Atomic Structure

STORYLINE 1
Atoms, Elements,
and Molecules
What distinguishes
the minerals in
this mountain?
Copyright © Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
2
Investigation 1 Investigation 2 Investigation 3
Atomic Structure The Periodic Table Chemical Bonding
ANCHORING PHENOMENON
Inquiry Launch Look at the image of the
mountain. What evidence might you need in
order to explain the bands of different colors?
Brainstorm ideas for an experiment (or test) that would

yield evidence that helps explain the phenomenon. 
GO ONLINE to Engage with real-world phenomena.

 Watch the anchoring phenomenon video and preview
the optional problem-based learning experience.
3
INVESTIGATIVE 
GO ONLINE to Engage with real-world
phenomena by watching a video and to
PHENOMENON complete a modeling interactive worksheet.
What causes
the colors in
a fireworks
display?
4 Investigation 1 Atomic Structure

INVESTIGATION 1
Atomic Structure
Once you have viewed the Investigative Phenomenon video
and completed the modeling exercise to help explain the
phenomenon you observed, answer these reflection questions
about fireworks and a related phenomenon.
1 CCC Matter and Energy What colors are the fireworks in the photo? How
do you think the matter and energy of fireworks of different colors are
similar and different? 
2 SEP Construct an Explanation Neon signs, such as “Open” signs, use

electricity and give off light continuously when they are turned on. What
similarities and differences can you identify between neon signs and
fireworks? What might be happening at the atomic level to explain these
differences? 
Investigative Phenomenon 5
EXPERIENCE 1
The Particle Nature of Matter

GO ONLINE to Explore and Explain the properties of matter.
Atoms and Molecules

Atoms Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is
made of particles that are too tiny to see without powerful microscopes.
These particles, called atoms, are the fundamental building blocks of
matter, and they combine to form larger particles of matter. Each kind of
atom is the smallest representative unit of an element.
An element is the simplest form of matter that has a characteristic set
of properties. Each element has a unique name and chemical symbol.
A chemical symbol, such as H or Cl, is one or two letters representing
an element. Hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and oxygen (O) are examples
of elements.
Because atoms are so small, scientists use models to represent atoms and
their interactions with each other. Chemical symbols are the most commonly
used models for elements.
Marbles as Models You can visualize

atoms as tiny spheres with different
sizes, much like these marbles.

H
N Cl
Ga
O C
Spheres as Models Scientists often use spheres with

different colors and sizes to represent atoms. Each color
represents an atom of a specific element. The sizes of the
spheres show the relative sizes of the atoms. For example,
a gallium (Ga) atom is larger than a carbon (C) atom.
3 SEP Identify Limitations of a Model What is a limitation of using marbles as

models for atoms? 

Molecules When two or more atoms combine, they form molecules.
Molecules are held together by one or more chemical bonds. Some
molecules, such as a water molecule, are made of only a few atoms. Others
are much more complex. A single DNA molecule is made of billions of
atoms. Chemical symbols are combined to make the chemical formula for
a molecule.
Models of Molecules
How can models show the composition and structure of molecules?
Molecular Models These models show

how bonded atoms can be represented
as joined spheres. Some molecules
are made of the same element, or
kind of atom. Other molecules are
made of two or more elements. Nitrogen, N2 Water, H2O
A water molecule contains two

elements—hydrogen and oxygen.
Chemical Formulas In a chemical

formula, symbols for the elements
are combined to show how many
atoms of each element make up
a molecule of a substance.
Carbon dioxide, CO2 Ammonia, NH3 Methane, CH4
Each ammonia molecule contains three

hydrogen atoms and one nitrogen atom.
Binding Force A chemical bond

A line can be used to
is a strong force of attraction that O model the chemical bond.
holds two atoms together.
H H
4 SEP Develop Models Use colored pencils to draw models for a chlorine
molecule, Cl2, and for a hydrogen chloride molecule, HCl. Use the colors
and relative sizes from the atom key on the previous page. 
1 The Particle Nature of Matter 7

Communities of Particles Most matter exists as groupings of atoms and
molecules. The attractive forces that hold the particles together and the
motions of the particles determine the state of matter—solid, liquid, or gas.
Water Vapor (Gas) The molecules in gaseous water,

found in Earth’s atmosphere, are not held together by
attractive forces. They are far apart and move freely.
Water (Liquid) The molecules

in liquid water are held close

together by attractive forces,
but the molecules can still
move around. Ice (Solid) In solid water, or
ice, the molecules are locked
in a fixed pattern by attractive
forces. The water molecules
still vibrate back and forth.
5 SEP Construct an Explanation Density is the mass of matter in a given

volume. Materials that are less dense float on denser materials. Use the
models to explain, on a molecular level, why ice floats on water. 

Energy
Energy is the capacity to move, do work, change matter, or produce heat.
Kinetic energy is the energy that matter has because of its motion. Thermal
energy of matter is the total kinetic energy of all the particles that make
up the matter. Potential energy is the stored energy in matter due to its
position relative to other matter. Chemical potential energy is the energy
stored in the chemical bonds that hold atoms together; this energy can be
released or absorbed during a chemical process.
Kinetic Energy A moving

object, such as this ball,
has kinetic energy.
Atoms are constantly moving.

They have kinetic energy, like
moving balls.
Even atoms in solids have kinetic

energy because they vibrate
back and forth.
Potential Energy An object can also have

potential energy because of its position relative
to other objects. A ball held above the ground

has potential energy. If dropped, it will fall.
Two oppositely charged particles have

potential energy. When they are close
enough together, they are attracted to
each other.
6 CCC Cause and Effect Draw an arrow in

the figure of the player holding a soccer
ball to show the direction the ball will move
if the person stops holding it. Add arrows
to show how the charged particles in the
figure will move. Discuss your reasoning
with a partner. 

Interaction of Matter and Energy
A system is a portion of the universe that a scientist identifies for study. The
surroundings are everything else around the system.
Energy can flow into a system from the

surroundings. It can also flow out of a system into
the surroundings.
A change in the temperature of a system is one indication that the energy of

the system has changed. As the energy of matter changes, its macroscopic
properties can change. A macroscopic property is a characteristic that is
large enough to see, handle, or measure without magnification. An example
is melting point. A solid can melt into a liquid when it gains enough energy
and reaches its melting point.
Solid Gallium Solid Liquid Gallium Liquid

gallium has a definite gallium flows into different
shape and volume. shapes, but its volume
Gallium atoms in solid does not change. The
gallium have less kinetic particles in liquid gallium
energy than those in have more kinetic energy
liquid gallium. than those in solid gallium
but less than the particles
in gaseous gallium.

System and Surroundings A piece
of gallium can be defined as a system.
The hand is part of the surroundings.
The hand is warmer than the piece of
gallium. The hand transfers thermal
energy to the gallium, causing it to melt.
7 CCC Systems and System Models Liquid gallium changes to a gas at

2229°C. Describe how a model of gaseous gallium would compare to the
model of liquid gallium shown in the picture. 

Revisit
INVESTIGATIVE 
GO ONLINE to Elaborate on and Evaluate
your knowledge of the properties of matter
PHENOMENON by completing the class discussion and data
analysis activities.
In the modeling worksheet you completed at the beginning of the

investigation, you sketched a model to help explain the color generation of
different fireworks. With a partner, evaluate your models.
8 SEP Evaluate Models In this Experience, you have studied the

particle nature of matter and learned that each atom of any element
is identical to every other atom of that element. Does your model of
color generation make use of the particle nature of matter? How can
you use the definition of an element to improve your model? 

EXPERIENCE 2
Modeling Atoms
GO ONLINE to Explore and Explain the makeup and properties
of atoms and isotopes.
Visualizing the Atom

Matter is made of particles, called atoms, that are too tiny to see without
powerful microscopes. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that
retains its identity in a chemical reaction. Atoms are extremely small. A
single row of 100,000,000 copper atoms would produce a line only 1 cm
long. Because of the creative experiments of many scientists, we know
that atoms are made of even smaller particles called subatomic particles.
Protons are positively charged subatomic particles. Neutrons are subatomic
particles with no charge. Electrons are negatively charged subatomic
particles. An electron cloud surrounds the nucleus, which is the dense
central core made of protons and neutrons.
Diamond and Carbon Atoms

Diamonds are made of carbon atoms.
Nucleus
The nucleus is made of protons and
neutrons. It accounts for most of an
atom’s mass. An atomic mass unit (amu)
is the unit used to measure the mass
of subatomic particles.

Electron Cloud
The electron cloud, where the Proton
electrons are found, takes up Symbol: p+
most of an atom’s volume. It Charge: 1+
is mostly empty space. Mass: about 1 amu
Electron Neutron
Symbol: e− Symbol: n0
Charge: 1– Charge: 0
Mass: about 0.0005 amu Mass: about 1 amu
9 CCC Scale, Proportion, and Quantity Which subatomic particles account for
most of an atom’s mass and volume? 

Types of Atoms
Atomic Number An element is the simplest form of matter that has a
unique set of properties. The number of pr)otons in an atom is what makes
one element different from another. The number of protons in the nucleus
of an atom is called an element’s atomic number. For example, carbon has
6 protons and has an atomic number of 6.
Atoms are electrically neutral particles because they have no net charge.
Therefore, for an atom to be neutral, the number

of protons (positively charged particles) must
equal the number of electrons (negatively
charged particles).
Helium The element helium is less dense

than air, so it is used in balloons.
Atomic number: 2
Number of protons: 2
Number of electrons: 2
Silver The element silver is reflective

and resists corrosion, so it is often
used in jewelry.
Atomic number: 47
Number of protons: 47
Number of electrons: 47
10 CCC Scale, Proportion, and Quantity Identify the numbers of

protons and electrons in fluorine and iodine. 
The element fluorine helps prevent tooth The element iodine is often used to clean
decay and is found in many toothpastes. skin before surgery.
Atomic number: 9 Atomic number: 53
Number of protons: Number of protons:
Number of electrons: Number of electrons:
2 Modeling Atoms 13
The Periodic Table There are 118 elements, all with different atomic
numbers. They are organized into a table called a periodic table. A periodic
table is an arrangement of elements in which the elements are separated
into groups based on a set of repeating properties. The elements are
listed in order from left to right and top to bottom by atomic number.
The organization of the periodic table allows you to easily compare the
properties of one element (or a group of elements) to another element
(or group of elements). Elements above and below each other tend to have
similar properties.
Chemical Symbols All elements have a name, but an element’s name is

often not convenient to use. Each element can be represented by a one- or
two-letter chemical symbol. It is these chemical symbols that are used to
represent the elements in the periodic table, as well as in chemical formulas
for compounds. When writing the formula for a compound, you combine
the symbols of the elements that make up the compound. For example, the
chemical formula for water is H2O.
Symbols With One Letter The Symbols With Two Letters The symbol for
symbol for hydrogen is H. Its helium is He. The second letter in a symbol is
atomic number is 1, so it is the first always lowercase. Helium’s atomic number is 2,
element in the periodic table. so it is the second element in the periodic table.
1 18
1A 8A
1 2
1 2
1
H 2
2A
H He 13
3A
14
4A
15
5A
16
6A
17
7A
He
3 4 Hydrogen Helium 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg 3
3B
4
4B
5
5B
6
6B
7
7B
8 9
8B
10 11
1B
12
2B
Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7
Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
11 Infer Based on the organization and colors in the periodic table, which
two elements do you think are most similar in terms of their properties:
magnesium (Mg), barium (Ba), and gold (Au)? Explain. 

Mass Number
Most of the mass of an atom comes from protons and neutrons. The total
number of protons plus neutrons in an atom is called the mass number. If
you know the atomic number and mass number of an atom, then you can
determine the number of neutrons in the atom.
Representing Atoms The composition of any

atom can be represented in shorthand notation
using the element’s chemical symbol, atomic
number, and mass number.
Ne
Mass number is 22
22
Atomic number is 10 10
The chemical symbol for neon is Ne.
You can also represent atoms by using the

Neon-22
name of the element and the mass number.
Mass Number and Neutrons You can calculate the

number of neutrons from the atomic number and
the mass number of an atom. For example, let’s
calculate the number of neutrons in neon.
Neon is one element in this sign. Such
Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
signs are often called neon signs, even if
Number of neutrons = 22 – 10 = 12
they contain other elements.
12 SEP Use Mathematics Complete the table by identifying the atomic number
and mass number for each atom and then using those data to determine the
numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons. 
Composition of Atoms
Atom Atomic number Mass number Protons Electrons Neutrons
23
11 Na
32
16 S
silver-108 47
gold-197 79
2 Modeling Atoms 15
Isotopes
All atoms of an element have the same number of protons. However, atoms
of the same element may have different numbers of neutrons. Isotopes
are atoms that have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons. Since isotopes of an element have different numbers of neutrons,
they also have different mass numbers.
Sizes of Dogs Dogs come in a variety of

sizes. The mass of each can be large or
small, but they are all still dogs. Their DNA
determines they are dogs.
Isotopes of Oxygen Similarly,

atoms may have different numbers of
neutrons and different masses but still
be the same type of atom. All three of
these atoms are isotopes of oxygen.
They have 8 protons, but different
numbers of neutrons.
8e‒ 8e‒ 8e‒

16 17 18
O
8 8O O
8
oxygen-16 oxygen-17 oxygen-18

8 protons 8 protons 8 protons
8 neutrons 9 neutrons 10 neutrons
8 electrons 8 electrons 8 electrons
13 SEP Communicate Information How does the overall charge of oxygen-16

compare to the overall charge of oxygen-17 and oxygen-18? Use the
models of isotopes to help explain your answer. 

Atomic Mass
Comparing the Masses of Atoms It’s not convenient to measure the
mass of a single atom because the mass is so small. Instead, it’s more
useful to compare the relative masses of atoms using a reference isotope.
A reference isotope is an isotope whose mass can be measured accurately
and is used as the basis for a scale to compare the masses of other atoms.
Understanding Atomic Mass

How is the mass of an atom determined?
Carbon-12 The isotope carbon-12 is used as a

standard to compare the relative masses of
atoms. Carbon-12 has 6 protons, 6 neutrons,
and 6 electrons. Scientists have
assigned carbon-12 a mass of
exactly 12 atomic mass units.
Piano Key to Piano If you measure the Electron to Atom Similarly, the mass of
mass of a piano with and without a piano an electron is negligible compared to the
key, you likely wouldn’t see a difference mass of a proton or neutron.
between the two masses. The mass of a
Each electron is essential to
piano key is negligible compared to the
mass of the whole piano. the properties of an atom.
Even though the mass is Mass of proton 1.67 × 10 ‒24 g

insignificant, each key is
Mass of neutron 1.67 × 10 ‒24 g
essential to the function
of the piano. Mass of electron 9.11 × 10 ‒28 g
Atomic Mass Unit An atomic mass unit (amu) is one twelfth of the mass of
a carbon-12 atom.
1
1 amu = × 12 amu 1 amu = about the mass of a proton or neutron
12
14 SEP Develop Models Each helium atom has two protons. Sketch models
of helium-3 and helium-4, which have approximate masses of 3 amu
and 4 amu, respectively. Label and differentiate protons, neutrons, and
electrons in your models. 
2 Modeling Atoms 17
Isotope Abundance and Atomic Mass In nature, most elements occur
as a mixture of two or more isotopes. Each isotope of an element has a
fixed mass and a natural percent abundance.
Comparing Abundances of Bromine, Chlorine, and Silicon Isotopes

silicon–29 silicon–30
29 30
14 Si 14 Si
chlorine–37
37
17 Cl
bromine–81 bromine–79
81 79 chlorine–35
35 Br 35 Br
35 silicon–28
17 Cl
28
14 Si
Bromine Chlorine Silicon

Atomic mass = 79.904 amu Atomic mass = 35.453 amu Atomic mass = 28.086 amu
15 SEP Analyze Data Look at the graphs. How does an element’s

atomic mass compare to the mass number of its most abundant
isotope? 

The average atomic mass, or atomic mass for short, of an element is a
weighted average of the masses of its isotopes. A weighted average mass
reflects the masses and the relative abundances of the isotopes as they
occur in nature.
16 SEP Use Computational Thinking Copper has two isotopes,

copper-63 and copper-65. It has an atomic mass of 63.546 amu.
Sketch a pie graph that shows the approximate abundance of each
copper isotope based on the atomic mass. 

Calculating Atomic Mass Isotopes that are more common in nature
have greater importance in atomic mass calculations—just like tests may
be assigned greater importance in calculating your final grade. To calculate
the atomic mass of an element, multiply the mass of each isotope by its
natural abundance, expressed as a decimal, and then add the products. The
resulting sum is the weighted average mass of the atoms of the element as
they occur in nature.
Class Grade Teachers sometimes assign different weights to

different types of assignments when calculating your class grade.
First, the teacher determines the types of assignments and assigns

each type a weight based on its relative importance.
Assignment Weighted
Type Weight Score Score
Homework 20% × 85 = 17.0

As assignments are
Tests 50% × 75 = 37.5 completed, the weights
are used to calculate a
student’s class grade.
Labs 30% × 90 = 27.0
Total: 100% Total: 81.5
Atomic Mass Atomic mass is calculated similarly. You can even set
it up in the same table format, if you wish. Here’s how to calculate
the atomic mass of magnesium.
The percent abundance is like the weight in the class grade

table. It’s the multiplier factor. The sum of the percent
abundances should always be 100%.
The mass contribution of
Percent Mass Mass each isotope is like the

Isotope Abundance (amu) Contribution weighted score. Add all
the contributions to ﬁnd
magnesium-24 79% × 24 = 19.0 the atomic mass. It should
always be closer to the
magnesium-25 10% × 25 = 2.5 mass of the most abundant
isotope—in this case,
24 amu.
magnesium-26 11% × 26 = 2.9
Total: 100% Total: 24.4
17 Compare In what ways are final grade calculations and atomic mass
calculations similar? 
2 Modeling Atoms 19
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Atomic Mass Estimations

Element X has two naturally occurring isotopes. The isotope with a mass of
10 amu (10 X) has a relative abundance of 20 percent. The isotope with a mass of
11 amu (11 X) has a relative abundance of 80 percent. What is the atomic mass
of element X?
ANALYZE List the knowns and the unknown.

Knowns Unknown
mass of 10 X = 10 amu atomic mass of X = ? amu
relative abundance of 10 X = 20%
mass of 11X = 11 amu
relative abundance of 11X = 80%
CALCULATE Solve for the unknown.
Use the mass and the decimal form

of the percent abundance to find the for 10 X: 10 amu × 0.20 = 2.0 amu
mass contributed by each isotope. for 11X: 11 amu × 0.80 = 8.8 amu
Add the atomic mass contributions for

the two isotopes. atomic mass of X = 2.0 amu + 8.8 amu = 10.8 amu
EVALUATE Does the result make sense?

The calculated value is closer to the mass of the more abundant isotope, as would

be expected.
Natural Percent Abundance of
18
Use the information in the Stable Isotopes of Some Elements
table to estimate the atomic Natural percent Mass Atomic
masses for carbon and bromine, Name Symbol
abundance (amu) mass
and record your answers in
1H
1
99.985 1.0078
the table. 
Hydrogen 2
1 H 0.015 2.0141 ~1
3
1 H negligible 3.0160
3
2He 0.0001 3.0160
Helium ~4
4
2He 99.9999 4.0026
12
6 C 98.89 12.000
Carbon 13
6 C 1.11 13.003
14
7 N 99.63 14.003
Nitrogen ~14
15
7 N 0.37 15.000
79
35 Br 50.69 78.92
Bromine 81
35 Br 49.31 80.92
GO ONLINE for more practice problems.

Using Atomic Mass The periodic table shown earlier in this experience
is a simplified version. Reference periodic tables usually include additional
information such as an element’s atomic mass. However, the mass number is
not included. The atomic mass, not mass number, is used in most scientific
calculations.
19 Compare and Contrast How does an element’s atomic mass differ

from its mass number? 
Revisit
INVESTIGATIVE 
your knowledge of the makeup of atoms and
PHENOMENON atomic mass calculations by completing the class
discussion and data analysis activities.

20 SEP Evaluate Models How can you revise your models to be more
accurate, given what you learned in this experience? 
21
EXPERIENCE 3
Atomic Emission Spectra

and the Bohr Model
GO ONLINE to Explore and Explain the Bohr model of the atom
and the atomic emission spectra of elements.
Atomic Emission Spectra

Emission Spectra When an element absorbs energy in a gaseous state,
electrons become excited and the atom becomes unstable. When the
electrons release energy, the atom can emit light. The light an element
emits is composed of specific wavelengths of light. The atomic emission
spectrum is the pattern formed when light emitted by an element is
separated into the different wavelengths it contains. Differing wavelengths, or
distances between crests of waves, of light result in different colors of light.
Separating Colors A spectroscope is a tool that uses a

prism to separate light into its individual colors. Each color
of light has a characteristic wavelength. A spectroscope
shows different outputs for different inputs.
Screen

When the input is white light from an
Incandescent Slit Prism
incandescent bulb, the output from the
light bulb
spectroscope is a continuous spectrum
of all colors and visible wavelengths.
Screen
When the input is light from a hydrogen

Slit Prism
Hydrogen lamp, the output is a few discrete lines.
lamp The pattern of the wavelengths of these
lines is unique to hydrogen.

Elemental Fingerprints Each element emits specific colors of light that
correspond to specific wavelengths. The atomic emission spectrum of each
element is like a person’s fingerprint. No two elements have the same
atomic emission spectrum. Furthermore, no matter where a sample of a
given element is collected, the spectrum will be the same.
Atomic emission spectra can be used to identify unknown

samples. For example, scientists study atomic emission
spectra of the stars to learn their elemental composition.
Unknown
Hydrogen
Helium
Each spectral line

Sodium
corresponds to one
wavelength of visible
light emitted by that
element. This yellow line
in the sodium spectrum
corresponds to a
Copper
wavelength of 589 nm.
Strontium
21 SEP Analyze Data What is the identity of the element that
produced the unknown emission spectrum and what information does the
spectrum give about the source of the element? Explain your answer. 
3 Atomic Emission Spectra and the Bohr Model 23

The Bohr Model
Energy Levels in Atoms In 1913, Niels Bohr, a young Danish physicist,
proposed an atomic model that described electrons as moving in circular
orbits around the nucleus. Each orbit in his model has a fixed energy. The
fixed energies an electron can have are called energy levels.
An electron can move, or transition, from one energy level to the other, but
it cannot exist between levels.
To move from one energy level to another, an

electron must gain or lose just the right amount
of energy.
The amount of energy required to move an electron from one energy level
to another is a quantum of energy. This is why the energy of an electron is
said to be quantized. The size of a quantum of energy can vary. The amount
of energy an electron gains or loses in an atom is not always the same
because energy levels in an atom are not equally spaced. Higher energy
levels are closer together than lower energy levels.
Continuous Energy A person climbing

a ramp can take big or small steps. If
energy levels in atoms were continuous,
electrons could absorb or give off any
amount of energy as they move up or
down energy levels.
The size of a step is

similar to a quantum
Quantized Energy A person climbing of energy.
stairs can only take a certain sized
step to move up or down the stairs.
The size of the step is quantized.
Similarly, electrons must absorb or
give off a certain amount of energy
to move between energy levels.

Explaining Emission Spectra Bohr’s model predicted the specific
frequencies of light of the atomic emission spectrum of hydrogen. Each
line of a specific frequency in the spectrum corresponds to a specific
electron transition.
Understanding Bohr’s Atomic Model

Why do hydrogen atoms emit specific wavelengths of light
according to Bohr’s model?
The Bohr Model Bohr developed his atomic Electron

Nucleus energy
model to explain the hydrogen emission spectrum.
His model could not explain the emission spectra levels
of other elements because electrons do not move
in circular paths, as he thought.
Ground State The electron is in Excited State The electron has gained
the lowest possible energy level. energy and is in a higher energy level.
Light
An atom absorbs a specific

amount of energy, causing the
electron to jump to a higher
energy level.
The atom emits a

Emission Spectrum Lines Hydrogen specific amount of
atoms absorb or emit light with an energy as the electron
energy exactly equal to the energy returns to a lower
difference between energy levels energy level.

in the atom. Each spectral line
has a specific wavelength and is
for one electron transition to a
lower energy level. Light
22 CCC Matter and Energy Each color of light has a specific amount of energy.
A hydrogen atom will absorb and emit red, blue-green, blue, and violet light
but not yellow or orange light. Explain this phenomenon. 
3 Atomic Emission Spectra and the Bohr Model 25

Bohr Model Representations of Atoms
The Bohr model, proposed in 1913, is not completely correct. Scientists
have since learned more about the atom’s structure through experiments
and calculations. However, many people continue to use the Bohr model
today for a few reasons. The Bohr model is a simplified picture of an atom
with many features that are nearly correct. Additionally, many important
properties of atoms can be exemplified using this model.
Energy Levels in Atoms Electrons in atoms

can have certain fixed energies. These fixed
energies are different for each type of atom.
The Bohr model of the atom represents these
energies with orbits with differing distances
from the nucleus.
The innermost orbit corresponds

to the lowest energy an electron
can have. You can represent up
to two electrons in this orbit.
The second energy level corresponds
to the next highest energy an atom’s
electrons can have. You can represent
up to eight electrons in this orbit.
H He O Ne
Bohr Models for Some Atoms These Bohr models
show how you can represent the electrons in atoms
of hydrogen (1 electron), helium (2 electrons), oxygen
(8 electrons), and neon (10 electrons).
H He O Ne Copyright © Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
23 CCC Patterns A fluorine atom has 9 electrons. Draw the Bohr model for
fluorine using the pattern you observe for the Bohr models for hydrogen,
helium, oxygen, and neon. 

Revisit
INVESTIGATIVE 
your knowledge of atomic emission spectra by
PHENOMENON completing the class discussion and engineering
design activities.

24 SEP Construct an Explanation Compare and contrast the colors

and wavelengths of the light emitted from two different colors of
fireworks, based on the elements they contain. Explain why these
elements have different atomic emission spectra. 
27
EXPERIENCE 4
Modern Atomic Theory

GO ONLINE to Explore and Explain the modern model of the atom.
Revising the Atomic Model

The Quantum Mechanical Model In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger proposed
and solved a mathematical equation that describes the behavior of the
electron in a hydrogen atom. This modern description of electrons in atoms,
called the quantum mechanical model, came from the solutions to the
Schrödinger equation.
The quantum mechanical model is similar to the Bohr model in that
the energies of electrons are restricted to certain values. The quantum
mechanical model, however, does not specify an exact path for electrons
moving around the nucleus. For each energy level, the Schrödinger
equation defines a region of space, called an atomic orbital, where there is
a high probability of finding an electron.
Electron Locations The modern model of

the atom uses three-dimensional atomic
orbitals to describe the probable locations
of electrons around the nucleus.
When you watch a flying hummingbird, you can’t

pinpoint the exact location of a wing at any instant.

The wing has some probability of being anywhere
in the blurry region. Similarly, scientists represent
the likely locations of electrons in an atom with a
fuzzy cloudlike region.
This representation of the atom is called an

electron cloud model. The dots in the cloud
are more dense where the probability of
finding an electron is high and less dense
where the probability is low.

The Shell Model The shell model of the atom is a simplified version of the
quantum mechanical model. It describes the main electron energy levels,
called principal energy levels, as shells. Each principal energy level has a
different number of sublevels, or subshells.
Shell Model Explained

What is included in the shell model of the atom?
Energy Shells The

number of the principal 4
energy shell, n,
increases as its distance
from the nucleus
increases. Principal 3
energy shell 1 is closest
to the nucleus and has
the lowest energy.
2
Nucleus
1
Number of
Electrons Each
energy shell can 32 18 8 2
hold a maximum
number of
electrons, 2n2. 1s
2s 2p
Subshells Each principal

energy shell has subshells: 3s 3p 3d
s, p, d, and f. Each subshell
has one or more orbitals,
shown by a . Each orbital 4s 4p 4d 4f

can hold two electrons.
Each shell has a certain Each subshell has a specific

number of subshells. number of orbitals.
Principal Shell 1 2 3 4 Subshell s p d f
Subshells 1s 2s, 3s, 3p 4s, 4p Number of 1 3 5 7
2p 3d 4d, 4f Orbitals
25 SEP Use Models Why does the number of electrons in each principal energy
shell increase as the number of the shell increases? 
4 Modern Atomic Theory 29

Atomic Orbitals
Shapes of Orbitals Atomic orbitals in an atom are denoted by the
letters s, p, d, and f. Each shell has one s orbital. It is spherical because
the probability of finding an electron at a given distance from the nucleus
does not depend on direction. All shells, except the first one, have three
p orbitals, which are dumbbell-shaped. There is a probability of finding an
electron anywhere inside the dumbbell-shaped orbitals, but electrons are
not likely to be found in the space outside of the orbitals. Orbital shapes
get more complex as more electrons are added in a shell.
The repulsive forces between the negatively

charged electrons help explain why each type of
orbital has a different shape and relative energy.
z
y
s orbital Each principal energy shell has
an s orbital. All s orbitals are spherical.
x
z z z
y y y p orbitals In each shell, the p orbitals

have different orientations in space.
x x x
z z z z z d orbitals Four of the five

d orbitals have cloverleaf
y y y y y shapes.
x x x x x f orbitals The seven kinds

of f orbitals have more
complicated shapes.
z z z z z z z
y y y y y y y
x x x x x x x
s Each orbital in a subshell is

Increasing Energy
The s orbital is the lowest energy represented by a square.

orbital in each shell, followed by p
the p, d, and f orbitals.
d

1s
Overlapping Orbitals The
individual atomic orbitals in
an atom overlap in three-
dimensional space. 2s
Orbitals in a Magnesium Atom A
magnesium atom has 12 electrons
that are found in the 1s, 2s, 2p, and
Nucleus 3s subshells. The 1s orbital is the
closest to the nucleus, while the 3s
2p orbital is the farthest away.
3s
Relative Energies of Subshells In a given shell, the orbitals in each

subshell have the same energy. For example, the three p orbitals all have
the same energy. Within a given shell, the order of subshells from lowest
to highest energy is s < p < d < f. However, the subshells within a shell can
overlap with the subshells of another shell.
Subshell Energies Subshells have different energies because Within a subshell, the orbitals have
the electrons in an atom repel each other. Electrons populate the same energy. All three 2p orbitals
the lowest possible energy subshells first. The zigzag line have the same energy. They have more
shows how energy increases from one subshell to the next. energy than the 2s orbital, but they
have less energy than the 3s orbital.
1s
2s 2p
Increasing Energy
3s 3p
4s 3d 4p
5s 4d 5p
6s 4f 5d 6p
7s 5f 6d 7p
26 SEP Use Models List the subshells that hold the 25 electrons in a
manganese atom in order of increasing energy. 
4 Modern Atomic Theory 31

Revisit
INVESTIGATIVE 
GO ONLINE to Elaborate on and Evaluate your
knowledge of the quantum mechanical model
PHENOMENON by completing the class discussion and writing
activities.
In the modeling worksheet you completed at the beginning of the investigation,

you sketched a model to help explain the color generation of different fireworks.
With a partner, evaluate your models.
27 SEP Revise an Explanation Rather than saying the electrons transition

between energy levels to produce the colors in fireworks, how might
you refine this description using your new knowledge of the quantum
mechanical model? What does this tell you about the energies of the
orbitals? 
32
EXPERIENCE 5
Electrons in Atoms
GO ONLINE to Explore and Explain electron configurations
of atoms.
Electron Configurations
The ways in which electrons are arranged in various orbitals around the
nuclei of atoms are called electron configurations. The table shows the
electron configurations of the first eleven elements on the periodic table.
Notice the order in which the 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals are filled.
Filling Orbitals Both the orbital diagrams and written

electron configurations show how electrons are arranged
in the subshells with the lowest possible energy.
The number of electrons Each arrow represents An electron configuration

equals the atomic number an electron. lists the orbitals that have
of the element. electrons.
Electron Configuration Examples

Number of Orbital diagram Electron
Element electrons 1s 2s 2p 3s configuration
Each subshell
H 1 1s1 is represented
by a coefficient
He 2 1s 2 and letter, for
example, 1s.
Li 3 1s 2 2s1
A superscript
Be 4 1s 2 2s 2 represents the
number of electrons
in each subshell.
B 5 1s 2 2s 22p1
For example, the
1s orbital has 2
C 6 1s 2 2s 22p2 electrons in it.
N 7 1s 2 2s 22p3
Electrons pair only
O 8 1s 22s 22p4 after each subshell
is half full.
F 9 1s 2 2s 22p5
Ne 10 1s 22s 22p6
Na 11 1s 2 2s 22p63s1
5 Electrons in Atoms 33
Energy and Stability in Electron
Configurations
Role of Energy in Orbital Filling Energy plays an important role in
determining how electrons are arranged, or configured, in an atom.
Electrons occupy the lowest energy subshells first. That is why the 1s orbital
is always filled before the 2s orbital. Once the 2s subshell is filled, electrons
are added to the three 2p orbitals. These three orbitals are of equal energy.
In subshells with more than one orbital, one electron occupies each orbital
before two electrons pair up in an orbital. To occupy the same orbital, two
electrons must have opposite spins; that is, the electron spins must be
paired. Spin is a property of electrons that may be thought of as clockwise
(spin-up) or counterclockwise (spin-down) orientation. A vertical arrow
indicates an electron and its spin orientation.
Writing Electron Configurations

How do you write an electron configuration?
Step 1 Use the atomic number to determine the 8 8 protons = 8 electrons

number of electrons, which is equal to the number
of protons. O
Step 2 Fill in the subshells with arrows to represent
the 8 electrons.
1s 2s 2p
List the subshells in order of lowest to highest
energy. Use the diagram of how subshell energy
increases as a guide.

1s 2s 2p
Each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons.
1s 2s 2p
Pairs of electrons have opposite spins, written
as arrows pointing in opposite directions.
1s 2s 2p
Each orbital in a subshell needs one electron
before electrons are paired.
Step 3 Write the electron configuration.
List subshells in order of lowest to highest energy. 1s 2s 2p
2 2 4
Write the number of electrons in each subshell as 1s 2s 2p
a superscript.

Energy and Stability If the yogi were to fall to
the ground, he would have less energy, but his
new position would be more stable. Similarly,
atoms are more stable when the electrons are in
the lowest energy orbitals.
Role of Stability in Orbital Filling Stability is also important in

determining how electrons are configured in an atom. Unstable
arrangements tend to become more stable by losing energy. This is why
the lowest energy orbitals are filled first. The concept of stability also helps
explain why one electron occupies each orbital of equal energy, for example
the three p orbitals, before two electrons pair up in an orbital. Electrons
repel one another; thus it is more stable to have only one electron in each
orbital. An electron behaves similar to a tiny magnet with a north and south
pole. When two electrons must exist in the same orbital, an opposite-spin
arrangement allows them to gain stability because the magnetic attraction
of the opposite poles cancels out some of the electric repulsion.
In an atom, electrons and the nucleus interact

to make the most stable arrangement. An electron
configuration shows this arrangement.
28 Apply Concepts Use the concepts of energy and stability as they relate to
orbital filling to write the electron configuration for iron. 
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Patterns in Electron Configurations
Blocks of Elements in the Periodic Table The periodic table shows a
pattern in electron configurations and is divided into blocks based on the
highest occupied sublevels. The two groups on the left are in the s block
because the highest energy electrons are in an s orbital in atoms of these
elements. The groups on the far right are in the p block, while the middle
groups are the d and f blocks. Because of the regular pattern in the way
sublevels are filled, you can use the periodic table to help you write
electron configurations.
The s, p, d, and f Blocks Elements in

each block of the periodic table have their
highest energy electrons in that subshell.
An s subshell is the Within each block, electrons are added A p subshell is the
highest filled subshell to the subshell from left to right. The highest filled subshell
for all elements in group, or column, determines how many for all elements in
s1 s 2 the s block. electrons are in the subshell. For example, the p block.
1s all elements in the group labeled d6 have
p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6
6 electrons in the outer d subshell.
2s 2p
3s d 1 d 2 d 3 d 4 d 5 d 6 d 7 d 8 d 9 d10 3p
4s 3d 4p
5s 4d 5p
f 1 f 2 f 3 f 4 f 5 f 6 f 7 f 8 f 9 f 10 f 11 f 12 f 13 f 14
6s 4f 5d 6p
7s 5f 6d 7p
s block f block d block p block

The period, or row, number is the value of the principal energy shell, n.
In Period 6, the principal energy shell for the s and p orbitals is 6.

Exceptions to Electron Configuration Rules Some actual electron
configurations, such as those of chromium (Cr) and copper (Cu), differ from
those that would be expected because they are more stable.
Expected configuration Actual configuration

Cr 1s22s22p63s23p63d44s2 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1
Cu 1s22s22p63s23p63d94s2 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1
The actual configurations give chromium a half-filled d sublevel and copper

a filled d sublevel. Filled energy sublevels are more stable than partially
filled sublevels. Half-filled sublevels are less stable than filled sublevels but
are more stable than other configurations.
29 CCC Patterns What element has an electron configuration of

1s22s22p63s23p64s2 and which block is it in? Use the periodic table. 

SAMPLE PROBLEM
Electron Configurations
The atomic number of the element osmium (Os) is 76. It is in the 6th period
and has 6 electrons in its d subshell, its highest subshell. Write the full electron
configuration of osmium so that all the subshells in each principal energy shell
are grouped together.
ANALYZE Identify the relevant concepts.

The total number of electrons equals the atomic number. Electrons occupy the
lowest energy sublevel first. Each sublevel can hold a specific number of electrons.
All of the sublevels in the period above the element in the periodic table are full.
The number of the principal energy level for the s and p subshells is equal to the
period number. Period 6 also has the 4f and 5d subshells, and Periods 4 and 5
have the 3d and 4d subshells, respectively.
SOLVE Apply the concepts to this problem.
Determine the period and Osmium is in the 6th period and the
highest subshell. highest subshell is 5d.
Period 1: 1s2
Write the configurations for the full
Period 2: 2s22p6
subshells in the first five periods in Period 3: 3s23p6
order of increasing energy. Period 4: 4s23d104p6
Period 5: 5s24d105p6
Write the configuration for the 6th

period, stopping when you have
Period 6: 6s24f145d6
added 6 electrons to the highest
sublevel.
Finally, write the complete

configuration so that all the subshells 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d104f145s25p65d66s2
in each principal energy shell are
grouped together.
30 Using a periodic table, write the full electron configuration of

bromine (Br) so that all the subshells in each principal energy shell
are grouped together. 
GO ONLINE for more practice problems.
Noble Gas Configurations Electron configurations can get quite long.
It is convenient to write them using a noble gas to represent the core
electrons. Core electrons are electrons in all the inner, or lower energy,
shells. Valence electrons are electrons in the outermost energy shell. In all
elements, the subshells for the core electrons are full. In noble gases, the
subshells in the valence shell are also full. Their electron configurations are
the same as the electron configuration of the core electrons in the elements
in the row below them in the periodic table.
Writing Noble Gas Configurations

How do you simplify electron configurations using the periodic table?
2
Noble Gases The last group of elements
in the periodic table have full subshells. He
These elements are called the noble gases. 10 Neon (Ne) is a noble gas
Ne with an electron configuration
of 1s22s22p6. These are core
18
electrons for the next row in
Ar the periodic table.
36
Kr
54
Xe
16 86
S Rn
118
Og Valence
electrons
Noble Gas Configuration The noble gas

configuration clearly shows the electrons
in the outermost energy level, the
valence electrons.
3s 3p 3d
Full electron configuration of sulfur, S: 1s22s22p63s23p4

2s 2p
The first 10 electrons are represented by: [Ne] Core
Nucleus 1s electrons
Noble gas configuration of S: [Ne]3s23p4
This shell model shows the valence electrons
and core electrons in a sulfur atom.
31 Apply Concepts Use the periodic table to write the noble gas configuration
for strontium (Sr). 

Valence Electrons
Noble gas configurations are useful because they help differentiate the
valence electrons in an atom. Valence electrons determine many of an
atom’s physical and chemical properties.
Electron dot structures are simple diagrams that show the number
of valence electrons, represented as dots around the element symbol.
Elements in the same group have the same number of electron dots
because they have the same number of valence electrons. For example,
carbon and silicon both have four dots in their electron dot structures.
Noble Gas Configurations and Electron Dot Structures for Period 3 Elements
Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Element Cl Ar
Noble gas
[Ne] 3s1 [Ne] 3s2 [Ne] 3s23p1 [Ne] 3s23p2 [Ne] 3s23p3 [Ne] 3s23p4 [Ne] 3s23p5 [Ne] 3s23p6
configuration
Number
of valence 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
electrons
Electron dot
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
structure
The number of dots around an Adding the superscripts in the noble

element’s symbol indicates the gas configuration gives the number of
number of valence electrons. For valence electrons. For example, argon
example, silicon has 4 electrons. has 8 valence electrons (2 + 6 = 8).
32 CCC Patterns Recall that elements above and below each other in the
periodic table have similar physical and chemical properties. What do you
think might account for these similar properties? Explain. 
Revisit
INVESTIGATIVE 
your knowledge of electron configurations by
PHENOMENON completing the peer review and writing activities.

investigation, you sketched a model to help explain the color generation
of different fireworks. With a partner, evaluate your models.
33 SEP Construct an Explanation Write the electron configuration for

the element responsible for one color of firework. This configuration
is the ground state electron configuration. When a valence electron
is exicted, this electron configuration changes. Use this information
to explain how the valence electrons are involved in emitting this
color of light. 
40
ASSESSMENT
GO ONLINE to Evaluate what you learned about atomic structure by

using the available assessment resources.
In the Performance-Based Assessment, you used your observations of the

colored light emitted in flame tests to help explain the structure of an atom.
Wrap up your explanation by answering these questions.
34 SEP Construct an Explanation The flame test solutions all contain

ionic compounds with the same anion—the chloride anion—and they
all produce flames with different colors. Why does the chloride anion
not contribute to the flame test colors? 
35 SEP Analyze Data Most commercially available emergency flares

burn with a red flame. Based on your conclusions in the assessment
exercise, what element(s) could be responsible for the red flame?
Explain your reasoning. 
36 Revisit the Anchoring Phenomenon How does what you learned in

this investigation help explain the chemistry of minerals? 
Assessment 41

Atomic Structure

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STORYLINE 1

Brainstorm ideas for an experiment (or test) that would

GO ONLINE to Engage with real-world phenomena.

4 Investigation 1 Atomic Structure

2 SEP Construct an Explanation Neon signs, such as “Open” signs, use

The Particle Nature of Matter

Atoms and Molecules

Marbles as Models You can visualize

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Spheres as Models Scientists often use spheres with

3 SEP Identify Limitations of a Model What is a limitation of using marbles as

6 Investigation 1 Atomic Structure

Molecular Models These models show

A water molecule contains two

Chemical Formulas In a chemical

Each ammonia molecule contains three

Binding Force A chemical bond

1 The Particle Nature of Matter 7

Water Vapor (Gas) The molecules in gaseous water,

Water (Liquid) The molecules

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5 SEP Construct an Explanation Density is the mass of matter in a given

8 Investigation 1 Atomic Structure

Kinetic Energy A moving

Atoms are constantly moving.

Even atoms in solids have kinetic

Potential Energy An object can also have

to other objects. A ball held above the ground

Two oppositely charged particles have

6 CCC Cause and Effect Draw an arrow in

1 The Particle Nature of Matter 9

Energy can flow into a system from the

A change in the temperature of a system is one indication that the energy of

Solid Gallium Solid Liquid Gallium Liquid

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7 CCC Systems and System Models Liquid gallium changes to a gas at

10 Investigation 1 Atomic Structure

In the modeling worksheet you completed at the beginning of the

8 SEP Evaluate Models In this Experience, you have studied the

1 The Particle Nature of Matter 11

Visualizing the Atom

Diamond and Carbon Atoms

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12 Investigation 1 Atomic Structure

Therefore, for an atom to be neutral, the number

Helium The element helium is less dense

Silver The element silver is reflective

10 CCC Scale, Proportion, and Quantity Identify the numbers of

Chemical Symbols All elements have a name, but an element’s name is

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14 Investigation 1 Atomic Structure

Representing Atoms The composition of any

The chemical symbol for neon is Ne.

You can also represent atoms by using the

Mass Number and Neutrons You can calculate the

they contain other elements.

Sizes of Dogs Dogs come in a variety of

Isotopes of Oxygen Similarly,

8e‒ 8e‒ 8e‒