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Low Voltage

Tools and materials

• Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter (VOM) or multimeter used to measure multiple parameters


like voltage, current and resistance, as well as to determine if there is any fault in
the circuit.
• Tape measure and carpenters’ level.
• Drill extensions – flexible extensions designed to provide better reach.
• Strike- or nail-plates – to safeguard against unintentional nail rupture.
• Speaker rough-in kits – used to place the speaker after the installation holes are cut
out.
• Mud-rings for fixing low-voltage devices.
• Wire-ties and wraps.
• Tools, such as drill, bits, pliers, strippers, etc.

Next

Speakers

Speakers fall into three categories: ceiling-mounted; in-wall; and outdoor. Ceiling-mounted
speakers are ideal for interior installations, as they can provide a full, balanced sound in an
enclosed room. Ceiling-mounted speakers follow a co-axial design. The most common size
for ceiling-mounted speakers is 6.5 inches. In-wall speakers are 6.5-inch or 8-inch, and
outdoor speakers utilize a smaller metal/plastic enclosure, mounting bracket, and
weatherized grille and connectors. See Figure 1.
Figure 1. Sound installation

The woofer generates a low frequency for amplifying bass, while the tweeter generates
high frequencies used in the treble range. Mid-frequency replicates the average vocal
range. Crossover networks transmit the suitable frequency ranges to the applicable drivers.
Power handling, impedance and frequency response are some of the parameters used to
rate the speaker. Woofers are composed of materials such as treated paper, polypropylene,
aluminium, titanium and Kevlar (strong and lightweight). Tweeters are made of materials
such as silk, nylon, kapton, polymers, beryllium, titanium and aluminium.

In-wall and ceiling speakers can transform the wall/ceiling into a transducer. To reduce
this effect, insulation is placed behind the speaker, and the speaker installation location
must ensure uniform, even, sound coverage.

The woofer must replicate longer sound waves (more than fifty inches long), whereas the
tweeter replicates shorter sound waves (smaller than 0.5 inches). Therefore, the woofer
and tweeter emit sound in different ways. The polar response denotes how uniformly the
speaker spreads out sound at different frequencies. At higher frequencies, sound becomes
highly directional. See Figure 2.
Bass notes are even and omni-directional, whereas midrange frequencies behave in a
manner much like a spotlight, treble resembles a flashlight. The tweeter’s swivel point is
removes constraint, and helps to target sound waves in the listening area.

Figure 2. Speaker polar response

Amplifiers

The sound at its originating source does not have adequate power to drive the speaker. The
amplifier augments the sound signal and provides the required gain needed to drive the
speaker.

Different types of amplifiers are:

AV receiver: Multi-room system driven using higher-end AV receiver with ample output
power.

Two-channel amplifier: Also known as stereo amplifier.

Multi-room amplifier: Analogous to a stereo amplifier, with the exception that it can have
4/6/8/12 channels. Each channel pair can be allocated to a different room(s) or zone(s).
Multi-room amplifiers consist of multiple output devices linked to power supply. Compared
to a two-channel amplifier, multi-room amplifiers usually generate 20-40 Watts RMS
(continuous power, measured in watts) per channel. One of the main benefits of multi-
room amplifiers, is that multi-room systems can be easily controlled.

Cabling
The ideal wire gauge used in low-voltage home theater systems lies in the 12-16 range.
There are three broad classification of home theater cables, which are:

Speaker level cable: Every speaker must be linked to an amplifier. The speaker cable
length and diameter is directly proportional to the cable resistance. Cable impedance
should be reduced for distributed audio system. To achieve minimum impedance, multi-
stranded speaker cable is used. In multi-stranded wires, the overall diameter is larger,
thereby reducing the impedance, offering reduced resistance for current flow. CL-3P cables
are used in air return applications (plenum application), however, this situation rarely
occurs in residential applications.

Line level/pre-amp level cable: These cables can be used for a multitude of applications,
from AV component interconnect cables to specialized video cables designed for projection
use. Line level/pre-amp level cables are usually “shielded”, which consists of a grounded
layer of metal mesh or foil surrounding the conductor, reducing interference from external
sources. Shielded coaxial cables are used in distributed video applications (RG-6 Quad
shield) along with F-RCA adapters.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP cables are also known as Category-5 or 5e cabling.
They are commonly used for line-level and preamp-level applications. UTP cables can
reduce the effects of interference with the help of a chain of mathematically-correct twists
in the wire pair. As the name implies, UTP wires are not shielded, and are used in wide
range of applications such as line-level signal distribution, which consists of IR routing.

Speaker wires used in low-voltage applications must meet the following specifications:

• Loop resistance (less than 0.2 Ω);


• Inductance (less than 0.25 µH/foot);
• Capacitance (less than 50 pF/foot).

If the selected speaker wires meet these specifications, the sound quality will not be
affected by more than 0.5 decibels (dB). This is significantly less than the smallest sound
difference perceived by the human ear (3 dB).

The system front end consists of an AV receiver or entertainment center with an


accompanying source component. The central consolidation point takes care of system
wiring and holds centralized audio distribution. The back end consists of the speakers and
volume control.
Figure 3. System block diagram

Wiring methods

1. Starting from the central consolidation point, drill 1-inch holes in the center of every
stud through which audio cabling must pass. Use a nail-plate to fortify the wiring
when drilling the holes either off-center or closer to the drywall.
2. Do not exceed 25 pounds of pulling force when pulling UTP cable along with speaker
wire. In such cases, use a cable-pulling assistive tool.
3. The wire’s end must pass through corresponding mud-rings and speaker rough-in
kits, which will connect the volume control and speaker effortlessly.
4. Every wire must be labelled for quick identification in subsequent steps.
5. Mud-rings should be mounted once the wiring for a specific location is completed.
6. Rough-in kit must be mounted for speakers once the wiring is completed. The wire
must be arranged in a manner suitable for the specific kit.
7. If there is any deviation from the initial plan, document the details for future
reference.
8. A digital camera can be used to trace what was done inside the walls.
Low-voltage wiring practices

• Ensure that only UL-rated CL-2 or CL-3 cabling is used in the installation. The main
difference between CL-2 and CL-3 lies in the peak voltage handling; CL-2 wires can
handle up to 150 V, whereas CL-3 can handle up to 300 V. CL-3 cable consists of an
additional insulating layer around the 2 insulated wires.
• Gauge is a technical parameter related to speaker cable. The gauge number is
inversely proportional to the diameter of the wire or size of the cable. 14-gauge wire
is the standard for a multi-room installation. Impedance is lower for 14-gauge wire
and is easier to manage.
• When using heavier cables, ensure that special adapter tips are used to terminate
the cable ends, so that the cable fits into the volume control connectors and
amplifier terminals.
• One inch holes should be drilled approximately 1-1/4 inches from the edge of the
stud when running low voltage cable. If the hole is shallow, use a strike-plate to
fortify the wiring.
• Low-voltage cable should not be placed in the same hole as AC wiring. If the low-
voltage cable is running parallel to AC wiring, ensure that there is at least 8-inches
between the cables. If a low-voltage cable needs to cross the AC wiring, maintain 90-
degree angle between the cables to reduce the effects of interference.
• Do not place audio controls near lighting controls as interference may occur.
Speaker wiring should be separated from communication cabling.
• Cabling should be placed away from heat sources, such as HVAC ducts.
Basic troubleshooting

If a problem affects all of the rooms, then the issue may be between the amplifier and the
consolidation point. If the issue is in a single or several rooms, but not all, then the issue
may be at the room level.

Frequent shut-down during operation can occur due to the following reasons:

• System matching module is triggered. Verify that the volume level is adequate.
Check if the amplifier is operating correctly. If the amplifier creates detrimental
current levels or if there are transient currents, the protection will engage.
• Protection circuit of the amplifier is triggered. Check if there is a short-circuit. Verify
that the volume controls are working correctly as impedance mismatch will send
the amplifier into protection.

Feeble vocal sound or lack of bass can be due to a phasing problem. If the vocal sound is
feeble in all rooms, the issue may be between the impedance matching module and the
amplifier. Turn on one of the + and – connections seen in the input section of the matching
module. Note: If you turn on both switches, the issue will persist.

Clattering or humming sound in the speaker

• Remove debris, drywall fragments and additional wire insulation from the speaker.

Additional methods to overcome the issue are:

1. Amplifier volume control in should be turned DOWN.


2. Switch off the FM muting with the help of an FM tuner.
3. Bass control should be turned up.
4. Raise the amplifier’s volume gradually until a mid-level “roaring” voice similar to
waterfall is heard. NOTE: this voice level should not be too loud, to the point that
distortion is detected. Cone movement should rebound the debris from the back
area after playing for 30 seconds.
CCTV

There are two types of television (TV) systems, open-and closed circuit systems. An open-
circuit system is directed at an unlimited number of people such as a TV broadcast. A
closed-circuit system is offers video to a limited audience, as is the case in a closed-circuit
television (CCTV) used for surveillance activities.

Types of CCTV cameras

Two types of CCTV cameras are available, analog and internet protocol (IP).

Analog CCTV camera: An analog CCTV camera uses a coaxial cable, with a digital video
recorder (DVR) acting as the camera. An analog camera costs less than an IP CCTV camera.
Every cable starts at the camera and ends at the DVR. The maximum cable distance
between the camera and DVR is 1000 feet for optimum quality. The resolution of analog
camera is computed in TV lines.

IP CCTV camera: An IP CCTV camera uses a local area network (LAN) cable where a
network video recorder (NVR) records the imagery. An IP camera is more expensive than
its analog counterpart. An IP CCTV camera can be used for long-range applications by
utilizing a virtual private network (VPN), wide area network (WAN) or LAN. The resolution
of an IP CCTV camera is computed in megapixels.

Dome CCTV camera: This is the simplest CCTV camera and is supplied with an
inexpensive built-in lens. Lens setting adjustments must be performed manually.

Dome Infrared (IR) CCTV camera: The IR circuit used in this camera attains viewing
capability in poorly lit or dark settings. The IR camera records in black and white when
used in poor lighting situations.
Bullet IR CCTV camera: The IR circuit used in this camera attains visibility in complete
darkness. The bullet type body used in this camera provides protection from the
elements, and is therefore ideal for outdoor purposes.

Pan-Tilt-Zoom (PTZ) Speed Dome camera: The PTZ allows the user to pan, tilt and
zoom the camera remotely. This camera can be used for either outdoor and indoor
purposes.

Camera installation and environments

• Use an ultra-wide angle lens if an entire room must be monitored (regardless of


room size). Multiple cameras are needed for displaying an object in close-up
manner. Use a PTZ camera if space constraints prevent the installation of multiple
cameras.
• Prevent backlight situations, by ensuring that windows are not east or west facing.
Wide Dynamic range cameras can be used to compensate for backlighting.
• Use computer monitors and cameras to decide on the best location for camera
placement. Suitable computer software can be used to simulate the picture that will
be displayed on the monitor.
• Brightness – Monochrome cameras require brightness levels of at least 100 lumens,
whereas color cameras require more than 300 lumens. Since the minimum
illumination requirement for monochrome camera is lower, these cameras generate
clearer, better resolution images of dark environs. IR/high-sensitivity cameras must
be used in low-light settings for precise monitoring. Thermal cameras, other than IR,
may be used in smoky environments to retain visibility.
• High-sensitivity cameras can achieve high clarity images with illumination levels as
low as 0.03 lumens, by reducing shutter speed and using signal accumulation. The
main disadvantage of a high-sensitivity camera is that the signal accumulation
method could result in a lingering effect.
• Infrared camera uses a light-sensitive charge coupled device (CCD) in the near-IR
region. It can be used along with a near-IR emitter to power nighttime surveillance.
Video images generated by this camera are monochrome and the range may be
restricted due to nearby IR emitter.
• Thermal camera uses a light-sensitive CCD in the far-IR region. This camera
monitors temperature distribution, and is often used in research and medical
applications.
• Temperature and humidity – Operating temperature for cameras usually fall in the
range of -10°C to 50°C. If camera must be installed in a location where temperature
falls outside this range, a protective case might be required. Cases can be either
simple, or equipped with heaters or water-based cooling systems, as required by the
ambient temperature conditions. A sealed case will protect the camera from rusting
or corrosion that can occur due to humidity.
• Lightning – Lightning rods may be installed to protect the power supply, video
signal and control signal from the harmful effects of lightning.

CCTV Installation

Siamese cable must be run from the digital video recorder to the various camera locations.
The tools needed for a CCTV installation are:

• diagonal cutters,
• knife,
• RG-59 crimp tool,
• BNC connectors,
• sleeves – one at digital video recorder and another at camera location.

The power pair must be split from the RG59 coaxial cable at the camera at least 6 inches
away from the camera. The metal sleeve should be inserted through the RG59. Cut
approximately 1 inch of the external shell from the cable, uncovering the copper shield.

Cut and clip the shield using a diagonal cutter to nearly 3/8 inches. Bend the shield back to
the exterior jacket. Trim the interior insulator nearby the copper center wire using a knife.
Ensure that approximately 0.0625- to 0.125 inches of insulator is available outside the
shield. The length of the interior copper wire should be about 0.5 inches. Carefully attach
the BNC connector to the interior copper wire by sliding it securely towards the shielded
part. The copper shield wire must be pulled over the BNC connector’s rear portion.

The metal sleeve must slide through the copper shield, and the BNC connector has to be
safely connected to the RG59 cable. The metal sleeve must be pressed firmly into the BNC
connector by using the crimp tool’s inner die, and the sleeve’s thinner end should be
crimped above the RG59 coaxial cable by using the crimp tool’s outer die, as shown in
Figure 4.
Figure 4. BNC crimper and connector

Power wire preparation – Approximately 2 inches of the exterior shield must be removed
from the Siamese cable’s power part, and 0.375 inches of insulation should be stripped
from both wires.

Cameras used in video surveillance systems are generally either modular cameras or All-In-
One (AIO) cameras. Modular cameras are highly adaptable and flexible as the user is
provided multiple options to select from, such as:

1. Camera can be either 12V (dc), 24V (ac), color or monochrome.


2. Lens can be a manual iris, automatic iris, or standard.
3. Mounting bracket can be for either outdoor or indoor usage.

Modular cameras are widely used, as the user can conform the camera to suit the
requirements of any camera location. AIO cameras are usually available as either 12V (dc)
or 24V (ac). PTZ, dome, and bullet camera are types of AIO cameras. The basic camera is
supplied with a mount, power connection and lens and does not need modification once
installed.

Power connections

If using a 12V dc camera, ensure that the power cable is attached to the appropriate
terminal. The BLACK power lead should be attached to the camera’s negative terminal and
WHITE (or RED) lead should be attached to the positive terminal. The user should use the
same procedure for the 24V ac camera, as well. AIO cameras usually have an electrical
socket for power input, the center pin of the electrical socket is positive. A power
distribution unit (PDU) or brick (single power source) can be used for the power
connections of the camera. The BLACK power lead is attached to the camera’s negative
terminal and the WHITE (or RED) power lead is attached to the positive terminal.
Assembly and installation of modular camera

Modular cameras require mounting bracket and lens assembly before installation, whereas
AIO cameras are fully manufacturer assembled. Install the bracket mount on either the
camera’s bottom or top. The lens is then inserted into the camera’s mounting bracket. Turn
the lens in a clockwise manner until it is tight and secure. Do not over-tighten the lens, as
the threads may be stripped. The auto-iris cable is inserted through the rear of the camera.

Once the camera is mounted, connect the power wires to the camera. The BLACK wire is
attached to the camera’s negative terminal and the WHITE (or RED) lead is attached to the
camera’s positive terminal. The video cable can now be connected to the camera. See
Figure 5.

Camera performance

Subject illumination and resolution are two important parameters used to evaluate a
camera’s performance. Resolution is used to evaluate how clearly an image can be
displayed on the screen, and resolution is evaluated in terms of vertical and horizontal
resolution.

• Horizontal resolution: Maximum number of vertical black and white lines that can
be clearly seen when the image is displayed on screen. Horizontal resolution ranges
from 330-480 lines in color cameras used for surveillance applications. 3-CCD
cameras with horizontal resolution greater than 600 lines can be used if higher
resolution is needed.
• Vertical resolution: Maximum horizontal black and white lines that can be clearly
seen when the image is displayed on screen. Horizontal resolution ranges from 350-
400 lines based on the scanning system used.
• Minimum subject illumination is the least amount of illumination needed for the
camera to capture an image. However, at the minimum subject illumination level,
the subject cannot be clearly seen.
• Recommended subject illumination is the lowest illumination level used to
capture a clear image.
• Brightness can be evaluated in terms of illumination and the unit is lumens.

Camera functions

• Automatic Gain Control (AGC) – Video signal is adjusted electronically so that


constant brightness level is achieved. If the intensity of the input signal is greater
than predetermined levels, gain is modified so that the signal does not exceed the
preset levels. Similarly, if the intensity of the input signal is too low, gain is
increased so that the signal reaches the preset levels.
• Automatic Sensitivity Adjustment (AES) – Brightness of the screen is maintained
at a preset level by varying the shutter speed.
• Backlight Compensation (BLC) – If a bright light is behind the subject, the monitor
can be fine-tuned to adjust the image, clarifying what might otherwise result in a
dark subject. Backlight compensation can be applied so that the image is displayed
at proper brightness levels.
• Wide Dynamic Range – Achieves a perfect replication of bright and dark objects in
an image by releasing the AES twice per frame.
• High-sensitivity accumulation – Produces color images of objects even in dark
environments. The shutter speed is slowed, compared to normal settings, so that the
camera can accumulate images over a longer duration. However, activating this
feature can result in higher noise levels, frame loss or monitor after-images.

Camera mounting

• Mount – Indoor camera systems are installed on ceilings and walls. Outdoor camera
systems are mounted on poles and walls. The size, weight, and housing should be
considered when selecting the camera mount.
• Motorized Pan/Tilt Head – This type of camera mount offers an extensive
coverage area. Remote controls can be used to move the camera horizontally (Pan)
and vertically (Tilt).
Lens selection

View angle is the angular range covered by the camera. The focal length and size of the
imager are the two parameters that determine the angle of view. Different available CCD
screen sizes are 1/4 , 1/3, 1/2 and 2/3 inches. CCD screen sizes alter the distance of the
viewing field and does not have an impact on performance. If the lens size is larger, the
field of view would be narrower, and zoomed, as well.

Lens mount is links the camera to lens. The different lens mount types are C, CS and
bayonet. C and CS mounts differ in their flange back, which is 12.5 millimeters for CS and
17.526 millimeters for C mount. Both mounts have the same diameter and thread pitch,
however, the C mount is bigger than the CS mount. 3-CCD cameras utilize bayonet mounts.

Auto-iris lens allows the aperture to be automatically adjusted so that ambient brightness
levels can be attained. There are two types of automatic aperture lenses, DC and Video. The
internal camera processor analyzes and transmits DC voltage to the lens. In Video lenses,
the aperture opening is adjusted by a video signal. Video is more expensive than DC. If a
manual iris lens is used in a camera, powered by the AES feature, it can capture the images
just like an auto-iris camera. However, this feature can’t be used in applications where the
operation frequency is 50 Hertz and mercury arc lamps or fluorescents are used as a light
source.

Different lens types used for surveillance application

• Fixed Focus Lens – The angle of view is fixed for this type of lens.
• Varifocal Lens – This zoom lens is manually adjusted, and is flexible rather than
fixed focus lens. A varifocal lens cannot be controlled remotely.
• Motorized Zoom Lens – The focal length can be changed by using a built-in remote
controlled motor. This type of camera is used along with motorized pan or tilt heads
which focus and zoom using a remote control.
• Aspherical Lens – The radius of the surface of an aspherical lens is variable and
reduces distortion. In addition, it can create sharper images.
• Pin Hole Lens – Mounted in ceilings or behind walls and are fixed-focal length lens.
• Prism Lens – This lens is ceiling mounted with only the prism portion visible. It is a
fixed-focal length lens.
Selecting sensor type

• Operators may not be able to maintain constant surveillance of the monitors


thereby necessitating the need for sensors. There are different types of sensors such
as IR, shutter, and passive sensors.
• Magnetic proximity switch sensors – Detects the closing and opening of doors and
windows. When a permanent magnet is near, the magnetic reed switch closes the
contact. If the magnetic field is removed, the reed switch opens the contact
• Glass break sensors – This sensor detects if glass is broken due to the sound
frequencies. NOTE: Certain animals can produce sounds that will trip the sensor.
• Passive sensors – This sensor helps to detect variations in far-IR rays when
movement is detected in the area under observation.
• Ultrasonic sensors – This sensor transmits ultrasonic sound waves that are reflected
by mobile objects. If any change in frequency is detected, the receiver transmits an
alarm signal.

Passive sensor

Different ambient temperature detect the presence of trespassers in passive sensors.


However, passive sensors cannot be used for outdoor systems as they are vulnerable to
wind (0.4 – 1 m/s wind speed). Objects that have a temperature greater than absolute zero
(0 Kelvin), emit IR radiation. Far-IR light cannot move through the materials found in walls,
window or floors of a building. Though glass is transparent, it does not permit IR light,
which has wavelength greater than 2 micrometers, to pass through. Sensors made of
pyroelectric materials convert heat to energy. When an object moves in its sensing area, the
temperature will increase from the ambient room temperature to body temperature. The
detector used in passive sensor collects an electric charge by filtering far-IR rays in the
range of 7-14μm, which is the wavelength range emitted by human body. Variations in the
IR radiation are converted into output voltage. When this variation is greater than a
predetermined level, an alarm signal is triggered.
Motion Detectors

Motion detectors respond to any variation in illumination levels inside the detection zone
without using an external sensor. Motion detectors are not very accurate and cannot be
used in outdoor applications.

Remote Controlled Surveillance

Remote controlled surveillance is used n applications where the distance between the
security room and camera is more than three km’s.

• Laser – Lasers can be used to send video signals to a receiver up to five km’s away
with excellent linearity. The device that produces the laser should be mounted in a
manner that avoids directing the laser into a person’s eyes.
• Near-IR light – This remote controlled surveillance method uses IR light rays to send
video signal to a receiver. Near-IR light is not expensive compared to a laser
surveillance method. However, the operation range is shorter as it can only transmit
signals up to 2,600 feet. The device that produces near-IR light can be mounted
anywhere as IR light is not hazardous.
• Spread spectrum – Radio waves in 2.4 GHz ISM band are used to send video signals,
and can be used to transmit video signals up to two km’s.
• Fiber optic cable – Remote controlled surveillance methods use fiber optics to send
signals to a maximum distance of three km’s. One of the main benefits of fiber optic
transmission is that external noise sources do not affect the transmission.

Power supply system

• AC-mains system – AC mains are used to supply power to the camera in an


inexpensive manner.
• 24V AC system – A 24V AC power supply is used to supply power to the camera. If
the camera is used along with a housing and pan/tilt head, the system expense is
reduced.
• 12V DC system – A 12V DC power supply is used to supply power to the camera. A
significant disadvantage of this system is that it cannot be used for video signal
synchronization due to voltage levels drops in the cable.
Video signal and control signal transmission

Coaxial cables

• Cables with resistance of 75 ohms are generally used for the transmission of video
signals. User can select coaxial cable for a specific purpose by checking for the
coaxial cable is radio grade (RG) or universal grade (U), which can be used for
generic purposes.
• If a video signal will be transmitted over longer distances, resolution may be
affected and could be seriously deteriorated. Image compensation can be achieved
using a cable compensator.

Twisted pair cable transmission


Twisted pair cables can be used in elevator applications where it is difficult to perform an
installation using coaxial cable, and can reduce the noise produced by external equipment.

RS-485 systems
RS-485 systems are based on an RS-485 standard and can be used to regulate the zoom
lens and camera.

Monitor selection

• Monitors used for CCTV surveillance applications are fabricated exclusively for
industrial applications and cannot receive TV broadcasts.
• Nine inch monitors can be easily installed, but are not ideal for viewing fine image
details.
• LCD CCTV monitors can be used to replace conventional monitors as the power
consumption is low, and space is saved.
• The displayed object size is dependent on the monitor size.

Woi=f*Wm*Ws/ Kw*D*0.9

Woi = On-screen image width


f = focal length of lens
Wm = screen-width of monitor
Ws = width of subject
Kw = width constant
D = Distance between subject and camera
Hoi=f*Hm*Hs/ Hw*D*0.9

Hoi = On-screen image height


F = focal length of lens
Hm = screen-height of monitor
Hs = height of subject
Hw = height constant
D = Distance between subject and camera

Geographical layout

Premises network – LANs and security systems use a structured cabling system. This type
of network is based on a high-speed Ethernet system with transmission speeds ranging
from 10Mb/s to 10 GB/s. Multimode fiber is commonly used in a premises network.

Telephone networks – Primarily outside plant (OSP) systems, where the distance
between blocks ranges from 100 m to several kilometers. The operating speed is 2.5-10
Gb/s. Single mode fibers are used in telephone networks as the pulse dispersion is lower.
Cable television (CATV) systems also use single-mode fibers as single mode fibers are used
in applications that demand longer operating distances.

Selecting transmission equipment

The contractor and end user must consider the application requirements in order to select
the right equipment. Distance and bandwidth are two of the parameters used to select the
fiber type. 1310 nm lasers are used on single mode fiber (G.652 fiber) in short-range
applications. 1550 nm lasers (G.653, G.654/G.655 for Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing) are used on dispersion-shifted fibers in long-range applications. 1310/1550
nm distributed feedback (DFB) lasers are used in single mode fibers in CATV links.

The process of selecting transmission equipment is difficult in CCTV applications, as there


are many different applications. In addition, equipment may be unavailable with fiber
optics, which requires converting from copper ports to fiber using devices such as media
converters. Routers/switches are provided with fiber optic interfaces, while personal
computers (PCs) are usually supplied with UTP copper interfaces, thereby demanding
additional media converters. CCTV applications are provided with fiber interfaces, as most
are in locations such as airports where coaxial transmission cannot meet the range
requirements. The converter should be able to cater to the link requirements, which
encompasses parameters such as range, ability to transmit control signal, zoom and tilt.

Planning the route

Multiple parameters such as the route’s physical locations and building laws must be
considered. The premises and OSP are very different, each requiring distinct designs. A
premises installation is simpler, as the area is smaller. Architectural drawings should be
created using a computer-aided design software, thereby enabling future editing and
documenting of the fiber optic design. If the building is in the design stage, an electrical
contractor can provide valuable insights on the location, routing and network
requirements. Use detailed architecture drawings in pre-existing buildings, so that cable
routing can be easier.

OSP cabling installations are difficult compared to premises installations. The different
cable types, such as buried, aerial, or underground cables must be used based on
geographical requirements. Local, state, or federal approval must be obtained before work
begins.

Choosing Components for OSP/premises installation

Large quantities of cable are used in outside plant applications, and cables can be made to
order, identifying a significant cost savings. Although single-mode fibers are less expensive,
installation charges can add to the project cost. Multi-mode optical (OM3) laser optimized
50/125 fiber can be used in shorter outside plant applications, as the attenuation is lower
and bandwidth is Preferred.

Technicians must ensure that extra fibers are available in the system which could be later
used for future expansion or back-up activities. The cable cost is not directly proportional
to additional fibers, which implies that the user can add more fibers without affecting the
cost. Extra splicing and termination contributes to higher cable costs. OSP cables exhibit
characteristics such as better strength and moisture/water protection. Dry-water blocked
cables can be used to achieve moisture/water protection by using water-absorbing tape,
which swells and seals the cable if water is present. Ensure that extra cable than Is ordered,
allowing more fibers for future termination/restoration.

Cable hardware should be compatible with local zoning and suitable for the location. To
realize the benefits of reduced loss, reduced reflectance and higher reliability, outside the
plant, both single-mode and multi-mode fiber must be fusion spliced. If only a few splices
are needed, use mechanical splicing as it provides sufficient performance and fidelity.

Multiple parameters need to be considered when determining components for a premise


system, such as the communication equipment, routing, building regulations, etc.
Additionally, corporate networks utilize optic fibers as PCs used in design and engineering
have higher bandwidth requirements. Security systems also require additional cables. IT
employees, engineers, architects must work hand-in-hand to design a fiber optic system.

Historically, 62.5/125 µ fiber (OM1 fiber) was used, however high quality 50/125 fibers
are the industry norm, with OM3/OM4 fiber preferred. All cables and patch panels must be
marked with aqua-coloured tags to denote OM3/OM4 fibers.

Passive optical LANs work on the basis of fiber to the home (FTTH) passive optical network
(PON) architecture and uses single mode fiber. OS2 is a low water peak fiber that works in
the 1300-1600 nm range, suitable for wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM). Cables
used in premises systems can fall into two categories: distribution and breakout cables.
More fibers can be included in a reduced diameter in the case of distribution cables,
however, termination must occur within patch panels/wall mounted boxes. Breakout
cables increase in size as the fiber count increases, and can be connected directly
eliminating the need for additional hardware which makes them ideal for industrial
purpose.

Jackets should be optical fiber non-conductive riser (OFNR) rated, as the fibers are fire-
resistant and are ideal for riser applications. Dry water-blocking and double jacketing is
used in cables that run between buildings. Exterior jackets are immune to moisture and can
be easily peeled off. Inner jackets are fire-rated and are suitable for indoor purpose.

Checklist for pre-installation

• Pre-requisites for link communication is established.


• Selecting vendors, contractors and a project manager (PM) for fiber optic network
design.
• Select link routes and modules for cable plants.
• Documentation of the optic network design.
• Review link route, modules, schedule and safety regulations with the contractor.
• Store additional materials for future use,
• Permits are readily available for inspection.

Checklist during installation

• Review workmanship.
• Review process, progress and test data on a regular basis.
• Any issues or inadequacies must be immediately addressed.

Checklist after installation

• Review test data.


• Update documentation/restoration plan and modules.
Terminations/crimping

Fiber optic termination can be performed using either of the following methods:

• Connectors which couple two fibers produce an impermanent joint, see Figure 9;
• Splices that develop a long-lasting connection between both fibers.

Both of these termination methods must exhibit high optical performance (reduced loss
and reflectance) and improved mechanical strength. The fiber optic termination method
used should be compatible with the equipment used. Termination of multi-mode fibers
should be an effortless process compared to the termination of single-mode fibers.

Figure 9. Connector types

Two factors are used to determine the connector type – system compatibility and installer
termination process familiarity. Fusion splicing is adopted for single-mode splices as it
enables achieving low loss and reflectance while offering reliable connection. Multimode
fibers accept mechanical splicing, which is used in situations where only temporary
restoration is needed, see Figure 10.

Figure 10. Fusion connector

For faster operation, LC connectors, which have replaced SC and ST connectors can be
used. LC connectors are not compatible with SC/ST connectors. The reduced size of the LC
connectors makes it the ideal option for pluggable transceivers with reduced form-factor.

Higher packing density is the main feature of an SC connector. Other common connectors
types are Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack (MT-RJ), Multi-fiber Push On (MPO) and
Hardened Fiber Optic Connectors (HFOCs). Installation hardware is selected based on the
location of cable terminations; premise systems are point-to-point, and are not spliced.
Additional radii in patch panels decrease fiber stress. A pre-terminated system can be used
in premises application, which includes backbone cables terminated in multi-fiber
connectors and pre-terminated patch panel modules. Plug and play systems can also be
implemented.

If termination is performed directly on multimode outside plant cables, breakout kits must
be used. Breakout-kits help sleeve fibers for enhanced fidelity when connectors are linked
directly. Complete pre-terminated OSP systems will reduce the time required for
splicing/termination.

Testing/troubleshooting

Troubleshooting must be performed on the fiber optic cable plant to ensure that
installation complies with industry standards, that equipment works properly per the
manufacturer’s specifications, and that fiber optic cable plants are documented for future
reference.

Tools used

• Optical Loss Test Set (OLTS) utilizes optical ratings which match the fiber optic
system specifications. The OLTS only cable plant loss. A calibrated power meter is
not a part of a standard OLTS, therefore, a calibrated power meter and source for
fiber optics system testing should be used.
• Reference test cables consist of fibers and connectors with high-quality adapters.
Connector loss in reference test cables is usually less than 0.5 decibels.
• Visual fault locator (VFL) are cable continuity testers used to determine defects, and
confirm polarity and continuity in fibers.
• Connector inspection microscope features magnification in the range of 100-200X
and fixtures for suitable connectors, and should be used in conjunction with video
microscopes.
• Optical-time domain reflectometer (OTDR) – All of the cables used in a fiber optics
network must be tested for continuity by using a fault locator. If the fault locator
testing reveals that the cable is damaged, it must undergo OTDR testing to
determine if the cable is damaged. Only cables that pass this test may be used.

Post-installation tests: Cables used in fiber optic networks must be tested for insertion loss.
OLTS testing can be performed per OFSTP-14 standard for multi-mode fiber and OFSTP-7
for single mode fiber. A linked cable test should be performed to estimate the link power
budget ensuring that the network is in proper working order. Insertion loss testing is
performed at the desired wavelength with suitable sources, such as: multimode fiber -
850/1300 nm with LED, or single mode fiber – 1490 nm for Fiber to the home. Double-
ended testing of the launch and receive cables may be conducted and must adhere to
OFSTP-7/14 standard.

Longer cables with splices must be tested using an OTDR to verify splice quality and to
quality check the installation. End-to-end testing can be confirmed by performing insertion
loss testing with an OLTS.

Troubleshooting steps

1. Determine if the issue lies with a single fiber or all of the fibers. If all of the fibers are
damaged, there is a strong likelihood that the cable installation is critically damaged.
OTDR can be used to determine the location of the issue in lengthier cables,
however, premises cables are shorter and require physical assessment to determine
the location of the problem.
2. Some of the causes of high loss fibers are improper termination methods, bad
splices or terminations, etc. High loss fiber testing begins by conducting a
microscopic inspection of the terminations, specifically checking for dust, abrasions
and cable injuries. If dust is the cause of the high loss fiber, it could be remedied by
cleaning the connectors by buffing the scratches using a diamond film.
3. Damages in pre-polished splice connectors normally cannot be determined using a
microscope, as high splice losses in the internal splice is the cause of the connector
damage. A visual fault locator (VFL) can be attached to the fiber to detect defects in
the fiber.
4. For adhesive or polish style connectors, fiber break defects can be detected using a
VFL.
5. If the cable demonstrates extremely high loss levels, it must be checked for breaks at
the splice or connector using a VFL/high-resolution optical time domain
reflectometer.
6. Splice loss issues can be detected using optical time domain reflectometer testing. If
the distance from the cable end is shorter, testing with a VFL should also be
conducted.
7. High loss link with additional loss measures of very low dB are tested with a patch
cord originating at the source and a power meter.
8. Technicians that perform troubleshooting can learn about the possible issues in
installation such as improper field termination, immediate pulls, and lubrication.

Patch Cord Testing

Patch cords are short factory-terminated cables with a heat-cured epoxy connector on
either end. Patch cords assist in linking equipment to the cable plant and are also used as
reference cables for performing insertion loss testing. Some of the issues associated with
patch cords are due to problems in the connector or by broken fibers caused by excessive
stress.

Patch cords must undergo insertion loss testing and optical loss testing by means of single-
ended testing confirmation of the FOTP-71 method. Once the testing in one direction is
completed, it must be reversed and tested in the opposite direction. Loss in either
directions should be lower than suggested in the manufacturer’s specifications.
Microscopic testing to check for damage or dirt should be conducted. If the damage is
minor, it can be buffed using diamond film.

Testing Communication Equipment

The communication link should function correctly if the cable plant loss is less than the loss
budget. If the communication link does not work properly, check if the following issues
exist: improper connections, cable plant issues, and communications equipment flaws.

1. Use a VFL to check the intermediate connections in the link.


2. If the communication equipment is attached to a cable plant and is not working
properly, test the receiver power at the single end.
3. Detach the cable at the receiver and use a power meter to measure the power levels.
Ensure that the equipment is attempting to send a signal. If the receiver power falls
within the manufacturer’s specifications, the issue might be in the receiver beyond
the link. Two main reasons attributing to low receiver power are cable plant losses
and reduced transmitter power.
4. Transmitter power can be measured by detaching the patch cord that links the cable
plant to the transmitter. Calculate the optical power, and if the optical power is low,
the transmitter patch cord might be root of the problem.
5. Overloading the receiver may result in very high amount of receiver power. In such
cases, an attenuator can be used to decrease the power to a suitable level.
6. To determine what is causing the issue (transmitter or patch cord), the transmitter
must be tested with a good patch cord. If the power is adequate, then it can be
concluded that the patch cord is the cause of the low transmitter power.
7. If the tested power is low when using a good, tested patch cord, equipment
maintenance must be performed.
8. If the transmitter power is good and the receiver power is low, the issue might be
with the cable plant. An OLTS can be performed determine if the loss of cable plant
is too high.

Cable Plant Problems

1. Damage after installation/testing is the main reason for cable plant loss. Use a VFL
to check the continuity and OLTS to measure loss. If the cable plant length is greater
than 100 meters, use an optical time domain reflectometer to test the configuration.
2. Bandwidth related problems can contribute to cable plant loss. Multimode cable
plants that work at 1300 nm and use an LED source might exhibit bandwidth issues.
Modal and chromatic dispersion are the main causes of bandwidth related
problems.
3. Multimode cable plants that work at 850 nm with vertical-cavity surface-emitting
laser as a source, may exhibit non-linear modal dispersion. A distorted pulse is
produced resulting in data transfer issues.
4. Connector or mechanical splices reflection is a main cause of reflection in single-
mode cable plants, and could pave the way for distorted pulse and increased BER.
Reflection near the receiver can also result in reflections, which increases bit error
rate.
5. If the cable plant length is greater than 100 meters, an optical time domain
reflectometer can be used to check reflections. An index-matching fluid/gel can be
applied at the juncture to decrease reflections.

Losses in optical fiber can be caused by a variety of issues, such as:

• Poor pulling methods such as applying excessive stress, kinking, bends that are too
tight.
• Issues in cable preparation during termination/splicing.
• Poor splicing methods can contribute to lost splices.
Material selection

There are three general categories of optical fibers used in premises systems. They are:

• Multimode fiber 50/125 μm


• Multimode fiber 62.5/125 μm
• Single mode fiber

The diameter of the glass core is annotated with the 50 or 62.5 μm measurement, and the
diameter of the outer glass casing is 125 μm. Only a single broadcast mode is possible when
using single mode fiber, however, multiple guided modes are possible when using multi-
mode fiber. Power loss is lower with single mode fiber and is therefore used in long-range
applications. The core diameter of multi-mode fiber is larger than single-mode fibers.
Single-mode fiber is more expensive than multi-mode fibers, however, signal attenuation is
lower and propagation speed is higher for single-mode fibers.

Plastic Optical Fiber (POF)

Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), also known as acrylic or acrylic glass, forms the core
of optical fiber with fluorinated polymers used as cladding (casing). The refractive index
difference between the core and cladding is higher for POF. Some of the benefits associated
with POF are: high numerical aperture (NA), improved mechanical flexibility, light-weight
and reduced cost. POF are used in low-speed, low-range applications such as home
networks.

Glass Optical Fiber

Since glass optical fibers are fragile, they cannot be cut, spliced or refurbished. Glass optical
fibers are ideal for extreme conditions such as high temperature, chemical exposure, etc.
Glass optical fiber is appropriate for long-range and high speed applications.

Bend Insensitive Multi-Mode Fiber (BIMMF)

Bend Insensitive Multi-Mode Fibers (BIMMF) are designed to endure close-fitting cable
bends usually found in local area networks (LAN) and enterprise network applications.
Tight bending can result in higher attenuation levels which could hamper signal quality.
The BIMMF are insensitive to bends resulting in improved signal quality and lower power
loss.
Coatings used in optical fiber cables

Coatings are applied directly to the glass fibers during the manufacturing process. The
different types of coatings are based on the fiber strength.
Acrylate coating – used for standard telecom applications.
Fluoroacrylate – robust and non-toxic, used in medical systems.
Silicone – impervious to water vapor and chemicals.
Polymide – resistant to temperature changes making it ideal for aerospace applications.
Carbon – increases the lifetime of fiber optics considerably, and is used along with other
coating materials.
Wall mount fiber optic – space saver as it is wall mounted. See Figure 7.

Figure 7. Rack mount fiber optic

Outdoor fiber optic – reliable and robust fiber optic enclosures capable of tolerating
extreme conditions. See Figure 8.

Figure 8. Outdoor fiber optic


Tools to perform Ethernet installation

• Modular crimping tool


• UTP stripper
• Impact pro punch down tool
• Network tester
• Cat 5e/Cat 6 cable
• RJ 45 connectors
• Scissors

Tools to perform VoIP installation

• Connector crimping pliers


• Tone and probe kit for tracing lines
• Impact tool
• Cable splicer
• Cable stripper

Different cable types

Twisted pair cabling consists of two conductors that are twisted together to protect a
communication channel from the effects of electromagnetic interference (EMI). The cables
are composed of materials such as copper and silver. Twisted pair cables can be used in a
variety of applications such as HDMI interface for HDTV. The most common connector used
in Ethernet installations is the RJ-45 connector (8P8C connector) The main benefit of using
twisted pair cables is the low cost.

The impedance of both twisted pair cables and standard RJ-45 connectors is 100 ohms (?).
Therefore, the RJ-45 connector can be used with twisted pair cables such as Category 5 (Cat
5) and Category 6 (Cat 6). Patch cables are used to join multiple network devices. For
example, a PC can be connected to a router using patch cables. The following is general
information about cable capabilities:

• Fast Ethernet, also known as 100 BASE-T or 100 Megabit Ethernet, is a mature
technology with networking equipment that can operate in a cost-effective manner.
• Gigabit Ethernet, also known as 1000 Base-T, can transfer as much as 1 billion bits
per second. Gigabit Ethernet is almost 10 times faster than 100 BASE-T technology.
• 100 BASE-T requires Cat 5 cable, whereas 1000 BASE-T requires Cat 5e networking
cable. In addition, Cat 6 cables can be used along with 1000 Base-T for faster
operations. Organizations can invest in Cat 6 cables that can be used along with 10
Gigabit Ethernet.
• Cat-5e cable is also known as ANSI/TIA/EIA 568A-5; the “e” in Cat 5e stands for
“enhanced”.
• Cat 5 networking cable is designed to support Ethernet and fast Ethernet. Cat 5e
cable is designed to support Gigabit Ethernet, fast Ethernet, and Ethernet.
• Crosstalk is used less frequently with Cat 5e cable, and more frequently with Cat 5
cable.
• The optimal operating temperature of Cat 5e cable is from -10° to 60° Celsius.
• Bandwidth refers to the capacity of information carried in a prescribed time. Cat 5e
cable operates at 100 Mhz and the bandwidth is more than Cat 5 networking cable.
The bandwidth of Cat 6 cable is 200 Mhz
• Cat 6 cable is terminated with either a T568A or T568B mode. Patch cords
terminated in the T568A can be used along with horizontal cables that are
terminated in T568B mode. The T568-8 is commonly used for patch cable
termination. Home applications use the T568A mode, while business application can
use the T568B.
• Cat 6 cables consist of 23-gauge conductor wire; Cat 5e cables consist of 24-gauge
conductor wire.
• The impedance of both the Cat 5 and Cat 5e cables is 100 ?. However, both
networking cables have different multiple performance aspects such as frequency,
capacitance, and attenuation.
• Typical frame and percentage errors are lower in Cat 6 cables than in Cat 5 or Cat 5e
cables. Cat insulators between the wire pairs will reduce the harmful effects of
crosstalk in Cat 6 cables to a minimum.

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable consists of twisted insulated copper conductors in a
single casing, and is widely used for desktop communication purposes. See Figure 11.

Figure 11. UTP cable


Stranded cable

Stranded cable consists of multiple small gauge wires encased in separate insulation
sleeves. Stranded cables are flexible compared to other networking cables, and are used for
small range applications such as patch cords. See Figure 12.

Figure 12. Stranded cable

Solid cable

Solid cable consists of a single, large gauge wire, which is included in every sleeve. The
electrical performance of a solid cable is significantly better than stranded cable. Solid
cables are used inside walls and ceilings. However, installing a solid conductor cable into
RJ-45 connector is difficult. See Figure 13.

Figure 13. Solid cable


Variety of Cables

Patch cables consists of multiple strands of copper conductors which are extremely
flexible. This type of cable is frequently used for recurring changes at the patch panel or
wall outlet and flexing applications.

Shielded twisted pair (STP) cables have metal shielding over the copper wire, offering
protection from an EMI. STPs are equipped with an exclusive grounding wire known as a
drain wire.

Screened/shielded twisted pair (S/STP) are individually shielded (metal shield) to cover
the complete copper pair of cables. S/STP is equipped with an exclusive grounding wire
known as drain wire.

UL1581 (general purpose), UL1666 (riser) and Plenum UL910 are various UL cable
levels.

Cat 5e foil-screened twisted pair (FTP) can be used to protect the system from the
harmful effects of interference. A Mylar or aluminium foil sleeve is used to cover four
twisted wire pairs of FTP wires. FTP cables are expensive compared to UTP cables, and
provide protection from damage to the inner wire pair. FTP should be used with shielded
networking device RJ-45 jacks to optimize the benefits, and can be used in the following
range of applications:

(a) Applications which demand higher levels of data reliability.


(b) Organizations with high current and voltage requirements.
(c) Commercial office buildings that do not have an isolated central office ground.

Cross-over cables

Cross-over cables are used to link two computers without using a hub, and can also be
used to connect two hubs without an uplink port. Different pairs are connected, for
example, pin1 is connected to pin 3 of the other device. This cable is used when the same
wire is used to send and receive data. See Figure 14.

Figure 14. Cross-over cables


Tips for network cable installation

• The individual cable length must be no more than 300 feet in order to avoid
interference and signal loss. The overall length can be increased by adding patch
bays.
• The cable is slowly bended and the resulting bend radius should not extend beyond
1 inch. Sharper bends may lead to internal issues.
• Sources of EMI must be identified, so that networking cable can be redirected. Some
potential sources of EMI are ovens, fridges, CFL lights, transmitters, and antennas.
• Cat 6 cables shall be used with Cat 6 rated jacks.
• Cat 5 networking cable should not be used with Cat 6 cables within the same
network. The cable with lowest performance grade will affect the overall network
speed.
• Cat 5 and Cat 6 networking cable should not be spliced. Splicing must be conducted
using switches, routers, and hubs.
• Avoid excessive pressure when zip ties are used for cable management.

Some of the common telephone cables used are Cat 6, Cat 5e and Cat 5. No more than four
telephone lines can be used in a one 4-pair cable, terminating at a RJ45 (8 pin 8 conductor
(8P8C)) jack. However, most phones, including multi-line phones cannot be plugged
directly into an RJ45. A 6 pin 2 conductor (6P2C) jack supports a single line; a 6 pin 4
conductor (6P4C) jack supports two lines; and a 6 pin 6 conductor (6P6C) jack supports
three lines. Phone jack wiring can be accomplished by using one of the following three
connectors: T568A, T568B or USOC. These three connectors are color coded in accordance
with the jack pins. See Figure 15.

Figure 15. T568A, T568B and USOC color coding

• T568A is the main connector for wiring Ethernet jacks and telephones. It holds the
unique distinction of being the lone method proposed in the residential TIA-570-B
specification. This connector is mainly used outside the United States. The cable can
be easily switched from data to voice or voice to data as required.
• T568B is prevalent in commercial installations across the United States

Lines 1 and 2 used in both the USOC and T568A are identical.

Figure 16 displays a 6P4C telephone jack which can accommodate two phone lines. Line 1
is connected to the center pin pair (pins 2 and 3), and line 2 is connected to the outer pin
pair (pins 1 and 4). When connecting a single line phone, use the pins for line 1.

Figure 16. 6P4C telephone jack

An RJ45 4-line to 2 RJ11 2-Line Adapter (splitter) is shown in Figure 17. This type of
splitter can be connected to an RJ45 jack and consists of two side-by-side RJ11 jacks.

Figure 17. RJ45 4-line to RJ11 2-line adapter

A 400E splitter has T568B connector on the RJ45 side and can be used with T568A,
however line 3 and 2 are exchanged. If the phone jack follows USOC, this splitter cannot be
used.
Break Out Cables

Break out cables can be made from a twisted pair cable, if there is no splitter. Break out
cables consist of multiple jacketed optical fibers jointly wrapped inside an outer jacket. An
RJ45 can be crimped on one side, and on the other side, one or more RJ11 jacks can be
crimped. In this manner, the strength of a breakout cable is higher.

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)

VoIP enables users to place phone calls through a broadband internet connection instead of
analog telephone lines. One of the main advantages of VoIP is a higher quality of service
(QoS). VoIP is a 3 layer network protocol which uses Layer 2 point-to-point or link-layer
protocols for transport. A digital signal processor (DSP) divides the voice signal into frames
which are then stored in voice packets. Voice packets are transported using voice
communication protocols such as H.323, Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP) and
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP). When creating a VoIP network with dependable QoS,
consider the following factors:

• Bandwidth – The organization must determine the bandwidth required for an office
VoIP setup. Networks and switches should be able to handle the extra load imposed
by the deployment of the VoIP network
• VoIP equipment – There are many options to choose from, such as digital office
phones, soft phones, headsets and telephone adapters.
• Power failures – VoIP requires electricity in order to work. Battery backup systems
or a power-over-Ethernet switch should be installed to avoid power failure
disruption.
• Security – The VoIP network should be protected from both digital and physical
hacking.
• Voice traffic – Switches that deal with voice traffic must ensure the prioritization of
the voice packet in order to optimize the QoS.

Components and protocols for VoIP

• User agents – Can be commercial IP phones or soft phones.


• Voice gateway – Functions as a bridge between public switched telephone networks
(PSTN) and VoIP networks.
• Internet protocol private branch exchange (IPBX or IP PBX) – Performs multiple
functions such as call forwarding and conference calling. It connects to a PSTN
network through a voice gateway and is available in 3 deployment options:
(a) Dedicated, on-site hardware device.
(b) Software which runs on a standard on-site server.
(c) Managed service through the cloud.
• Switches –Must have proper bandwidth capacity to deal with network traffic.
• Cabling – Quality cables such as Cat 5E should be used for VoIP networks.
The QoS of a VoIP network can be measured using a parameter known as a Mean Opinion
Score (MOS) which gives values ranging from 1.0 (unintelligible signal) to 5.0 (ideal). A
minimum MOS scores of 4.0 is required for the satisfactory performance of the VoIP
network.

Tips to achieve higher QoS on VoIP networks

• Delay – The time required by a VoIP packet to travel between two endpoints. Users
accept a delay of approximately 150 ms without detecting any lag or interference. A
ping test should be conducted to measure the delay with different amounts of
network traffic load. The delay should be reduced before the VoIP is deployed on a
network.
• Variable length delay or jitter – Can be reduced by using a built-in de-jitter buffering
system. The source of jitter should be identified and controlled before VoIP is
deployed on a network.
• Serialization – When data and voice packets are transmitted through an interface,
serialization can occur. Voice packets are usually smaller than data packets,
therefore, data packets require more transmission time paving the way for both
jitter and delay. Fragmentation can be applied to decrease the size of the data
packets thereby reducing both jitter and delay.

VoIP installation without a router

• Ensure that all of the required equipment is available: DSL/Cable modem, Linksys
router, phone cable and VoIP start-up kit.
• Turn off the computer and disconnect the modem. Disconnect the power cord of the
modem after switching off the computer. Before proceeding to the next step, ensure
that the modem remains without power for at least 10 minutes.
• Connect the modem to a Linksys router – Connect the blue Ethernet cable to the
modem’s Ethernet port and the blue Linksys router port labelled “Internet”.
• Connect the computer to the Linksys router.
• Connect the modem – Plug the modem’s power adapter into an electrical outlet.
Ensure that the modem’s power light is steady and does not flicker.
• Plug in the Linksys router – The power adapter is plugged into the power port in the
Linksys router, and then plugged into an electrical outlet. Before continuing to the
next step, wait for the Linksys router to finish booting (display lights is steady
without flicker). The booting process can take up to 10 minutes.
• Turn on the computer.
• Verify an internet connection is working properly.
• Connect telephone – The telephone must be set to “tone” setting. Connect the
telephone cable to the telephone and to the Linksys router port labelled “Phone 1”.
• Check lights – Verify that the Phone 1 display light is lit. If a dial tone is heard, the
installation has been performed correctly and calls may be placed.
VoIP installation with router

• Ensure that all of the required equipment is available: DSL/Cable modem, Linksys
router, phone cable and VoIP start-up kit.
• Connect the Ethernet cable to the disconnected Linksys router port labelled
“Internet” using the supplied blue Ethernet cable.
• Connect the blue Ethernet cable to the vacant Ethernet port on the modem.
• Connect the power adapter to the Linksys router and electrical outlet.
• Connect the telephone cord to the Linksys router port labelled “Phone 1”.
• If a dial tone is heard, the installation has been performed properly and calls may be
placed.

Ethernet cables

Ethernet cables are used to link the router to the modem, or to connect the network
interface controller (NIC) to the router. There are different types of Ethernet cables that
can be used, based on parameters such as data transmission speed, bandwidth range and
EMI shielding. The cable categories and their preferred usages are:

• Cat 1 cable is used for plain old telephone service (POTS) wiring and integrated
services digital networks (ISDN).
• Cat 2 cable is used for 4 Mb/s token ring networks. Neither Cat 1 nor Cat 2 are
defined in the TIA/EIA standard.
• Category 3 (Cat 3) is a UTP cable able to transmit up to 10 Mbps, and can attain
maximum bandwidths of 16 Mhz. It formerly was used for 100 Base-T networks
which have been replaced by Category 5 networking cables and is defined in the
TIA/EIA standard. Interference and crosstalk issues are often caused by Category 3
cables, as the cable has less twists per inch on each of its 4 wire pairs.
• Category 4 (Cat 4) Ethernet cables can be used to transmit frequencies up to 20
Mhz. Cat 4 was formerly used in 16 Mbps token ring networks. Cat 4 cables are not
defined in TIA/EIA standard.
• Category 5 (Cat 5) is an unshielded twisted pair cable and can transmit both 10
Mbps and 100 Mbps. Interference is lessened in Cat 5 cables; it is the ideal choice for
broadband and high-speed data connections. Cat 5 cables have 3 or more twists per
inch on each of its four wire pairs. Cat 5 Ethernet cable uses only two of the four
wire pairs for fast Ethernet.
• Category 5e (Cat 5e) is an advanced version of Cat 5 cable, and significantly
reduces the crosstalk effect. Cat 5e can be used in both 100 Base-T and 1000 Base-T
circuits, and uses all four wire pairs to achieve Gigabit Ethernet speed (1,000-Mbps
or 1-Gbps) with a maximum bandwidth of 100 MHz. This cable is defined in the
TIA/EIA standard.
• Category 6 (Cat 6) Ethernet cable can transmit Gigabit Ethernet and achieves
bandwidths of 250 Mhz. Improved insulation, finer wires, increased SNR are some of
the main benefits associated with this networking cable. Cat 6 is capable of handling
higher levels of EMI, and is available in both UTP and STP modes. Cat 6 is compatible
with both Cat 5 and Cat 5e networking cables, and is defined in TIA/EIA standard.
• Category 6a (Cat 6a) is an enhanced version of the Cat 6 cable, achieving maximum
transmission rates of 10,000 Mbps and a bandwidth of 500 Mhz. A specialized
connector must be used for this STP mode cable.
• Category 7 (Cat 7) Ethernet cable is also called “Class F”, and is a fully shielded
cable with speeds up to 10 Gbps and a bandwidth of 600 Mhz. It is a thicker, bulkier
SSTP cable that is difficult to bend. GigaGate45(GG45) connectors are used with
Category 7 Ethernet cable.

Battery Backup

A backup battery offers emergency power to a system when the primary power source is
interrupted. There are several different battery backup systems ranging from two small
single cells used to maintain a PC’s date and time to battery rooms that run an
uninterrupted power supply (UPS) for data centers. Some of the main applications for a
battery backup system is:

• Hospitals – Battery backup systems offer power to critical hospital equipment until
primary power is restored.
• Power stations – If power failure occurs in a power station, turbine generators may
be damaged. A series of larger UPS backup batteries sill power the station until
normal power is restored.
• Telecom network and data centers – Valve-regulated lead-acid battery (VRLA) are
used as battery backups in telecom networks and data centers.
• Aircrafts – A Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) or VRLA battery back-up system is employed
in aircrafts to ensure a safe landing.
Battery backup system example

As an example, a battery backup system used for data centers will be examined.

Normal operation mode


There is consistent AC power flow from the charger or inverter which passes the electricity
from the wall outlet directly to the data center. The inverter charges the batteries and stays
fully charged until there is a power interruption. See Figure 18.

Figure 18. Data center battery backup

Battery operation mode


The battery flywheel kinetically stores energy by spinning a mass around an axis, offering
backup power instantly when there is a power outage. Extra flywheels can be included to
ensure longer run times. When a power outage occurs, the inverter supplies the data center
with the stored power from the battery.

• The inverter detects when there is a power outage, and reroutes the battery power
to the connected devices (i.e., data center).
• The inverter charges the battery and maintains a full charge during normal day-to-
day operations.
• Power stored in the battery is converted from DC to AC to power the connected
device.
• If additional batteries are connected to the inverter, power can be supplied to
connected devices for a greater period of time. However, the number of connected
batteries is limited due to cost, space, and weight.
• A fuse holder and fuse which links the fuse to the originating wire originating at the
battery must be purchased. For safety purposes, a 200-amp DC fuse (recommended)
should be installed between the inverter and battery. An ANL fuse can be spliced
onto the positive wire lead originating at the battery pack. ANL fuses are commonly
used in car stereos.
• A battery enclosure will keep the battery clean, thereby averting accidental short
circuits.

Installation of battery backup system

• Shelf set-up – Assemble the shelving unit and ensure that it properly fits near the
connected device (in this case, the data center). The inverter and battery enclosure
must correctly fit on the shelves.
• Prepare lead cables – The lead cables are the black and red cables linking the
inverter to the battery. The red cable must be cut three-quarters from the shorter
end. Approximately 0.5 inches of insulation must be stripped from both ends of the
cable. The fuse is screwed into a fuse holder and the fuse holder is linked to the cut
ends of cable. The shorter ring terminal must be stripped off the end of the cable
nearest the fuse. Remove approximately 0.5inches of insulation from the cut end.
See Figure 19.

Figure 19. Lead cable preparation

• Strip the smaller ring terminal off the end of the black cable in the same manner that
the red cable was stripped. Cover the stripped cable ends with heat-shrink tubing to
avoid a post installation short circuit.

• Battery installation within the enclosure – Remove the battery enclosure cover,
along with the wires and cables. Remove the top shelf and place the empty battery
enclosure, with the cover removed, on the middle shelf. Place the battery in the
enclosure with the positive and negative terminals properly aligned. The
temperature monitoring cable should be connected near the “-“ terminal using an
adhesive such as ethyl cyanoacrylate. The opposite end of the temperature
monitoring cable is connected through one of the holes provided in the end of
battery enclosure. If a second battery is needed, it should be placed in the enclosure
near the first one.
• Connect the negative terminals of the batteries – The black cable must be connected
to the battery’s negative terminal. Loop the black cable through the battery
enclosure opening marked “negative” with the ring terminal inside the enclosure
and the stripped end outside the enclosure. The free end of the black cable must be
connected along the previously looped lead cable.
• Connect positive terminals of the batteries– The red cable must be connected to the
battery’s positive terminal by looping the red cable through the battery enclosure
opening marked “positive”, with the ring terminal inside the enclosure and the fuse
outside the enclosure. The free end of the red cable is then connected along with the
looped red lead cable to the battery’s positive terminal.
• Close the battery enclosure– Ensure that the cables are properly connected and
close the battery enclosure by using the terminal cover or heat-shrink tubing over
both of the battery terminals. The top shelf may now be reinstalled with the inverter
unit placed above it.
• Attach lead to the inverter – Remove the electrical tape from the black lead’s
stripped end and attach it to the “-“ terminal. The stripped end of the red lead must
be connected to the “+” terminal. See Figure 20.

Figure 20. Battery installation

• Attach the temperature monitoring cable – The temperature sensing cable must be
connected to the slot labelled “Remote Temp. Sense”. It is best to connect the sensor
near the negative terminal. The inverter must be configured.
• Connect the inverter to the utility power and the back-up device.
Selecting an inverter

• Calculate total required wattage – The required total watts (Tw) is a product of the
AC utility voltage and the power rating, measured in amperes.
• Factor in the maximum efficiency – Maximum efficiency falls in the range of 85% to
95%. Divide the total watts by the maximum efficiency. Tw/0.90.
• Factor in the higher starting current – Power consuming equipment, such as a sump
pump, has a higher starting current. Multiply the total watts (Tw) by the higher
starting current.
• Calculate the required DC Amperage– Divide the total watts (Tw) by the amount of
DC voltage to determine the number of DC amps needed.
Satellite Dish

A satellite dish is a parabolic antenna that receives electromagnetic (EM) satellite signals.
There are different types of dish satellites, such as moto-driven, multi-satellite and VSAT
(very small aperture terminal). The EM signal is reflected at the focal point due to the
parabolic structure of the dish. A feed horn (see Figure 21) is fixed on brackets in the focal
point of the dish. It is the front-end of the waveguide that collects the EM signal at the focal
point and directs the signal to the low-noise block downconverter (LNB).

Figure 21. Satellite dish feed horn

EM, or radio, waves are converted into electrical signals which are shifted from the
downlinked C-band/Ku-band into an L-band by the LNB. Direct broadcast satellite (DBS)
dishes uses a low-noise block downconverter that includes a feed horn and polarizer
(LNBF). See Figure 22.
Figure 22. Low-noise block downconverter

Directive (theoretical) gain of a satellite dish decreases as the wavelength increases, and
increases as the frequency increases. The actual gain of the satellite dish is dependent on
multiple factors such as feed horn matching, shape precision and surface finish. The
average diameter of dishes designed for home TV ranges from 17 to 32 inches. Ku-band is
fixed in a single position, thereby enabling reception from a single orbital position. Before
the invention of DBS services, motorized C-band dishes were used to receive channels from
multiple satellites. Note: If the dish is too small, a multitude of issues can occur including
interference and rain fade.

Satellite TV System Installation

A satellite dish and suitable decoder must be used in order complete the installation of a
satellite TV system. A satellite TV kit includes a mounting kit, coaxial cables, receiver. Some
useful tips for satellite TV system installation:

• Drill holes only when the right dish location is determined. There should not be any
hindrances between the line of sight (LOS) from the satellite to dish. The building
must comply with local electrical and zoning requirements.
• The satellite signal cannot pass through glass, therefore the dish should not be
installed indoors. The satellite elevation angle ranges is generally either 30° or 60°,
depending on the geographic location of the dish installation. The elevation angle for
southern states is 60°, whereas northern states is 30°.
• Ensure that only top-quality coaxial cables (RG-6 grade) are used to receive satellite
signals. Low quality cables may result in signal loss or and weak signal reception.
• The maximum permissible span of the RG-6 cable linking the dish to the receiver is
150 feet.
• Satellite dishes should not be mounted below power lines. Locales that are exposed
to windy or stormy conditions should be avoided.

30 Inch Dish Installation

Assemble Universal Mount Assembly


The small carriage head bolt (1) should be inserted (see Figure 23) into the Universal
Mount, and secured with the star washer (2), regular flat washer and lock nut. Repeat for
the other side.

Figure 23. Universal Mount Assembly

Assemble clap mount

Azimuth adjustment – The two largest carriage bolts must be inserted at the top of the
clamp mount assembly. The lock nut and washer are secured on the bolts.
Elevation adjustment – The remaining carriage bolts are inserted into the elevation
adjustment component. The lock nut and washer are secured on the bolts.
Connect the clamp mount assembly to the elliptical dish. The two larger plow bolts are
inserted through the top holes on the dish front. The two smaller plow bolts are inserted
through the lower holes on the dish front. The bolts secured tightly by using the lock
washer and skew lock clip.
Connect the satellite feed support arm to the elliptical dish. The slot should appear on
the the underside of the feed support arm.

Locating the satellite

The satellite dish must be set up with the skew, elevation and azimuth, in order to properly
receive a signal. Using a compass, find North. The skew, elevation and azimuth values for
the Satellite can be found in the manufacturer’s supplied user manual. Satellite‘s azimuth
corresponds to the direction that the dish must be pointed to, to obtain both Satellite
signals. The elevation angle of the documented satellite must be calculated using an
inclinometer or protractor.

Connecting the dish

Ensure that the mast is plumb before any holes are drilled. Clamp the universal mount in
place in the mounting zone. If the vertical and horizontal levels are not centered, the mast
must be rotated until it is plumb. Mounting bolts can be used to tighten the mount in place.
Holes be drilled in the structure must match up with the holes in the universal mount’s
base, so that the universal mount can then be affixed using surface screws.

The clamp assembly glides onto the mast by loosening the elevation pivot bolt and azimuth
clamp bolt, so that it touches the elevation pivot bolt. The elevation adjustment bolt is
loosened 1/3 turn from tight on both sides of the clamp assembly. Adjust the clamp
assembly to the white indicator line edge, in accordance with the elevation documented
before Satellite B. The feed horn clamp assembly is then connected to the feed support arm.
Direct the low-noise block downconverter in a parallel direction to the azimuth settings of
Satellite B. A vertical indicator is drawn intersecting the mast and clamp assembly, offering
an estimated reference point where the satellite has to be tuned.

The skew adjustment bolt provided on both sides of the clamp assembly must be loosened.
The skew alignment mark is then fine-tuned with the scale indicator to Satellite B’s skew
settings. Fasten the skew adjustment bolts precisely.

Connecting the dish and receiver – The receiver can be connected to a TV in order to
view the relative scaled signal level meter which indicates the greatest signal strength. One
end of the RG-6 coaxial cable is connected to the port on the low-noise block
downconverter and the other end to the satellite receiver connector. The received is fine-
tuned so that the signal is properly received and displayed on the TV. Verify that the LNB
and receiver are connected.

Align the dish to obtain a direct signal – The dish skew and elevation should be aligned
with the recommended settings for the equipment location. Reference marks are drawn on
the pipe mast and clamp before any adjustments are made to the dish. The dish is clasped
on each side, and then turned to face a westward direction. Gradually turn the dish,
checking if there is an increase in signal strength. Once the dish is moved past the
maximum signal strength, rotate the dish in the reverse direction until a maximum signal
level is obtained. The dish clamp screws are then tightened. Minor adjustments may be
made to the dish elevation to determine if the signal strength can be further increased.
Loosen the elevation adjustment bolts and make minor adjustments in the elevation to
obtain the maximum signal strength. Refasten the bolts tightly once optimal signal strength
is obtained.

Fine-tuning – Rotate the dish so that the maximum reading is obtained on the signal
strength meter. Fasten the azimuth clamp bolts once the maximum signal strength is
obtained. Loosen the elevation adjustment bolts and make fine tuning adjustments until the
greatest signal strength is obtained. Refasten and tighten the bolts.

Coaxial cable grounding - Outdoor cable may come in contact with electrical wiring. Static
discharge may be grounded near the cable entry point. Coaxial cable running from the
receiver to the dish must be connected. A ground wire is attached to the grounding block
connector and fastened with a screw. Connect the grounding block connector to central
building ground using the ground wire.

Troubleshooting

Cabling and connections issues – Ensure that the RG-6 coaxial cable used to connect the
Low Noise Block Downconverter (LNB) to the grounding block, and the grounding block to
the satellite receiver. Do not attach the RG-6 cable from the grounding block/dish to the
home TV cable. The cable from the dish to the receiver should be attached to the Satellite
IN jack, not the Antenna IN jack. All cable connections should be firmly secured.

Dish positioning and pointing issues – Right elevation and azimuth should be used
(matching the city’s recommended settings). The dish mast should be level and the
elevation indicator should be in line with the correct elevation. Hindrances that disturb the
satellite signal should be avoided. Ensure that no metal objects are near, as the metal can
divert the signal.

Temporary Satellite Signal Loss

Rain fade - A temporary loss of a satellite signal due to an inability to pierce dense, clouds,
rainfall, or snowfall. This effect can be minimized by increasing signal strength and tightly
mounting the dish.

Overheated components – Satellite receiver must have proper ventilation in order to


work effectively. Ensure that all sides of the module are clear, and that additional modules
are not stacked on top.

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