Introduction to Avionics

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FLIGHT DECK AND COCKPITS

Control and display technologies CRT, LED, LCD,

EL and plasma panel - Touch screen - Direct voice
input (DVI) - Civil cockpit and military cockpit:
MFDS, HUD, MFK, HOTAS, HMD.

Introduction
Modern aircrafts employs a variety of display
technologies on the flight deck which includes,
a) Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT)
b) Light Emitting Diodes (LED)
c) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
d) Electro Luminescent Display (ELD)
e) Plasma Display (PD)
Flat panel displays such as Active Matrix Liquid Crystal
Displays (AMLCD) offer savings in volume compared to CRT
displays. Developments in the miniaturization of electronic
components (Ex: Modern Surface Mounted Devices and VLSI)
leads to production of complex multi-function instrument with
display in a single enclosure. This single box concept reduces

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the amount of cabling required and also simplifies the

maintenance.

Advantages of AMLCD
i) Less weight
ii) Consumes less power
iii) Consumes less volume
iv) Reliability
v) High Resolution
vi) Supports Adjustable brightness levels
vii) Immunity to colour desaturation
viii) Maintains display performance over a range of
viewing Angles.

CRT Displays
The CRT is the oldest display technology in current
aircraft use. Some very Old Displays like Mechanical Indicators,
Filament lamps and moving coil meters are not in use today.

Advantages

a) They operate at any resolution, geometry and aspect ratio

without the need for rescaling the image.

b) CRTs run at the highest pixel resolutions generally

available.

c) Produce a very dark black and the highest contrast levels

normally available. Suitable for use even in dimly lit or dark
environments.

d) CRTs produce the very best color and gray-scale and are the
reference standard for all professional calibrations. They have a

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perfectly smooth gray-scale with an infinite number ofintensity

levels. Other display technologies are expected toreproduce the
natural power-law Gamma curve of a CRT, but can only do so
approximately.

e) CRTs have fast response times and no motion artifacts. Best

for rapidly moving or changing images.

f) CRTs are less expensive than comparable displays using

other display technologies.

Disadvantages

a) The CRT's Gaussian beam profile produces images with

softer edges that are not as sharp as an LCD at its native
resolution. Imperfect focus and color registration also reduce
sharpness. Generally sharper than LCDs at other than native
resolutions.

b) All color CRTs produce annoying Moiré patterns. Many

monitors include Moiré reduction, which normally doesn't
eliminate the Moiré interference patterns entirely.

c) Subject to geometric distortion and screen regulation

problems. Also affected by magnetic fields from other
equipment including other CRTs.

d) Relatively bright but not as bright as LCDs. Not suitable for

very brightly lit environments.

e) Some CRTs have a rounded spherical or cylindrical shape

screen. Newer CRTs are flat.

f) CRTs give off electric, magnetic and electromagnetic

fields. There is considerable controversy as to whether any of
these pose a health hazard, particularly magnetic fields. The

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most authoritative scientific studies conclude that they are not

harmful but some people remain unconvinced.

g) They are large, heavy, and bulky. They consume a lot of

electricity and produce a lot of heat.

Arrangement
The cathode, heater, grid and anode assembly are shown
in figure 3.1. The assembly forms an electron gun which
produces a beam of electrons. These electrons are focused on
the rear phosphor coating of the screen.
The heater raises the temperature of the cathode which
is coated with thoriated Tungsten. This material emits electron
when it is heated. These electrons form a cloud above the
cathode and become attracted by various anodes. The grid is
used to control the flow of electrons.

Figure 3.1 Cathode Ray Tube

Grid
It consists of fine wire mesh through which the
electrons must pass. The grid is made negative with respect to

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cathode and this negative potential is used to repel the

electrons. By controlling the grid potential it is possible tovary
the amount of electrons passing through the grid, which
controls the intensity (brightness) of display on screen.
The focus anode consists of two or three tubular
structures through which the electron beam passes. By varying
the relative potential on these anodes it is possible to bend and
focus the beam.
The final anode consists of graphite coating and this
anode is given a very high positive potential for accelerating the
beam of electrons. So an electron beam of high energy impacts
on the phosphor coating. The energy liberated by the collision
of the electrons with phosphors is converted into light.

Deflection
It is necessary to bend the beam inorder to move the
beam to different parts of the screen. Electrostatic deflection
is commonly used for small CRT. In this method two sets of
plates are introduced between the focus anodes and the final
anode.
One pair of plates is aligned with the vertical plane (i.e.
X plates) which provides the deflection of beam in the
Horizontal direction. The other pair of plates is aligned in the
horizontal lane which provides the deflection of beam in the
vertical direction which is shown in figure 3.2.
By placing the voltage on the plates it is possible to bend
the beam towards or away from a particular plate.
Electromagnetic Deflection is an alternative to electrostatic
deflection, and it uses externally applied magnetic field to
deflect the electron beam. In this method two sets of coils are
placed (externally) around the neck of the CRT.

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Figure 3.2 CRT with Deflection Coils

Scanning
It is used to cover the full screen area of a CRT display.
It can be done by scanning the beam up and down and also left
to right.

Colour Displays
By using a pattern of phosphors of different colours
and also by using a CRT with three different cathodes, it is
possible to display colour information.
A range of colours can be generated by combining three
different colours in various amounts.
In the diagram 3.3 three separate video signals are fed
to the three cathodes of the CRT. These signals are derived with
the help of video processing circuit.
Ex: The beam generated by the red cathode coincides
with the red phosphors.
A synchronizing system generates the ramp wave form
which ensures the time relationship between the signals are
correct.

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Figure 3.3 CRT with Colour Display System

CRT Control
A dedicated CRT controller integrated CRT acting in
conjunction with video / synchronizing interface provides the
necessary control signals for the CRT.
The CRT controller is controlled by a dedicated CPU,
which accepts data from the bus and buffers the data for display.
The Direct Memory Access (DMA) is used to minimize
the burden on the CPU.

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LCD
Liquid crystals have properties somewhere between
solid and liquid. The orientation of molecules can be controlled
by the application of an electric field. The LCD system and
structure are shown in figure 3.4 and 3.5.

Types
(i) Reflective – It uses Incident light
(ii) Backlit – It uses own light source
Liquid crystal display needs a light source in order to
operate. Larger displays can be easily made which displays
several sets of information.

Figure 3.4 Liquid Crystal Display System

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Figure 3.5 Structure of LCD display

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Passive Matrix Displays

In order to display more detail information such as text
and graphics LCD can be built using a matrix of rows and
columns. The electrodes used in this type of display consist of
rows and columns of horizontal and vertical conductors
respectively and it is illustrated in figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6 Passive Matrix Liquid Crystal Display

system

Disadvantages
 Slow response
 Display is not as sharp as that which can be obtained
from an active matrix display.

Active Matrix Displays

Active Matrix LCD shown in figure 3.7 uses thin film
transistors which were fabricated on a glass substrate. Each
transistor acts as a switch and it transfers charge to an

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individual display element. The transistors are arranged on a

row / column basis. By controlling the switching, it is possible
to transfer precise amount of charge into the display element.
Colour AMLCD comprises a matrix of pixels
corresponds to three colours red, green and blue. By precise
application of charges to the appropriate pixels it is possible to
produce displays having 256 shades of red, green and blue.
High resolution colour AMLCD aircraft displays having
the capability to show graphics output.

Figure 3.7 Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Display

System

LED
Light Emitting Diodes can be used as general purpose
indicators. It operates by a smaller voltages and currents. It
is more reliable when compared to the filament lamps. LED‟ s
are shown in figure 3.8.

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Figure 3.8 Light Emitting Diodes

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Figure 3.8 Light Emitting Diodes

Types
Round – 3mm and 5mm
Rectangular – 5mm X 2mm
Different colours of LED can be produced by using
different semi-conductor materials and the required current
level is 5mA to 20 mA.
LED displays are frequently used to display numerical
data, which contains a seven segment indication. The seven

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indicators are used in groups to form a complete display shown

in figure 3.9.
The segments are illuminated according to the output.
Most Indoor screens use SMD technology. An SMD pixel
consists of red, green and blue diodes mounted in a single
package.

Figure 3.9 Led Display Structure

ELECTRO LUMINESCENT DISPLAY

It is a type of display created by sandwiching a layer
electroluminescent material (GaAs) between two layers of
conductors. When current flows, the layer of material emits
radiation, in the form of visible light. ELD‟ s are developed by
two firms,
i) Sharp – Japan
ii) Planar systems – USA
Electroluminescence = Optical + Electrical phenomenon
It is a result of radiative recombination of electrons and
holes in a material. The excited electrons release their energy

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as photons. Prior to recombination the electrons and holes can

be separated by doping.
This electroluminescent devices are fabricated using
thin films of either organic (It emits light in response to an
electric current) or of inorganic materials.
The thin film layers contain bulk semiconductor and a
dopant which defines the visible colour emitted. The EL display
system and its layers are given in figure 3.10 and 3.11.

Figure 3.10 Electro Luminescent Display System

Figure 3.11 Layers of Electro Luminescent Display

System

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Inorganic thin film EL

Zinc sulphide powder doped with copper or silver.
Natural blue diamond with boron as dopant.
Now active matrix ELD are used for displaying large
amount of text and graphics.

Advantages
 Speed
 Brightness
 High contrast
 Wide Angle vision

PLASMA DISPLAY
It is a type of flat panel display. This display utilizes
small cells containing electrically charged ionized gases which is
shown in figure 3.12 (Xenon or Neon gas). The xenon and neon
gas in a plasma television is contained in hundreds of thousands
of tiny cells positioned between two plates of glass. Long
electrodes are also sandwiched between the glass plates, on both
sides of the cells. The address electrodes sit behind the cells,
along the rear glass plate. The transparent display electrodes,
which are surrounded by an insulating dielectric material and
covered by a magnesium oxide protective layer, are mounted
above the cell, along the front glass plate. Both sets of electrodes
extend across the entire screen. The display electrodes are
arranged in horizontal rows along the screen and the address
electrodes are arranged in vertical columns. The vertical and
horizontal electrodes form a basic grid. To ionize the gas in a
particular cell, the plasma display's computer charges the
electrodes that intersect at that cell. It

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does this thousands of times in a small fraction of a second,

charging each cell in turn.
When the intersecting electrodes are charged (with a
voltage difference between them), an electric current flows
through the gas in the cell, which stimulates the gas atoms to
release ultraviolet photons. The released ultraviolet photons
interact with phosphor material coated on the inside wall of the
cell. When an ultraviolet photon hits a phosphor atom in the
cell, one of the phosphor's electrons jumps to a higherenergy
level and the atom heats up. When the electron falls back to its
normal level, it releases energy in the form of a visible light
photon.

Advantages
 Bright, Having wide colour gamut, Big sizes (150
inches)
 Plasma display screens are made from glass which
reflects more light. The glass screen hold the gases.
 Superior contrast ration
 Wider viewing angles than LCD
 Less visible motion blur
 Faster response time
 Sine profile

Disadvantages
i) Heavier than LCD
ii) Uses more electricity
iii) Doesn‟ t works well at high altitudes due to pressure
differential between the gases inside the screen and the
air pressure at altitudes.
iv) Power consumption varies greatly with picture
content.

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Figure 3.12 Plasma Display system

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Direct Voice Input

It enables the pilot to enter data and control the
operation of the aircraft‟ s avionics system by means of speech.
The spoken commands and data are recognized by a
speech recognition system which compares the spoken
utterances with the stored speech templates. The recognized
commands are then transmitted to the aircraft subsystems by
the interconnecting data bus. (Example: MIL STD 1553 B data
bus)
Example: To change a communication channel
frequency, the pilot says „Radio‟ followed by „Select frequency
three four five‟ . To enter navigation data, the pilot says
„Navigation‟ followed by „Enter waypoint latitude fifty one
degrees thirty one minutes eleven seconds north‟ .
If the HUD and HMD are installed the pilot‟ s command
is visually displayed on that and then the pilot confirms the
correctly recognized command by saying „enter‟ then the action
is initiated. Thus the pilot can stay head up and doesn‟ t have
to divert attention for operating the touch panels, switches,
push buttons, etc., thus the DVI reduces the pilot‟ s work load
in high work load situations.

Voice Interactive System

 It‟ s a kind of Interface between the crew and aircraft in
high work load situation in single crew member aircraft.
 F-16 routinely achieved 95% correct word recognition and
reduced to less than 80% under high work load
conditions.
 Voice control is not suitable for time critical system.

Speech recognition
Applied for non critical task such as requesting system
 Status,

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 tuning radios,
 And requesting maps to be displayed on a CRT
Not been used for urgent inputs or critical task such as
firing weapons.

Problem with Voice Recognition

 The words in the vocabulary are limited.
 Generating templates are time consuming.
 Microphones have the same electrical characteristics as
the flight microphone.
 Difficult to stimulate the stress artificially.
 Speaker independent Speech Recognition requires large
amount of memory and slow signal processing.

Main Characteristics and Requirements of DVI:

i) Fully connected speech. The speech recognition system
must be able to recognize the normal fully connected
speech.
ii) It must be able to operate in the cockpit noise
environment.
iii) The required vocabulary is around 200 to 300 words.
(size)
iv) The maximum duration of total vocabulary is around160
seconds.
v) The maximum number of syntax nodes required is 300.

TOUCH SCREENS
It uses a matrix array of infra-red beams across the
surface of the display which displays the various function keys.
Touching the specific function key on the display
surface interrupts the x and y infra-red beams. So the
operation of that particular key function is executed.

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Types of Touch screen

i) Resistive Touch screen
ii) Surface acoustic wave
iii) Capacitive Touch screen panel
iv) Optical Imaging
v) Dispersive Signal Technology
vi) Acoustic pulse Recognition.

i) RTS
In this two layers (Electrically conductive and Resistive
layers) are separated by thin space. When some objects touches
this panel, the layers are connected at certain point. This causes
a change in the electrical current and sent to the controller for
processing. The RTS system is shown in figure 3.13.

Figure 3.13 Resistive Touch Screen system

Advantages
 More affordable
 Most commonly used
 75% clarity
 Layer can be damaged by sharp objects
 It won‟ t be affected by dust or water.

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ii) SAW
It uses ultrasonic waves that pass over the touch screen
panel. When the panel is touched, a portion of wave is absorbed.
This information is send to the controller for processing which
is provided in figure 3.14.

Figure 3.14 Surface Acoustic Wave Touch Screen

system

It can be damaged by the outside elements,

contaminants on the surface interface the function.

iii) CTP
It is coated with a material (Indium tin oxide) which
conducts a continuous electrical current across the sensor. The
CTP system is given in figure 3.15.

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Figure 3.15 Capacitive Touch Screen system

iv) Optical Imaging

In this two or more image sensors are placed around
the edges of the screen which is given in figure 3.16. Infrared
backlights are placed in the camera‟ s field of view on the other
side of the screen. A touch shows a shadow and the sensors are
used to locate the touch.

Figure 3.16 Optical Imaging Touch Screen system

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The merits of this type are Scalability, Versatility and

Affordability.

v) DST
It uses sensors to detect the mechanical energy in the
glass due to a touch. Complex algorithms are used to find out
the actual location of the touch. The main advantage of this type
of touch screens has excellent optical clarity.

vi) APR
It uses more than two piezoelectric transducers located
at some position of the screen. It converts the mechanical
energy of a touch into an electric signal. This signal is then
converted into an audio file and then compared to pre-existing
audio profile for every position on the screen.

Advantages
o Accuracy is good.
o It is suitable for larger display.
o It doesn‟ t need a conductive object to activate it.
o It works with scratches and dust on the screen.

MFD: (Multi Function Display)

MFD is a small screen (CRT or LCD) in an aircraft
surrounded by multiple buttons that can be used to display
information to the pilot in numerous ways which is shown in
figure 3.17. The MFD‟ s doesn‟ t consume much space in the
aircraft cockpit.
Many MFD‟ s allow the pilot to display their navigation
route, Moving map, Weather radar, NEXRAD (Next Generation
Radar – weather surveillance radar), GPWS (Ground Proximity
Warning Systems), TCAS (Traffic collision Avoidance Systems).

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GPWS - It alerts the pilot if the aircraft is in immediate

danger of flying into an obstacle.
TCAS - It reduces the incidence of wind – air collisions
between the aircrafts.

Figure 3.17 Multi Function Display system

Currently display units are interfaced with either a Mode

S transponder or the Ryan TCAD to provide a real-time display
of traffic information in both the attitude indicator and the full-
color moving map. Traffic symbols are colour-coded to allow
you to quickly recognize any traffic at your altitude or on a
possible collision course and take action. With the optional
FLIR camera, the traffic can even be "visually" identified.
Ryan's latest and by far most sophisticated traffic
alerting system, the TCAD 9900BX, has got certification from

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the FAA. The 9900BX is an active system, which means it

interrogates other aircraft's transponders, determines their
position and then issues a warning if a potential conflict is
predicted. Using bottom and top antennas, the 9900BX can
simultaneously track up to 50 aircraft (it looks out 20 miles) and
provides a maximum 30 second warning.
It has the feature of Audible Position Alerting. When
the system detects a threat, it gives the pilot an audible warning,
such as "Traffic! Twelve o'clock high! Two miles!”.

HUD
The cockpit display system provides a visual
presentation of the information and data from the aircraft
sensors and systems to the pilot. This helps the pilot to fly the
aircraft safely.
Civil cockpit display systems provides,
Primary Flight Information
Navigation Information
Engine Data
Airframe Data
Warning Information

Apart from this data the military cockpit display system

provides,
Infrared Imaging Sensors
Radar
Tactical Mission data
Weapon Aiming
Threat Warnings
The HUD has enabled a major improvement in man-
machine interaction and it helps the pilot to view and assimilate
the essential flight data generated by the sensorsand systems
in the aircraft.

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HUD basically projects a collimated display in the pilot‟ s

head up forward line of sight, so he can view both the display
information and the outside world at the same time.
The pilot can able to observe both distant outside world
objects and display data at the same time without changing the
direction of gaze or re-focus the eyes.
During the landing phase the pilot can view the essential
flight data such as artificial horizon, pitch angle, bank angle,
flight path vector, height, airspeed and heading with the help of
HUD.
HUD uses high brightness display and it projects some
of the information normally on the primary flight displays and
selected systems or weapons data into the Line of Sight of the
pilot without substantially dimming or obscuring the outer
view. HUD allows the pilot to simultaneously see critical aircraft
information while viewing the outside scene.
Every HUD contains a Display generator and Combiner.
The combiner combines the collimated display symbology with
the outside world scene. The display symbology is generated
from the aircraft sensors and systems. The relay lens magnifies
the display and corrects for some of the optical errors. The
relayed display images are reflected by the fold mirror to the
collimating lens

In the current HUD,

Display Generator – CRT with P43 (Green) phosphor
Combiner – mirror with several unusual properties:
 Reflective coating – Highly wavelength selective in angle
of incidence so that only that light which impinging
within a very narrow range of angles will be reflected

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 Combiner is sometimes incorrectly referred to as

Hologram, but it contains no image information as
found in true hologram

High performance aircraft HUD‟ s use one of two basic

designs for the combiner
Single element combiner HUD (figure 3.18)
Three element combiner HUD (figure 3.19)

Figure 3.18 Single element combiner HUD

Merits
Simplest design of the two methods
Transmission of outside scene is higher
Transport aircraft uses this method

Demerits
Less advantageous than three-element combiner HUD.

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Three element combiner HUD

Figure 3.19 Three element combiner HUD

Merits
 Used on high-performance aircraft to achieve better
producibility
 This design has achieved 30o horizontal and 20o vertical
field of view
 All three elements contains gelatinous combiners as the
middle layer, but only the forward element is curved to
collimate the image from the CRT.

Colour HUD‟ s are controversial for two reasons:

 There may be some loss of brightness, although
brightness is becoming less of an issue as color CRTS
improve
 Colours may be confused with or lost in the natural
exterior scene

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Practical problem
HUD occupies large volume and the necessity to be
mounted in the cockpit with the combiner in LOS to the pilot
On high performance aircraft, HUD is mounted at the
top of and behind the instrument panel. So that the combiner is
between the top of the panel and the canopy in the pilot‟ s LOS
when looking straight ahead.
For civil transport, HUD is mounted above the seat
of each cockpit crew member, and the combiner is hinged to
swing down into the LOS when HUD is in use, generally only
during approach and landing.
Single element combiner can be used as an alternative
for civil transport.

Figure 3.20 Head Up Display System

In military Aircrafts
The pilot freely concentrates on the outside world
during maneuvers. In combat situations the pilot can scan for
possible threats from any direction. The military Aircrafts HUD
is shown in figure 3.20. The combined FLIR with HUD enables
the pilot to fly at low level by night in fair weather. This provides
a realistic night attack capability.

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In Civil Aircrafts
The HUD provides situational awareness and increased
safety in circumstances such as wind shear or terrain/ traffic
avoidance maneuvers. If the flight path vector is below the
horizon the aircraft is descending. Flight path vector providesa
two dimensional display of drift angle and flight path angle.It
helps the pilot to land the aircraft safely in conditions of verylow
visibility due to fog.

Multi-Function Keyboard
It is an avionics sub system through which the pilot
interacts to configure mission related parameters like flight
plan, airfield database, communication equipment during
initialization and operation flight phase of mission. The
MFK consist of a processor with ROM, RAM and EEPROM
memory which is shown in figure 3.21. It is connected to one of
the 1553B buses used for data communication. The MFK has a
built-in display unit and a keyboard.
It is also connected to the Multi Function Rotary switch
(MFR) through a RS422 interface. The MFK has a built-in
display unit. The display unit is a pair of LCD based Colour
Graphical Display. The Real-time operating specifications are
very stringent in such applications because the performance
and safety of the aircraft depend on it. Efficient design of the
architecture and code is required for successful operation.

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Figure 3.21 Multi-Function Keyboard

HOTAS: (Hands on Throttle and Stick)

In this buttons and switches are placed on the throttle
stick and flight control stick (figure 3.22) allowing the pilot to
access vital cockpit functions and fly the aircraft without
removing his hands from the throttle and flight controls.

Figure 3.22 HOTAS System

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It allows the pilot to remain focused on important duties

than looking for controls in the cockpit.
The HOTAS system can be enhanced by DVI or HMD.
This will allow the pilot to control various systems using his line
of sight, and to guide missiles to the target by simplylooking at
it.

Helmet Mounted Display

It includes a transparent visor, a display device
including an opaque multi-element LCD display mounted on
the visor (figure 3.23) so as to be directly viewable by a wearer
at a location outside field of view and a display control cockpit
placed remotely from the display element and coupled by signal
transmission apparatus.

Figure 3.23 Helmet Mounted Display system

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QUESTIONS

Part-A
1. Define Glass cockpit.
2. Define plasma panel.
3. Differentiate LED & LCD.
4. Explain CRT and its usage in aircraft displays.
5. What is meant by DVI?
6. What are MFD and its significance in Aircraft?
7. Explain the advantage of HMD over MUD?
8. Explain MFK and its usage.
9. Define HOTAS?
10. Explain HUD?.

Part-B
1. Compare and contrast the display technologies CRT, LED,
LCD, EL and plasma panel.
2. Describe the layout of a cockpit.
3. Explain the various types of CRTs used in civil and military
aircraft.
4. Explain about the special features of DVI and also describe
voice recognition and speech synthesis technology.
5. Explain the basic principle of HUD and what are its
limitations? How are they overcome in HMD?
6. Explain MFKs, HMD, HUD and HDD in detail.
7. Describe about the working principle of different types of touch
screens.

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