2.2 2.5 2.3 0.8 1.9 1.0 1.8 2.4 1.9

2019 2.2 2.6 2.3 0.7 2.5 1.0 1.7 2.5 1.9

2018 3.9 5.0 4.1 1.4 5.5 2.2 3.0 5.1 3.5

LU2

2022 7.6 6.0 7.2 7.7 10.6 8.4 7.7 7.1 7.5

2019 9.3 8.3 9.0 8.5 12.8 9.4 9.0 9.6 9.1

2018 10.8 10.5 10.7 8.8 16.2 10.3 10.1 12.3 10.6
Note: LU1=The ratio between the number of persons in time-related underemployment and the total number of employed persons. LU2=A composite
rate of time-related underemployment and unemployment, referred to as LU2.
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey and Periodic Labour Force Survey data.
226 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A2.5. Changing structure of the India’s economy, 2000, 2012, 2019, 2021 and 2022 (%)

Employment share GVA share

2000 2012 2019 2021 2022 2000 2012 2019 2021 2022

Agriculture, etc. 61.5 48.8 42.4 46.4 45.4 27.1 18.5 14.8 16.3 15.6

Mining & quar- 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 4.7 3.2 2.6 2.3 2.2
rying

Manufacturing 10.5 12.5 12.0 10.9 11.6 15.1 17.4 18.3 17.9 18.7

Electricity, gas & 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 2.4 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3
water supply

Construction 4.4 10.6 12.1 12.1 12.4 6.7 9.6 8.1 7.7 8.2

Trade, hotel & 9.9 11 12.6 12.2 12.1 9.4 10.9 13.4 11.3 11.4
restaurants

Transport, storage 3.6 4.9 5.9 5.4 5.6 4.8 6.5 6.5 5.8 6.4
& communications

Finance, business, 1.2 2.3 3.4 2.9 3.0 18.7 18.9 21.3 23.5 22.5
real estate

Public administra- 8.2 8.8 10.5 9.2 9.0 11.1 12.7 12.8 13.0 12.7
tion, health,
education

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey and Periodic Labour Force Survey data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 227

X Table A2.6. Status of employment (UPSS, aged 15+), 2000, 2005, 2012 and 2018–22 (%)

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

2000 Self-employed 54.6 57.0 55.5 41.3 44.8 42.0 51.2 55.4 52.5

Regular employee 9.0 3.2 7.0 41.7 33.8 40.2 17.3 7.4 14.2

Casual worker 36.4 39.8 37.6 17.0 21.4 17.8 31.4 37.3 33.3

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2005 Self-employed 58.0 63.6 60.0 44.8 47.2 45.3 54.6 61.2 56.8

Regular employee 9.1 3.8 7.1 40.7 36.0 39.7 17.3 8.4 14.4

Casual worker 32.9 32.7 32.8 14.5 16.8 15.0 28.1 30.4 28.9

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2012 Self-employed 54.4 59.1 55.8 41.8 42.7 42.0 50.7 56.0 52.2

Regular employee 10.1 5.7 8.7 43.5 43.0 43.4 19.9 12.8 17.9

Casual worker 35.5 35.2 35.4 14.7 14.3 14.7 29.4 31.2 29.9

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2018 Self-employed 57.8 57.7 57.8 39.2 34.7 38.3 52.3 51.9 52.2

Regular employee 14.0 10.5 13.1 45.7 52.2 47.0 23.4 21.1 22.9

Casual worker 28.2 31.8 29.1 15.1 13.1 14.7 24.3 27.1 24.9

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2019 Self-employed 57.4 59.6 58.0 38.7 34.5 37.8 51.6 53.3 52.0

Regular employee 14.3 11.0 13.4 47.2 54.7 48.7 24.4 21.9 23.8

Casual worker 28.3 29.4 28.6 14.1 10.8 13.5 24.0 24.7 24.2

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2020 Self-employed 58.2 60.2 58.7 38.6 32.4 37.2 52.1 53.2 52.4

Regular employee 13.9 11.0 13.1 47.3 56.9 49.4 24.2 22.6 23.8

Casual worker 27.9 28.9 28.2 14.1 10.7 13.4 23.7 24.3 23.8

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2021 Self-employed 59.6 64.7 61.3 39.8 38.4 39.5 53.9 59.3 55.5

Regular employee 13.6 9.1 12.1 45.3 50.2 46.4 22.8 17.5 21.2

Casual worker 26.8 26.2 26.6 14.9 11.5 14.1 23.3 23.2 23.3

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2022 Self-employed 58.5 67.7 61.5 39.5 39.3 39.5 53.1 62.0 55.8

Regular employee 14.7 8.1 12.6 46.2 50.3 47.1 23.6 16.6 21.5

Casual worker 26.8 24.2 26.0 14.3 10.3 13.4 23.2 21.4 22.7

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey and Periodic Labour Force Survey data.
228 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A2.7. Detail status of employment (UPSS), 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

2000

Self-employed 54.6 57.0 55.5 41.3 44.8 42.0 51.0 55.2 52.3

Own-account 38.7 15.3 30.7 32.4 24.0 30.8 37.0 16.6 30.7
worker

Employer 1.2 0.5 0.9 1.4 0.6 1.2 1.2 0.5 1.0

Unpaid family 14.7 41.3 23.8 7.5 20.2 10.0 12.7 38.1 20.5
worker

Regular 9.0 3.2 7.0 41.7 33.8 40.2 18.0 7.8 14.9
employee

Casual worker 36.4 39.8 37.5 17.0 21.4 17.8 31.0 37.0 32.9

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2012

Self-employed 54.4 59.1 55.8 41.8 42.7 42.0 50.7 56.0 52.2

Own-account 40.4 18.3 33.7 32.3 25.8 31.0 38.0 19.7 33.0
worker

Employer 1.5 0.4 1.2 2.7 0.5 2.3 1.8 0.4 1.5

Unpaid family 12.5 40.4 21.0 6.7 16.5 8.7 10.8 35.9 17.7
worker

Regular 10.1 5.7 8.7 43.5 43.0 43.4 19.9 12.8 17.9
employee

Casual worker 35.5 35.2 35.4 14.7 14.3 14.7 29.4 31.2 29.9

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2019

Self-employed 57.4 59.6 58.0 38.7 34.5 37.8 51.6 53.3 52.0

Own-account 46.3 21.3 39.8 30.1 23.7 28.8 41.3 21.9 36.6
worker

Employer 2.0 0.5 1.6 4.5 1.1 3.8 2.8 0.7 2.3

Unpaid family 9.1 37.8 16.5 4.1 9.6 5.2 7.5 30.8 13.2
worker

Regular 14.3 11.0 13.4 47.2 54.7 48.7 24.4 21.9 23.8
employee

Casual worker 28.3 29.4 28.6 14.1 10.8 13.5 24.0 24.7 24.2

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 229

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

2022

Self-employed 58.5 67.7 61.5 39.5 39.3 39.5 53.1 62.0 55.8

Own-account 44.6 24.5 38.2 30.0 25.9 29.1 40.5 24.8 35.8
worker

Employer 2.7 0.6 2.0 5.0 0.8 4.0 3.4 0.7 2.6

Unpaid family 11.2 42.6 21.3 4.5 12.6 6.4 9.3 36.5 17.4
worker

Regular 14.7 8.1 12.6 46.2 50.3 47.1 23.6 16.6 21.5
employee

Casual worker 26.8 24.2 26.0 14.3 10.3 13.4 23.2 21.4 22.7

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Note: M=male; F=female; P=persons.

Source: Estimates based on various rounds of the National Sample Surveys data on employment and unemployment.

X Table A2.8a. Modification of formal versus informal sector

Number of workers
Enterprise type
Fewer than 10 workers 10 or more workers

Proprietary: male and female Informal Formal

Partnership: with members from same

Informal Formal
household

Partnership: with members from

Informal Formal
different households

Government or local bodies Formal

Public sector enterprises Formal

Public or private limited companies Formal

Autonomous bodies Formal

Cooperative societies Formal

Trust and other non-profit institutions Formal

Household sector: employer’s households

(private households employing maid,
security guard, cook, etc.) Informal
(In 2000 data NIC 95 and Ent type code 7
to be taken as informal sector)"

Enterprise type No. of workers not known

No social security Social security

Others Informal Formal

Source: National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector and 21st International Conference of Labour Statisticians.
230 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A2.8b. Modification of formal versus informal employment

Status of work Formal sector Informal sector Household sector

Self-employed:
Informal employment
own-account worker

Self-employed:
Formal employment Informal employment
employer

Unpaid family worker Informal employment

Regular salaried or Informal employment

wage employee Informal employment, if not eligible for at least one social
security benefit among Provident Fund, pension, gratuity,
Casual wage worker
health care benefit or maternity benefit.
in public works

Casual wage worker Formal employment, if eligible for at least one social secu-
in other types of rity benefit
work

Source: National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector and 21st International Conference of Labour Statisticians.

X Table A2.9. Average monthly earnings of regular, casual and self-employed workers, by
sector and gender, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (base 2012=100) (rupees)

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

Regular 2012 9 675 5 933 8 966 14 218 11 172 13 616 12 726 9 513 12 100

2019 9 322 6 193 8 721 13 423 10 994 12 953 11 679 8 962 11 155

2022 9 272 6004 8 623 13 236 10 621 12 616 11 510 8 861 10 925

CAGR 2012–19 -0.5 0.6 -0.4 -0.8 -0.2 -0.7 -1.2 -0.8 -1.2

2019-22 -0.2 -1.0 -0.4 -0.5 -1.1 -0.9 -0.5 -0.4 -0.7

2011–22 -0.4 0.1 -0.4 -0.7 -0.5 -0.8 -1.0 -0.7 -1.0

Casual 2012 3 933 2 485 3 554 4 903 2 730 4 516 4 096 2 512 3 701

2019 4 536 2 752 4 117 5 762 3 485 5 426 4 789 2 846 4 364

2022 5 018 3 097 4 544 5 969 3 718 5 635 5 180 3 158 4 712

CAGR 2012–19 2.1 1.5 2.1 2.3 3.5 2.7 2.3 1.8 2.4

2019-22 3.4 4.0 3.3 1.2 2.2 1.3 2.7 3.5 2.6

2011–22 2.5 2.2 2.5 2.0 3.1 2.2 2.4 2.3 2.4

Self-employed 2019 6 277 3 233 5 883 11 925 5 393 11 136 7 506 3 674 7 017

2022 6 476 2 735 5 796 11 556 4 470 10 400 7 651 3 098 6 843

CAGR 2019-22 1.0 -5.4 -0.5 -1.0 -6.1 -2.3 0.6 -5.5 -0.8

Note: Casual wages also include wages in public works, such as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee. Wages adjusted using con-
sumer price index-R and consumer price index-U.by taking 2012 as the base year; CAGR =compound annual growth rate.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 231

X Table A2.10a. Employment characteristics (UPSS, aged 15+), by social group, 2022 (%)

Other
Scheduled Scheduled General
Backward
Tribes Castes Category
Classes

Worker population ratio 66.8 54.2 52.5 47.6

Unemployment rate 2.3 4.4 3.9 4.9

Self-employed 58.6 42.0 59.9 58.2

Regular 12.4 19.8 20.1 30.6

Casual 29.0 38.2 20.1 11.2

Organized 14.5 18.7 17.0 25.1

Unorganized 85.5 81.3 83.0 74.9

Formal 5.1 7.3 8.7 16.2

Informal 94.9 92.7 91.3 83.8

High- and medium-skill jobs 4.0 6.6 9.7 19.9

Low-skill jobs 65.5 53.1 69.3 66.7

No-skill jobs 30.5 40.4 20.9 13.4

Education (secondary) + 24.4 31.0 38.9 51.2

Population (%) 9.4 19.4 45.5 25.7

Source: Computed from the Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

X Table A2.10b. Employment characteristics (UPSS, aged 15+), by income class (monthly per
capita expenditure quintiles), 2022 (%)

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5

Worker population ratio 52.4 53.9 53.7 53.9 50.8

Unemployment rate 3.3 3.0 4.0 4.4 5.5

Self-employed 56.0 59.0 59.8 57.1 46.4

Regular 12.9 17.9 24.3 44.2 21.5

Casual 34.6 28.1 22.3 18.6 9.4

Organized 9.7 11.6 15.0 20.1 39.0

Unorganized 90.3 88.4 85.0 79.9 61.0

Formal 2.2 3.8 6.0 9.8 27.7

Informal 97.8 96.2 94.0 90.2 72.3

High- and medium-skill jobs 3.9 5.0 7.2 10.7 28.6

Low-skill jobs 61.1 66.6 68.8 69.0 58.6

No-skill jobs 35.0 28.4 24.0 20.3 12.8

Education (secondary) + 25.7 30.1 35.6 42.3 62.1

Population (%) 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0

Source: Computed from the Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.
232 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A2.10c. Employment characteristics (UPSS, aged 15+), by gender, 2022 (%)

Male Female

Worker population ratio 73.8 31.7

Unemployment rate 4.4 3.3

Self-employed 53.1 62.0

Regular 23.6 16.6

Casual 23.2 21.4

Organized 19.5 17.5

Unorganized 80.5 82.5

Formal 10.8 7.1

Informal 89.2 92.9

High- and medium-skill jobs 11.3 9.4

Low-skill jobs 64.9 65.2

No-skill jobs 23.9 25.5

Education (secondary) + 44.6 33.6

Population (%) 50.4 49.6

Source: Computed from the Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

X Table A2.10d. Employment characteristics (UPSS, aged 15+), by geographical regions, 2022 (%)

North East Central North- South West

East

Worker population ratio 51.6 48.6 54.1 52.1 54.9 56.1

Unemployment rate 5.6 4.4 2.8 4.3 4.8 3.0

Self-employed 58.3 56.6 68.0 60.0 44.8 48.8

Regular 15.8 13.5 20.9 26.7 30.6 21.5

Casual 15.9 27.5 18.6 19.1 28.5 20.7

Organized 19.5 14.4 10.7 21.5 26.2 25.6

Unorganized 80.5 85.6 89.3 78.5 73.8 74.4

Formal 10.2 6.6 4.9 13.1 14.0 13.9

Informal 89.8 93.4 95.1 86.9 86.0 86.1

High- and medium-skill jobs 11.8 8.1 7.4 10.4 14.3 13.5

Low-skill jobs 68.3 64.1 72.0 70.1 57.6 61.1

No-skill jobs 19.9 27.8 20.6 19.5 28.1 25.4

Education (secondary) + 42.7 31.9 36.0 28.7 46.1 44.3

Population (%) 12.9 22.3 23.8 3.9 22.1 15.1

Note: The major 22 states included in the analysis were divided into five regions: Central – Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh;
East – Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha; North – Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan; North-East – Assam;
South – Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana; and West – Gujarat, Maharashtra.
Source: Computed from the Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 233

X Table A2.11. Changes in self-employment (UPSS, aged 15+), by gender and sector pre- and
post-COVID-19 pandemic, 2019 and 2021 (millions)

Male Female Rural Urban Total

2019

Own-account worker 146.0 24.1 125.9 44.2 170.1

Employer 9.9 0.8 4.8 5.9 10.7

Unpaid family worker 26.6 33.7 52.3 8.0 60.3

Self-employed 182.5 58.1 183.0 58.1 241.1

2021

Own-account worker 158.9 34.6 142.0 51.5 193.5

Employer 10.6 0.7 5.8 5.5 11.3

Unpaid family worker 33.6 54.9 78.0 10.5 88.5

Self-employed 203.1 90.2 225.8 67.5 293.3

Addition or loss in jobs

Own-account worker 12.9 10.5 16.1 7.3 23.4

Employer 0.7 -0.1 1.0 -0.4 0.6

Unpaid family worker 7.0 21.2 25.7 2.5 28.2

Self-employed 20.6 32.1 42.8 9.4 52.2

Source: Computed from the Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2019, and 2021.
234 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A 2.12a. Male employment condition index, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank

Delhi 0.60 1 0.71 1 0.59 1 0.78 1

Jammu & Kashmir 0.58 2 0.56 10 0.55 3 0.54 7

Gujarat 0.56 3 0.61 2 0.58 2 0.61 3

Uttarakhand 0.54 4 0.57 8 0.52 7 0.52 15

Haryana 0.54 5 0.61 4 0.52 8 0.53 12

Rajasthan 0.53 6 0.55 11 0.43 17 0.50 17

Punjab 0.52 7 0.60 6 0.49 11 0.50 18

Himachal Pradesh 0.52 8 0.61 3 0.53 5 0.53 10

Tamil Nadu 0.51 9 0.54 12 0.51 9 0.54 8

Karnataka 0.51 10 0.58 7 0.54 4 0.56 5

Telangana 0.51 11 0.56 9 0.43 18 0.63 2

Maharashtra 0.50 12 0.60 5 0.52 6 0.57 4

Madhya Pradesh 0.50 13 0.51 14 0.45 16 0.53 11

Uttar Pradesh 0.48 14 0.47 18 0.40 19 0.51 16

Andhra Pradesh 0.46 15 0.53 13 0.46 15 0.53 9

Chhattisgarh 0.44 16 0.44 21 0.48 12 0.53 14

Jharkhand 0.44 17 0.48 16 0.38 20 0.49 19

Assam 0.43 18 0.45 20 0.47 13 0.56 6

West Bengal 0.41 19 0.45 19 0.46 14 0.53 13

Bihar 0.40 20 0.39 22 0.28 22 0.40 21

Kerala 0.36 21 0.51 15 0.49 10 0.47 20

Odisha 0.32 22 0.47 17 0.35 21 0.39 22

India 0.47 0.58 0.48 0.57

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 235

X Table A2.12b. Female employment condition index, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank

Himachal Pradesh 0.59 1 0.67 1 0.61 1 0.75 1

Uttarakhand 0.56 2 0.51 5 0.48 9 0.61 3

Delhi 0.54 3 0.63 2 0.58 2 0.64 2

Telangana 0.52 4 0.53 3 0.44 18 0.58 7

Rajasthan 0.48 5 0.50 7 0.47 13 0.59 4

Tamil Nadu 0.47 6 0.48 10 0.53 6 0.54 10

Jammu & Kashmir 0.46 7 0.50 8 0.55 3 0.58 6

Maharashtra 0.45 8 0.48 11 0.46 16 0.51 16

Chhattisgarh 0.44 9 0.47 12 0.50 7 0.55 9

Andhra Pradesh 0.44 10 0.47 13 0.46 15 0.54 11

Jharkhand 0.44 11 0.33 21 0.42 19 0.52 14

Karnataka 0.43 12 0.49 9 0.47 12 0.50 17

Madhya Pradesh 0.43 13 0.41 16 0.45 17 0.45 20

Gujarat 0.42 14 0.45 15 0.47 11 0.53 13

Haryana 0.42 15 0.50 6 0.53 5 0.48 19

Punjab 0.41 16 0.51 4 0.48 10 0.54 12

Kerala 0.38 17 0.46 14 0.54 4 0.58 5

Assam 0.36 18 0.39 19 0.49 8 0.56 8

Uttar Pradesh 0.34 19 0.39 18 0.42 20 0.50 18

West Bengal 0.31 20 0.40 17 0.47 14 0.51 15

Bihar 0.27 21 0.21 22 0.33 22 0.41 22

Odisha 0.24 22 0.34 20 0.37 21 0.43 21

India 0.32 0.48 0.51 0.68

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
236 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A2.13a. Percentage of regular formal workers aged 15+, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Delhi 23.33 0.65 1 27.73 0.78 1 20.93 0.58 1 29.10 0.82 1

Jammu & Kashmir 13.32 0.35 2 15.14 0.40 2 19.40 0.53 2 15.05 0.40 8

Haryana 11.20 0.29 3 14.42 0.38 3 16.48 0.44 6 15.70 0.42 5

Punjab 10.81 0.27 4 9.73 0.24 9 10.04 0.25 12 7.83 0.18 16

Himachal Pradesh 10.67 0.27 5 9.25 0.23 10 12.57 0.33 9 12.76 0.33 10

Maharashtra 10.35 0.26 6 11.84 0.31 5 15.59 0.42 7 15.48 0.41 6

Kerala 9.58 0.24 7 11.39 0.29 6 14.88 0.40 8 17.75 0.48 2

Uttarakhand 9.39 0.23 8 10.87 0.28 8 17.06 0.46 4 15.75 0.42 4

Tamil Nadu 9.34 0.23 9 11.38 0.29 7 18.27 0.50 3 16.95 0.46 3

Gujarat 8.96 0.22 10 8.01 0.19 12 12.24 0.32 11 10.44 0.26 12

West Bengal 7.87 0.19 11 7.88 0.19 13 8.28 0.20 14 9.37 0.23 13

Karnataka 7.43 0.17 12 12.20 0.32 4 16.76 0.45 5 15.36 0.41 7

Assam 6.89 0.16 13 7.22 0.17 14 12.40 0.32 10 12.88 0.34 9

Telangana 6.88 0.16 14 9.05 0.22 11 9.42 0.23 13 10.97 0.28 11

Jharkhand 5.78 0.12 15 7.19 0.17 15 7.15 0.16 17 7.15 0.16 17

Odisha 5.55 0.12 16 5.82 0.12 17 7.22 0.17 16 8.11 0.19 15

Rajasthan 5.22 0.11 17 5.26 0.11 18 5.99 0.13 19 6.37 0.14 19

Madhya Pradesh 4.94 0.10 18 6.11 0.13 16 5.38 0.11 20 5.99 0.13 20

Andhra Pradesh 4.73 0.09 19 5.02 0.10 19 8.11 0.19 15 8.95 0.22 14

Chhattisgarh 4.62 0.09 20 3.44 0.05 21 6.89 0.16 18 6.62 0.15 18

Uttar Pradesh 4.51 0.08 21 4.13 0.07 20 5.29 0.11 21 4.21 0.08 21

Bihar 2.13 0.01 22 2.62 0.03 22 3.66 0.06 22 3.23 0.05 22

India 7.23 0.21 8.17 0.35 10.47 0.69 10.18 0.65

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 237

X Table A2.13b. Regular formal male workers aged 15+, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Delhi 21.52 0.66 1 25.41 0.79 1 18.90 0.57 2 26.34 0.82 1

Himachal Pradesh 14.56 0.43 2 13.66 0.40 4 17.52 0.53 5 18.26 0.55 4

Jammu & Kashmir 13.46 0.39 3 14.49 0.42 2 18.29 0.55 3 15.48 0.46 8

Maharashtra 12.88 0.37 4 13.58 0.39 5 17.27 0.52 6 17.44 0.52 5

Uttarakhand 12.13 0.35 5 12.64 0.36 6 17.67 0.53 4 18.83 0.57 2

Haryana 11.96 0.34 6 13.67 0.40 3 16.69 0.50 8 17.11 0.51 6

Tamil Nadu 11.67 0.33 7 12.23 0.35 9 19.76 0.60 1 18.70 0.57 3

Gujarat 11.02 0.31 8 8.56 0.23 12 12.24 0.35 9 11.76 0.33 11

Punjab 9.64 0.26 9 8.83 0.23 11 10.12 0.28 13 7.48 0.19 19

Karnataka 8.88 0.24 10 12.63 0.36 7 16.97 0.51 7 16.37 0.49 7

Telangana 8.23 0.21 11 12.24 0.35 8 11.89 0.34 12 13.98 0.41 9

West Bengal 8.08 0.21 12 7.65 0.19 13 8.25 0.21 16 9.26 0.25 14

Kerala 7.86 0.20 13 9.45 0.26 10 11.98 0.34 10 13.59 0.39 10

Jharkhand 7.14 0.18 14 7.42 0.19 14 7.57 0.19 17 7.99 0.21 18

Assam 7.08 0.18 15 7.00 0.17 15 11.92 0.34 11 11.48 0.32 12

Chhattisgarh 6.58 0.16 16 4.43 0.09 20 9.01 0.24 15 8.37 0.22 16

Rajasthan 6.47 0.16 17 6.01 0.14 19 6.48 0.16 19 8.04 0.21 17

Odisha 6.35 0.15 18 6.07 0.14 18 7.36 0.19 18 8.46 0.22 15

Madhya Pradesh 6.28 0.15 19 6.87 0.17 16 5.98 0.14 20 6.38 0.15 20

Andhra Pradesh 5.91 0.14 20 6.37 0.15 17 9.89 0.27 14 10.17 0.28 13

Uttar Pradesh 5.01 0.11 21 4.32 0.08 21 5.14 0.11 21 4.47 0.09 21

Bihar 2.31 0.02 22 2.41 0.02 22 3.09 0.04 22 2.85 0.03 22

India 8.29 0.30 8.55 0.34 10.61 0.67 7.98 0.25

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
238 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A2.13c. Regular female workers aged 15+, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Delhi 39.37 0.67 1 41.70 0.71 1 31.19 0.53 1 48.69 0.83 1

Punjab 23.05 0.39 2 18.42 0.31 4 9.69 0.15 12 9.27 0.15 10

Kerala 14.55 0.24 3 17.40 0.29 5 23.01 0.39 3 28.22 0.48 2

Jammu & Kashmir 12.11 0.20 4 22.48 0.38 2 28.59 0.48 2 11.16 0.18 6

Haryana 6.89 0.11 5 20.62 0.34 3 15.52 0.26 6 9.76 0.16 9

West Bengal 6.59 0.10 6 9.18 0.15 8 8.56 0.13 13 9.84 0.16 8

Assam 5.79 0.09 7 8.69 0.14 9 15.57 0.26 5 18.17 0.30 3

Maharashtra 5.35 0.08 8 7.35 0.11 10 11.27 0.18 11 11.15 0.18 7

Tamil Nadu 5.33 0.08 9 9.34 0.15 7 15.08 0.25 7 13.48 0.22 4

Himachal Pradesh 5.00 0.07 10 3.66 0.05 16 5.71 0.09 16 5.67 0.08 17

Telangana 5.00 0.07 11 3.38 0.05 17 4.64 0.07 19 5.92 0.09 16

Karnataka 4.61 0.07 12 11.06 0.18 6 16.17 0.27 4 12.70 0.21 5

Uttarakhand 3.91 0.05 13 5.77 0.09 13 14.48 0.24 8 8.65 0.14 11

Gujarat 3.32 0.04 14 5.89 0.09 12 12.25 0.20 10 6.41 0.10 15

Odisha 3.25 0.04 15 4.72 0.07 15 6.73 0.10 14 6.94 0.11 12

Andhra Pradesh 2.67 0.03 16 2.47 0.03 21 4.86 0.07 18 6.66 0.10 13

Rajasthan 2.22 0.02 17 3.27 0.04 19 4.40 0.06 20 2.76 0.03 22

Jharkhand 2.18 0.02 18 5.71 0.09 14 5.28 0.08 17 4.60 0.07 19

Uttar Pradesh 2.12 0.02 19 2.88 0.04 20 6.52 0.10 15 3.04 0.04 21

Madhya Pradesh 1.86 0.02 20 3.36 0.04 18 3.61 0.05 21 4.73 0.07 18

Chhattisgarh 1.55 0.01 21 1.78 0.02 22 3.38 0.05 22 3.70 0.05 20

Bihar 0.98 0.00 22 6.19 0.09 11 13.25 0.22 9 6.53 0.10 14

India 4.58 0.11 6.83 0.38 9.98 0.76 8.77 0.61

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 239

X Table A2.14a. Workforce participation rate, aged 15+, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Telangana 69.40 0.78 1 59.17 0.62 4 39.40 0.32 5 56.31 0.58 3

Chhattisgarh 69.23 0.78 2 62.87 0.68 2 42.55 0.36 2 62.05 0.67 2

Andhra Pradesh 65.08 0.72 3 60.58 0.65 3 42.52 0.36 3 56.23 0.58 4

Karnataka 64.61 0.71 4 55.17 0.56 5 37.79 0.29 7 52.09 0.51 9

Himachal Pradesh 64.01 0.70 5 64.64 0.71 1 47.19 0.44 1 66.10 0.73 1

Tamil Nadu 63.75 0.70 6 54.60 0.55 6 40.42 0.33 4 53.92 0.54 6

Madhya Pradesh 63.45 0.69 7 52.78 0.52 9 37.03 0.28 9 52.63 0.52 8

Maharashtra 61.09 0.65 8 53.68 0.54 8 39.15 0.31 6 54.88 0.56 5

Gujarat 60.31 0.64 9 53.87 0.54 7 37.18 0.28 8 53.66 0.54 7

Rajasthan 58.31 0.61 10 51.52 0.50 10 32.19 0.20 15 51.51 0.50 10

Jharkhand 57.76 0.60 11 45.83 0.42 13 29.79 0.17 20 48.81 0.46 11

Uttarakhand 56.79 0.59 12 45.68 0.41 15 30.92 0.18 19 45.32 0.41 16

Odisha 54.89 0.56 13 50.21 0.48 11 33.43 0.22 13 46.23 0.42 15

Assam 51.62 0.51 14 44.49 0.39 18 31.41 0.19 17 48.20 0.45 12

Uttar Pradesh 50.51 0.49 15 45.75 0.41 14 27.51 0.13 21 44.80 0.40 17

Bihar 49.27 0.47 16 40.63 0.33 22 24.01 0.07 22 38.63 0.30 22

West Bengal 48.59 0.46 17 47.00 0.43 12 36.12 0.26 10 47.22 0.44 14

Haryana 47.71 0.44 18 42.11 0.36 20 31.46 0.19 16 42.37 0.36 20

Delhi 45.59 0.41 19 44.67 0.40 16 32.82 0.21 14 42.25 0.36 21

Punjab 45.51 0.41 20 44.08 0.39 19 34.01 0.23 12 47.32 0.44 13

Kerala 45.47 0.41 21 44.65 0.40 17 34.18 0.23 11 42.63 0.37 19

Jammu & Kashmir 44.57 0.40 22 41.45 0.35 21 31.17 0.19 18 43.97 0.39 18

India 56.39 0.64 49.97 0.43 45.46 0.29 49.25 0.41

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
240 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A2.14b. Male workforce participation rate, aged 15+, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Gujarat 84.50 0.67 1 82.18 0.62 1 76.24 0.51 2 77.58 0.53 3

Madhya Pradesh 83.97 0.66 2 79.54 0.57 4 74.24 0.47 3 77.63 0.53 2

Karnataka 83.37 0.65 3 79.08 0.56 6 73.46 0.45 4 73.68 0.46 7

Bihar 82.99 0.64 4 73.97 0.46 17 65.62 0.30 22 67.46 0.33 19

Andhra Pradesh 82.90 0.64 5 80.50 0.59 3 71.87 0.42 8 73.61 0.45 8

Assam 82.41 0.63 6 78.12 0.54 9 72.05 0.42 7 76.30 0.51 4

Chhattisgarh 82.28 0.62 7 79.18 0.56 5 73.24 0.45 5 78.33 0.55 1

Odisha 81.85 0.62 8 81.91 0.62 2 72.77 0.44 6 71.86 0.42 14

Telangana 81.14 0.60 9 74.96 0.48 14 65.99 0.30 21 71.90 0.42 13

Jharkhand 81.07 0.60 10 79.01 0.56 7 70.09 0.39 9 73.06 0.44 9

Tamil Nadu 81.04 0.60 11 77.60 0.53 10 69.37 0.37 13 72.48 0.43 12

Uttar Pradesh 80.98 0.60 12 77.09 0.52 11 67.66 0.34 16 71.72 0.42 15

Rajasthan 80.51 0.59 13 74.26 0.47 15 68.09 0.35 15 68.86 0.36 17

West Bengal 80.06 0.58 14 78.22 0.55 8 76.49 0.51 1 76.22 0.51 5

Punjab 79.67 0.57 15 76.53 0.51 12 68.89 0.36 14 72.73 0.44 11

Maharashtra 77.90 0.54 16 75.71 0.50 13 69.75 0.38 12 72.74 0.44 10

Himachal Pradesh 76.38 0.51 17 74.20 0.47 16 69.81 0.38 11 74.19 0.47 6

Haryana 75.90 0.50 18 72.11 0.42 19 67.25 0.33 17 64.96 0.28 20

Jammu & Kashmir 75.37 0.49 19 71.47 0.41 21 70.07 0.38 10 70.41 0.39 16

Uttarakhand 75.23 0.49 20 69.08 0.37 22 66.29 0.31 19 63.07 0.25 22

Delhi 72.58 0.43 21 73.05 0.44 18 66.35 0.31 18 68.58 0.36 18

Kerala 71.46 0.41 22 71.77 0.42 20 66.15 0.31 20 64.23 0.27 21

India 80.56 0.60 77.01 0.51 70.22 0.35 72.38 0.40

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 241

X Table A2.14c. Female workforce participation rate, aged 15+, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Telangana 57.84 0.82 1 43.03 0.60 3 33.59 0.46 4 41.26 0.57 3

Chhattisgarh 55.53 0.79 2 46.78 0.66 2 43.33 0.60 2 46.06 0.65 2

Himachal Pradesh 51.81 0.73 3 55.56 0.79 1 50.53 0.71 1 57.96 0.82 1

Andhra Pradesh 47.31 0.66 4 41.37 0.57 4 37.07 0.51 3 38.92 0.54 4

Tamil Nadu 46.61 0.65 5 31.96 0.43 5 31.95 0.43 5 35.83 0.49 5

Karnataka 44.95 0.63 6 30.46 0.41 7 23.54 0.30 8 29.41 0.39 8

Maharashtra 42.82 0.60 7 30.69 0.41 6 28.68 0.38 6 35.59 0.49 6

Madhya Pradesh 40.63 0.56 8 23.85 0.31 9 25.45 0.33 7 25.68 0.34 11

Uttarakhand 38.13 0.53 9 23.10 0.30 11 15.51 0.18 17 27.46 0.36 10

Rajasthan 35.11 0.48 10 28.43 0.38 8 21.37 0.27 10 33.39 0.45 7

Gujarat 33.83 0.46 11 23.13 0.30 10 18.21 0.22 12 27.65 0.37 9

Jharkhand 32.77 0.44 12 12.40 0.14 17 15.71 0.19 15 24.29 0.32 12

Odisha 28.13 0.37 13 18.64 0.23 13 18.69 0.23 11 20.81 0.26 14

Kerala 22.16 0.28 14 20.54 0.26 12 21.39 0.27 9 23.10 0.30 13

Uttar Pradesh 18.06 0.22 15 12.83 0.14 16 9.50 0.09 20 16.48 0.20 19

Assam 16.66 0.20 16 11.22 0.12 18 11.41 0.12 19 20.17 0.25 15

Haryana 15.32 0.18 17 9.45 0.09 19 14.44 0.17 18 17.21 0.21 18

West Bengal 14.28 0.16 18 14.78 0.17 14 15.74 0.19 14 17.67 0.22 17

Bihar 13.84 0.16 19 4.82 0.02 22 4.21 0.01 22 8.12 0.07 22

Delhi 10.60 0.11 20 13.37 0.15 15 16.11 0.19 13 11.35 0.12 21

Jammu & Kashmir 9.38 0.09 21 7.19 0.06 21 9.32 0.09 21 15.21 0.18 20

Punjab 8.31 0.07 22 8.66 0.08 20 15.51 0.18 16 19.55 0.24 16

India 30.62 0.70 22.06 0.29 19.99 0.19 25.22 0.44

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
242 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A2.15a. Casual workers aged 15+, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)*

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Delhi 4.39 0.96 1 3.27 0.98 1 3.89 0.97 1 3.12 0.99 1

Uttarakhand 12.42 0.79 2 13.92 0.76 2 13.05 0.78 3 11.35 0.82 2

Jammu & Kashmir 12.73 0.79 3 24.27 0.55 9 14.89 0.74 6 20.54 0.62 10

Himachal Pradesh 14.83 0.74 4 14.56 0.75 3 12.81 0.79 2 11.49 0.81 3

Rajasthan 16.57 0.71 5 23.26 0.57 7 13.95 0.76 4 13.33 0.77 4

Haryana 16.82 0.70 6 20.39 0.63 5 18.68 0.66 9 20.26 0.63 9

Uttar Pradesh 18.62 0.66 7 26.84 0.49 11 20.35 0.63 10 18.27 0.67 8

Assam 21.02 0.61 8 18.01 0.68 4 17.75 0.68 8 20.61 0.62 11

Punjab 23.77 0.56 9 22.82 0.58 6 22.29 0.59 11 25.26 0.53 15

Jharkhand 25.37 0.52 10 28.10 0.47 12 26.65 0.50 16 25.25 0.53 14

Madhya Pradesh 30.08 0.43 11 30.25 0.42 16 28.71 0.45 17 24.42 0.54 12

Maharashtra 31.90 0.39 12 26.65 0.50 10 23.42 0.56 12 24.87 0.53 13

Gujarat 32.32 0.38 13 23.56 0.56 8 14.49 0.75 5 14.24 0.76 5

West Bengal 32.69 0.37 14 37.42 0.27 18 30.10 0.43 20 29.97 0.43 18

Bihar 35.07 0.32 15 41.60 0.19 22 32.57 0.37 21 31.39 0.40 20

Telangana 35.24 0.32 16 29.65 0.43 15 26.29 0.50 13 15.06 0.74 6

Tamil Nadu 35.82 0.31 17 39.28 0.23 20 29.67 0.43 19 31.68 0.39 22

Odisha 36.17 0.30 18 29.30 0.44 14 26.63 0.50 14 25.91 0.51 16

Kerala 38.68 0.25 19 36.60 0.29 17 28.78 0.45 18 30.12 0.42 19

Karnataka 39.53 0.23 20 29.23 0.44 13 26.64 0.50 15 26.51 0.50 17

Chhattisgarh 40.37 0.21 21 37.52 0.27 19 16.33 0.71 7 16.76 0.70 7

Andhra Pradesh 42.11 0.18 22 41.18 0.19 21 34.05 0.34 22 31.65 0.39 21

India 29.67 0.35 29.76 0.34 23.80 0.69 22.96 0.74

Note: *= Includes both public as well as other works.

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 243

X Table A2.15b. Casual male workers aged 15+, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Delhi 4.23 0.97 1 3.67 0.98 1 4.57 0.96 1 3.56 0.98 1

Jammu & Kashmir 13.27 0.78 2 25.06 0.52 10 16.47 0.71 6 24.10 0.55 14

Uttarakhand 14.97 0.74 3 17.62 0.68 3 15.19 0.74 3 14.44 0.75 4

Haryana 17.65 0.68 4 20.27 0.63 4 19.29 0.65 9 19.38 0.65 8

Uttar Pradesh 18.77 0.66 5 28.27 0.46 13 21.52 0.60 12 20.72 0.62 9

Assam 18.84 0.66 6 17.33 0.69 2 17.95 0.68 7 22.33 0.58 11

Rajasthan 19.10 0.65 7 25.33 0.52 11 15.87 0.72 5 16.52 0.71 5

Himachal Pradesh 22.81 0.57 8 21.99 0.59 6 18.57 0.66 8 17.70 0.68 7

Punjab 24.35 0.54 9 23.95 0.55 8 23.70 0.55 13 27.16 0.48 16

Jharkhand 25.91 0.51 10 29.10 0.44 16 28.88 0.44 17 29.91 0.42 18

Maharashtra 26.82 0.49 11 22.46 0.58 7 20.37 0.63 11 22.25 0.59 10

Madhya Pradesh 27.63 0.47 12 28.84 0.44 15 28.07 0.46 16 23.23 0.56 12

Gujarat 29.17 0.44 13 20.79 0.62 5 12.93 0.78 2 13.14 0.78 3

Telangana 29.91 0.42 14 24.01 0.55 9 19.73 0.64 10 10.60 0.83 2

West Bengal 32.88 0.36 15 38.85 0.23 20 32.25 0.37 20 31.45 0.39 21

Bihar 33.25 0.35 16 40.82 0.19 22 32.31 0.37 21 31.02 0.40 20

Tamil Nadu 33.84 0.34 17 38.21 0.24 19 28.93 0.44 18 30.76 0.40 19

Odisha 33.93 0.34 18 28.32 0.46 14 25.62 0.51 15 26.51 0.49 15

Karnataka 35.83 0.29 19 26.70 0.49 12 24.55 0.54 14 24.10 0.55 13

Chhattisgarh 36.92 0.27 20 34.66 0.32 17 15.39 0.73 4 17.34 0.69 6

Andhra Pradesh 38.81 0.23 21 37.24 0.26 18 30.07 0.42 19 28.06 0.46 17

Kerala 41.34 0.18 22 39.03 0.23 21 32.59 0.36 22 33.14 0.35 22

India 27.64 0.44 28.96 0.36 23.49 0.70 23.22 0.71

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
244 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A2.15c. Casual female workers aged 15+, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Himachal Pradesh 3.24 0.95 1 5.14 0.92 3 4.82 0.93 4 3.50 0.95 3

Delhi 5.87 0.91 2 0.86 0.99 1 0.73 0.99 1 0.00 1.00 1

Uttarakhand 7.31 0.89 3 3.26 0.95 2 3.88 0.94 3 4.21 0.94 4

Jammu & Kashmir 7.81 0.88 4 15.33 0.77 5 2.06 0.97 2 2.18 0.97 2

Rajasthan 10.51 0.84 5 17.75 0.73 6 7.75 0.88 5 6.44 0.90 5

Haryana 12.10 0.81 6 21.37 0.67 8 15.64 0.76 8 23.98 0.63 16

Punjab 17.67 0.73 7 11.94 0.82 4 15.48 0.76 7 17.54 0.73 10

Uttar Pradesh 17.90 0.73 8 17.81 0.73 7 11.80 0.82 6 7.08 0.89 6

Jharkhand 23.94 0.63 9 21.71 0.67 9 16.15 0.75 9 11.09 0.83 7

Kerala 30.99 0.53 10 29.04 0.56 11 18.13 0.72 12 22.53 0.65 12

West Bengal 31.58 0.52 11 29.56 0.55 12 18.80 0.71 13 23.45 0.64 14

Assam 33.23 0.49 12 22.66 0.65 10 16.52 0.75 10 14.10 0.78 8

Madhya Pradesh 35.71 0.45 13 35.31 0.46 15 30.68 0.53 16 28.33 0.57 17

Tamil Nadu 39.23 0.40 14 41.82 0.36 19 31.26 0.52 18 33.48 0.49 20

Gujarat 40.95 0.37 15 34.21 0.48 14 21.45 0.67 14 17.60 0.73 11

Maharashtra 41.95 0.36 16 37.44 0.43 17 31.25 0.52 17 30.64 0.53 18

Telangana 42.61 0.35 17 39.70 0.39 18 38.93 0.40 21 22.54 0.65 13

Odisha 42.65 0.35 18 33.57 0.49 13 30.30 0.54 15 23.85 0.63 15

Chhattisgarh 45.73 0.30 19 42.29 0.35 20 17.90 0.73 11 15.79 0.76 9

Bihar 46.55 0.29 20 54.38 0.17 22 36.64 0.44 20 34.59 0.47 21

Karnataka 46.74 0.28 21 36.01 0.45 16 32.97 0.49 19 32.87 0.50 19

Andhra Pradesh 47.88 0.27 22 48.59 0.26 21 41.36 0.37 22 38.42 0.41 22

India 34.94 0.29 32.62 0.38 24.90 0.70 22.19 0.82

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 245

X Table A2.16a. Self-employed workers aged 15+ living below the poverty line, 2005, 2012, 2019
and 2022 (%)*

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Punjab 12.41 0.86 1 7.25 0.93 2 8.57 0.91 3 9.26 0.90 7

Delhi 14.69 0.82 2 10.17 0.89 5 9.72 0.89 4 2.68 0.99 1

Kerala 15.34 0.81 3 8.24 0.91 3 5.01 0.96 1 4.67 0.96 2

Jammu & Kashmir 16.26 0.80 4 14.28 0.83 8 25.18 0.67 10 15.74 0.81 10

Haryana 18.90 0.76 5 6.83 0.93 1 15.03 0.82 6 16.67 0.79 11

Uttarakhand 19.22 0.76 6 16.75 0.79 11 29.57 0.61 13 15.38 0.81 9

Himachal Pradesh 24.37 0.69 7 13.60 0.84 7 20.25 0.74 8 11.83 0.86 8

Tamil Nadu 24.86 0.68 8 10.67 0.88 6 7.92 0.92 2 8.31 0.91 5

Gujarat 26.12 0.66 9 24.75 0.68 15 29.06 0.62 12 24.80 0.68 16

Telangana 26.64 0.65 10 8.38 0.91 4 27.11 0.65 11 8.38 0.91 6

Andhra Pradesh 29.08 0.62 11 15.56 0.81 9 10.91 0.88 5 5.49 0.95 3

Assam 30.58 0.60 12 27.52 0.64 16 22.43 0.71 9 22.15 0.72 14

West Bengal 31.10 0.59 13 15.89 0.81 10 16.81 0.79 7 6.63 0.94 4

Rajasthan 31.24 0.59 14 17.75 0.78 12 34.96 0.54 16 21.74 0.72 13

Karnataka 31.75 0.58 15 21.68 0.72 14 31.29 0.59 15 29.80 0.61 18

Maharashtra 35.70 0.53 16 21.52 0.73 13 36.12 0.52 17 38.05 0.49 21

Madhya Pradesh 41.24 0.45 17 32.55 0.57 19 30.29 0.60 14 23.20 0.70 15

Bihar 41.68 0.44 18 34.31 0.55 20 42.91 0.42 20 31.44 0.59 19

Jharkhand 41.69 0.44 19 37.46 0.50 21 48.84 0.34 21 33.99 0.55 20

Chhattisgarh 45.57 0.39 20 38.34 0.49 22 51.35 0.31 22 46.63 0.37 22

Uttar Pradesh 52.65 0.29 21 32.22 0.58 18 37.77 0.50 19 26.45 0.66 17

Odisha 60.79 0.17 22 31.94 0.58 17 37.11 0.51 18 17.60 0.78 12

India 36.21 0.29 23.70 0.78 30.13 0.53 22.80 0.82

Note: *=Based on Tendulkar Committee poverty lines adjusted by using national-level Consumer Price Index for rural and urban for 2019 and 2022.
Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
246 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A2.16b. Self-employed male workers aged 15+ living below the poverty line, 2005, 2012,
2019 and 2022 (%)

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Punjab 12.34 0.84 1 6.71 0.93 1 7.59 0.92 3 10.08 0.88 7

Delhi 14.43 0.81 2 9.99 0.88 6 7.67 0.92 4 2.64 0.99 1

Kerala 14.87 0.81 3 8.10 0.91 4 5.25 0.95 1 4.74 0.96 2

Jammu & Kashmir 16.49 0.78 4 14.69 0.81 9 23.87 0.67 10 17.89 0.76 12

Haryana 17.56 0.76 5 7.19 0.92 2 15.08 0.80 6 16.56 0.78 10

Uttarakhand 18.90 0.74 6 15.67 0.79 11 28.97 0.59 13 15.09 0.80 9

Himachal Pradesh 21.17 0.71 7 12.00 0.85 7 17.81 0.76 8 10.81 0.87 8

Tamil Nadu 22.17 0.69 8 9.84 0.88 5 7.15 0.92 2 7.50 0.92 5

Gujarat 24.18 0.66 9 21.97 0.70 14 28.21 0.60 12 24.32 0.66 15

Telangana 24.88 0.65 10 7.29 0.92 3 24.88 0.65 11 8.64 0.90 6

Andhra Pradesh 26.42 0.63 11 14.12 0.82 8 11.11 0.86 5 5.39 0.95 3

West Bengal 29.78 0.58 12 14.86 0.81 10 16.29 0.78 7 6.26 0.94 4

Karnataka 30.07 0.57 13 22.10 0.70 15 30.03 0.57 14 29.41 0.58 18

Rajasthan 30.08 0.57 14 16.41 0.78 12 33.92 0.52 16 23.43 0.68 14

Assam 32.24 0.54 15 28.48 0.60 16 23.46 0.67 9 24.67 0.66 16

Maharashtra 33.87 0.52 16 20.48 0.72 13 35.08 0.50 17 36.39 0.48 21

Madhya Pradesh 38.03 0.45 17 31.22 0.56 18 30.10 0.57 15 20.97 0.71 13

Jharkhand 40.90 0.41 18 36.55 0.48 22 47.66 0.31 22 30.95 0.56 19

Bihar 41.70 0.40 19 33.76 0.52 20 42.14 0.39 20 31.38 0.55 20

Chhattisgarh 43.15 0.38 20 35.75 0.49 21 46.01 0.33 21 44.85 0.35 22

Uttar Pradesh 49.93 0.27 21 31.39 0.55 19 37.09 0.47 19 26.38 0.63 17

Odisha 56.48 0.17 22 29.29 0.59 17 36.91 0. 47 18 16.74 0.78 11

India 34.79 0.29 23.18 0.78 29.59 0.51 22.39 0.81

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 247

X Table A2.16c. Self-employed female workers aged 15+ living below the poverty line, 2005,
2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Punjab 13.60 0.87 1 14.89 0.85 8 13.42 0.87 5 5.75 0.96 4

Jammu & Kashmir 14.29 0.86 2 7.64 0.94 2 35.77 0.61 14 9.65 0.91 7

Kerala 16.79 0.83 3 8.81 0.92 3 4.12 0.98 2 4.41 0.98 2

Assam 17.09 0.83 4 18.07 0.82 9 2.81 0.99 1 12.55 0.88 9

Uttarakhand 19.71 0.80 5 18.83 0.81 11 31.41 0.66 11 15.82 0.84 11

Delhi 20.48 0.79 6 11.85 0.89 5 24.79 0.74 9 3.24 0.99 1

Haryana 24.72 0.74 7 2.88 0.99 1 14.70 0.86 6 17.11 0.83 12

Himachal Pradesh 27.26 0.71 8 14.81 0.86 7 22.34 0.77 8 12.67 0.88 10

Tamil Nadu 28.96 0.69 9 12.49 0.88 6 9.41 0.92 3 9.73 0.91 8

Telangana 29.14 0.69 10 10.15 0.91 4 31.90 0.66 12 7.93 0.93 5

Gujarat 31.10 0.67 11 35.47 0.62 16 32.78 0.65 13 25.96 0.73 15

Rajasthan 33.39 0.64 12 20.48 0.79 13 37.56 0.59 16 19.14 0.81 13

Andhra Pradesh 33.81 0.64 13 18.28 0.82 10 10.58 0.90 4 5.68 0.96 3

Karnataka 35.24 0.62 14 20.42 0.79 12 36.05 0.61 15 30.96 0.67 18

Maharashtra 39.31 0.57 15 24.36 0.75 15 39.01 0.58 18 41.63 0.55 21

West Bengal 40.32 0.56 16 21.98 0.77 14 19.27 0.80 7 8.30 0.93 6

Bihar 41.55 0.55 17 49.86 0.45 22 61.22 0.32 22 32.03 0.66 19

Jharkhand 43.55 0.52 18 42.67 0.53 19 53.24 0.41 20 40.18 0.56 20

Madhya Pradesh 48.84 0.46 19 37.58 0.59 18 30.91 0.67 10 30.53 0.67 17

Chhattisgarh 49.31 0.46 20 42.91 0.53 20 59.17 0.34 21 49.21 0.46 22

Uttar Pradesh 64.39 0.28 21 36.63 0.60 17 42.04 0.54 19 26.70 0.72 16

Odisha 74.19 0.17 22 43.94 0.52 21 37.62 0.59 17 20.38 0.79 14

India 40.10 0.28 25.60 0.78 32.16 0.55 23.93 0.83

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
248 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A2.17a. Average monthly wage among casual workers (aged 15+), 2005, 2012, 2019 and
2022 (Rs.)

State Avg wage 2005 2012 2019 2022

Avg wage

Avg wage

Avg wage
Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
Jammu & 2 689 0.12 1 5 662 0.31 4 9 085 0.52 4 11 162 0.64 5
Kashmir

Kerala 2 453 0.11 2 6 972 0.39 2 10 493 0.60 2 13 761 0.80 2

Himachal 2 191 0.09 3 5 133 0.27 6 8 612 0.49 5 11 267 0.65 3

Pradesh

Delhi 1 998 0.08 4 7 390 0.41 1 11 701 0.68 1 14 115 0.83 1

Haryana 1 877 0.07 5 5 749 0.31 3 9 117 0.52 3 9 651 0.55 8

Punjab 1 816 0.07 6 5 375 0.29 5 7 207 0.40 12 9 447 0.54 9

Uttarakhand 1 758 0.06 7 4 226 0.22 9 7 976 0.45 8 11 174 0.64 4

Rajasthan 1 656 0.06 8 4 491 0.23 7 7 890 0.44 9 9 232 0.53 10

Assam 1 542 0.05 9 3 951 0.20 11 8 363 0.47 7 10 299 0.59 6

Uttar Pradesh 1 294 0.04 10 3 500 0.17 16 6 031 0.33 15 8 279 0.47 14

Gujarat 1 280 0.04 11 3 118 0.15 19 5 607 0.30 17 7 354 0.41 19

Tamil Nadu 1 221 0.03 12 4 334 0.22 8 7 286 0.41 11 9 193 0.52 11

Jharkhand 1 219 0.03 13 3 782 0.19 13 5 823 0.32 16 7 528 0.42 17

West Bengal 1 177 0.03 14 3 197 0.15 17 5 494 0.30 18 7 616 0.43 16

Bihar 1 098 0.02 15 3 664 0.18 15 8 474 0.48 6 10 255 0.59 7

Karnataka 1 096 0.02 16 3 787 0.19 12 6 783 0.37 13 8 370 0.47 13

Maharashtra 1 044 0.02 17 3 157 0.15 18 5 445 0.29 19 7 437 0.41 18

Andhra 1 038 0.02 18 3 749 0.19 14 6 484 0.36 14 8 520 0.48 12

Pradesh

Odisha 978 0.02 19 2 949 0.14 20 5 173 0.28 20 6 581 0.36 20

Telangana 971 0.02 20 4 043 0.21 10 7 409 0.41 10 8 201 0.46 15

Madhya 911 0.01 21 2 872 0.13 21 4 873 0.26 21 5 491 0.29 22

Pradesh

Chhattisgarh 879 0.01 22 2 309 0.10 22 4 509 0.23 22 6 317 0.35 21

India 1 224 0.03 3 744 0.30 6 584 0.61 8 421 0.82

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 249

X Table A2.17b. Average monthly wage among casual male workers (aged 15+), 2005, 2012, 2019
and 2022 (Rs.)
State 2005 2012 2019 2022
Avg wage

Avg wage

Avg wage

Avg wage
Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
Jammu & 2 771 0.12 1 5 735 0.30 4 9 057 0.50 4 11 143 0.63 5
Kashmir

Kerala 2 742 0.12 2 7 629 0.41 2 11 047 0.62 2 14 427 0.83 1

Himachal 2 252 0.09 3 5 245 0.27 6 8 890 0.49 5 11 283 0.64 4

Pradesh

Delhi 2 116 0.08 4 7 912 0.43 1 11 852 0.67 1 14 115 0.81 2

Haryana 2 000 0.07 5 5 972 0.31 3 9 434 0.52 3 10 168 0.57 11

Punjab 1 872 0.07 6 5 596 0.29 5 7 395 0.40 14 9 555 0.53 13

Uttarakhand 1 846 0.06 7 4 455 0.22 10 8 111 0.44 10 11 382 0.64 3

Rajasthan 1 744 0.06 8 4 797 0.24 8 8 035 0.44 11 9 311 0.52 14

Assam 1 618 0.05 9 4 189 0.21 13 8 679 0.48 7 10 598 0.59 7

Tamil Nadu 1 536 0.05 10 5 057 0.26 7 8 294 0.45 9 10 659 0.60 6

Gujarat 1 447 0.04 11 3 400 0.16 18 6 089 0.32 17 8 185 0.45 17

Uttar Pradesh 1 388 0.04 12 3 652 0.17 17 6144 0.32 16 8 439 0.46 16

Maharashtra 1 333 0.03 13 3 762 0.18 16 6502 0.35 15 8 604 0.47 15

Karnataka 1 330 0.03 14 4 408 0.22 12 7899 0.43 12 9 789 0.54 12

Jharkhand 1 307 0.03 15 3 970 0.19 14 6 020 0.32 18 7 725 0.42 19

Telangana 1 263 0.03 16 4 741 0.24 9 8 795 0.48 6 10 175 0.57 10

West Bengal 1 241 0.03 17 3 349 0.15 19 5 671 0.30 19 7 906 0.43 18

Andhra 1 240 0.03 18 4 454 0.22 11 7 809 0.42 13 10 321 0.58 9

Pradesh

Bihar 1 174 0.02 19 3 815 0.18 15 8 641 0.48 8 10 597 0.59 8

Odisha 1 096 0.02 20 3 177 0.14 20 5 557 0.29 20 7 119 0.38 20

Madhya 1 021 0.01 21 3 059 0.14 21 5 128 0.26 21 5 957 0.31 22

Pradesh

Chhattisgarh 988 0.01 22 2 481 0.10 22 5 122 0.26 22 6 900 0.37 21

India 1 422 0.03 4 096 0.30 7 088 0.61 9 086 0.81

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
250 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A2.17c. Average monthly wage among casual female workers (aged 15+), 2005, 2012,
2019 and 2022 (Rs.)

State Avg wage 2005 2012 2019 2022

Avg wage

Avg wage

Avg wage
Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
Jammu & 1 669 0.12 1 4 273 0.32 1 10 766 0.80 1 11 197 0.83 5
Kashmir

Himachal 1 614 0.12 2 3 572 0.27 4 5 815 0.43 8 11 055 0.82 1

Pradesh

Haryana 1 371 0.10 3 3 912 0.29 2 6 493 0.48 4 6 992 0.52 4

Kerala 1 331 0.10 4 3 687 0.27 3 6 050 0.45 6 8 314 0.62 2

Assam 1 321 0.10 5 2 787 0.21 8 6 235 0.46 5 8 210 0.61 11

Uttarakhand 1 294 0.10 6 2 181 0.16 19 5 656 0.42 9 9 015 0.67 13

Punjab 1 279 0.10 7 3 304 0.25 5 5 206 0.39 11 7 960 0.59 3

Rajasthan 1 252 0.09 8 3 031 0.23 7 6 512 0.48 3 8 585 0.64 14

Delhi 1 250 0.09 9 2 532 0.19 11 7 484 0.56 2 0 0.00 7

Gujarat 965 0.07 10 2 449 0.18 13 4 309 0.32 15 5 326 0.40 6

Jharkhand 949 0.07 11 2 100 0.16 20 4 321 0.32 14 5 745 0.43 17

West Bengal 838 0.06 12 2 277 0.17 16 3 801 0.28 20 5 434 0.40 16

Uttar Pradesh 829 0.06 13 2 183 0.16 18 4 461 0.33 12 6 277 0.47 15

Bihar 811 0.06 14 2 220 0.17 17 5 473 0.41 10 7 138 0.53 12

Tamil Nadu 740 0.06 15 2 558 0.19 10 4 351 0.32 13 5 434 0.40 19

Karnataka 727 0.05 16 2 485 0.18 12 4 156 0.31 17 5 287 0.39 10

Chhattisgarh 715 0.05 17 2 045 0.15 21 3 283 0.24 22 4 448 0.33 18

Odisha 713 0.05 18 1 977 0.15 22 3 831 0.29 19 4 438 0.33 9

Madhya 711 0.05 19 2 286 0.17 14 4 050 0.30 18 4 000 0.30 8

Pradesh

Andhra 707 0.05 20 2 684 0.20 9 4 181 0.31 16 5 734 0.43 20

Pradesh

Maharashtra 664 0.05 21 2 282 0.17 15 3 498 0.26 21 5 431 0.40 22

Telangana 663 0.05 22 3 232 0.24 6 5 864 0.44 7 6 642 0.49 21

India 796 0.03 2 512 0.31 4223 0.60 5 548 0.82

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 251

X Table A2.18a. Unemployment rate of educated youths (aged 15–29), 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022
(%)

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Gujarat 7.02 0.91 1 2.56 0.99 1 12.24 0.82 1 10.66 0.85 1

Uttar Pradesh 8.09 0.89 2 15.03 0.77 14 24.81 0.60 8 18.80 0.70 8

Madhya Pradesh 9.10 0.88 3 10.93 0.84 6 20.13 0.68 5 15.90 0.76 6

Rajasthan 10.11 0.86 4 11.95 0.83 7 31.70 0.48 14 26.41 0.57 15

Karnataka 11.76 0.83 5 8.37 0.89 3 16.14 0.75 2 17.24 0.73 7

Maharashtra 11.89 0.83 6 6.27 0.93 2 18.94 0.70 4 14.99 0.77 5

Chhattisgarh 13.38 0.80 7 13.28 0.80 10 17.85 0.72 3 14.53 0.78 4

Telangana 14.19 0.79 8 14.94 0.77 13 34.90 0.42 18 21.71 0.65 10

Uttarakhand 14.87 0.77 9 22.40 0.64 18 33.95 0.44 16 33.04 0.45 19

Tamil Nadu 15.26 0.77 10 14.09 0.79 12 30.75 0.49 13 26.85 0.56 16

Andhra Pradesh 15.39 0.77 11 13.45 0.80 11 33.27 0.45 15 24.45 0.61 12

Bihar 17.11 0.73 12 17.92 0.72 15 37.70 0.37 21 29.62 0.51 17

Haryana 17.14 0.73 13 12.08 0.82 8 24.85 0.60 9 26.26 0.57 13

Jharkhand 17.55 0.73 14 22.15 0.65 17 21.36 0.66 6 14.24 0.79 3

Delhi 18.39 0.71 15 13.21 0.80 9 28.85 0.53 11 11.19 0.84 2

Himachal Pradesh 21.47 0.66 16 10.16 0.86 5 30.66 0.50 12 29.74 0.51 18

Jammu & Kashmir 21.80 0.65 17 23.99 0.61 20 35.10 0.42 19 34.81 0.42 20

Punjab 22.95 0.63 18 9.31 0.87 4 27.78 0.55 10 26.33 0.57 14

West Bengal 27.90 0.54 19 23.51 0.62 19 22.96 0.63 7 20.21 0.68 9

Assam 35.06 0.42 20 30.43 0.50 21 34.52 0.43 17 23.66 0.62 11

Odisha 35.93 0.40 21 20.33 0.68 16 37.22 0.38 20 39.95 0.33 22

Kerala 49.00 0.17 22 32.39 0.47 22 39.57 0.34 22 38.98 0.35 21

India 17.37 0.71 14.39 0.86 26.25 0.26 21.84 0.48

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
252 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A2.18b. Unemployment rate of male youths (aged 15–29) with secondary or higher
education, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Gujarat 6.01 0.91 1 2.91 0.99 1 11.53 0.79 1 10.77 0.80 1

Uttar Pradesh 6.87 0.89 2 14.06 0.73 13 24.02 0.49 9 17.63 0.64 8

Karnataka 8.18 0.86 3 6.66 0.90 3 15.86 0.68 2 17.03 0.66 7

Madhya Pradesh 9.05 0.84 4 9.85 0.82 5 20.20 0.58 5 15.06 0.70 6

Rajasthan 9.44 0.83 5 10.32 0.81 6 29.54 0.36 17 25.63 0.46 15

Tamil Nadu 11.92 0.78 6 12.07 0.77 10 28.40 0.39 16 26.03 0.45 17

Chhattisgarh 11.97 0.77 7 14.22 0.72 14 17.90 0.64 4 13.89 0.73 4

Maharashtra 12.08 0.77 8 4.61 0.95 2 17.31 0.65 3 13.65 0.74 3

Telangana 12.96 0.75 9 15.19 0.70 16 31.95 0.31 20 18.34 0.63 9

Punjab 13.95 0.73 10 8.62 0.85 4 23.29 0.51 8 22.63 0.53 12

Haryana 14.84 0.71 11 10.47 0.81 7 24.37 0.49 10 22.78 0.52 13

Andhra Pradesh 15.34 0.70 12 11.96 0.78 9 29.72 0.36 18 23.26 0.51 14

Uttarakhand 15.41 0.69 13 16.71 0.66 18 25.99 0.45 12 35.42 0.23 21

Bihar 16.66 0.67 14 13.44 0.74 11 37.64 0.18 22 29.09 0.38 18

Delhi 17.29 0.65 15 14.50 0.72 15 26.82 0.43 13 11.06 0.80 2

Jammu & Kashmir 17.60 0.64 16 16.40 0.67 17 25.49 0.46 11 25.86 0.45 16

Himachal Pradesh 17.98 0.63 17 10.48 0.81 8 28.02 0.40 15 33.70 0.27 20

Jharkhand 18.37 0.63 18 13.69 0.73 12 20.86 0.57 6 14.66 0.71 5

West Bengal 22.49 0.53 19 19.92 0.59 21 23.04 0.52 7 19.67 0.60 11

Odisha 27.31 0.42 20 17.78 0.64 20 32.87 0.29 21 37.36 0.18 22

Kerala 28.06 0.40 21 17.48 0.65 19 27.01 0.42 14 31.29 0.32 19

Assam 31.45 0.32 22 26.96 0.42 22 31.81 0.31 19 18.98 0.61 10

India 13.70 0.79 11.94 0.88 24.19 0.25 20.28 0.45

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 253

X Table A2.18c. Unemployment rate of female youths (aged 15–29) with a secondary or higher
education, 2005, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Madhya Pradesh 9.46 0.89 1 18.79 0.78 10 19.72 0.77 4 21.92 0.75 7

Maharashtra 11.27 0.87 2 11.80 0.87 5 24.46 0.72 6 19.00 0.78 6

Jharkhand 11.65 0.87 3 57.79 0.33 21 25.18 0.71 7 12.50 0.86 3

Gujarat 12.69 0.85 4 0.33 1.00 1 15.59 0.82 1 10.24 0.88 1

Uttarakhand 13.60 0.84 5 37.10 0.57 17 53.69 0.38 20 25.99 0.70 10

Andhra Pradesh 15.56 0.82 6 18.21 0.79 9 42.42 0.51 14 27.64 0.68 12

Telangana 17.65 0.80 7 14.17 0.84 8 43.40 0.50 17 30.35 0.65 15

Rajasthan 17.95 0.79 8 19.96 0.77 12 43.27 0.50 16 29.80 0.66 14

Uttar Pradesh 22.76 0.74 9 26.20 0.70 14 33.04 0.62 9 26.67 0.69 11

Chhattisgarh 22.92 0.74 10 10.14 0.88 4 17.73 0.80 3 16.01 0.82 4

Tamil Nadu 23.01 0.73 11 19.81 0.77 11 36.39 0.58 11 28.94 0.67 13

Karnataka 23.53 0.73 12 13.69 0.84 7 17.44 0.80 2 18.05 0.79 5

Himachal Pradesh 26.02 0.70 13 9.73 0.89 3 35.50 0.59 10 23.18 0.73 9

Delhi 26.49 0.69 14 9.29 0.89 2 37.13 0.57 12 11.76 0.87 2

Bihar 30.49 0.65 15 60.73 0.29 22 39.26 0.54 13 37.18 0.57 17

Haryana 32.62 0.62 16 25.48 0.71 13 27.52 0.68 8 44.43 0.48 19

Jammu & Kashmir 40.32 0.53 17 52.44 0.39 19 62.05 0.28 22 57.41 0.33 22

West Bengal 50.90 0.41 18 35.82 0.58 15 22.57 0.74 5 22.31 0.74 8

Assam 51.21 0.41 19 49.40 0.43 18 46.60 0.46 18 36.30 0.58 16

Punjab 52.94 0.38 20 12.19 0.86 6 43.08 0.50 15 39.00 0.55 18

Odisha 61.67 0.28 21 36.72 0.57 16 51.68 0.40 19 48.71 0.43 20

Kerala 71.60 0.17 22 54.73 0.36 20 60.67 0.29 21 55.83 0.35 21

India 31.83 0.43 24.03 0.78 34.60 0.31 27.58 0.63

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
254 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A2.19a. Youths (aged 15–29) not in employment, education or training, 2005, 2012, 2019
and 2022 (%)

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Telangana 17.91 0.83 1 25.44 0.65 5 34.04 0.43 15 27.54 0.59 7

Himachal Pradesh 19.00 0.81 2 14.08 0.93 1 23.25 0.70 2 20.85 0.76 1

Chhattisgarh 20.08 0.78 3 24.44 0.67 3 23.17 0.70 1 21.81 0.74 2

Karnataka 24.08 0.68 4 27.96 0.58 9 32.04 0.48 8 30.66 0.52 12

Uttarakhand 25.15 0.65 5 24.14 0.68 2 31.10 0.51 7 29.32 0.55 9

Maharashtra 25.60 0.64 6 25.02 0.66 4 28.92 0.56 4 25.48 0.65 4

Tamil Nadu 25.89 0.64 7 29.11 0.55 12 29.59 0.54 5 30.92 0.51 15

Andhra Pradesh 26.68 0.62 8 27.63 0.59 8 32.48 0.47 9 28.11 0.58 8

Madhya Pradesh 27.37 0.60 9 29.10 0.56 11 32.94 0.46 10 31.31 0.50 16

Jammu & Kashmir 27.57 0.59 10 25.71 0.64 6 28.61 0.57 3 27.47 0.60 6

Gujarat 28.68 0.57 11 29.12 0.55 13 33.22 0.45 11 30.15 0.53 11

Delhi 29.87 0.54 12 27.22 0.60 7 33.75 0.44 13 24.58 0.67 3

Rajasthan 30.58 0.52 13 28.44 0.57 10 33.99 0.43 14 26.90 0.61 5

Jharkhand 32.58 0.47 14 37.16 0.35 19 36.06 0.38 17 30.80 0.51 14

Haryana 35.63 0.39 15 32.46 0.47 15 33.44 0.45 12 32.71 0.47 18

Kerala 36.74 0.36 16 32.12 0.48 14 30.04 0.53 6 29.71 0.54 10

Assam 36.81 0.36 17 41.30 0.25 22 39.36 0.30 20 33.73 0.44 19

Punjab 37.35 0.35 18 32.60 0.47 16 34.16 0.43 16 30.68 0.52 13

Uttar Pradesh 38.49 0.32 19 35.57 0.39 17 37.58 0.34 19 32.41 0.47 17

West Bengal 39.40 0.30 20 36.49 0.37 18 37.30 0.35 18 34.40 0.42 20

Odisha 40.68 0.27 21 40.06 0.28 21 42.46 0.22 22 41.62 0.24 22

Bihar 42.79 0.21 22 39.91 0.29 20 40.26 0.28 21 34.93 0.41 21

India 31.93 0.56 31.69 0.58 34.39 0.41 30.77 0.63

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 255

X Table A2.19b. Male youths (aged 15–29) not in employment, education or training, 2005, 2012,
2019 and 2022 (%)

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Karnataka 4.08 0.93 1 5.64 0.85 8 10.31 0.62 5 9.28 0.67 8

Madhya Pradesh 5.04 0.88 2 4.95 0.88 5 9.88 0.64 3 8.03 0.73 2

Gujarat 5.05 0.88 3 3.21 0.97 1 8.09 0.73 1 8.48 0.71 5

Chhattisgarh 5.14 0.87 4 7.18 0.78 10 9.16 0.68 2 7.21 0.77 1

Telangana 5.16 0.87 5 8.88 0.69 18 17.50 0.27 20 9.43 0.67 9

Rajasthan 5.26 0.87 6 5.63 0.85 7 13.05 0.49 10 11.00 0.59 12

Jammu & Kashmir 5.67 0.85 7 7.58 0.76 12 10.61 0.61 6 11.72 0.55 13

Andhra Pradesh 6.09 0.83 8 4.56 0.90 2 13.92 0.45 12 12.61 0.51 15

Tamil Nadu 6.84 0.79 9 7.92 0.74 16 15.05 0.39 16 14.58 0.42 17

Uttar Pradesh 7.25 0.77 10 7.65 0.75 14 13.05 0.49 9 8.42 0.72 4

Maharashtra 7.54 0.76 11 4.57 0.90 3 10.12 0.63 4 8.27 0.72 3

Uttarakhand 7.95 0.74 12 5.13 0.88 6 11.36 0.57 7 15.32 0.38 19

Haryana 8.00 0.74 13 7.79 0.75 15 16.36 0.33 18 14.97 0.40 18

Bihar 8.15 0.73 14 9.98 0.64 21 18.50 0.22 22 12.17 0.53 14

Jharkhand 8.19 0.73 15 7.63 0.75 13 13.94 0.45 13 8.78 0.70 7

Himachal Pradesh 8.48 0.71 16 4.95 0.88 4 13.59 0.46 11 17.59 0.27 20

Punjab 9.58 0.66 17 6.31 0.82 9 14.55 0.42 15 13.99 0.44 16

Assam 9.76 0.65 18 13.17 0.48 22 15.29 0.38 17 10.05 0.64 10

West Bengal 10.45 0.62 19 9.95 0.64 20 11.72 0.55 8 10.76 0.60 11

Delhi 10.74 0.60 20 7.53 0.76 11 17.45 0.28 19 8.50 0.71 6

Odisha 12.93 0.50 21 8.64 0.70 17 17.86 0.26 21 18.38 0.23 21

Kerala 15.06 0.39 22 9.09 0.68 19 14.31 0.43 14 19.26 0.19 22

India 7.58 0.82 7.17 0.86 13.17 0.26 10.59 0.52

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
256 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A2.19c. Female youths (aged 15–29) not in employment, education or training, 2005,
2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

State 2005 2012 2019 2022

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator
Score

Score

Score

Score
rank

rank

rank

rank
%

%
Himachal Pradesh 29.71 0.86 1 23.15 0.94 1 34.81 0.79 1 24.30 0.93 1

Telangana 29.91 0.85 2 42.52 0.69 3 50.60 0.58 6 45.79 0.65 9

Chhattisgarh 36.73 0.76 3 41.54 0.70 2 36.80 0.76 2 35.69 0.78 2

Uttarakhand 43.27 0.68 4 43.54 0.68 4 52.18 0.56 9 45.48 0.65 8

Tamil Nadu 44.78 0.66 5 49.11 0.60 7 44.54 0.66 3 47.81 0.62 11

Karnataka 45.78 0.65 6 52.80 0.56 10 55.30 0.52 10 53.49 0.55 14

Maharashtra 46.93 0.63 7 49.16 0.60 8 50.82 0.58 7 46.13 0.64 10

Andhra Pradesh 47.80 0.62 8 49.03 0.61 6 51.02 0.58 8 43.72 0.67 4

Madhya Pradesh 53.25 0.55 9 56.45 0.51 13 58.91 0.48 16 57.86 0.49 18

Jammu & Kashmir 54.91 0.53 10 47.57 0.62 5 48.92 0.61 5 44.47 0.66 5

Kerala 57.21 0.50 11 52.94 0.55 11 45.46 0.65 4 40.80 0.71 3

Gujarat 57.25 0.50 12 60.45 0.46 14 62.03 0.44 17 55.36 0.52 16

Rajasthan 58.07 0.49 13 53.21 0.55 12 56.08 0.51 12 44.57 0.66 6

Jharkhand 58.37 0.48 14 65.43 0.39 18 56.86 0.50 14 52.56 0.56 13

Delhi 58.39 0.48 15 49.96 0.59 9 56.16 0.51 13 44.76 0.66 7

Assam 66.05 0.39 16 66.27 0.38 19 63.26 0.42 19 56.21 0.51 17

Odisha 66.16 0.38 17 69.50 0.34 21 63.56 0.42 21 63.34 0.42 22

Haryana 68.53 0.35 18 62.15 0.44 16 55.68 0.52 11 54.89 0.53 15

Punjab 68.99 0.35 19 61.85 0.44 15 58.61 0.48 15 51.97 0.57 12

West Bengal 70.44 0.33 20 63.03 0.42 17 62.10 0.44 18 58.01 0.49 19

Uttar Pradesh 72.67 0.30 21 66.47 0.38 20 63.46 0.42 20 58.69 0.48 20

Bihar 79.85 0.21 22 73.42 0.29 22 65.16 0.40 22 59.73 0.47 21

India 58.46 0.42 57.92 0.44 57.10 0.47 52.70 0.62

Source: Computed from various years of the Employment and Unemployment Survey data and the Periodic Labour Force Survey unit-level data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 257

Appendix Chapter 3
X Table A3.1 Share of different categories of employment in total employment, by sector,
2000 (%)

Informal sector
Regular worker

employment in

employment in
Self-employed

Casual worker

Formal sector

formal sector

formal sector
employment

employment

employment
Informal

Informal

Formal
Agriculture, 57.6 1.4 40.9 100 100 0.0 0.0 0.0
livestock, forestry
and fishing

Mining and 8.8 31.6 59.6 74.3 49.6 50.4 30.2 20.2
quarrying

Manufacturing 50.3 31.5 18.2 86.3 70.6 29.4 17.0 12.5

Electricity, gas, 1.9 91.0 7.1 21.0 15.3 84.7 13.4 71.3
water supply and
other utility
services

Construction 18.0 5.3 76.7 97.9 80.7 19.3 17.5 1.7

Trade 75.8 16.4 7.8 97.8 94.4 5.6 3.8 1.8

Hotels and 63.3 24.2 12.5 96.1 89.4 10.6 7.4 3.2
restaurants

Transport and 38.3 39.7 22.0 82.9 77.3 22.7 7.4 15.2
storage

Communications 19.2 77.2 3.6 45.9 36.5 63.5 12.6 51.0

and services
related to
broadcasting

Financial services 15.4 83.5 1.1 33.5 25.1 74.9 13.3 61.5

Real estate 71.2 21.9 6.9 99.2 94.3 5.7 5.5 0.3

Ownership of 50.6 43.3 6.0 86.0 74.7 25.3 12.8 12.5

dwellings and
professional
services

Public administra- 0.4 97.1 2.5 17.5 12.7 87.3 12.8 74.5
tion and defence

Education 12.9 86.0 1.1 42.3 32.0 68.0 18.7 49.2

Health and social 28.8 68.7 2.5 55.3 46.8 53.2 13.5 39.7
work

Other services 50.1 22.9 27.0 97.4 88.4 11.6 9.5 2.1

Total 52.5 14.3 33.2 91.5 89.1 10.9 4.7 6.3

Source: Computed from unit-level data of various Employment and Unemployment Surveys.
258 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A3.2. Share of different categories of employment in total employment, by sector,

2012 (%)

Informal sector
Regular worker

employment in

employment in
Self-employed

Casual worker

Formal sector

formal sector

formal sector
employment

employment

employment
Informal

Informal

Formal
Agriculture, 65.1 0.8 34.1 99.9 99.6 0.4 0.3 0.1
livestock, forestry
and fishing

Mining and 5.6 36.2 58.2 70.5 32.0 68.0 39.2 28.8
quarrying

Manufacturing 49.1 34.5 16.4 88.8 66.2 33.8 23.1 10.7

Electricity, gas, 10.3 83.9 5.8 50.8 17.8 82.2 33.8 48.4
water supply and
other utility
services

Construction 10.6 4.6 84.9 97.9 68.9 31.1 29.4 1.8

Trade 76.2 18.6 5.2 97.7 93.6 6.4 4.4 2.0

Hotels and 60.1 29.2 10.6 95.6 85.2 14.8 11.4 3.4
restaurants

Transport and 43.5 41.5 15.0 86.8 78.6 21.4 8.9 12.5
storage

Communications 10.9 86.7 2.5 45.1 25.1 74.9 22.0 52.8

and services
related to
broadcasting

Financial services 25.2 73.8 1.0 49.8 29.0 71.0 22.0 49.1

Real estate 77.2 20.8 2.0 93.3 84.4 15.6 9.4 6.2

Ownership of 37.2 56.1 6.7 76.3 58.9 41.1 19.4 21.6

dwellings and
professional
services

Public administra- 0.0 99.2 0.8 16.6 0.0 100 16.6 83.4
tion and defence

Education 11.1 88.2 0.7 46.9 21.9 78.1 27.2 51.0

Health and social 27.5 70.0 2.5 63.7 39.4 60.6 25.5 35.1
work

Other services 51.5 35.5 13.0 97.9 94.0 6.0 4.4 1.6

Total 52.2 17.9 29.9 92.2 82.5 17.5 9.6 7.2

Source: Computed from unit-level data of Employment Unemployment Survey 2011–12.

 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 259

X Table A3.3. Share of different categories of employment in total employment, by sector, 2019
(%)

Informal sector
Regular worker

employment in

employment in
Self-employed

Casual worker

Formal sector

formal sector

formal sector
employment

employment

employment
Informal

Informal

Formal
Agriculture, 74.1 1.2 24.7 99.9 99.6 0.4 0.3 0.1
livestock, forestry
and fishing

Mining and 9.3 52.2 38.5 71.1 29.6 70.4 41.6 28.7
quarrying

Manufacturing 42.9 43.7 13.4 82.6 63.6 36.4 19.5 16.9

Electricity, gas, 19.4 76.8 3.8 53.9 29.2 70.8 25.1 45.7
water supply and
other utility
services

Construction 10.8 5.5 83.7 97.4 79.1 20.9 18.8 2.1

Trade 70.3 26.1 3.6 95.4 90.2 9.8 5.8 4.0

Hotels and 52.9 36.9 10.2 93.3 81.5 18.5 12.7 5.8
restaurants

Transport and 43.3 43.2 13.5 88.0 78.6 21.4 9.8 11.6
storage

Communications 14.0 84.5 1.5 35.5 22.2 77.8 14.5 63.3

and services
related to
broadcasting

Financial services 17.3 82.5 0.2 39.3 18.6 81.4 21.9 59.6

Real estate 77.6 22.3 0.0 93.6 87.4 12.6 6.2 6.4

Ownership of 32.8 64.2 3.0 65.8 50.1 49.9 17.1 32.8

dwellings and
professional
services

Public administra- 0.0 99.4 0.6 24.5 0.0 100 24.5 75.5
tion and defence

Education 9.1 90.7 0.2 49.9 19.2 80.8 33.0 47.8

Health and social 13.7 85.3 1.0 56.9 27.3 72.7 31.8 41.0
work

Other services 43.6 45.6 10.8 97.8 91.3 8.7 6.6 2.1

Total 52.0 23.8 24.2 89.5 80.4 19.6 9.5 9.5

Source: Computed from unit-level data of Periodic Labour Force Survey for 2019.
260 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A3.4. Share of different categories of employment in total employment, by sector, 2022
(%)

Informal sector
Regular worker

employment in

employment in
Self-employed

Casual worker

Formal sector

formal sector

formal sector
employment

employment

employment
Informal

Informal

Formal
Agriculture, 78.1 0.9 21.0 99.4 96.6 3.4 2.8 0.6
livestock, forestry
and fishing

Mining and 8.7 44.0 47.3 75.9 27.3 72.7 48.6 24.1
quarrying

Manufacturing 45.0 43.8 11.3 81.5 61.9 38.1 20.0 18.1

Electricity, gas, 16.7 78.6 4.8 53.1 30.6 69.4 24.6 44.8
water supply and
other utility
services

Construction 12.6 5.1 82.3 97.9 78.2 21.8 19.9 1.9

Trade 70.8 25.8 3.3 95.2 91.7 8.3 4.1 4.1

Hotels and 57.3 31.4 11.2 94.7 85.4 14.6 10.0 4.6
restaurants

Transport and 48.5 40.1 11.4 87.8 81.3 18.7 7.2 11.5
storage

Communications 11.2 87.5 1.3 22.8 16.6 83.4 7.2 76.2

and services
related to
broadcasting

Financial services 17.5 82.3 0.2 35.8 21.5 78.5 16.0 62.4

Real estate 82.6 17.1 0.3 97.7 90.5 9.5 7.5 2.0

Ownership of 33.5 58.9 7.7 66.8 52.8 47.2 16.0 31.2

dwellings and
professional
services

Public administra- 0.0 99.8 0.2 23.3 0.0 100 23.3 76.7
tion and defence

Education 10.8 89.2 0.1 47.0 20.1 79.9 29.1 50.7

Health and social 14.4 84.8 0.8 54.1 28.2 71.8 27.8 44.1
work

Other services 42.9 49.7 7.4 97.9 93.7 6.3 4.3 2.0

Total 55.8 21.5 22.7 90.3 81.1 18.9 9.5 9.4

Source: Computed from unit-level data of Periodic Labour Force Survey for 2022.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 261

X Table A3.5a. Important high-growth and additional employment-generating (UPSS, aged 15+)
subsectors, 2000–19

Net Growth Share (%) Employment Sector

addition (CAGR) 2019 status (2019) (2019)
(millions)
SE RE CW R U

Manufacturing

Manufacture of wearing apparel, 7.92 10.75 3.77 66 26 7 41 59

except fur apparel

Manufacture of basic iron and 0.73 5.38 0.51 8 81 11 31 69

steel

Manufacture of structural metal 2.40 9.21 1.23 44 41 15 38 62

products, tanks, reservoirs and
steam generators

Manufacture of furniture 1.90 9.42 0.96 49 27 24 49 51

Construction

Site preparation(construction) 0.80 17.58 0.32 3 9 89 65 35

Building of complete construc- 34.63 8.79 18.13 10 5 86 75 25

tions or parts thereof; civil
engineering

Building installation 1.43 9.01 0.74 41 22 37 41 59

Building completion 2.32 7.98 1.28 18 8 74 48 52

Wholesale and retail trade

Sale, maintenance and repair of 0.63 5.54 0.43 47 46 7 29 71

motorcycles and related parts
and accessories

Wholesale of household goods 0.67 5.06 0.48 35 63 3 17 83

Wholesale of non-agricultural 0.87 7.23 0.50 60 26 13 31 69

intermediate products, waste and
scrap

Wholesale of machinery, equip- 0.52 12.49 0.23 36 64 0 17 83

ment and supplies

Non-specialized retail trade in 3.98 7.82 2.21 84 15 1 56 44

stores

Hotels and restaurants

Hotels; camping sites and other 0.52 6.33 0.33 15 82 3 31 69

provision of short-stay accommo-
dation

Restaurants, bars and canteens 7.96 36.00 2.92 57 32 11 41 59

Transport, storage and communications

Supporting and auxiliary 1.20 8.87 0.63 22 60 17 35 65

transport activities; activities of
travel agencies

Financial intermediation

Other financial intermediation 1.37 14.38 0.59 20 80 0 24 76

Insurance and pension funding, 0.53 7.84 0.30 36 64 0 22 78

except compulsory social security
262 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Net Growth Share (%) Employment Sector

addition (CAGR) 2019 status (2019) (2019)
(millions)
SE RE CW R U

Real estate, renting and business activities

Software publishing, consultancy 2.64 22.68 1.01 7 92 0 5 95

and supply

Legal, accounting, bookkeeping 1.69 8.32 0.91 41 58 0 16 84

and auditing activities; tax
consultancy; market research and
public opinion polling; business
and management consultancy

Business activities n.e.c. 4.69 15.15 1.97 25 71 3 28 72

Education

Secondary and senior secondary 6.57 6.00 2.38 6 93 0 47 53

education

Higher education 0.95 5.30 0.67 1 99 0 28 72

Other education (correspondence, 1.56 1000 0.56 54 46 1 33 67

coaching centre and tuitions, etc.)

Health and social work

Human health activities 2.90 5.74 1.94 15 85 1 31 69

Social work activities with 0.76 13.42 0.33 11 87 2 52 48

accommodation

Other services

Motion picture, radio, television 0.80 5.52 0.55 41 26 33 29 71

and other entertainment
activities

Activities of private households as 4.39 9.98 2.16 0 87 13 24 76

employers of domestic staff

Note: Emerging sectors are identified as generated more than 0.50 million additional employment and with CAGR of 5 per cent and higher.
CAGR=compound annual growth rate; SE=self-employed; RE=regular employed; CW=casual work; R=rural and U=urban.
Source: Estimates based on various rounds of the National Sample Surveys data on employment and unemployment, adjusted by projected popula-
tion.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 263

X Table A3.5b. Important emerging sectors (additional employment-generating subsectors)

(UPSS, aged 15+), 2019–22

Net Employment status Sector (2022)

addition (2022)
(millions)
(2019–22) SE RE CW R U

Agriculture

Growing of non-perennial crops 29.5 75 0 25 97 3

Growing of perennial crops 2.7 49 14 37 91 9

Animal production 12.3 97 2 1 87 13

Mixed farming 10.2 93 1 6 96 4

Manufacturing

Manufacture of wearing apparel, except fur 1.2 75 22 3 52 48

apparel

Manufacture of jewellery, bijouterie and related 2.7 33 65 2 36 64

articles

Repair of fabricated metal products, machinery 2.3 58 31 11 56 44

and equipment

Construction

Construction of buildings 51.2 10 3 87 80 20

Construction of roads and railways 1.9 9 17 74 78 22

Construction of utility projects 2.2 2 7 91 92 8

Building completion and finishing 2.7 31 9 60 48 52

Services

Maintenance and repair of motor vehicles 1.8 46 45 10 47 53

Other specialized wholesale 1.6 63 26 11 39 61

Retail sale of food, beverages and tobacco in 19.9 87 11 2 59 41

specialized stores

Retail sale of other household equipment in 4.3 60 37 3 41 59

specialized stores

Retail sale of other goods in specialized stores 9.5 62 37 1 46 54

Other land transport 19.8 55 34 11 63 37

Restaurants and mobile food services activities 4.0 60 33 6 48 52

Beverage serving activities 1.7 82 16 2 58 42

Computer programming, consultancy and 4.2 4 96 0 17 83

related activities

Monetary intermediation 2.5 6 94 0 34 66

Note: SE=self-employed; RE=regular employed; CW=casual work; R=rural and U=urban.

Source: Estimates based on National Sample Survey data on employment and unemployment, adjusted by projected population.
264 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Appendix Chapter 4
X Table A4.1a. Activity status among youths, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

Younger (15–19 years) Middle (20–24 years) Older (25–29 years)

2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022

Employed 35.4 21.4 11.1 15.2 55.8 46.9 34.9 40.2 66.6 61.7 52.7 58.6

Unemployed 2.5 2.1 4 2.3 4.2 3.9 9.9 8.2 2.5 2.2 6.3 5.5

Student 40.4 62.4 71.6 72.4 9.6 18.9 23.4 23.5 0.9 2 2.6 2.3

Domestic duties 12.2 6.9 9 8.8 20.2 17.2 23.4 27.0 20.2 18 27.4 32.6

Others 9.5 7.2 4.3 1.3 10.2 13.1 8.4 1.0 9.8 16.1 11.0 1.0

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

X Table A4.1b. Activity status, by gender, 2000, 2012 and 2019–22 (%)

Youths Adults

2000 2012 2019 2020 2021 2022 2000 2012 2019 2020 2021 2022

Male

Employed 69.6 59.8 48.6 50.9 52.3 53.5 89.8 89.9 84.4 85.8 86.2 85.5

Unemployed 4.5 3.8 10.2 9.1 7.8 7.7 0.4 0.3 1.2 0.9 0.9 0.9

Student 22.5 34.3 38.8 37.1 37.5 36.9 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0

Domestic duties 0.5 0.5 0.6 1.2 0.9 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.9 0.9 0.8 1.0

Others 2.8 1.6 1.9 1.7 1.4 1.4 9.4 9.4 13.4 12.3 12.1 12.6

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Female

Employed 32.8 22.8 13.3 17.5 18.5 19.1 42.0 35.2 28.8 34.8 38.2 38.4

Unemployed 1.5 1.6 2.9 3.0 2.6 2.6 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3

Student 13.8 25.4 31.1 30.8 32.6 32.4 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0

Domestic duties 50.1 49.3 51.5 47.5 45.3 45.1 47.8 55.7 59.6 53.8 50.9 50.8

Others 1.8 0.9 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.8 10.0 8.9 11.1 10.9 10.4 10.4

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 265

X Table A4.1c. Activity status, by rural or urban location, 2000, 2012 and 2019–22 (%)

Youths Adults

2000 2012 2019 2020 2021 2022 2000 2012 2019 2020 2021 2022

Rural

Employed 56.8 44.1 31.7 35.9 37.5 38.0 69.9 66.1 58.9 63.4 65.9 65.6

Unemployed 2.2 2.3 6.1 5.3 4.5 4.5 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4

Student 14.9 27.9 33.8 32.6 34.0 33.3 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0

Domestic duties 23.9 24.4 26.9 24.7 22.8 23.0 20.7 25.4 28.8 25.2 23.4 23.2

Others 2.3 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.1 9.1 8.3 11.6 10.9 10.3 10.8

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Urban

Employed 38.3 36.8 30.9 32.1 32.6 33.6 56.1 54.5 51.2 53.2 52.8 53.2

Unemployed 5.0 3.7 7.8 7.9 7.4 7.0 0.6 0.4 1.2 1.0 1.1 1.1

Student 27.2 34.8 37.6 37.4 37.9 38.5 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1

Domestic duties 27.1 23.5 22.0 21.5 20.9 19.9 32.0 33.9 33.8 32.6 32.7 32.5

Others 2.4 1.2 1.7 1.1 1.2 1.0 11.2 11.2 13.6 13.0 13.3 13.1

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

X Table A4.2a. Labour force participation rate, worker population ratio and unemployment rate
among youths, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

Younger (15–19 years) Middle (20–24 years) Older (25–29 years)

2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022

LFPR 37.9 23.5 15.1 17.5 60.0 50.9 44.8 48.4 69.0 63.9 59.0 64.0

WPR 35.4 21.4 11.1 15.2 55.8 46.9 34.9 40.2 66.6 61.7 52.7 58.6

UR 6.5 8.9 26.4 13.2 6.9 7.8 22.0 16.9 3.6 3.5 10.7 8.6

Note: LFPR=labour force participation rate; WPR=worker population ratio; UR=unemployment rate.
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.
266 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A4.2b. Labour force participation rate, by youths and adults, 2000, 2012 and 2019–22 (%)

Youths Adults

Male Female Total Male Female Total

2000 74.0 34.0 54.0 90.0 42.0 66.0

2012 63.0 24.0 44.0 90.0 35.0 63.0

2019 59.0 16.0 38.0 85.0 28.0 57.0

2020 60.0 20.6 40.9 86.7 35.1 60.6

2021 60.1 21.1 41.4 87.1 38.6 62.4

2022 61.2 21.7 42.0 86.3 38.7 62.4

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

X Table A4.2c. Labour force participation rate, by youths, adults, gender and rural or urban
location, 2000, 2012 and 2019–22 (%)

Youths Adults

Male Female Total Male Female Total

Rural

2000 77.1 40.5 59.1 91.1 48.8 70.2

2012 64.8 26.9 46.3 91.8 40.8 66.4

2019 58.7 15.4 37.6 87.0 31.9 59.4

2020 60.8 20.7 41.2 88.1 39.9 63.7

2021 60.6 22.0 42.0 88.8 44.5 66.3

2022 62.1 22.3 42.6 87.7 44.5 65.9

Urban

2000 66.7 17.3 43.4 87.8 23.4 56.8

2012 60.5 18.1 40.4 86.6 22.0 54.7

2019 58.3 17.1 38.8 82.7 22.1 52.7

2020 58.3 20.3 40.0 83.7 24.9 54.2

2021 59.0 19.0 39.9 83.2 25.3 53.9

2022 58.9 20.2 40.6 83.3 25.5 54.4

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 267

X Table A4.3a. Worker population ratio, by youths, adults and gender, 2000, 2012 and 2019–22 (%)

Youths Adults

Male Female Total Male Female Total

2000 69.0 32.0 51.0 90.0 41.0 66.0

2012 60.0 22.0 42.0 90.0 34.0 62.0

2019 48.0 13.0 31.0 84.0 28.0 56.0

2020 50.9 17.5 34.7 85.8 34.8 60.0

2021 52.3 18.5 36.1 86.2 38.2 61.8

2022 53.5 19.1 36.8 85.5 38.4 61.8

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

X Table A4.3b. Worker population ratio, by youths, adults, gender and rural or urban location,
2000, 2012 and 2019–22 (%)

Youths Adults

Male Female Total Male Female Total

Rural

2000 73.8 39.4 56.8 90.9 48.7 70.0

2012 61.6 25.7 44.1 91.6 40.7 66.2

2019 49.0 13.4 31.6 86.1 31.7 58.9

2020 52.4 18.6 35.9 87.6 39.7 63.4

2021 53.6 20.2 37.5 88.3 44.3 65.9

2022 55.0 20.4 38.0 87.1 44.3 65.6

Urban

2000 59.4 14.9 38.4 86.9 23.1 56.2

2012 55.6 15.6 36.5 86.1 21.7 54.2

2019 47.4 12.6 30.9 80.9 21.4 51.4

2020 47.6 15.2 32.1 82.2 24.3 53.2

2021 49.2 14.3 32.6 81.5 24.7 52.8

2022 49.6 15.9 33.6 81.6 24.8 53.2

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.
268 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A4.4a. Status of employment, by youths, adults and gender, 2000, 2012 and 2019–22 (%)

Youths Adults

Male Female Total Male Female Total

2000

Self-employed 48.2 53.9 50.0 52.5 55.9 53.5

Regular employee 15.3 7.4 12.9 19.5 7.9 15.9

Casual worker 36.5 38.7 37.1 28.1 36.1 30.6

2012

Self-employed 42.6 55.6 46.0 54.1 56.5 54.8

Regular employee 22.9 16.6 21.3 19.4 12.2 17.4

Casual worker 34.5 27.8 32.7 26.5 31.4 27.8

2019

Self-employed 40.4 49.3 42.2 55.0 53.9 54.7

Regular employee 31.9 30.6 31.6 23.0 21.2 22.6

Casual worker 27.7 20.1 26.2 22.0 24.9 22.7

2021

Self-employed 44.2 57.3 47.3 56.4 59.5 57.4

Regular employee 29.3 23.6 27.9 22.6 17.7 21.1

Casual worker 26.5 19.2 24.8 21.0 22.8 21.5

2022

Self-employed 42.9 61.1 47.5 Table 62.3 58.5

Regular employee 29.8 22.0 27.8 21.4 15.1 19.5

Casual worker 27.3 16.8 24.7 21.8 22.6 22.0

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

X Table A4.4b. Employment status of youths, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

Younger (15–19 years) Middle (20–24 years) Older (25–29 years)

2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022

Self-employed 50.1 46.9 45.5 54.1 51.2 46.1 41.5 47.0 45.5 49.4 42.8 45.9

Regular em- 8.9 12.9 22 16.5 12.4 20.9 31.1 28.5 24.1 14.5 32.5 30.7
ployed

Casual worker 41.1 40.2 32.5 29.4 36.4 33 27.4 24.5 30.4 36.1 24.7 23.4

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 269

X Table A4.4c. Status of employment, by rural or urban location, youths and adults, 2000, 2012,
2019 and 2022 (%)

Rural Urban

Youths Adults Youths Adults

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

2000

Self- 51.3 55.5 52.7 56.5 57.9 57.0 39.7 43.8 40.5 42.1 45.3 42.8
employed

Regular 7.6 3.3 6.1 9.7 3.2 7.5 36.8 34.2 36.3 44.2 33.6 42.1
employee

Casual 41.1 41.2 41.2 33.8 38.9 35.5 23.5 22.0 23.2 13.7 21.1 15.1
worker

2012

Self- 47.3 60.7 51.1 58.0 59.6 58.5 32.5 38.5 33.7 45.8 44.5 45.6
employed

Regular 11.4 6.6 10.0 9.2 5.0 7.9 47.6 50.3 48.2 41.2 39.9 40.9
employee

Casual 41.2 32.7 38.8 32.8 35.5 33.6 19.9 11.2 18.1 13.0 15.6 13.5
worker

2019

Self- 47.9 59.7 50.3 61.2 60.4 61.0 26.2 27.9 26.5 43.1 36.3 41.7
employed

Regular 18.4 13.9 17.5 12.4 9.9 11.7 57.3 64.7 58.8 43.3 51.7 45.1
employee

Casual 33.7 26.4 32.2 26.4 29.7 27.3 16.5 7.3 14.7 13.6 12.0 13.2
worker

2021

Self- 51.4 66.3 55.2 63.6 65.6 64.3 29.6 32.4 30.2 43.4 40.2 42.7
employed

Regular 17.4 9.6 15.4 11.6 8.5 10.6 53.7 62.1 55.4 42.4 46.9 43.4
employee

Casual 31.3 24.1 29.5 24.8 25.9 25.2 16.7 5.5 14.4 14.1 13.0 13.9
worker

2022

Self- 48.5 69.3 53.9 62.2 67.3 64.0 27.6 33.2 28.9 43.4 41.2 42.9
employed

Regular 20.0 10.4 17.5 12.7 7.5 10.9 56.6 61.7 57.7 42.8 46.8 43.7
employee

Casual 31.5 20.3 28.6 25.0 25.2 25.1 15.8 5.1 13.4 13.8 12.0 13.4
worker

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.
270 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A4.4d. Employment status of self-employment, by rural or urban location, youths,

adults and gender, 2022 (%)

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

Youths

Own-account 40.2 25.4 35.2 57.1 60.0 57.8 43.1 29.7 38.7
worker

Employer 1.6 0.5 1.2 5.0 0.9 3.9 2.1 0.6 1.6

Unpaid family 58.3 74.1 63.6 37.9 39.1 38.2 54.8 69.8 59.6
worker

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Adults

Own-account 86.6 39.1 69.6 79.8 67.3 77.0 85.1 42.7 71.0
worker

Employer 5.5 1.1 3.9 14.2 2.4 11.6 7.4 1.2 5.4

Unpaid family 7.9 59.9 26.5 6.0 30.2 11.4 7.5 56.1 23.6
worker

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 271

X Table A4.5. Real average monthly wage and earnings, by youths, adults, gender and rural or
urban location, 2012–22 (2012=100)

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

Youths 6 119 4 722 5 862 9 042 9 256 9 087 8 050 7 885 8 017
2012
Adults 11 706 6 756 10 768 16 956 12 387 16 083 15 260 10 581 14 368

Youths 6 614 6 210 6 550 9 785 10 327 9 892 8 408 8 790 8 477
Regular 2019
Adults 10 717 6 385 9 833 15 184 11 670 14 516 13 291 9 316 12 511

Youths 6 869 6 406 6 801 9 376 10 843 9 712 8 161 9 281 8 375
2022
Adults 10 774 5 973 9 697 15 119 10 738 14 069 13 326 8 869 12 285

Youths 1.1 4.0 1.6 1.1 1.6 1.2 0.6 1.6 0.8
2012–19
Adults -1.3 -0.8 -1.3 -1.6 -0.8 -1.5 -2.0 -1.8 -2.0

Youths 1.3 1.0 1.3 -1.4 1.6 -0.6 -1.0 1.8 -0.4
CAGR 2019–22
Adults 0.2 -2.2 -0.5 -0.1 -2.7 -1.0 0.1 -1.6 -0.6

Youths 1.2 3.1 1.5 0.4 1.6 0.7 0.1 1.6 0.4
2012–22
Adults -0.8 -1.2 -1.0 -1.1 -1.4 -1.3 -1.3 -1.7 -1.6

Youths 3 813 2 526 3 547 4 370 2 574 4 148 3 917 2 531 3 651
2012
Adults 4 036 2 498 3 594 5 353 2 839 4 830 4 247 2 535 3 775

Youths 4 377 2 957 4 164 5 367 3 605 5 211 4 580 3 037 4 367
Casual 2019
Adults 4 670 2 732 4 164 5 974 3 571 5 573 4 938 2 840 4 428

Youths 4 803 3 321 4 610 5 636 3 971 5 518 4 928 3 374 4 738
2022
Adults 5 202 3 111 4 605 6 168 3 744 5 759 5 379 3 175 4 791

Youths 2.0 2.3 2.3 3.0 4.9 3.3 2.3 2.6 2.6
2012–19
Adults 2.1 1.3 2.1 1.6 3.3 2.1 2.2 1.6 2.3

Youths 3.1 3.9 3.4 1.6 3.3 1.9 2.5 3.6 2.8
CAGR 2019–22
Adults 3.7 4.4 3.4 1.1 1.6 1.1 2.9 3.8 2.7

Youths 2.3 2.8 2.7 2.6 4.4 2.9 2.3 2.9 2.6
2012–22
Adults 2.6 2.2 2.5 1.4 2.8 1.8 2.4 2.3 2.4

Youths 5 742 2 618 5 251 9 186 4 432 8 329 6 454 3 044 5 901
2019
Adults 6 530 3 406 6 114 11 889 5 683 11 177 7 747 3 858 7 245
Self-
employed Youths 5 975 2 162 5 185 8 701 3 656 7 582 6 630 2 546 5 770
2022
Adults 6 784 2 827 6 022 12 096 4 658 10 904 8 069 3 200 7 168

Youths 1.3 -6.2 -0.4 -1.8 -6.2 -3.1 0.9 -5.8 -0.7
CAGR 2019–22
Adults 1.3 -6.0 -0.5 0.6 -6.4 -0.8 1.4 -6.0 -0.4

Note: CAGR=compound annual growth rate.

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.
272 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A4.6a. Broad industry of employment, by youths, adults and gender, 2000, 2012 and
2019–22 (%)

Youths Adults

Male Female Total Male Female Total

2000

Primary 53.1 75.8 60.0 53.3 76.0 60.3

Secondary 20.6 13.9 18.6 17.0 9.8 14.8

Tertiary 26.3 10.3 21.4 29.7 14.2 24.9

2012

Primary 38.5 56.6 43.2 44.2 64.1 49.6

Secondary 32.2 24.6 30.2 23.4 17.9 21.9

Tertiary 29.3 18.9 26.6 32.4 18.0 28.4

2019

Primary 29.9 45.4 33.0 39.2 56.2 43.4

Secondary 33.5 22.8 31.4 25.6 17.7 23.6

Tertiary 36.6 31.9 35.6 35.3 26.1 33.0

2021

Primary 32.8 53.3 37.6 38.8 61.7 45.7

Secondary 32.7 19.7 29.6 25.9 15.8 22.9

Tertiary 34.5 27.1 32.7 35.3 22.5 31.4

2022

Primary 32.6 56.7 38.6 40.0 64.4 47.6

Secondary 34.2 18.8 30.3 26.4 15.9 23.1

Tertiary 33.2 24.5 31.0 33.5 19.7 29.2

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

X Table A4.6b. Industrial distribution of youths, 2000, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

Younger (15–19 years) Middle (20–24 years) Older (25–29 years)

2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022

Primary 65.4 50.3 41.1 51.4 61 43.7 33.8 37.959 59 41.6 32.6 35.3

Secondary 18.8 33.1 35.7 30.0 18.1 31.2 32.7 30.927 17.8 27.9 28.8 29.9

Tertiary 15.8 16.6 23.2 18.6 21 25.2 33.5 31.114 23.3 30.5 38.6 34.8

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 273

X Table A4.6c. Broad industry of employment, by rural or location, youths, adults and gender,
2000, 2012 and 2019–22 (%)

Rural Urban

Youths Adults Youths Adults

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

2000

Primary 70.1 85.0 75.2 71.6 86.6 76.8 5.7 16.9 7.7 6.9 18.8 9.3

Secondary 14.8 10.4 13.3 11.5 7.0 10.0 36.8 36.5 36.7 31.0 24.7 29.7

Tertiary 15.1 4.7 11.5 16.9 6.3 13.3 57.5 46.6 55.5 62.1 56.4 61.0

2012

Primary 54.4 71.4 59.2 61.9 77.5 66.6 4.3 6.6 4.8 6.3 12.7 7.5

Secondary 27.9 20.9 25.9 19.4 14.3 17.8 41.5 37.0 40.6 32.1 31.9 32.1

Tertiary 17.7 7.7 14.9 18.8 8.2 15.5 54.2 56.4 54.6 61.6 55.4 60.4

2019

Primary 44.1 65.8 48.5 56.7 73.4 61.2 2.9 3.5 3.0 5.7 9.2 6.5

Secondary 30.5 19.2 28.2 21.2 13.7 19.2 39.3 30.0 37.5 33.8 28.6 32.7

Tertiary 25.4 15.0 23.3 22.1 12.9 19.6 57.8 66.5 59.4 60.4 62.2 60.8

2020

Primary 45.3 69.3 51.3 59.1 77.4 64.9 2.7 3.3 2.9 5.7 9.8 6.6

Secondary 30.6 17.4 27.3 20.3 12.0 17.5 37.1 30.3 35.6 33.2 27.2 31.8

Tertiary 24.1 13.3 21.4 20.6 10.6 17.6 60.2 66.4 61.5 61.1 63.0 61.6

2021

Primary 46.4 70.0 52.5 56.5 76.7 63.4 3.5 5.1 3.9 5.9 11.9 7.3

Secondary 29.7 17.1 26.6 22.0 12.4 18.7 38.9 26.7 36.4 33.1 28.5 31.9

Tertiary 23.9 12.9 20.9 21.5 10.9 17.9 57.6 68.2 59.7 61.0 59.6 60.8

2022

Primary 43.0 71.5 50.5 53.9 77.0 61.8 3.7 6.2 4.3 6.0 12.6 7.5

Secondary 32.3 16.1 28.1 22.9 12.7 19.4 39.3 28.0 36.8 35.2 29.0 33.7

Tertiary 24.7 12.4 21.5 23.2 10.3 18.8 56.9 65.8 58.9 58.8 58.4 58.7

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.
274 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A4.6d. Industry of employment, by youths, adults and gender, 2000, 2012 and 2019–22 (%)

Youths Adults

Male Female Total Male Female Total

2000

Agriculture, forestry and fishing 53.1 75.8 60.0 53.3 76.0 60.3

Mining and quarrying 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.8 0.3 0.6

Manufacturing 12.9 11.7 12.5 10.6 8.0 9.8

Electricity 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.5 0.0 0.4

Construction 6.9 1.8 5.4 5.1 1.5 4.0

Trade, hotels and restaurants 14.6 3.2 11.1 12.1 4.8 9.8

Transport, storage and commu- 5.1 0.3 3.6 5.3 0.4 3.8
nications

Finance, real estate and 1.2 0.5 1.0 1.8 0.4 1.4
business

Public administration, educa- 5.3 6.3 5.6 10.6 8.7 10.0

tion, health and others

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

2012

Agriculture, forestry and fishing 38.5 56.6 43.2 44.2 64.1 49.6

Mining and quarrying 0.7 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.5

Manufacturing 15.2 18.9 16.1 11.2 11.1 11.2

Electricity 0.6 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.5

Construction 15.7 5.2 13.0 11.0 6.3 9.7

Trade, hotels and restaurants 13.7 4.1 11.2 13.7 5.4 11.4

Transport, storage and commu- 6.7 1.4 5.3 6.5 0.5 4.8
nications

Finance, real estate and 2.6 1.6 2.4 3.0 0.9 2.5
business

Public administration, educa- 6.2 11.9 7.7 9.1 11.1 9.7

tion, health and others

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 275

Youths Adults

Male Female Total Male Female Total

2019

Agriculture, forestry and fishing 29.9 45.4 33.0 39.2 56.2 43.4

Mining and quarrying 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.4

Manufacturing 14.9 18.4 15.6 11.2 11.7 11.4

Electricity 0.7 0.1 0.6 0.7 0.3 0.6

Construction 17.4 4.0 14.7 13.1 5.6 11.3

Trade, hotels and restaurants 16.3 7.1 14.4 14.6 6.9 12.7

Transport, storage and commu- 8.6 3.2 7.5 7.4 0.6 5.7
nications

Finance, real estate and 3.8 4.4 3.9 4.1 1.7 3.5
business

Public administration, educa- 7.9 17.3 9.8 9.2 17.0 11.1

tion, health and others

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

2020

Agriculture, forestry and fishing 32.9 51.9 37.6 42.4 62.1 48.1

Mining and quarrying 0.4 0.0 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.3

Manufacturing 13.4 16.0 14.1 10.5 9.4 10.2

Electricity 0.8 0.2 0.7 0.7 0.3 0.6

Construction 18.0 4.6 14.7 12.7 5.7 10.6

Trade, hotels and restaurants 16.0 7.9 14.0 15.0 8.1 13.0

Transport, storage and commu- 8.6 2.3 7.0 7.0 0.7 5.2
nications

Finance, real estate and 3.6 3.4 3.6 3.5 1.5 2.9
business

Public administration, educa- 6.4 13.7 8.2 7.8 12.3 9.1

tion, health and others

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

276 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Youths Adults

Male Female Total Male Female Total

2021

Agriculture, forestry and fishing 34.6 55.6 39.8 41.6 63.8 48.5

Mining and quarrying 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.3

Manufacturing 12.9 14.0 13.1 10.4 9.6 10.2

Electricity 0.9 0.1 0.7 0.7 0.2 0.6

Construction 18.3 5.2 15.1 13.6 5.7 11.1

Trade, hotels and restaurants 15.8 6.0 13.4 14.4 6.2 11.9

Transport, storage and commu- 7.7 2.5 6.5 7.1 0.5 5.1
nications

Finance, real estate and 3.5 2.5 3.2 3.5 1.2 2.7
business

Public administration, educa- 6.0 14.1 8.0 8.1 12.8 9.6

tion, health and others

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

2022

Agriculture, forestry and fishing 32.6 56.7 38.6 40.0 64.4 47.6

Mining and quarrying 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.3

Manufacturing 14.1 14.9 14.3 10.9 10.2 10.7

Electricity 0.6 0.1 0.5 0.8 0.2 0.6

Construction 19.0 3.6 15.1 14.4 5.4 11.6

Trade, hotels and restaurants 15.5 5.2 12.9 14.4 6.1 11.8

Transport, storage and commu- 8.0 3.5 6.9 7.4 0.5 5.2
nications

Finance, real estate and 3.7 2.7 3.5 3.5 1.2 2.8
business

Public administration, educa- 6.0 13.1 7.8 8.2 11.9 9.4

tion, health and others

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 277

X Table A4.6e. Industry of employment, by rural or urban location, youths, adults and gender,
2000, 2012 and 2019–22 (%)

Rural Urban

Youths Adults Youths Adults

Female

Female

Female

Female
Total

Total

Total

Total
Male

Male

Male

Male
2000

Agriculture, forestry 70.1 85.0 75.2 71.6 86.6 76.8 5.7 16.9 7.7 6.9 18.8 9.3
and fishing

Mining and quar- 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.4 1.1 0.4 1.0
rying

Manufacturing 8.6 8.8 8.7 6.5 5.9 6.3 25.0 30.3 25.9 21.0 19.8 20.7

Electricity 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.3 1.1 0.2 0.9

Construction 5.5 1.2 4.0 4.0 0.9 3.0 11.1 5.8 10.1 7.8 4.3 7.1

Trade, hotels and 7.5 1.4 5.4 6.4 2.3 5.0 34.3 14.9 30.8 26.5 17.8 24.8
restaurants

Transport, storage 3.5 0.1 2.3 3.1 0.1 2.0 9.6 1.5 8.1 10.9 2.1 9.2
and communications

Finance, real estate 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.0 0.4 3.5 3.0 3.4 4.8 2.2 4.3
and business

Public administra- 3.6 3.1 3.4 6.9 3.9 5.9 10.0 27.2 13.2 19.9 34.3 22.7
tion, education,
health and others

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2012

Agriculture, forestry 54.4 71.4 59.2 61.9 77.5 66.6 4.3 6.6 4.8 6.3 12.7 7.5
and fishing

Mining and quar- 0.7 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.2 0.6 0.9 0.3 0.8
rying

Manufacturing 10.0 14.7 11.3 7.1 7.2 7.1 26.3 32.9 27.7 20.0 26.1 21.2

Electricity 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.3 1.5 0.6 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2

Construction 17.0 5.7 13.8 11.5 6.8 10.0 13.0 3.3 11.0 9.9 4.3 8.8

Trade, hotels and 8.0 2.4 6.4 7.9 3.1 6.4 26.1 9.6 22.8 26.2 14.4 23.8
restaurants

Transport, storage 4.6 0.2 3.4 3.9 0.1 2.8 11.3 5.3 10.0 11.9 1.7 9.9
and communications

Finance, real estate 0.9 0.1 0.7 1.0 0.2 0.8 6.5 6.3 6.4 7.3 3.8 6.6
and business

Public administra- 4.2 5.0 4.4 5.8 4.8 5.5 10.4 35.2 15.4 16.2 35.5 20.0
tion, education,
health and others

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
278 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Rural Urban

Youths Adults Youths Adults

Female

Female

Female

Female
Total

Total

Total

Total
Male

Male

Male

Male
2019

Agriculture, forestry 44.1 65.8 48.5 56.7 73.4 61.2 2.9 3.5 3.0 5.7 9.2 6.5
and fishing

Mining and quar- 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.7 0.2 0.6
rying

Manufacturing 9.6 14.4 10.6 6.4 7.3 6.7 25.0 26.4 25.3 20.5 23.4 21.1

Electricity 0.5 0.0 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.3 1.2 0.4 1.0 1.2 0.5 1.1

Construction 19.9 4.5 16.7 14.1 6.0 11.9 12.7 3.1 10.8 11.4 4.5 10.0

Trade, hotels and 10.8 4.6 9.5 9.3 4.2 7.9 26.6 12.2 23.8 24.8 14.2 22.6
restaurants

Transport, storage 6.5 0.5 5.3 4.9 0.1 3.6 12.5 8.7 11.8 12.1 2.1 10.0
and communications

Finance, real estate 1.8 0.7 1.6 1.5 0.3 1.2 7.7 11.9 8.5 9.0 5.3 8.2
and business

Public administra- 6.3 9.3 6.9 6.3 8.3 6.8 11.0 33.6 15.4 14.6 40.6 20.0
tion, education,
health and others

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2020

Agriculture, forestry 45.3 69.3 51.3 59.1 77.4 64.9 2.7 3.3 2.9 5.7 9.8 6.6
and fishing

Mining and quar- 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.4
rying

Manufacturing 9.7 12.3 10.4 6.4 6.0 6.2 22.4 26.3 23.3 19.6 21.1 20.0

Electricity 0.5 0.0 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.3 1.4 0.5 1.2 1.4 0.7 1.2

Construction 20.1 5.1 16.3 13.2 5.8 10.8 12.8 3.4 10.7 11.7 5.3 10.2

Trade, hotels and 10.1 3.2 8.4 8.9 3.8 7.3 30.3 20.9 28.1 28.4 22.8 27.1
restaurants

Transport, storage 7.0 0.5 5.4 4.7 0.1 3.3 12.4 7.2 11.2 12.1 2.5 9.9
and communications

Finance, real estate 2.1 1.4 1.9 1.5 0.4 1.1 7.3 8.9 7.7 7.9 5.3 7.3
and business

Public administra- 4.8 8.1 5.7 5.6 6.3 5.8 10.2 29.4 14.5 12.7 32.5 17.2
tion, education,
health and others

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 279

Rural Urban

Youths Adults Youths Adults

Female

Female

Female

Female
Total

Total

Total

Total
Male

Male

Male

Male
2021

Agriculture, forestry 46.4 70.0 52.5 56.5 76.7 63.4 3.5 5.1 3.9 5.9 11.9 7.3
and fishing

Mining and quar- 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.6 0.1 0.5
rying

Manufacturing 9.3 11.5 9.9 7.0 6.2 6.8 22.2 22.7 22.3 18.6 23.1 19.6

Electricity 0.6 0.0 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.3 1.4 0.2 1.2 1.4 0.7 1.2

Construction 19.5 5.6 15.9 14.1 6.0 11.3 15.0 3.7 12.7 12.5 4.6 10.6

Trade, hotels and 10.8 3.4 8.9 9.3 3.6 7.3 29.1 15.0 26.1 26.8 16.6 24.4
restaurants

Transport, storage 6.2 0.7 4.7 5.0 0.1 3.3 11.9 8.9 11.3 12.2 2.2 9.9
and communications

Finance, real estate 2.0 0.7 1.7 1.5 0.3 1.1 7.4 8.8 7.7 8.1 4.6 7.3
and business

Public administra- 4.8 8.0 5.6 5.6 6.9 6.1 9.1 35.4 14.6 14.0 36.3 19.2
tion, education,
health and others

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2022

Agriculture, forestry 43.0 71.5 50.5 53.9 77.0 61.8 3.7 6.2 4.3 6.0 12.6 7.5
and fishing

Mining and quar- 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.0 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.4
rying

Manufacturing 10.3 11.9 10.7 7.0 6.8 6.9 24.8 25.0 24.8 20.5 24.0 21.3

Electricity 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.3 1.1 0.3 0.9 1.5 0.6 1.3

Construction 21.2 3.9 16.7 15.0 5.7 11.8 13.1 2.7 10.8 12.8 4.2 10.8

Trade, hotels and 11.4 3.3 9.3 10.3 3.8 8.0 26.9 11.6 23.4 24.6 15.8 22.5
restaurants

Transport, storage 6.1 1.0 4.8 5.4 0.1 3.6 13.1 12.2 12.9 12.3 2.3 10.0
and communications

Finance, real estate 2.2 0.6 1.8 1.7 0.4 1.3 7.8 9.9 8.3 7.9 4.5 7.1
and business

Public administra- 4.9 7.5 5.6 5.9 6.1 5.9 9.1 32.1 14.3 14.0 35.9 19.1
tion, education,
health and others

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.
280 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A4.6f. Important sectors for additional employment generation (UPSS) (millions) for
youths, 2012–19

Sector (% in

Additional job
Status (% in 2019)
2019)

Share (% in
(millions)*
(2012–19)

(2012–19)
Self- Regular Casual

CAGR
2019)
Rural Urban
employed employee worker

Computer programming, 0.47 1.7 6.6 4 96 0 19 81

consultancy and related
activities

Repair of fabricated 0.43 0.9 14.8 27 58 15 46 54

metal products, ma-
chinery and equipment

Land transport 0.43 7.1 1.2 41 44 15 62 38

Secondary education 0.41 1.8 5.0 15 84 1 61 39

Construction of buildings 0.40 17.9 0.4 6 4 89 78 22

Hospital activities 0.39 1.3 7.6 2 98 0 34 66

Electrical, plumbing and 0.31 0.9 8.8 32 24 44 56 44

other construction
installation activities

Retail sale of other house- 0.22 1.8 2.6 33 63 4 36 64

hold equipment in
specialized stores

Retail sale of information 0.14 0.7 4.8 48 49 3 47 53

and communications
equipment in specialized
stores

Retail sale of other goods 0.13 3.5 0.7 38 59 3 37 63

in specialized stores

Note: Only sectors with additional jobs of 100,000 or more were considered. *=Sorted in descending order of additional jobs. CAGR=compound annual
growth rate.
Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2012 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2019.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 281

X Table A4.6g. Industrial distribution of youths, by age group and broad industry, 2000, 2012
and 2019 (%)

2000 2012 2019

Younger Middle Older Younger Middle Older Younger Middle Older

(15–19 (20–24 (25–29 (15–19 (20–24 (25–29 (15–19 (20–24 (25–29
years) years) years) years) years) years) years) years) years)

Agriculture, 65.4 61.0 59.0 50.3 43.7 41.6 41.1 33.8 32.6
forestry and
fishing

Mining and 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.7 0.4
quarrying

Manufacturing 13.1 12.2 11.7 17.7 16.9 14.7 19.1 17.1 13.0

Electricity 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.2 0.5 0.8

Construction 5.2 5.3 5.3 14.4 13.4 11.9 15.9 14.5 14.7

Trade, hotels 10.2 11.2 10.5 8.8 11.2 11.5 13.6 13.8 14.2
and restau-
rants

Transport, 2.1 3.7 4.2 2.6 5.0 6.7 3.4 7.5 8.2
storage and
communica-
tions

Finance, real 0.3 0.9 1.4 0.9 2.2 2.9 1.4 3.2 4.8
estate and
business

Public 3.2 5.1 7.2 4.4 6.8 9.4 4.8 9.1 11.4
administration,
education,
health and
others

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

X Table A4.7a. Unemployment rate, by youths, adults and gender, 2000, 2012 and 2019–22 (%)

Youths Adults

Male Female Total Male Female Total

2000 6.2 4.4 5.7 0.5 0.3 0.4

2012 6.0 6.8 6.2 0.3 0.6 0.4

2019 17.3 17.9 17.5 1.4 1.3 1.4

2020 15.1 14.7 15.0 1.0 0.8 0.9

2021 13.0 12.5 12.9 1.0 0.8 1.0

2022 12.6 11.8 12.4 1.0 0.8 1.0

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.
282 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A4.7b. Unemployment rate, by youths, adults, gender and rural or urban location, 2000,
2012 and 2019–22 (%)

Youths Adults

Male Female Total Male Female Total

Rural

2000 4.4 2.7 3.8 0.2 0.1 0.2

2012 4.9 4.4 4.8 0.2 0.3 0.2

2019 16.6 13.2 15.9 1.0 0.6 0.9

2020 13.8 10.3 12.9 0.6 0.4 0.6

2021 11.6 8.2 10.7 0.6 0.4 0.5

2022 11.4 8.5 10.6 0.6 0.4 0.5

Urban

2000 11.0 14.1 11.6 1.0 1.3 1.0

2012 8.2 14.1 9.5 0.6 1.5 0.8

2019 18.7 26.2 20.3 2.1 3.2 2.3

2020 18.2 24.9 19.9 1.8 2.2 1.9

2021 16.6 24.9 18.5 2.0 2.6 2.1

2022 15.8 21.6 17.2 2.0 2.5 2.1

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 283

X Table A4.7c. Youth unemployment rate, by level of education and gender, 2000, 2012 and
2019–22 (%)

2000 2012 2019 2020 2021 2022

Male

No education 0.8 1.7 7.4 4.9 3.6 5.6

Below secondary 4.5 3.7 10.7 7.4 6.1 7.1

Secondary and 12.2 8.1 17.9 14.7 12.6 12.3

higher secondary

Graduate or 24.5 19.9 34.4 34.3 30.3 26.7

higher

Secondary+ 15 11.4 24.4 22.3 19.4 17.5

Female

No education 1.3 2.4 10.6 7.5 5.7 0.0

Below secondary 4.8 4 11.9 8.5 7.3 1.9

Secondary and 10.9 7 17.7 15.1 13.3 8.7

higher secondary

Graduate or 21.1 17.4 31.8 32.5 27.2 34.5

higher

Secondary+ 13.1 9.7 22.7 21.2 18.2 21.4

All

No education 0.2 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.6 3.4

Below secondary 3.4 2.6 4.7 3.6 1.9 5.9

Secondary and 18.8 12.8 19.4 13 9.8 11.6

higher secondary

Graduate or 36.4 25.8 40.8 38.1 37.6 29.1

higher

Secondary+ 23.9 17.7 30.8 25.8 23.4 18.4

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

X Table A4.8. Underemployment rate (open unemployment and underemployment, by time

criteria), by rural or urban location and gender, 2012, 2019 and 2022 (%)

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

2012 14.8 12.3 14.2 12.2 17.4 13.3 14.0 13.5 13.9

2019 20.5 19.7 20.3 19.9 28.3 21.6 20.3 23.2 20.8

2022 16.2 14.0 15.8 17.8 24.4 19.2 16.7 17.3 16.8

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.
284 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A4.9a. Youths not in employment, education or training, by gender and rural or urban
location, 2000, 2012 and 2019–22 (%)

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

2000 6.9 49.9 28.1 10.9 60.5 34.4 8.0 52.7 29.9

2012 6.0 51.1 28.1 7.5 52.1 28.6 6.5 51.4 28.2

2019 12.2 57.4 34.4 13.5 50.6 31.3 12.7 55.3 33.4

2020 13.3 54.0 33.1 15.0 51.2 32.4 13.8 53.1 32.9

2021 9.6 49.0 28.6 12.4 48.6 29.7 10.5 48.9 28.9

2022 9.2 49.0 28.7 11.2 47.0 28.2 9.8 48.4 28.5

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

X Table A4.9b. Youths not in employment, education or training, by age group, 2000, 2012, 2019
and 2022 (%)

Younger (15–19 years) Middle (20–24 years) Older (25–29 years)

2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022 2000 2012 2019 2022

NEET 24.3 16.7 17.1 12.7 34.2 34.3 41.8 36.3 32.1 36.0 44.3 39.1

Not in NEET 75.7 83.3 82.9 87.3 65.8 65.7 58.2 63.7 67.9 64.0 55.7 60.9

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Note: NEET=not in employment, education or training.

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 285

X Table A4.9c. Youths not in employment, education or training who are either unemployed or
out of the labour force, by rural or urban location and gender, 2000, 2012, 2019, 2021 and 2022 (%)

Rural Urban Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

NEET unemployed

2000 94.8 93.0 94.4 95.2 94.3 95.0 95.0 93.6 94.7

2012 95.1 88.9 93.5 96.5 91.4 94.9 95.8 90.1 94.1

2019 97.1 96.0 97.0 96.2 96.6 96.3 96.8 96.3 96.7

2021 97.5 97.0 97.4 97.9 97.6 97.8 97.7 97.3 97.6

2022 98.4 98.4 98.4 97.4 98.3 97.7 98.0 98.4 98.1

NEET out of the labour force

2000 16.1 82.1 63.4 11.9 70.4 52.2 14.4 77.8 59.2

2012 8.4 68.7 48.4 6.9 60.7 42.1 7.8 65.9 46.1

2019 6.7 66.0 45.9 7.2 55.6 38.3 6.9 62.5 43.3

2021 7.2 61.1 42.1 6.9 54.3 36.9 7.1 58.7 40.3

2022 5.9 60.6 42.2 5.2 53.5 36.0 5.7 58.6 40.4

2022 9.2 49.0 28.7 11.2 47.0 28.2 9.8 48.4 28.5

Note: NEET=not in employment, education or training.

Source: Computed from Employment and Unemployment Survey data, Periodic Labour Force Survey data and Central Statistical Office data.

X Table A4.10a. Workforce and unemployed persons (CWS; aged 15+), by quarter, youths and
adults, 2019–21 (millions)

Q4_2019 Q1_2020 Q2_2020 Q3_2020 Q4_2020 Q1_2021 Q2_2021

Youths 30.1 27.1 23.8 29.4 29.3 30.8 27.7

Workforce
Adults 91.8 89.7 82.3 92.3 94.6 94.8 89.4

Youths 5.7 6.1 8.0 6.6 6.0 5.6 6.2

Unemployed
Adults 2.2 2.3 6.2 3.2 2.2 2.3 4.1

Note: Q1: January–March; Q2: April–June; Q3: July–September; Q4: October–December.

Source: Computed from Periodic Labour Force Survey data.
286 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A4.10b. Employment status, (CWS, aged 15+), by youths, adults and quarter, 2019–21
(millions)

Youths Adults
Quarter Self- Regular Casual Self- Regular Casual
employed employee worker employed employee worker

Q4_2019 22.4 9.8 7.7 70.8 20.6 21.1

Q1_2020 20.0 8.8 7.1 67.9 19.7 21.8

Q2_2020 14.6 4.8 9.2 54.1 12.7 28.2

Q3_2020 21.3 8.1 8.1 70.3 17.9 22.0

Q4_2020 21.9 8.9 7.4 73.9 20.2 20.7

Q1_2021 22.5 8.8 8.3 73.6 21.1 21.2

Q2_2021 20.0 7.8 7.8 65.5 17.4 24.0

Note: Q1: January–March; Q2: April–June; Q3: July–September; Q4: October–December.

Source: Computed from Periodic Labour Force Survey data.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 287

X Table A4.11. Changes in self-employment (UPSS) for youths and adults (millions), pre- and
post-COVID-19 pandemic, by gender and rural or urban location, 2019–22 (%)

Youths Adults

Male Female Rural Urban Total Male Female Rural Urban Total

2019

Own-account 18.5 4.2 16.4 6.3 22.7 127.5 20.1 109.5 38.1 147.6
worker

Employer 0.8 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 9.1 0.7 4.3 5.4 9.7

Household unpaid 17.5 7.1 20.9 3.7 24.6 9.0 26.6 31.3 4.3 35.6
worker

Self-employment 36.8 11.3 37.8 10.3 48.1 145.6 47.3 145.1 47.8 192.9

2021

Own-account 20.2 5.6 18.3 7.5 25.8 138.7 29.0 123.7 44.0 167.7
worker

Employer 0.7 0.0 0.4 0.4 0.7 9.9 0.6 5.4 5.1 10.5

Household unpaid 23.8 12.5 31.7 4.6 36.3 9.8 42.4 46.3 5.9 52.2
worker

Self-employment 44.8 18.1 50.3 12.6 62.9 158.3 72.0 175.4 54.9 230.4

Addition and loss in jobs 2019–21

Own-account 1.7 1.4 1.9 1.2 3.1 11.2 8.9 14.2 5.9 20.1
worker

Employer -0.1 -0.1 0.0 0.0 -0.1 0.8 -0.1 1.1 -0.3 0.8

Household unpaid 6.3 5.4 10.8 0.9 11.7 0.8 15.8 15.0 1.6 16.6
worker

Self-employment 8.0 6.8 12.5 2.3 14.8 12.7 24.7 30.3 7.1 37.5

2022

Own-account 18.9 6.0 19.1 5.9 24.9 112.7 30.0 111.6 31.0 142.6
worker

Employer 0.9 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.0 9.7 0.8 5.9 4.6 10.5

Household unpaid 24.2 14.3 34.6 3.9 38.5 10.8 39.4 45.5 4.6 50.1
worker

Self-employment 44.0 20.5 54.3 10.2 64.5 133.2 70.1 163.0 40.3 203.3

Addition and loss in jobs 2019–22

Own-account 0.4 1.8 2.7 -0.4 2.2 -14.8 9.9 2.1 -7.1 20.1
worker

Employer 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.6 0.1 1.6 -0.8 0.8

Household unpaid 6.7 7.2 13.7 0.2 13.9 1.8 12.8 14.2 0.3 16.6
worker

Self-employment 7.2 9.2 16.5 -0.1 16.4 -12.4 22.8 17.9 -7.5 37.5

Source: Computed from Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2019 and 2021.
288 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A4.12. Regional differences in youth population, 2021, 2031 and 2036

Major state- Youth population Share of youth in Share of youth in Share of youth in
sand union (millions) working popula- total state total India's
territories tion (%) population (%) population (%)

2021 2031 2036 2021 2031 2036 2021 2031 2036 2021 2031 2036

Uttar Pradesh 68.9 66.1 65.0 48.3 40.5 38.0 29.9 26.2 25.1 18.6 18.5 18.8

Bihar 35.4 39.0 37.9 49.0 45.2 41.6 28.8 27.7 25.5 9.5 10.9 11.0

Madhya Pradesh 23.4 23.9 24.0 44.5 39.8 38.1 27.7 25.4 24.6 6.3 6.7 7.0

Rajasthan 22.7 22.5 22.2 46.1 40.1 37.7 28.7 25.8 24.5 6.1 6.3 6.4

West Bengal 25.8 22.1 20.2 38.8 32.4 30.0 26.3 21.6 19.6 6.9 6.2 5.8

Jharkhand 11.2 11.4 11.1 46.5 41.1 37.9 29.0 26.5 24.5 3.0 3.2 3.2

Andhra Pradesh 13.3 11.3 10.6 37.4 31.5 29.9 25.1 20.9 19.5 3.6 3.2 3.1

Odisha 11.9 11.0 10.4 40.2 35.2 33.1 26.1 22.8 21.2 3.2 3.1 3.0

Assam 9.7 9.5 9.0 42.7 37.8 35.1 27.8 24.8 22.9 2.6 2.7 2.6

Chhattisgarh 8.2 8.2 8.3 43.6 39.0 37.3 27.6 25.2 24.2 2.2 2.3 2.4

Haryana 8.2 8.0 8.0 42.7 36.7 35.0 27.8 24.4 23.3 2.2 2.3 2.3

Punjab 7.9 6.9 6.5 39.0 32.3 30.3 26.1 21.5 20.0 2.1 1.9 1.9

Delhi 5.8 6.0 6.1 40.8 35.5 34.0 28.2 24.3 22.9 1.6 1.7 1.8

Jammu & 3.9 3.7 3.1 43.7 37.0 31.5 29.3 25.4 21.0 1.1 1.0 0.9
Kashmir

Uttarakhand 3.3 3.0 2.8 44.5 35.9 32.9 29.2 23.9 21.8 0.9 0.8 0.8

Himachal 1.9 1.6 1.5 37.9 32.4 30.3 25.1 21.4 19.6 0.5 0.5 0.4
Pradesh

Karnataka 17.0 15.6 15.0 38.2 33.3 31.8 25.4 22.1 20.9 4.6 4.4 4.3

Kerala 7.8 7.4 7.1 35.0 33.0 32.1 22.1 20.0 19.1 2.1 2.1 2.0

Telangana 9.9 8.5 7.9 39.0 32.1 30.2 26.3 21.7 20.1 2.7 2.4 2.3

Tamil Nadu 17.7 15.9 15.0 34.9 31.2 30.1 23.2 20.3 19.2 4.8 4.5 4.3

Gujarat 18.5 18.3 18.4 40.7 36.2 35.0 26.4 23.5 22.6 5.0 5.1 5.3

Maharashtra 32.5 30.1 28.8 39.1 33.7 31.8 26.1 22.5 21.0 8.7 8.4 8.3

Regions

Central 103.8 101.2 100.2 46.9 40.1 37.8 29.1 25.9 24.8 28.0 28.4 29.0

East 84.3 83.6 79.5 43.8 39.1 36.3 27.6 25.0 23.0 22.7 23.4 23.0

South 65.7 58.7 55.6 36.8 32.2 30.8 24.4 21.1 19.8 17.7 16.5 16.1

North 50.4 48.7 47.5 43.1 37.1 34.8 27.9 24.5 23.0 13.6 13.7 13.7

West 50.9 48.4 47.2 39.7 34.6 32.9 26.2 22.9 21.6 13.7 13.6 13.6

North-East 9.7 9.5 9.0 42.7 37.8 35.1 27.8 24.8 22.9 2.6 2.7 2.6

India 371.4 356.6 345.5 42.4 37.1 35.0 27.3 24.1 22.7 100 100 100

Source: Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MHFW), Government of India, 2020.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 289

Appendix Chapter 5
X Figure A5.1. Ability to copy or move a file and folder, 2021 (%)

Tamil Nadu 72.28

Kerala 90.28

Karnataka 64.36

Telangana 53.83

Andhra Pradesh 45.56

Maharashtra 54.32

Gujarat 50.78

Madhya Pradesh 26.64

Chhattisgarh 28.17

Odisha 32.31

Jharkhand 27.18

West Bengal 43.07

Assam 23.58

Bihar 26.62

Uttar Pradesh 25.09

Uttarakhand 46.42

Rajasthan 33.96

Haryana 55.04

Punjab 60.73

Himachal Pradesh 74.01

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Source: Computed from 78th Multiple Indicator Survey data for 2021.
290 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Figure A5.2. Ability to copy and paste tools to duplicate or

move information within a document, 2021 (%)

Tamil Nadu 70.45

Kerala 89.30

Karnataka 60.24

Telangana 50.40

Andhra Pradesh 43.30

Maharashtra 52.33

Gujarat 48.19

Madhya Pradesh 24.13

Chhattisgarh 26.83

Odisha 30.98

Jharkhand 25.92

West Bengal 40.04

Assam 22.85

Bihar 24.56

Uttar Pradesh 23.78

Uttarakhand 44.09

Rajasthan 31.29

Haryana 52.66

Punjab 51.91

Himachal Pradesh 68.06

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Source: Computed from 78th Multiple Indicator Survey data for 2021.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 291

X Figure A5.3. Ability to send e-mail with attached file, 2021 (%)

Tamil Nadu 55.33

Kerala 73.34

Karnataka 45.04

Telangana 45.46

Andhra Pradesh 36.38

Maharashtra 35.77

Gujarat 29.67

Madhya Pradesh 15.35

Chhattisgarh 18.41

Odisha 19.29

Jharkhand 14.66

West Bengal 20.79

Assam 13.55

Bihar 14.66

Uttar Pradesh 14.31

Uttarakhand 26.95

Rajasthan 23.31

Haryana 30.75

Punjab 28.73

Himachal Pradesh 46.33

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Source: Computed from 78th Multiple Indicator Survey data for 2021.
292 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Figure A5.4. Ability to create electronic presentations with presentation software, 2021 (%)

Tamil Nadu 26.10

Kerala 40.33

Karnataka 22.53

Telangana 14.27

Andhra Pradesh 10.18

Maharashtra 12.87

Gujarat 9.14

Madhya Pradesh 3.94

Chhattisgarh 2.53

Odisha 4.1

Jharkhand 3.36

West Bengal 6.84

Assam 3.04

Bihar 2.39

Uttar Pradesh 2.39

Uttarakhand 6.15

Rajasthan 4.23

Haryana 4.42

Punjab 6.61

Himachal Pradesh 16.92

10 20 30 40 50
Source: Computed from 78th Multiple Indicator Survey data for 2021.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 293

X Table A5.1. Regression results for returns to education, 2005, 2019, and 2022

Dependent variable Log (monthly wage) 2005 2019 2022

Years of experience 0.032*** 0.024*** 0.030***

Years of experience
(-0.001) (-0.002) (-0.001)

Urban 0.311*** 0.265*** 0.171***

Sector
(base: rural) (-0.008) (-0.012) (-0.008)

Male 0.481*** 0.300*** 0.341***

Gender
(base: female) (-0.009) (-0.015) (-0.011)

Scheduled Tribes -0.007 0.121*** 0.078***

(-0.013) (-0.02) (-0.014)

Other Backward Classes 0.041*** 0.155*** 0.122***

Social group
(base: Scheduled Tribes) (-0.013) (-0.019) (-0.013)

General 0.173*** 0.259*** 0.199***

(-0.014) (-0.021) (-0.014)

Primary to middle 0.101*** -0.02 -0.004

(-0.009) (-0.016) (-0.013)

Secondary higher sec- 0.280*** 0.130*** 0.070***

ondary
(-0.012) (-0.018) (-0.014)
General education
(base: less than primary)
Graduate 0.819*** 0.484*** 0.394***

(-0.021) (-0.022) (-0.016)

Post-graduate 1.056*** 0.674*** 0.645***

(-0.031) (-0.031) (-0.023)

Diploma or certificate below 0.436*** 0.192*** 0.145***

graduate
(-0.028) (-0.031) (-0.021)

Technical education Diploma or certificate above 0.259*** 0.094** 0.424***

(base: no technical graduate
education) (-0.039) (-0.046) (-0.029)

Technical degree 0.883*** 0.331*** 0.498***

(-0.05) (-0.033) (-0.02)

Central 0.047*** -0.086*** -0.096***

(-0.013) (-0.017) (-0.012)

North 0.455*** 0.219*** 0.207***

(-0.014) (-0.019) (-0.013)

North-East 0.413*** 0.210*** 0.220***

Region
(base: East) (-0.027) (-0.033) (-0.022)

South 0.114*** 0.147*** 0.189***

(-0.011) (-0.017) (-0.012)

West 0.160*** 0.162*** 0.154***

(-0.012) (-0.017) (-0.012)

294 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

Dependent variable Log (monthly wage) 2005 2019 2022

Informal training -0.032*** 0.029* 0.054***

Vocational training (-0.012) (-0.015) (-0.009)

(base: no vocational
training) Formal training -0.043* -0.008 0.093***

(-0.022) (-0.025) (-0.016)

Constant or intercept 6.084*** 7.958*** 8.134***

Intercept
(-0.017) (-0.029) (-0.021)

------------------------------ -------------------------------------- ------------------- ------------------------ -----------------------

Observations 27,539 10,386 19,338

R-squared 0.416 0.362 0.375

Adjusted R-squared 0.415 0.361 0.374

28.492 (df = 32.797 (df = 29.467 (df =

Residual standard error
27518) 10365) 19317)

978.177*** (df = 294.615*** (df = 579.128*** (df =

F statistic
20; 27518) 20; 10365) 20; 19317)

Note: *p<0.1; **p<0.05; ***p<0.01

 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 295

X Table A5.2. Probit regression, by employment versus out of the labour force or unemployed
(non-student), 2005 and 2022

2005 2022

Margin Std. Err. Margin Std. Err.

Age group 15–19 0.627*** 0.0000 0.521*** 0.0001

20–24 0.648*** 0.0000 0.539*** 0.0000

25–29 0.706*** 0.0000 0.608*** 0.0000

Gender Male 0.919*** 0.0000 0.837*** 0.0000

Female 0.409*** 0.0000 0.315*** 0.0000

Sector Rural 0.698*** 0.0000 0.582*** 0.0000

Urban 0.576*** 0.0001 0.529*** 0.0001

General education Less than primary 0.698*** 0.0000 0.600*** 0.0001

Primary and middle 0.662*** 0.0000 0.596*** 0.0000

Secondary and higher 0.609*** 0.0001 0.566*** 0.0000

secondary

Graduate or higher 0.588*** 0.0001 0.496*** 0.0001

Tech education No tech 0.664*** 0.0000 0.569*** 0.0000

Tech degree 0.684*** 0.0005 0.572*** 0.0002

Below grad diploma 0.654*** 0.0002 0.507*** 0.0002

Grad with diploma 0.694*** 0.0003 0.580*** 0.0002

Vocational training Formal 0.709*** 0.0002 0.644*** 0.0001

Informal 0.832*** 0.0001 0.817*** 0.0001

No vocational training 0.648*** 0.0000 0.521*** 0.0000

MPCE quintile Q1 0.675*** 0.0001 0.544*** 0.0001

Q2 0.674*** 0.0001 0.562*** 0.0001

Q3 0.658*** 0.0001 0.554*** 0.0001

Q4 0.653*** 0.0001 0.556*** 0.0001

Q5 0.655*** 0.0001 0.580*** 0.0001

Region Central 0.642*** 0.0001 0.565*** 0.0001

East 0.564*** 0.0001 0.527*** 0.0001

North 0.710*** 0.0001 0.565*** 0.0000

North-East 0.569*** 0.0001 0.538*** 0.0001

South 0.720*** 0.0001 0.591*** 0.0001

West 0.728*** 0.0001 0.618*** 0.0001

Social Group Scheduled Tribes 0.797*** 0.0001 0.692*** 0.0001

Scheduled Castes 0.656*** 0.0001 0.556*** 0.0001

Other Backward Classes 0.659*** 0.0000 0.555*** 0.0000

Other 0.639*** 0.0000 0.541*** 0.0001

Number of Other 229 093 238 542

Backward Classes 504 449

Prob>chi2 0.000 0.000

Chi2 pseudo R-squared 0.32 0.33

Note: MPCE=monthly per capita expenditure;

296 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A5.3. Probit regression, by regular versus casual employment (non-student),

2005 and 2022

2005 2022

Margin Std. Err. Margin Std. Err.

Age group 15–19 0.313*** 0.0001 0.518*** 0.0001

20–24 0.315*** 0.0001 0.530*** 0.0001

25–29 0.332*** 0.0001 0.540*** 0.0001

Gender M 0.323*** 0.0000 0.533*** 0.0000

F 0.311*** 0.0001 0.536*** 0.0001

Sector Rural 0.240*** 0.0001 0.474*** 0.0001

Urban 0.488*** 0.0001 0.682*** 0.0001

General education Less than primary 0.214*** 0.0001 0.357*** 0.0002

Primary and middle 0.309*** 0.0001 0.451*** 0.0001

school

Secondary and higher 0.482*** 0.0001 0.588*** 0.0001

secondary

Graduate or higher 0.770*** 0.0003 0.854*** 0.0001

Tech education No tech 0.320*** 0.0000 0.527*** 0.0000

Tech degree 0.417*** 0.0019 0.751*** 0.0006

Below graduate diploma 0.367*** 0.0004 0.667*** 0.0003

Graduate with diploma 0.287*** 0.0007 0.786*** 0.0014

Vocational training Formal 0.401*** 0.0003 0.637*** 0.0003

Informal 0.329*** 0.0001 0.582*** 0.0001

No vocational training 0.316*** 0.0000 0.510*** 0.0001

MPCE quintile Q1 0.217*** 0.0001 0.423*** 0.0001

Q2 0.245*** 0.0001 0.466*** 0.0001

Q3 0.300*** 0.0001 0.542*** 0.0001

Q5 0.355*** 0.0001 0.595*** 0.0001

Q5 0.470*** 0.0001 0.683*** 0.0001

Region Central 0.354*** 0.0001 0.607*** 0.0001

East 0.295*** 0.0001 0.503*** 0.0001

North 0.406*** 0.0001 0.520*** 0.0001

North-East 0.327*** 0.0003 0.533*** 0.0002

South 0.293*** 0.0001 0.457*** 0.0001

West 0.304*** 0.0001 0.618*** 0.0001

Social Group Scheduled Tribes 0.281*** 0.0001 0.469*** 0.0001

Scheduled Castes 0.280*** 0.0001 0.485*** 0.0001

Other Backward Classes 0.328*** 0.0001 0.557*** 0.0001

Others 0.368*** 0.0001 0.604*** 0.0001

Number of Other 7,27,03,066 7,09,45,247

Backward Classes

Prob > chi2 0.000 0.000

Pseudo R-squared 0.3887 0.3583

Note: MPCE=monthly per capita expenditure; .

 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 297

X Table A5.4. Probit regression, by formal versus informal employment (non-student),

2005 and 2022

2005 2022

Margin Std. Err. Margin Std. Err.

Age group 15–19 0.020*** 0.0000 0.065*** 0.0001

20–24 0.025*** 0.0000 0.091*** 0.0000

25–29 0.043*** 0.0000 0.113*** 0.0000

Gender Male 0.032*** 0.0000 0.104*** 0.0000

Female 0.033*** 0.0000 0.095*** 0.0000

Sector Rural 0.023*** 0.0000 0.077*** 0.0000

Urban 0.045*** 0.0000 0.138*** 0.0000

General education Less than primary 0.012*** 0.0000 0.032*** 0.0001

Primary and middle 0.021*** 0.0000 0.043*** 0.0000

school

Secondary and higher 0.040*** 0.0000 0.090*** 0.0000

secondary

Graduate or higher 0.105*** 0.0001 0.204*** 0.0001

Tech education No tech 0.030*** 0.0000 0.089*** 0.0000

Tech degree 0.075*** 0.0002 0.205*** 0.0002

Below graduate diploma 0.065*** 0.0001 0.164*** 0.0001

Graduate with diploma 0.044*** 0.0001 0.145*** 0.0002

Vocational training Formal 0.031*** 0.0000 0.132*** 0.0001

Informal 0.020*** 0.0000 0.112*** 0.0000

No vocational training 0.035*** 0.0000 0.091*** 0.0000

MPCE quintile Q1 0.014*** 0.0000 0.060*** 0.0001

Q2 0.013*** 0.0000 0.078*** 0.0001

Q3 0.021*** 0.0000 0.081*** 0.0001

Q5 0.026*** 0.0000 0.100*** 0.0000

Q5 0.053*** 0.0000 0.139*** 0.0001

Region Central 0.022*** 0.0000 0.094*** 0.0001

East 0.026*** 0.0000 0.086*** 0.0001

North 0.025*** 0.0000 0.060*** 0.0000

North-East 0.033*** 0.0001 0.159*** 0.0002

South 0.041*** 0.0000 0.123*** 0.0001

West 0.041*** 0.0000 0.127*** 0.0001

Social groups Scheduled Tribes 0.040*** 0.0001 0.093*** 0.0001

Scheduled Castes 0.045*** 0.0000 0.105*** 0.0001

Other Backward Classes 0.030*** 0.0000 0.096*** 0.0000

Others 0.031*** 0.0000 0.110*** 0.0000

Number of Other 152 269 135 428

Backward Classes 708 549

Prob > chi2 0.000 0.000

Pseudo R-squared 0.285 0.331

Note: ***p<0.01; **p<0.05; and *p<0.1; MPCE=monthly per capita expenditure;

298 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A5.5. Work participation rate and share of workers for non-student youths, by level of
general education (UPSS), 2000 and 2022 (%)

Work participation rate No. of workers (Millions) %

2000 2022 Change 2000 2022 Change 2000 2022 Change

Less than primary 63.6 54.3 -9.3 62.4 14.7 -47.7 45.8 10.9 -34.9

Primary and middle 64.3 59.0 -5.3 45.6 53.2 7.7 33.5 39.3 5.8
school

Secondary and 61.2 57.8 -3.4 22.4 44.6 22.1 16.5 32.9 16.4
higher secondary

Graduate or higher 55.2 52.0 -3.2 5.8 22.9 17.1 4.2 16.9 12.7

Total 63.0 56.8 -6.2 136.2 135.4 -0.8 100 100 0.0

Source: Calculated from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

X Table A5.6. Work participation rate and share of workers for non-student youths, by level of
technical education and vocational training (UPSS), 2000 and 2022 (%)

Work participation rate No. of workers (Millions) %

2005 2022 Change 2005 2022 Change 2005 2022 Change

Technical education

No technical 66.2 56.3 -9.9 148.9 126.1 -22.8 97.1 93.1 -4.0
education

Technical degree 75.9 62.3 -13.6 0.5 3.8 3.3 0.3 2.8 2.5

Below graduate 72.3 66.5 -5.7 2.9 4.0 1.1 1.9 2.9 1.1
with diploma

Graduate with 65.8 60.6 -5.2 1.1 1.6 0.5 0.7 1.2 0.4
diploma

Vocational training

Formal 69.4 63.3 -6.1 5.4 7.6 2.2 3.5 5.6 2.1

Informal 88.2 89.4 1.1 18.8 36.5 17.7 12.3 26.9 14.6

No vocational 64.0 49.2 -14.8 128.4 91.4 -37.0 84.2 67.5 -16.7
training

Source: Calculated from Employment and Unemployment Surveys 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey 2022.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 299

X Table A5.7. Unemployment rate and share of workers among youths, by level of general
education (UPSS), 2000 and 2022 (%)

Unemployment rate No. of unemployed %

(Millions)

2000 2022 Change 2000 2022 Change 2000 2022 Change

Less than primary 1.2 3.2 2.1 0.7 0.5 -0.2 9.0 2.6 -6.4

Primary and middle 5.1 6.1 1.0 2.4 3.5 1.0 30.0 18.2 -11.7
school

Secondary and 12.2 11.5 -0.7 3.1 5.8 2.6 38.2 30.4 -7.7
higher secondary

Graduate or higher 24.5 28.7 4.2 1.9 9.2 7.4 22.9 48.8 25.8

Total 5.7 12.3 6.6 8.2 18.9 10.8 100 100 0.0

Source: Calculated from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

X Table A5.8. Unemployment rate and share of workers among youths, by level of technical
education (UPSS), 2000 and 2022 (%)

Unemployment rate No. of unemployed %

(Millions)

2005 2022 Change 2005 2022 Change 2005 2022 Change

Technical education

No technical 5.1 10.8 5.7 8.0 15.3 7.3 87.5 80.8 -6.7
education

Technical degree 18.3 29.4 11.1 0.1 1.6 1.5 1.2 8.3 7.1

Technical diploma 19.8 25.5 5.6 0.7 1.4 0.7 7.7 7.2 -0.6
and certificate
(Below graduate)

Technical diploma 22.5 31.1 8.6 0.3 0.7 0.4 3.5 3.7 0.2
and certificate
(Above graduate)

Vocational training

Formal 18.9 22.4 3.5 1.2 2.2 0.9 13.7 11.5 -2.2

Informal 1.6 2.1 0.4 0.3 0.8 0.5 3.5 4.1 0.6

No vocational 5.5 14.9 9.4 7.5 16.0 8.5 82.8 84.4 1.6
training

Source: Calculated from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.
300 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A5.9. Employment status of youths, by level of general education (UPSS), 2000 and 2022
(%)

Less than Primary Secondary Graduate Total

primary and middle and higher or higher
school secondary

2000

Self-employed 45.4 52.9 57.3 47.2 50.0

Regular employed 5.2 13.1 24.8 49.1 12.9

Casual worker 49.4 34.0 17.9 3.8 37.1

Total 100 100 100 100 100

2022

Self-employed 43.9 48.7 52.0 38.8 47.6

Regular employed 12.5 18.2 29.4 57.8 28.0

Casual worker 43.6 33.1 18.5 3.4 24.4

Total 100 100 100 100 100

Change

Self-employed -1.5 -4.2 -5.3 -8.3 -2.3

Regular employed 7.3 5.1 4.6 8.7 15.1

Casual worker -5.9 -0.9 0.7 -0.4 -12.7

Total 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Source: Calculated from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 301

X Table A5.10. Employment status of youths, by level of technical education (UPSS), 2005 and
2022 (%)

No tech Tech Diploma Diplomagraduate Total

degree below and higher
graduate

2005

Self-employed 52.9 24.1 36.2 33.0 52.3

Regular employed 14.0 74.7 54.0 64.1 15.3

Casual worker 33.1 1.1 9.8 2.9 32.4

Total 100 100 100 100 100

2022

Self-employed 49.2 16.6 34.5 25.0 47.6

Regular employed 24.8 82.7 56.5 74.8 28.0

Casual worker 25.9 0.6 9.0 0.2 24.4

Total 100 100 100 100 100

Change

Self-employed -3.6 -7.5 -1.7 -8.0 -4.7

Regular employed 10.8 8.0 2.4 10.7 12.6

Casual worker -7.2 -0.5 -0.8 -2.7 -7.9

Total 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Source: Calculated from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2005 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

X Table A5.11. Youth workers and uptake of vocational training, 2012 and 2022 (% of total)

Formal Informal Total No voca- Total

training training vocational tional
(total) training training

2012

Self-employed 2.92 16.39 19.30 80.70 100

Regular worker 11.04 19.10 30.14 69.86 100

Casual worker 1.41 10.74 12.16 87.84 100

Unemployed 10.54 2.19 12.73 87.27 100

Total 4.55 14.31 18.86 81.14 100

2022

Self-employed 4.16 29.02 33.17 66.83 100

Regular worker 11.98 28.17 40.14 59.86 100

Casual worker 1.04 21.51 22.55 77.45 100

Unemployed 11.51 4.06 15.57 84.43 100

Total 6.31 24.14 30.45 69.55 100

Source: Calculated from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2012 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.
302 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X Table A5.12. Formal and informal employment status of youths, by level of general education
(UPSS), 2000 and 2022 (%)

Below Primary Secondary Graduate or Total

primary and middle and higher higher
secondary

2000

Formal 1.7 2.9 9.3 25.9 4.4

Unformal 98.3 97.1 90.7 74.1 95.6

Total 100 100 100 100 100

2022

Formal 1.3 2.3 9.1 36.1 10.1

Unformal 98.7 97.7 90.9 63.9 89.9

Total 100 100 100 100 100

Change

Formal -0.5 -0.6 -0.2 10.2 5.7

Unformal 0.5 0.6 0.2 -10.2 -5.7

Total 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Source: Calculated from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

X Table A5.13. Formal and informal employment status of youths, by level of technical
education (UPSS), 2000 and 2022 (%)

No tech Tech Tech Tech diploma or Total

degree diploma or certificate
certificate (graduate and
(below higher)
graduate)

2000

Formal 2.6 51.4 19.9 31.9 3.2

Unformal 97.4 48.6 80.1 68.1 96.8

Total 100 100 100 100 100

2022

Formal 7.3 66.0 30.5 52.3 10.1

Unformal 92.7 34.0 69.5 47.7 89.9

Total 100 100 100 100 100

Change

Formal 4.7 14.6 10.6 20.4 6.9

Unformal -4.7 -14.6 -10.6 -20.4 -6.9

Total 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Source: Calculated from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.
 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills 303

X Table A5.14. Industrial distribution of workers of youths, by level of general education (UPSS),
2000 and 2022 (%)

Below Primary Secondary Graduate or Total

primary and middle and higher higher
secondary

2000

Primary 73.7 55.0 42.6 19.9 60.0

Secondary 15.6 21.9 20.9 15.6 18.6

Tertiary 10.8 23.0 36.5 64.4 21.4

Total 100 100 100 100 100

2022

Primary 51.7 43.8 37.5 20.0 38.6

Secondary 36.1 35.1 29.8 16.6 30.3

Tertiary 12.2 21.1 32.7 63.5 31.1

Total 100 100 100 100 100

Change

Primary -21.9 -11.2 -5.1 0.0 -21.5

Secondary 20.5 13.2 8.9 0.9 11.8

Tertiary 1.4 -1.9 -3.9 -1.0 9.7

Total 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Source: Calculated from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.

X Table A5.15. Industrial distribution of workers of youths, by level of technical education

(UPSS) (%), 2000 and 2022

No tech Technical Below grad Degree with Total

degree with diploma
diploma

2000

Primary 61.1 20.2 10.6 17.9 60.0

Secondary 18.4 27.7 33.4 19.4 18.6

Tertiary 20.5 52.1 56.0 62.7 21.4

Total 100 100 100 100 100

2022

Primary 40.5 7.5 18.6 7.8 38.6

Secondary 30.8 17.2 34.5 12.8 30.3

Tertiary 28.7 75.3 46.9 79.4 31.1

Total 100 100 100 100 100

Change

Primary -20.6 -12.7 8.0 -10.1 -21.5

Secondary 12.4 -10.5 1.1 -6.5 11.8

Tertiary 8.2 23.2 -9.1 16.7 9.7

Total 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Source: Calculated from Employment and Unemployment Survey data for 2000 and Periodic Labour Force Survey data for 2022.
304 X India Employment Report 2024: Youth employment, education and skills

X About the Report Team

Institute for Human Development (IHD)

Ajit K. Ghose (late), Hon. Professor
Alakh N. Sharma, Professor and Director
Balwant S. Mehta, Professor
G. C. Manna, Professor
Gerry Rodgers, Visiting Professor
Deeksha Tayal, Fellow
Ravi S. Srivastava, Professor and Director, Centre for Employment Studies
Shipra Nigam, Visiting Fellow
Siddarth Dhote, Senior Research Associate
Tanuka Endow, Professor

International Labour Organisation (ILO)

Felix Weidenkaff, Youth Employment Expert, Regional Economic and Social Analysis Unit, ILO, Bangkok
Sher Verick, Head, Employment Strategies Unit, Employment, Labour Market and Youth Branch, ILO,
Geneva
ilo.org ihdindia.org

ILO Decent Work Support Team

for South Asia and Country Office for India Institute for Human Development
Core 4B, 3rd Floor, India Habitat Centre 256, 2nd Floor, Okhla Industrial Estate,
Lodhi Road, New Delhi — 110003, India Phase III New Delhi — 110020, India
T: +91 11 4750 9200 T: +9141064679, +919871177540
E: [email protected] E: [email protected]