Low Temp. Phys. - 2023

Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11, pp.
1446–1465
Low-temperature investigations of the physico-mechanical

properties of solids and topical problems of cryogenic
materials science: studies in NSC KIPT NAS of Ukraine
related to V. I. Startsev’s scientific activity
(Review Article)
V. I. Sokolenko
National Science Center “Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology”, Kharkiv 61108, Ukraine
E-mail: [email protected]
Received June 12, 2023, published online September 26, 2023
The review presents the most significant scientific results obtained at the NSC KIPT NAS of Ukraine during
low-temperature studies of the physical and mechanical properties of a wide range of metals and alloys over
the period from the second half of the 30s of the 20th century to recent years. During this period, a school
in the field of physics of strength and plasticity was formed at the Institute, at the origins of which were I. V. Ob-
reimov, R. I. Garber, V. I. Startsev, V. I. Khotkevich, B. G. Lazarev, and I. A. Gindin. As a result of the studies
of these famous scientists, their students and followers, fundamental concepts in the field of low-temperature
physics of strength and plasticity of solids and cryogenic materials science have been developed. The relevance
of the results obtained is also confirmed by the development of modern cryogenic and aerospace engineering,
nuclear and hydrogen energy, electronics, etc.
Keywords: low temperatures, solids, deformation, structural state, ultrasound, magnetic fields, irradiation, physi-
cal and mechanical properties.
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 1447
1. The beginning and development of low-temperature research in the field of physics of strength
and ductility at UIPT–KIPT..................................................................................................................... 1448
2. Studies of the physics of strength and plasticity of solids at low and moderately low temperatures ......... 1449
2.1. Cold brittleness and low-temperature mechanical properties of bcc metals in various structural
states ................................................................................................................................................ 1449
2.2. Deformation-induced polymorphism of metals and alloys ............................................................... 1450
2.3. Fatigue of fcc and hcp metals and alloys .......................................................................................... 1451
3. Physical effects of the interaction of dislocations with lattice, electronic, and magnetic subsystems
in crystals ................................................................................................................................................. 1452
3.1. Creep of fcc, bcc, and hcp metals in the normal state at low temperatures ...................................... 1452
3.2. Softening of metals during the transition to the superconducting state ............................................ 1453
3.3. Magnetoplastic effect ....................................................................................................................... 1454
3.4. On the general mechanism of metal softening under the influence of magnetic and electric fields 1455
3.5. Changes in the mechanical properties of ferro- and antiferromagnets under preliminary exposure
to magnetic fields............................................................................................................................. 1456
4. Increasing the strength of metals and alloys and modifying the structural state by ultrasonic influences
and irradiation .......................................................................................................................................... 1457
4.1. Creation of highly distorted structures and nanostructures in fcc, bcc, and hcp metals and alloys by
low-temperature deformation methods and study of physical and mechanical characteristics ........ 1457
4.2. Changes in the structural state and physical and mechanical properties of nanocrystalline metals
and heterophase materials as a result of ultrasonic exposure and irradiation ................................... 1460
References ..................................................................................................................................................... 1462
© V. I. Sokolenko, 2023
Low-temperature investigations of the physico-mechanical properties of solids and topical problems
Introduction part of the results obtained is related to the achievements

of “Kharkiv Science”, primarily representatives of the sci-
The development of world-class fundamental physical entific schools of the UIPT–KIPT–NSC KIPT NAS of Uk-
research in Ukraine is related to the organization in Kharkiv raine and B. Verkin Institute for Low Temperature Physics
in 1928 of the Ukrainian Institute of Physics and Technology and Engineering of the NAS of Ukraine (ILTPE NAS of
(UIPT) [1], later renamed to the Institute of Physics and Tech- Ukraine).
nology of the Academy of Sciences of Ukrainian SSR and Scientific research initiated by V. I. Startsev in the period
Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology (KIPT). Cur- of his formation as a highly qualified young physicist at
rently, the institute is called the National Scientific Center UIPT–KIPT was being continued in subsequent years at
“Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology” of the Na- ILTPE by the team of researchers created and headed by
tional Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NSC KIPT NAS him. The study of the relationship between the mechanical
of Ukraine). properties of solids and their electronic and magnetic struc-
The research carried out in the 30–40s of the last century ture, regularities and physical mechanisms of plastic de-
at UIPT in a number of topical areas of physical science, formation and fracture under conditions of moderate and
including the physics of strength and plasticity, was due to deep cooling, topical problems of cryogenic physical ma-
the demand for fundamental and applied scientific results terials science continued for several decades in parallel by
for developing technology, related branches of science, teams of experimenters and theorists of these two large sci-
higher education, etc. At the origins of this direction are entific Institutes of the NAS of Ukraine. The research was
pioneering studies of elementary processes of plastic defor- carried out in an atmosphere of mutual interest, exchange
mation and destruction of crystalline materials, carried out of information and methodological experience, construc-
in the laboratory of crystal physics established by I. V. tive and ethically balanced competition, which contributed
Obreimov in 1931. The study of slip bands in crystals to the enrichment of the scientific achievements of each of
obtained by optical and X-ray methods was started by the parties and the progress of the field of science they
I. V. Obreimov, N. A. Brilliantov, R. I. Garber, and V. I. developed as a whole.
Startsev [2–4]. To measure the residual stresses in trans- The list of major publications of a review type and mo-
parent crystals, I. V. Obreimov, and L. V. Shubnikov [5] nographs on the subject of low-temperature physics of
were the first to use the method of birefringence. It was strength and plasticity is relatively short. In the monograph
found that stresses in crystals appear at very low strains by V. I. Startsev, V. Ya. Illichev, and V. V. Pustovalov [7]
and indicate the formation and development of slip bands. theoretical ideas and experimental data on the strength and
The results of study of the fine structure of slip bands and ductility of metals and alloys at low temperatures for the
the effect of reverse slip [6] subsequently found an expla- period up to middle 70s, which have not lost their signifi-
nation in the dislocation theory of slip. cance, have been generalized. At the same time, consider-
The neighborhood of the laboratory of crystals and the able attention was paid to the results of studies carried out
cryogenic laboratory, in which, under the leadership of at ILTPE.
L. V. Shubnikov liquid hydrogen (1931) and helium (1932) A brief review by V. I. Khotkevich and I. A. Gindin [8]
were obtained promoted the development of a culture of traces the path of development of studies of low-tempe-
working with cryogenic refrigerants, the creation of me- rature strength and ductility at the UIPT–KIPT until the
chanical testing methods and the beginning of systematic second half of the 1970s. The review by R. I. Garber, I. M.
studies of the problem of materials behavior under loading Neklyudov, and Ya. D. Starodubov [9] presents a brief ana-
at low temperatures. It should be noted that until the 1930s, lysis of the results of research on the physics of strength and
studies of low-temperature strength and plasticity in different ductility at the NSC KIPT for the period up to the 90s.
laboratories were mainly limited to liquid nitrogen tempe- The monograph by V. V. Pustovalov and V. S. Fomenko [10]
rature (77 K) to determine the macroscopic characteristics published in 2012 is devoted to the analysis of experimental
of materials used in low-temperature mechanical engineer- data and theoretical results related to such phenomena of
ing, and the issues of the physical nature of processes at low-temperature deformation as the anomaly of the yield
low-temperature plastic deformation were not touched upon. strength, jump-like deformation and the influence super-
A large amount of experimental data and theoretical con- conducting transition on the mechanical properties of crys-
cepts has been accumulated in research laboratories of the tals, studied in detail in ILTPE.
world after more than 90 years of investigation in the field The purpose of this review was to highlight the most
of low-temperature physics of strength and plasticity of significant results of studies of the physical and mecha-
solids, the relevance of which is currently confirmed both nical properties of a wide range of metals and alloys at low
by the need for the development of fundamental research and moderately low temperatures and some issues of cryo-
and by the tasks of cryogenic and aerospace engineering, genic materials science, both historically and in relation to
nuclear and hydrogen energy, electronics etc. A signifycant recent studies.
Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11 1447
V. I. Sokolenko
1. The beginning and development of low-temperature at T = 4.2 K, corresponding to the onset of plastic defor-
research in the field of physics of strength and ductility mation for a number of metals with different types of crys-
at UIPT–KIPT tal lattice [19]. The author determined σ0 by the magnitude
of the load on the sample, from which additional resistance
In the second half of the 30s and in the 40s of the last appeared due to the onset of plastic deformation.
century, V. I. Kostenets, under the leadership of B. G. La- To study impact strength at T = 20 K, V. I. Khotkevich
zarev [11–13], carried out the first in the former USSR studies developed an original method for quickly transferring a
of the mechanical properties of a number of pure metals, sample from a vessel with liquid hydrogen with automati-
steels and alloys by static and impact tests at 20–300 K. cally correct installation on the impact tester supports [19].
Note that before the work of V. I. Kostenets there were The works briefly described above marked the begin-
few publications in which the results of studies of mechani- ning of a large cycle of research that led to the creation of
cal properties at low temperatures were presented. In [14], new ideas and directions in the field of low-temperature
it was reported that the plasticity of Cd and Zn single crys- physics of the strength and plasticity of metals and alloys,
tals was retained up to T = 1.2 K, and a conclusion was as well as in the field of fundamental and applied super-
made about the existence of an athermal component in the conductivity.
plasticity phenomenon. At the temperature of liquid hydro- Systematic and large-scale studies of the physics of
gen under conditions of uniaxial loading, the mechanical strength and plasticity of solids at low temperatures (1.4–77 K)
characteristics of polycrystalline Cu and Ni, as well as a num- were started by the KIPT in the second half of the 50s under
ber of alloys and steels, were studied [15]. The results of the leadership of I. A. Gindin and B. G. Lazarev. Some-
testing the impact strength of a number of steels at hydro- what later, ILTPE staff led by V. I. Startsev joined in such
gen temperature are presented in [16]. studies. On the one hand, those were stimulated by the rapid
A tensile testing machine with a force of up to 1.5 t. development of the branches of new technology, namely
was designed in the laboratory of crystal physics of the cryogenic and aerospace; on the other hand, it was of fun-
UIPT to carry out mechanical tests in a liquid nitrogen me- damental interest to elucidate the physical processes of
dium. Tensile strength σB and elongation to failure δ of a wide plastic deformation and the mechanical behavior of solids
range of samples (Al, Ag, Cu, Ni, Pb, Mo, Sn, Mg, Na) were near absolute zero temperature, when thermal activation
measured with an accuracy of 3–5% and 2–3%, respecti- processes are minimized.
vely [12]. It was shown in [11–13] that the studied poly- For aerospace enterprises headed by S. P. Korolev and
crystalline metals with the fcc lattice (Al, Ag, Cu, Ni, Pb) A. A. Lyulka, KIPT carried out a large amount of studies
at 77 K and 20 K retain or even increase their high plasticity, of mechanical properties and the nature of destruction in
while Mo (bcc lattice) and Sn (bct lattice) are brittle. The re- the temperature range 4.2–300 K of a wide class of steels
sults obtained were related to the hypothesis that the me- and special alloys of iron, niobium, molybdenum, aluminum,
chanical properties and cold brittleness of metals and alloys copper, and titanium bases in various states. Boundary tem-
at low temperatures depend on the type of lattice (the twin peratures were established within which it is possible to use
forging hypothesis) (see, for example, [8]). At the same time, the materials under study, and recommendations were given
a more than threefold increase in δ was shown for sodium for their use in various components of aviation and space
(bcc lattice) with a decrease in the test temperature from technology.
77 to 20 K. This effect stimulated further detailed studies As a result of several studies achieved at the KIPT using
at the KIPT of the low-temperature mechanical properties various investigation methods, it was shown that low-tem-
of alkali metals and found an explanation in the occurrence perature deformation of metals and alloys that remain duc-
of deformation polymorphic transformations in these me- tile at these temperatures is characterized by a high degree
tals, which will be discussed in more detail below. of lattice distortion and imperfection, deformation uni-
In the 1950s, V. I. Khotkevich, using a low-temperature formity, and a more uniform distribution of dislocations
press placed in a liquid helium medium, first studied the over the volume even at low degrees of deformation. With
mechanical characteristics of metals and alloys under com- a temperature decrease, a number of effects are observed:
pression at helium temperatures, as well as the effect of mechanical twinning has an increased role, the work of new
plastic deformation on the electrical conductivity and criti- slip planes manifests itself, athermal plasticity of crystals oc-
cal parameters of superconductors [17, 18]. Table 1 pre- curs at helium temperatures, the temperature of the begin-
sents the values of the conditional elastic limit σ0 measured ning of the recovery process during annealing of the de-
Table 1. Elastic limit σ0 at T = 4.2 K for some metals [19]
Metal Tl In Hg Cu Mg Al Sn Ag Au Pt Ni Mo Ta Fe
σ0, MPa 3 4 4 66 69 85 118 290 364 550 590 680 800 840
1448 Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
formed metal decreases, etc. This gave grounds to assume (Тbrt < 4.2 K, Ttw > 77 K) were separated, and it was shown
the existence, and then for the first time to experimentally that the initiation of microcracks is not always related to
discover the phenomenon of low-temperature recrystalliza- the appearance of twins [24]. Thus, it was found that me-
tion in relatively refractory metals (Cu, Ni, Fe) after de- chanical twinning is not responsible for cold brittleness,
formation at 4.2–77 K (R. I. Garber, I. A. Gindin, V. S. and the metal’s tendency to brittle fracture is determined by
Kogan, B. G. Lazarev, Ya. D. Starodubov, and M. B. Laza- the type of crystal lattice and impurities. Moreover, twinn-
reva) [20–22], which opened up new possibilities for creating, as the predominant type of low-temperature defor-
ing a special structural state of the metal. Thus, with the mation, not only does not lead to brittle fracture of tech-
help of severe low-temperature deformation by rolling or nical purity metals, but under certain conditions promotes
extrusion of copper and subsequent long-term annealing their plasticization [29–33].
at room temperature, as a result of the joint occurrence of I. A. Gindin and L. A. Chirkina established the plasti-
polygonization and recrystallization processes, an ultrafine- cizing effect of relaxed twin layers. They showed that if
grained structure (0.5–2 µm) was obtained, which provided thin twins are introduced into silicon iron (e.g., by an impact
increased mechanical properties that are resistant to high- at 77–150 K), then stopping their development at an early
temperature heating [23]. stage, and creating conditions for stress relaxation from the
For the first time in the former USSR, for the developed tops and incoherent boundaries of the interlayers (e.g., by an-
technical superconductors of various designs based on the nealing or ultrasonic action at temperatures of 300–400 K)
Nb3Sn compound and the Nb-Ti alloy, the current-carrying causes sharp decrease of the cold brittleness temperature and
ability at 4.2 K in strong magnetic fields at tensile stresses the deformation proceeds, as in pure iron [28], mainly due
was studied [24, 25]. The observed effect of a reversible to the appearance and development of new systems of twin
decrease of the critical current Jc under load, which increases layers [34]. At the same time, the temperature region of se-
with an increase in the number of Nb-Ti filaments in the condary twinning expands towards higher temperatures
conductor and the magnetic field strength, is due to elastic and the plasticity margin above the ductile-brittle transition
martensitic transformation, which reduces the volume con- temperature increases.
tent of the initial superconducting β phase. It is shown that For the first time, I. A. Gindin, L. A. Chirkina, and V. S.
for composites with a low volume content of the Nb3Sn Okovit carried out systematic studies of the mechanical pro-
phase, made by the “bronze” technology, a local maximum Jс perties of bcc metals reinforced with relaxed twins, depend-
appears at increase of tensile stress. This maximum is due to ing on the size of their grid (type of the Hall–Petch de-
the compensation of thermal compressive stresses, which re- pendence) and found that the level of stress concentration
duce the superconducting characteristics of Nb3Sn, and is at the twin boundary is lower than that at the grain boundary.
absent at increased volume content of Nb3Sn and the addi- It is shown that twin interlayers not only play the role of
tion of a stabilizing element into the structure. The obtained mechanical stoppers during the movement of dislocations
data were used in calculations and assembly of supercon- under load, but also create around themselves a zone with a
ducting magnetic systems. special defect structure, which, as a result of dislocation
reactions, increases the number of dislocation sources in
2. Studies of the physics of strength and plasticity
the matrix, eliminates overstresses in the vicinity of twin
of solids at low and moderately low temperatures
formations, and, as a consequence, plasticization of the ma-
2.1. Cold brittleness and low-temperature mechanical terial [35].
properties of bcc metals in various structural states When studying the effect of the degree of purification
In the second half of the 1950s, studies of the physical on the structure and mechanical properties of niobium in
nature of the cold brittleness of crystalline solids began to the temperature range of 4.2–300 K, it was established that
develop intensively at KIPT. By this time, there were a num- there is “threshold” purity, above which the mechanical
ber of hypotheses about the causes of the cold brittleness of
metals, among which the most widespread were lattice, im-
purity, and twin hypotheses. The authors of the latter be-
lieved that twinning precedes brittle fracture and is its cause.
However, this conclusion was not convincing. In the expe-
riments of I. A. Gindin and Ya. D. Starodubov [26–29]
with pure (99.99%) iron, the origin and development of twin
layers and microcracks, mechanical and thermal hardening
of twins were studied in detail. It was shown that twin layers
appear long before rupture and develop under subsequent (a) (b)
loading to significant thicknesses (15–20 µm) without the Fig. 1. Development of twin interlayers in Fe (99.99%) under
formation of microcracks (Fig. 1). For the first time, the tem- continuous tension (Т = 77 K): σ = 220 MPa (a), σ = 420 MPa
perature thresholds of cold brittleness Тbrt and twinning Тtw (× 100) (b).
V. I. Sokolenko
properties do not depend on the content of interstitial im-

(a)
purities (O, H, N). At the same time, with degree of purifi-
cation increase, the uniformity of the distribution of defor-
mation in the bulk of the metal increased, and the relative
elongation at 4.2 K reached 18% [36].
Intergranular slip [26] and slip along twin boundaries [27],
reverse twinning when a load of the opposite sign is applied
[27], thermal strengthening of twin interlayers after heating
to 300 K (Fig. 2) [28], the phenomenon of the development
of mechanical twins under conditions of high-temperature (b)
creep [30] were first discovered during low-temperature de-
formation of high purity bcc metals. As a result of this cycle
of research, ideas about the role of mechanical twinning in
the overall plastic deformation and fracture of bcc metals
and alloys have changed. It is shown that twinning can be
effectively controlled by using it as a kind of preliminary
mechanical-thermal treatment in order to change a number 50 µm
of physical-mechanical properties.
An example of the purposeful use of twin structures to Fig. 3. Microstructure of a Cr single crystal of orientation [110]:
improve the properties of a material is the results of [37], compression by 5% at 210 K (a), the same place after compres-
where the regularities of the processes of plastic defor- sion by 7% at 500 K (b).
mation and fracture in the temperature range 4.2–500 K
of chromium single crystals are studied. It was shown for temperatures with subsequent low slip deformation (Fig. 3)
the first time that the carrying out of relaxation processes prevents the occurrence of cracks and significantly increases
at the boundaries of twins previously introduced at low the plasticity margin of chromium single crystals in the tem-
perature range of the ductile-brittle transition.
2.2. Deformation-induced polymorphism

of metals and alloys
It is known that a number of metals exhibit temperature
polymorphism occurring at sufficiently high temperatures,
which is associated with the rearrangement of the crystal
lattice into a new, thermodynamically more favorable modi-
1
fication. At low temperatures, metals can also have stable
(b)
structures that differ from those observed under normal con-
ditions. However, in this case, due to the low diffusion mo-
bility of atoms, the transformation does not occur, and the
metal can be in a supercooled state for an arbitrarily long
time, retaining its original structure. An example of the
above can be the tin plague — a phenomenon that occurs
2 at low temperatures with a large change in volume (26%)
and only if a gray tin germ (diamond-type lattice) is intro-
duced into white tin (bct lattice) or if the latter is created
plastic deformation at low temperatures.
For a long time, such a phase transformation was the
only one. Then C. S. Barrett in 1947 [38] and subsequently
V. I. Khotkevich in 1952 [19] established by X-ray diffrac-
3 tion the presence of polymorphism in lithium, which occurs
(a) during plastic deformation under conditions of strong super-
Fig. 2. Thermal hardening of twin boundaries in Fe (99.99%) cooling. In a series of works [39–42], the phenomenon of
during additional tensile deformation at 4.2 K after intermediate low-temperature polymorphism of metals caused by both
unloading and annealing at 300 K, 150 h (points A and B): mi- simple cooling and plastic deformation was studied. It was
crostructure after annealing (a), 10 without annealing (b), (× 90). found that the phenomenon of low-temperature polymor-
The deformation in both cases is 0.6%. Inset: machine tensile phism is characteristic of a large group of metals (Li, Na,
curves. Cs, Bi, Be, Hg) and is associated with the removal of phase
So, on titanium nickelide, it manifests itself in the form of

anomalies in the temperature dependencies of the ultimate
strength and electrical resistance in the temperature range
of 10–20 K (Fig. 5) [43].
2.3. Fatigue of fcc and hcp metals and alloys

For the first time, the fatigue properties of a number of
fcc and hcp metals and alloys, as well as the processes of
formation and development of a dislocation structure and
the initiation of cracks under alternating loading in the
temperature range of 4.2–300 K, were studied [44–49]
(I. A. Gindin, I. M. Neklyudov, Ya. D. Starodubov, V. I.
Fig. 4. Microstructure of Li cooled to 20 K. Photograph taken at
Sokolenko, M. P. Starolat, and V. N. Netesov).
78 K (× 100). Needles of hexagonal modification appear at 74 K.
Non-trivial changes in the fatigue characteristics of metals
at cryogenic temperatures have been found. It is shown that
supercooling due to the energy of plastic deformation [39] as the temperature decreases from 300 to 4.2 K, the resistance
(I. A. Gindin, B. G. Lazarev, Ya. D. Starodubov, and V. I. to fatigue failure increases significantly. At the same time,
Khotkevich). It is shown that the temperature of polymor- for nickel and zirconium at 20–4.2 K, a break in the fatigue
phic transformation in alkali metals decreases with an increase curves is observed (Figs. 6 and 7) and the nature of the
in the atomic weight of the element and with a Debye tem- dislocation structure formed during deformation changes,
perature decrease. The authors named this phenomenon “de-
formation polymorphism”.
It has been shown [40, 41] that anomalies in the me-
chanical properties of lithium and sodium in the tempera-
ture range of 1.5–300 K are associated with the removal of
supercooling, the occurrence of a polymorphic transition,
and the presence of two or three modifications in the metal,
passing one into another, as with a decrease in temperature,
and during plastic deformation. Figure 4 illustrates the mi-
crostructure of lithium cooled to 20 K. The observed minima
of relative elongation correspond to the temperatures of the
onset of the bcc→fcc polymorphic deformation transforma-
tion (≈ 140 K for Li and ≈ 75 K for Na). The martensitic
transition from bcc to hcp modification causes a sharp in-
crease in strength characteristics.
Low-temperature polymorphism is also characteristic of
a new class of materials, namely pseudo-amorphous. Fig. 6. Weller curves for Ni [44].
Fig. 5. Temperature dependencies of the tensile strength for the Ti-Ni

samples: initial (1), strained by rolling by 50% (2) and 90% (3). Fig. 7. Weller curves for Zr at T, K: 293 (1), 77 (2), and 4.2 (3) [47].
V. I. Sokolenko
140 µm 0.7 µm
(a) (с)
140 µm 0.7 µm
(b) (d)
Fig. 8. Surface structure and distribution of dislocations in Ni:

low-amplitude fatigue (a), (b); low-cycle fatigue (c), (d). Fig. 9. Temperature dependencies of α at σ = 130 MPa for Ni
crystal with the tension axis along [213]: experimental data (1),
i.e., instead of clusters of dislocation dipoles and stable slip calculations in the framework of the theory of zero vibrations of
bands, a cellular structure appears (Fig. 8). dislocation (2).
In a certain range of stress amplitudes, a previously un-
described decrease in durability was found for Zr, with a tem- tions of dislocation. Within the framework of the theory
perature decrease from 300 to 77 K (Fig. 7) and it was shown of zero vibrations [59], the estimate for temperature of the
that this phenomenon is related to the predominance of change in creep deformation mechanisms is close to the ex-
twinning at the initial stages of plastic deformation at 77 K perimental value (≈ 20 K).
and the effective accumulation of fatigue damage near boun- The plastic flow of coarse-grained (100 µm) Zr during
daries of twins in accommodation zones, as compared with creep in the temperature range from room to liquid helium
predominant slip at 300 K [45]. A weaker effect is charac- is controlled by the interaction of dislocations with impurities,
teristic of the Zr1Nb alloy, which is due to a decrease in forest dislocations, and Peierls–Nabarro barriers, and the role
the twinning intensity. of the lattice friction mechanism increases with decreasing
It has been established that preliminary mechanical-ther- temperature [52]. It has been established that under condi-
mal treatment and program hardening significantly increase tions of a low level of thermal activation (T < 0.1Tmelt), Zr is
the fatigue strength [48, 49]. characterized by a deviation from the classical laws of
plastic flow. The oscillations of the yield strength observed
3. Physical effects of the interaction of dislocations in the temperature range of 1.5–140 K at a strain rate of
with lattice, electronic, and magnetic subsystems 10–3 s–1 (Fig. 10) are related to a change in the type of bar-
in crystals riers and mechanisms that control plastic flow in this tem-
perature range, as well as a change in the conditions for
3.1. Creep of fcc, bcc, and hcp metals in the normal state dislocation generation.
at low temperatures The strain hardening of Zr at a temperature of 4.2 K is
A review by I. A. Gindin and Ya. D. Starodubov of due to the slip of individual dislocations and can only in-
studies of the creep of crystalline bodies at low tempera- crease due to their redistribution, including the formation
tures for the period up to the beginning of the 1970s is pre-
sented in the monograph [48]. In subsequent years, the KIPT
carried out fundamental studies of low-temperature creep
of a number of fcc, hcp, and bcc metals and alloys in various
structural states (V. K. Aksenov, Ya. D. Starodubov, E. V.
Karaseva et al.) [51–58].
Figure 9 illustrates the temperature behavior of the pre-
logarithmic factor α as a function of the creep strain ε for
single crystal Ni in the range of 1.5–50 K on the test time t
in the form ε = ε0 + α ln (1 + γt), where ε0 is the value ini-
tial strain jump, γ is a constant [51]. The authors attribute
the established patterns of Ni creep deformation near zero
temperature to the combined action of mechanisms for
overcoming potential barriers due to quantum-mechanical Fig. 10. Temperature dependencies of the yield strength σ02
dislocation tunneling and the energy of zero-point vibra- of Zr: strain rate 10–5 s–1 (1), strain rate 10–3 s–1 (2) [50].
conditions is different. Thus, the action of the power law of

creep (ε ~ t1/3) at a temperature of 77 K is related to the de-
velopment of a martensitic-type phase transformation, which
causes stress relaxation, unblocking of dislocation clusters,
and a decrease in structural defects. At 300 K, the mechanism
of stress relaxation can be structural instability, the emer-
6 µm 4 µm gence and development of collective effects in the disloca-
tion ensemble of the β matrix.
Fig. 11. Dislocation structure formed during creep of Zr: clusters
of dislocations (Т = 4.2 K, σ = 200 MPa) (a); formation of cell 3.2. Softening of metals during the transition
boundaries in places with a uniform distribution of dislocations to the superconducting state
(T = 77 K, σ = 140 MPa) (b) [52]. In 1963 at KIPT, I. A. Gindin and Ya. D. Starodubov
were the first to draw attention to the anomalous nature
of clusters in front of the interfaces [Fig. 11(a)]. At T = of the temperature dependence of the yield strength of nio-
= 77 K, the reason for the increase of long-range stresses bium below the superconducting transition temperature [60].
and strain hardening of Zr during creep is mainly an increase The first results of direct observation of changes in the me-
in the dislocation density and the formation of cell boundaries. chanical characteristics of a metal during a superconduct-
The creep of the Zr1Nb alloy at 77 K and higher tem- ing transition, published in 1968, were obtained at the Insti-
peratures was studied in [56]. The character of the depend- tute of Solid State Physics of the University of Tokyo [61]
ence of activation characteristics on temperature and stress and at ILTPE [62]. Later, at KIPT, I. A. Gindin, B. G. Laza-
indicates that the creep deformation is controlled by sever- rev, Ya. D. Starodubov, and V. P. Lebedev on a number of
al types of barriers. At T = 77 K, logarithmic creep occurs. metals and alloys with different types of crystal lattice stu-
The rate of plastic deformation is mainly determined by the died in detail the phenomenon of metal softening, which
interaction of dislocations with impurities. Forest disloca- consists in a decrease in the resistance to plastic deforma-
tions can also be barriers on the path of sliding dislocation and an increase in the creep rate during the transition
tions. At T = 300 K, creep deformation corresponds to a from the normal to the superconducting state (N–S tran-
power law (ε ~ t1/3) and is controlled mainly by long-range sition) [63–65]. It is shown that, in the general case, soften-
stresses, the sources of which are grain boundaries. ing increases significantly with an increase in the applied
Calculations of activation parameters showed that the stress, metal flow rate, and with a creep temperature de-
plastic flow of Nb during creep at 77 K is due to disloca- crease below Tc (Figs. 12 and 13).
tions overcoming Peierls–Nabarro barriers and point defects, The obtained experimental results stimulated the partic-
while at 300 K it can be controlled by impurities, point ipation of theorists. Theoretical works carried out jointly at
defects, and dislocations [57, 58]. At low-temperature creep KIPT and ILTPE [66–68], as well as abroad [69], are de-
of Nb, previously subjected to severe plastic deformation
by drawing at 77 K (e ~ 2.5), at strains near the yield point,
the dislocation depletion mechanism works, since the pro-
cesses of generation of linear defects under conditions
of high distortion of the structure are very difficult. There
is a transition from logarithmic to power-law creep, which
is characteristic of much higher temperatures, with a decrease
in the overall level of internal stresses. The change in the law
of plastic flow is associated with the rearrangement of the
structure created by preliminary deformation into a struc-
ture that is more resistant to the changed rate regime and
stress diagram.
A niobium-titanium alloy (NT-50) with defect structures
formed as a result of large combined plastic deformations
by drawing at 300 and 77 K was studied in [53, 55]. It has
been established that the observed features of low-tempe-
rature creep and changes in the electrical resistance of the
alloy are due to the combined action of the processes of Fig. 12. Dependencies for Pb of creep strain on time (a) and strain
movement of individual dislocations, martensitic transfor- rate on the deformation degree (b) at the transient stage of creep at
mations, and the development of collective plasticity modes the N–S transition (T = 1.8 K, σ = 27 MPa, H = 3500 Oe) for Pb.
in the β matrix. At the same time, the contribution of one The increase in creep at point A is the result of metal softening
process or another to the observed effects under specific at the N–S transition.
V. I. Sokolenko
Fig. 13. Dependence for In of the magnitude of softening effect

at the N–S transition δε, %: on stress (a) and temperature (b).
Fig. 14. Dependencies of the MPE value ∆σ on the degree of de-
voted to the study of the dislocation’s dynamics in super- formation ε for polycrystalline Ni (1) and Dy (2) at 77 K (alter-
conductors and the features of mechanical properties of nating magnetic field H = 330 Oe, f = 50 Hz) [74].
metals in superconducting state. It was found that the sof-
tening and plasticization of metals in the superconducting
netically ordered metals under conditions of active loading
state is due to the disappearance or weakening of the me-
and creep at 4.2–300 K, and the understanding of the na-
chanism of dislocations damping by conduction electrons
ture of the MPE has been deepened [73–77]. In the same
due to the formation of bound electronic states (Cooper
period of time, MPE studies at ILTPE were carried out by
pairs). The increase in the softening effect as the temperature
D. N. Bolshutkin, V. A. Desnenko, and V. Ya. Ilyichev [78].
decreases below Tc is due to decrease in the concentration
When studying MPE, the influence of plastic deforma-
of normal electrons and an increase in the binding energy
tion parameters, temperature dependence, and the magnitude
of the Cooper pair, which determines the size of the energy
and type of the magnetic field (variable, permanent) were
gap. In the superconducting state, not only the dynamic
considered. Polycrystalline Ni and Dy in the ferromagnetic
dragging of the dislocations changes, but a number of static
state (Fig. 14) are characterized by a monotonic increase in
effects can manifest themselves, leading to a decrease in
∆σ with a tendency to saturation when changing the degree
the height of potential barriers for dislocations, facilitating
of deformation up to 1.5% [74]. On Dy in the antiferromag-
the detachment of dislocations from pinning points, etc.
netic state, the MPE is observed at higher field values and
A great contribution to the theoretical study and understand-
its magnitude is much lower than in the ferromagnetic state.
ing of the phenomenon of metals softening during the transi-
The nature of the change in strain ∆τ for single crystal Ni
tion to the superconducting state was made by V. D. Natsik.
orientation [110] with increasing temperature in the range
3.3. Magnetoplastic effect of 77–300 K (Fig. 15) is similar to the temperature depen-
At study of the deformation of single crystal nickel dence of the saturation magnetic moment, which indicates
a group of Japanese researchers (S. Hayashi et al.) in a significant role of the domain structure in the observed
1968–1972 had discovered an effect called the magneto-
plastic effect (MPE). MPE consists in reducing the flow
stress after turning on the magnetic field during active
tension (∆σ) or an increase in plasticity during creep (∆ε)
[70–72]. As compared to the previously known magneto-
elastic effect, which leads to an increase in stress in the
elastic region and is due to the magnetostrictive effect (re-
lated, in particular, with the negative value of magneto-
striction for nickel), MPE is discovered only in the region
of plastic deformation.
In the 70s at KIPT, I. A. Gindin, I. M. Neklyudov, I. S.
Lavrinenko, Ya. D. Starodubov, V. K. Aksenov, and E. V. Fig. 15. Temperature dependence of the MPE for single crystal Ni
Karaseva comprehensively studied the influence of mag- with [110] orientation in an alternating magnetic field H = 100 Oe,
netic fields on the processes of plastic deformation of mag- f = 50 Hz [71].
phenomenon [69]. Qualitatively similar results were ob- 3.4. On the general mechanism of metal softening
tained in [73–77, 79] when studying the MPE for different under the influence of magnetic and electric fields
metals (Ni, Dy) both under conditions of active tension and
under creep. In the sixties of the twentieth century, the phenomenon
The results of MPE study in a quenched (disordered) of a sharp decrease in the resistance to plastic deformation
and ordered Ni3Mn alloy under active tension in the tem- of metals was discovered in the case of exposure to high-
perature range of 77–300 K are presented in [80]. It has density electric current pulses (J = 108–109 A/m2), as well
been established that the MPE value increases with a rise as charged particles or electromagnetic radiation. This phe-
in the degree of order and a test temperature decrease. The ob- nomenon is named the “electroplastic effect” (EPE) [84].
served effect is related to a change in the process of order- EPE is revealed in pulsed decreases in the deforming stress
ing and loading of such characteristics as the anisotropy required to maintain a constant strain rate. Dependencies of
constant, magnetostriction, and the magnetization vector. the intensity of the effect on such parameters as the type
The change in the dislocation structure of Ni under the and rate of sample deformation, temperature, current density
influence of an alternating magnetic field H = 1000 Oe amplitude, pulse frequency and duration, current direction,
during creep at 77 K (σ = 120 MPa) was studied in [77–81]. and structural characteristics of crystalline samples were
It is shown that the observed evolution of the cellular dis- established [84–87]. Combining the action of an electric
location structure has specific features compared to its de- current and irradiation with charged particles leads to an
velopment in the absence of a field. First of all, this is ma- intensification of the effect [86]. A list and a brief analysis
nifested in the different character of structural changes of various approaches to explaining the electroplastic ef-
within the boundaries of the cells (the density of disloca- fect is presented in [88].
tions decreases, partial decay of the cell walls is observed), It is known that a non-stationary magnetic field induces
as well as in the appearance of characteristic features of the an electric field (rot E = –∂B/∂t) in a conductor, which gives
effect of cyclically changing stresses (the presence of thre- reason to believe that among the mechanisms of the magne-
sholds and kinks on dislocations, as well as dipoles and toplastic effect (as discussed above), in addition to “purely
loops in the places of congestion dislocations). The observed magnetic”, there should be “electric” mechanisms, of course,
structural changes under the action of an alternating mag- except for Joule heating.
netic field is related to the unblocking of dislocation clusters In recent years, the Institute has carried out complex
in cell boundaries due to their interaction with moving do- experimental studies of the influence of various modes of
main walls. magnetic field exposure on the creep characteristics of
It follows from the obtained experimental data that MPE nickel with a purity of 99.996% at T = 77 K and theoretical
is found both in single- and polycrystalline materials only calculations supplemented by numerical simulation of ki-
in the region of plastic deformation in the presence of un- netic processes in crystals associated with the impact of
pinned dislocations. The MPE value when applying a per- pulsed electric fields [88–90]. The purpose of these studies
manent magnetic field has a maximum at relatively low is to propose a general mechanism for the softening of
degrees of deformation and field values, which is due to metals under the influence of a magnetic and electric field.
the superposition of the magnetostrictive effect and an in- Figure 16 illustrates the experimentally observed effect
crease in the density of mobile dislocations. The MPE in of nickel softening during creep with the imposition of dif-
alternating magnetic fields tends to saturate with an increase ferent types of magnetic field pulse regimes. In mode 3
in the degree of deformation. This is due to the balance (periodic monopolar pulses with sample demagnetization),
between the softening factor of an increase in the density the interactions of dislocations with the boundaries of mo-
of mobile dislocations previously blocked by domain walls bile domains were excluded, as well as significant thermal
and the strengthening effect of an increase in the number effects associated with an inductive electric field. Curve 4,
of forest dislocations acting as barriers. MPE is character- corresponding to the effect of harmonic pulses, is located
ized by an increase with lowering temperature. above curve 3, which is a consequence of the additional
Theoretical data in V. G. Baryakhtar and E. I. Druinskii contribution to the softening due to the interaction of dislo-
work [82] indicate an insignificant contribution to the soften- cations with domain walls. The low strain rate in the exper-
ing of ferromagnets by the mechanism of dislocation inter- iment prevented the possible action of the softening mech-
action with spin waves in the helium temperature range and anism associated with the interaction of dislocations with
the need to take it into account in the temperature range of spin waves. As a result, the effect of softening in the mode
its maximum appearance (20–100 K). In addition, at high of action of periodic monopolar pulses with demagnetiza-
dislocation rates (103–104 cm/s), “Cherenkov” generation tion of the sample should be attributed to the action of pre-
of spin waves by moving dislocations is possible [83]. How- dominantly “electrical mechanisms”.
ever, due to the low average dislocation rates under creep The theoretical model proposed by V. I. Karas et al.
conditions, the influence of this mechanism on the dislo- [88–90] includes the results of a consistent kinetic consid-
cation dynamics can be ignored. eration of the nonequilibrium dynamics of the electron-
V. I. Sokolenko
phonon distribution function, a significant increase in the

force acting on dislocations is shown compared to conven-
tional induction heating.
Figure 17 demonstrates that the proposed approach gives
results of the same order of magnitude as the experimental
data. The calculated values of the strength drop ∆σ should
be considered as a lower estimate, since in the calculations
the duration of the action of the electric field was taken
several times shorter than the duration of the current pulse
in the experiment.
The need for complex theoretical and experimental studies
and the development of a physical and mathematical model
for describing the nonstationary nonequilibrium kinetics
Fig. 16. Dependencies of the softening value of polycrystalline Ni of the electron–phonon subsystem of a crystal in electric
on the degree of deformation for different types of magnetic field and/or magnetic fields, taking into account the excitation
pulses with a strength of 4·104 A/m with different rise time t, s: of plasmonic solitons, breathers, and other nonlinear for-
1.0 (switching on a permanent field) (1); 0.005 (periodic mono- mations, was noted in [88].
polar pulses without sample demagnetization) (2); 0.005 (periodic
monopolar pulses with sample demagnetization) (3); 0.005 (har-
3.5. Changes in the mechanical properties
monic pulses) (4) [88]. of ferro- and antiferromagnets under preliminary
exposure to magnetic fields
phonon subsystem of a magnetic crystal in an electric field MPE studies have stimulated work on the study of the
based on the proposed method for numerically solving the effects of magnetic fields on the complex of physical and
system of Boltzmann equations for the distribution func- mechanical properties of magnetically ordered materials,
tions of electrons and phonons without expansion distribu- the structural state of which has changed as a result of various
tion functions of electrons in a series in terms of phonon influences (deformation, irradiation with high-energy par-
energy. It has been established that under the action of an in- ticles, welding).
ductive electric field, the electron distribution function be- It has been established [92–95] that the impact of non-
comes nonequilibrium near the Fermi energy and, due to stationary magnetic fields is an effective method for im-
electron-phonon collisions, transfers significant energy to proving the mechanical characteristics of ferrite-pearlite steel
the phonon subsystem, forming a nonequilibrium phonon 15Kh2NMFA (2Cr, 1Ni, 0.5Mn, 0.5Mo), used for the ma-
distribution function. Based on the modified model of Gra- nufacture of vessels for nuclear reactors of the VVER-1000
nato–Lücke and Landau–Hoffmann, using the calculated type, and its welded joints.
Magnetic treatment (alternating magnetic field H = 500 Oe)
leads to a significant decrease in the temperature of the duc-
tile-brittle transition and an increase in the impact tough-
ness of the welded joint of 15Kh2NMFA steel [93, 94].
Figure 18 illustrates the change in the character of the tem-
perature dependence of impact toughness. The effect is re-
Fig. 17. Dependencies of the strength drop on the current density.

The experimental data [86] (squares), the experimental data [91]
(triangles). The results obtained on the basis of the Granato–
Lücke and Landau–Hoffmann models with the phonon distribu-
tion function at time t = 4 µs for electric field strengths 1, 2, 5, 8, Fig. 18. Temperature dependencies of impact toughness ak: steel
and 10 V/cm (crosses); the results at time t = 12 µs for electric 15Kh2NMFA (1), its welded joint before (2) and after magnetic
field strengths 1, 2, and 5 V/cm (open circles). treatment (3).
lated to the relaxation of internal stresses due to the destruc- causes an effective softening of the elastic moduli, which
tion of dislocation walls with the formation of a disordered promotes dislocation migration. The displacement of dislo-
ensemble of dislocations, similar to the tempering structure, cations to neighboring slip planes is possible due to the ef-
and partial relaxation by the mechanism of dislocation polar- fects of nonlinear dislocation dynamics, which leads to the
ization in thin extended bending configurations. As a result formation and displacement of double kinks under the action
of magnetic treatment in the weld at a distance of 3–5 mm of low-amplitude alternating magnetostrictive stresses.
from the transition layer and the symmetrical part of the The work [97] demonstrated the effectiveness of mag-
matrix material, a significant decrease in the average size of netic treatment in relation to antiferromagnetic materials,
coherent scattering regions and the average value of type II in particular, the industrial alloy VKh-2K based on chromium
stresses is observed. (98.5 Cr, (0.3–0.4) La, (0.2–0.3) Ta, (0.4–0.5) V, wt%).
The effect of a non-stationary magnetic field with am- Preliminary exposure of samples VKh-2K to an alternating
plitudes not exceeding the saturation field of magnetization magnetic field (Н = 1.3 kOe, f = 50 Hz, Т = 77 K, t =
on the structure and processes of plastic flow of steel = 30 min) leads to a slight decrease in strength characteris-
15Kh2NMFA, the radiation hardening of which was the tics and an increase in elongation to failure from 16 to 32%
result of irradiation with electrons with an energy of E = at 300 K, which is comparable to the effect of heat treat-
= 10 MeV and a dose of D = 5·1019 cm–2, was studied. ment at 1420 K. Such a change in mechanical properties is
It has been shown that, depending on the mode of magnetic related to the relaxation of stresses in places of their con-
treatment, both active development of recovery processes centration due to magnetostrictive effects and displacement
and an increased stability of the structure during creep are of domain boundaries.
possible [95]. The studies, the results of which are presented in this
For samples of 15Kh2NMFA steel subjected to severe section, were carried out by I. M. Neklyudov, V. I. Soko-
low-temperature deformation and characterized by low duc- lenko, K. A. Yushchenko, A. V. Mats and co-authors.
tility and high strength, it is shown that exposure to an al-
ternating magnetic field leads to a significant decrease of 4. Increasing the strength of metals and alloys
the yield strength (by 18%) and an increase of the ultimate and modifying the structural state by ultrasonic
strength at fracture (up to 10%), total elongation (up to 65%) influences and irradiation
and transverse narrowing (up to 60%) in the temperature
4.1. Creation of highly distorted structures
range 293–138 K [96]. These effects were accompanied by
and nanostructures in fcc, bcc, and hcp metals and alloys
a decrease in the background of internal friction and coer-
by low-temperature deformation methods and study
cive force, an increase in the dynamic shear modulus in the
of physical and mechanical characteristics
range of 300–500 K. Changes in the physical and mechan-
ical properties and structure are related to processes of a At the Institute, using the developed unique methods of
magnetic and electrical nature that cause stress relaxation deformation (rolling, drawing, torsion, quasi-hydroextrusion,
in microvolumes with a high level of internal stresses forging in the range of cryogenic temperatures, 4.2–77 K),
(high-angle boundaries, dense clusters of dislocations). priority studies were carried out to create structures with an
Figure 19 shows a diagram illustrating the mechanism extremely high density of defects, including nanostructures,
of a possible decrease in local internal stresses τ due to a de- in metals and alloys with various types of crystal lattice.
crease in the number of dislocations in staggered pileups A number of new, non-trivial effects have been discovered
due to the passage of the domain boundary, which also that could not be predicted on the basis of traditional ideas
Fig. 19. The decrease in the number of dislocations in a flat pileup (according to the Cottrell model) when the domain wall passes
through the pileup (from left to right), which corresponds to τ2 < τ1. Arrows in different positions show spin rotation in a Bloch wall of
width δB.
V. I. Sokolenko
about the regularities in the formation of structure and

properties during conventional low-temperature deformation.
The main contribution to the development of research in
this direction was made by I. A. Gindin, I. M. Neklyudov,
Ya. D. Starodubov, V. K. Aksenov, V. I. Sokolenko, I. F.
Borisova, E. V. Karaseva, P. A. Khaimovich M. B. Laza-
reva, A. V. Mats, V. M. Matsevity, V. S. Okovit, O. I. Vol-
chok, and L. A. Chirkina.
For the first time, a nanostructure state in a metal (cop-
per) was obtained at KIPT by I. A. Gindin, M. B. Lazareva,
V. P. Lebedev, Ya. D. Starodubov, V. M. Matsevity, and
V. I. Khotkevich [98]. As follows from Fig. 20, as a result
of deformation by rolling in liquid hydrogen and helium to
a degree of δ ≥ 40%, the average size of a copper disloca- Fig. 21. Dependencies of the strength of Kh18N10T steel on the de-
tion cell is in the nanometer range. Note that the term “nano- gree of deformation during barocryodeformation. BCD at 300 K (1),
structure” was not used in the literature at that time. BCD at 77 K (2), the same with subsequent annealing at 480 °C (3),
Low-temperature quasi-hydroextrusion (QHE) [99, 100], BCD at 20.4 K (4), the same with subsequent annealing at 450 °C
recently named barocryodeformation (BCD) [101], being (5), BCD with counter pressure at 77 K (6), the same with subsequent
an analogue of hydroextrusion, differs in that not a liquid annealing at 500 °C (7), the same with subsequent annealing at
is used as a medium transferring pressure to the workpiece, 450 °C (8).
but a ductile solid body (indium). The QHE method makes
it possible to carry out low-temperature deformation to large peratures. In the case of low-temperature rolling of Ni and
degrees of not only ductile, but also weakly plastic metals Nb single crystals oriented according to the crystallographic
with their significant hardening. texture elements of the polycrystalline, it is possible to
As a result of QHE or rolling of copper at 4.2 and 20 K, achieve high strength while maintaining single crystallinity.
a record high strength was obtained [102]. Deformation of Moreover, the hardened single crystals of textural orienta-
stainless steel by the QHE method and subsequent anneal- tions have a high thermal stability.
ing of the extrudates makes it possible to fulfill high The influence of the comprehensive compression factor
strength characteristics (Fig. 21) while maintaining thermal in the process of deformation of QHE and quasi-hydroex-
stability [103, 104]. trusion with counter pressure at 300 and 77 K on the me-
It was shown [102] that the type of strain state at large chanical and electrical properties of titanium VT1–0 in
plastic deformation (LPD) has a significant effect on the the temperature range of 77–800 K was studied [105, 106].
character of the dislocation structure. For example, during It is shown that with an increase in pressure under conditions
low-temperature extrusion of copper, nickel, and austenitic of comprehensive compression, the degree of deformation
steel Kh18N10T, the cellular structure characteristic of roll- defects accumulation and the rise in strength characteristics
ing deformation “degenerates” into a lamellar structure of decreases, which is related to the intensification of recovery
a high degree of dispersion with a lamella thickness of processes. It has been found that the deformation of titanium
several hundred angstroms. Using low temperature rolling, under conditions of uniform compression leads to a decrease
one type of texture can be obtained instead of the two types in the energy of the stacking fault and causes an increase in
observed simultaneously in copper strained at higher tem- the shear modulus in the region of 77–750 K, and an in-
crease in the temperature at the beginning of the athermal
region of the temperature dependence of the yield stress.
This is due to the appearance of split dislocations with
packing corresponding to the fcc lattice, which has a higher
shear modulus than the hcp lattice [106].
It has been established that as a result of forging defor-
mation at T = 77 K, a defect structure with a characteristic
size of ≈ 25 nm is formed in titanium, the occurrence of
which is due to microtwinning processes. A twofold in-
crease in microhardness and an anomalous decrease in re-
flectivity in the IR region of the spectrum were shown,
which indicates a significant change in the concentration of
conduction electrons and an increased long-range fields of
Fig. 20. Dependencies of the average cell size in Cu on the degree elastic stresses at the interfaces of a nanocrystalline struc-
of rolling deformation at T, K: 300 (1), 77 (2), 20 (3), and 4.2 (4). ture [107].
The structural features of zirconium after 92% defor- of up to 30 nm was obtained and studied. The physical me-
mation by rolling at 100 and 300 K and subsequent anneal- chanism of the process of grain refinement has been estab-
ing have been studied by measuring the electrical resistance, lished, which has a staged nature and correlates with the
thermo-emf, X-ray diffraction analysis, and optical micro- activity of deformation twinning. It is shown that the limit
scopy [108]. It is shown that under conditions of large plastic of decrease in the average grain size is several tens of na-
deformations, the deformation temperature does not affect nometers, which is explained by the impossibility of fur-
the type of texture formed and the parameters of the material ther creation of deformation nanotwins in such grains. The
microstructure. The observed increase in creep resistance and observed low-temperature feature of grain-boundary hard-
higher thermomechanical stability of zirconium obtained ening is explained within the framework of theoretical mo-
using preliminary deformation by rolling at 100 K are due to dels, according to which, under the conditions of the de-
the specific features of the structure of grain boundaries. pendence of the dislocation loop diameter on the nanoscale
The method of combined plastic deformation by rolling grain size, the stress of dislocation nucleation at the boundary
at room and liquid nitrogen temperatures (e = 3.9) was is inversely proportional to the grain size.
used to obtain nanostructures with subgrain sizes of 82, 61, With the use of deformations by rolling and QHE at
and 94 nm, in Zr and in Zr-based alloys [Zr1Nb and E125 77 K in an ultrafine-grained (d = 150–200 nm) VT6 titanium
(Zr–2.5% Nb)], respectively [109–111]. Figure 22 illus- alloy, various structural states were created and the mecha-
trates the distribution of subgrains in Zr. It is shown that nical and dissipative properties were studied [119, 120]. It is
the kinetics of the formation of the main part of the sub- shown that as a result of deformations by 60%, an additional
grain boundaries has a disclination character and is not the refinement of the alloy structure to a nanometer (70 nm)
result of dynamic polygonization and recrystallization. scale and a significant increase in strength properties occur
Nanostructured samples of Zr and Zr1Nb are characterized without loss of plasticity. The optimal degrees of QHE de-
by the values of yield strength σ02 = 650 and 670 MPa, formation are established and substantiated. The excess de-
ultimate strength σB = 810 and 830 MPa and fracture stress formation causes the appearance of microcracks, which limits
σB = 1090 and 880 MPa, respectively, with ductility of 13 the maximum of deformation dispersion of the structure
and 12%, which indicates a high the degree of homogenei- and hardening (σB = 1360 MPa, δ = 8%) of the VT6 alloy.
ty of the nanostructure. The revealed features of temperature dependencies in the
The results of a quantitative assessment of the evolution range of 100...600 K of internal friction and shear modulus
of the microstructure of commercial-grade titanium during in the nanostructured state are analyzed in comparison with
multi-pass rolling up to the true deformation e = 2.66 at 77 the ultrafine-grained state.
and 293 K are presented in [112]. Deformation at both A number of new effects caused by LPD of metals at
temperatures was accompanied by twinning. At Т = 77 K, low temperatures have been discovered: an anomalously
twinning was more extensive in terms of the proportion of high mass transfer of interstitial atoms during QHE of nio-
twinned grains and the duration of the twinning stage. As a bium [121], oscillations of the mechanical, superconduct-
result of rolling, a microstructure was formed with a ing, and structural characteristics of metals [121–123],
grain/subgrain size of 80 nm at 77 K or 200 nm at 293 K. changes in the law of low-temperature creep [50], and the
The contribution of various mechanisms to the strengthen- kinetics of diffusion decomposition of the niobium-titanium
ing of titanium after rolling at 77 and 293 K was quantita- alloy after cryogenic mechanical-thermal treatment [124].
tively analyzed. By using the example of vanadium, it was found [125] that
Scientists from the ILTPE also studied the effect of the processes of self-organization of dissipative structures
LPD by rolling at 77 K on the formation of a nanostructure bound the growth of defects of the same type even at low
in titanium. In a series of works [113–118] carried out by temperatures. It is also shown that the development of mul-
V. A. Moskalenko and co-workers, Ti with a grain size tiple fragmentation after large (> 90%) deformations by
drawing leads to nonmonotonicity in the dependence of
mechanical properties on the degree of deformation related
to the structural instability of the material.
At LPD, a fragmented structure is formed containing
high-angle boundaries, stress relaxation in which leads to
the formation and evolution of new interfaces with a miso-
rientation reaching tens of degrees. However, the material is
damaged in some cases when creating nanostructures with-
out reaching the formation of a fragmented submicrostruc-
ture. To prevent the destruction of the material, it is advis-
able to use a combination of pressure treatments that create
different stress diagrams. By using the example of austenitic
Fig. 22. Size distribution of subgrains in deformed Zr. steel (Fig. 23) [126] and titanium alloy [120], the structural-
V. I. Sokolenko
of technological operations during their making, or at ex-

posure to various physical fields that generate crystal lat-
tice defects that interact with interfaces or accumulate near
boundaries. One type of impact that allows relaxation of
internal stresses and normalization of the structural state,
eliminating a significant change in the grain size of the
nanostructure or destruction of the composite material,
is low-intensity ultrasonic exposure (USЕ) with amplitudes
below the static flow stress without the occurrence of fatigue
damage. An ultrasonic wave passing through a material in-
teracts with defects of various types and causes structural
changes, which depend on the parameters of ultrasound,
mainly on its power, subsequently affecting properties.
When strained metals are irradiated with high-energy part-
Fig. 23. Dependencies of the microhardness of steel 06Kh16N15M3B icles, relaxation processes also occur in the defect structure
on the degree of deformation by drawing at 77 K (1) and QHE (2); due to the generation of radiation defects.
on the proportion of deformation by drawing with a sequential In a series of works [126–130] on nanocrystalline sam-
combination of drawing and QHE (3). The initial state (·····); ples of Zr and alloys Zr1Nb, Zr–2.5% Nb and VT1–0 ob-
εfin = const = 70%. tained by LPD by rolling at 77 and 300 K, the effect of
USE with different stress amplitudes σUSE and electron
phase criterion for optimizing the ratio of modes of the irradiation on the change in mechanical properties, creep
deformation methods used is substantiated. characteristics and structural state have been studied.
By combining conventional methods of severe plastic de- In the Zr–2.5% Nb alloy (d = 94 nm) [128], the effects of
formation with low-temperature QHE, nanocrystalline tita- ultrasonic relaxation and structural instability were revealed
nium of increased purity with a grain size of 75 nm, high when exposed to high-frequency (f = 20 kHz, T = 300 K)
strength (σB = 930 MPa) and plasticity (δ ≈ 12%) was ob- stresses below (σUSE = 85 MPa) and above (σUSE = 200 MPa)
tained [127]. Such a material may be of interest for various threshold value, respectively. Figure 24 illustrates the cha-
applications, in particular for the manufacture of medical racter of change in the microhardness Hµ of the alloy de-
implants. pending on the exposure to USE at different σUSE values.
The results of studies carried out at the Institute on the At σUSE = 85 MPa, relaxation of the structural state occurs
influence of various types of deformation with different stress with a decrease in the level of internal stresses by micro-
diagrams (rolling, drawing, QHE, and a sequential combi- shear deformation without appreciable dislocation genera-
nation of drawing and QHE at 77 K and 300 K) on the phy- tion, which leads to a decrease in d to 78 nm. The action of
sical and mechanical properties of a number of hcp, fcc, and σUSE = 200 MPa causes detachment of dislocations from
bcc metals and alloys are analyzed in the review [106]. pinning points and generation of new dislocations. After low
USE exposures (t = 1 min), the value d = 61 nm is reached,
4.2. Changes in the structural state and physical which is the result of the formation of new boundaries due
and mechanical properties of nanocrystalline metals to the redistribution of dislocations inside the grains (Nd de-
and heterophase materials as a result of ultrasonic creases to 7·1010 cm–2). With an increase in the duration
exposure and irradiation of USE, such structural state becomes unstable and a new
Nanostructured materials obtained by LPD are charac- nanograin structure (d = 98 nm) with more equilibrium
terized by a high level of strength properties and reduced boundaries and a relatively low (Nd < 1.3·1010 cm–2) den-
characteristics of thermomechanical stability and ductility, sity of lattice dislocations is formed. These processes cor-
which is due to a high level of internal stresses and the dif- respond to the stage of noticeable decrease in the depend-
ficulty in implementing the main modes of plastic defor- ence Hµ(t) (Fig. 24).
mation. To relax the stresses of a nonequilibrium structure The papers [110, 129, 130] present the results of studies
in nanomaterials, heat treatments are usually used, the effi- of the effects of ultrasonic action with subthreshold ampli-
ciency of which towards relieving internal stresses increases tudes duration t = 10 min for Zr and Zr1Nb alloy samples
with temperature. However, in this case, the probability of with an average grain size of d = 82 and 61 nm, respectively.
significant coarsening of grains increases, which can lead It was shown that Zr is characterized by a ~ 15% decrease
to the loss of the advantages of the nanostructure state. He- in strength characteristics at 300 and 700 K with a simulta-
terophase materials, as well as metals with inclusions of neous increase in plasticity and creep rate without a notice-
second phases, are characterized by the presence of com- able change in the size of the initial nanostructure [129].
ponents with different lattice types, which causes the ap- From the analysis of creep curves after USE and the evalua-
pearance of internal stresses at interphases both as a result tion of the activation volume (Veff ~ 10–22 cm3), it follows
0.2 µm
Fig. 24. Microstructure with an electron diffraction pattern of a deformed Zr–2.5% Nb alloy and the dependence of the microhardness
Hµ on duration USE exposure. The thick arrows indicate the grain size, and the thin arrows indicate the σUSE values.
that plastic flow is associated with the displacement of point stabilization of the nanostructure during creep at T = 20 °C
defects and is controlled by several mechanisms that are and restrains the process of the structure transformation at
more characteristic of high-temperature deformation: grain T = 350 °C, as a result of a decrease in the level of internal
boundary diffusion, dislocation creep, and slip along grain stresses. Such irradiation does not change the character of
boundaries. Ultrasonic treatment of the Zr1Nb nanostructure the Zr nanostructure, but initiates recovery processes at grain
alloy [110, 130] leads to a decrease in the level of internal boundaries and near-boundary regions, for example, anni-
stresses due to the formation of a more equilibrium struc- hilation and dislocation climbing due to their interaction
ture of boundaries with insignificant grain growth: d increases with vacancies of radiation origin [133]. Preliminary ultra-
from 61 to 67 nm, which is associated with a decrease in sonic relaxation of internal stresses before irradiation leads
the number of grains with low-angle boundaries. The effect to a decrease in the intensity of dynamic recrystallization
of reducing the strength characteristics as a result of USE during creep at 670 K, which indicates increased thermo-
was ~ 15% for σ0.2 and ~ 5% for σB. The ductility has al- mechanical stability and makes it possible to maintain a
most doubled, but the creep rate has changed insignificantly. sufficiently high level of strength and plasticity of nanostruc-
The relaxation of internal stresses in the bulk of the material tured Zr after electron irradiation.
is due, as in the case of Zr, to the formation of a large For the Zr1Nb nanostructured alloy, as well as Zr, irra-
number of vacancies, which stimulates the nonconservative diation with doses D = 6∙1017 and 5∙1019 cm–2 does not
sleep of dislocations. change the character of the deformation structure. It has
The influence of ultrasonic action (f = 20 kHz, σUSE = been noted that recovery processes in grain boundaries and
= 65 MPa, T = 300 K, t = 30 min) on the evolution of the near-boundary regions cause changes in the crystal anisot-
structure and creep of the nanostructured (d ~ 100 nm) ropy of the hcp lattice, which leads to softening of the ma-
titanium alloy VT1–0 was studied in [131]. It is shown that terial during creep at 380°C [134].
USE causes relaxation of internal stresses due to the for- The influence of USE with stress amplitudes below the
mation of an equilibrium structure of the boundaries without threshold values on the nature of temperature dependencies
noticeable grain growth. In contrast to nanostructured Zr in the range of 77–600 K of mechanical properties and
and Zr1Nb samples, titanium is characterized by an increase impact strength, the level of micro distortions, and the dis-
in the ultimate strength while maintaining yield strength and location structure of 15Kh2MFA and 15Kh2NMFA ferrite-
ductility. The observed effect may be caused by the low pearlite steels and welded joints has been studied [135].
stacking fault energy of the VT1–0 alloy, which hinders The observed effects are due to the flow of relaxation pro-
the course of relaxation processes, as well as the restructur- cesses, including the unblocking and annihilation of dislo-
ing during creep with the formation of new deformation cations in the ferrite matrix, and a decrease in the efficiency
boundaries that are more resistant to tensile loads. of stress concentrators at the carbide-matrix interfaces. It is
For nanocrystalline metals and alloys (Zr, Zr1Nb, VT1–0), shown that the structure formed by USE has a reduced ten-
the papers [132, 133] present the results of studies of changes dency to radiation embrittlement at electron (E = 225 MeV,
in the mechanical characteristics and structural state due to D = 1.6·1018 cm–2) and neutron (E ≥ 1.15 MeV, D =
irradiation with high-energy electrons (E = 10 MeV) at = 4·1020 cm–2) irradiation.
various doses D. Martensitic phases in steels of the austenitic class, which
It was shown [132] that electron irradiation with D = are formed as a result of external influences (deformation,
= 5∙1019 cm–2 has unimportant effect on the mechanical irradiation, strong magnetic fields, etc.), create internal
characteristics of VT1–0 both in the coarse-grained and in stress fields localized at the austenite-martensitic interfaces,
the nanostructured state, however, it leads to the saving and which leads to an undesirable change in a number of prop-
V. I. Sokolenko
erties. It was shown [136] that a low-intensity USE affect- The review was prepared during the implementation of
ing the structure makes it possible to control the degree of the project “Computer simulation and diagnostics of struc-
conjugation of interfaces in an austenite-martensite structural defects in solids” (application 1030287), funded by
ture, which are sinks of point defects of radiation origin. the Simons Foundation, USA.
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Atom. Sci. Technol. 2, 3 (2017). фізико-механічних властивостей твердих тіл
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Probl. Atom. Sci. Technol. 2, 154 (2015). матеріалознавства: дослідження в ННЦ ХФТІ НАН
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et al., Probl. Atom. Sci. Technol. 6, 107 (2004). В. І. Старцева
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Probl. Atom. Sci. Technol. 6, 81 (2004).
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Cryogenics, 32 ICMC Suppl., 637 (1992). отримані в ННЦ ХФТІ НАН України під час низькотемпера-
141. G. N. Malik, V. I. Sokolenko, Ya. D. Starodubov et al., турних досліджень фізико-механічних властивостей широкого
Probl. Atom. Sci. Technol. 2, 64 (1992). кола металів і сплавів за період з другої половини 30-х років
___________________________ XX століття до останніх років. За цей період в інституті сфор-
мувалася школа в галузі фізики міцності та пластичності, біля
джерел якої стояли І. В. Обреїмов, Р. І. Гарбер, В. І. Старцев,
В. Г. Хоткевич, Б. Г. Лазарєв та Й. А. Гіндін. У результаті до-
сліджень цих відомих вчених, їхніх учнів і послідовників були
розроблені фундаментальні уявлення в галузі низькотемпера-
турної фізики міцності та пластичності твердих тіл і кріоген-
ного матеріалознавства. Актуальність отриманих результатів
підтверджується також розвитком сучасної кріогенної та аеро-
космічної техніки, атомної та водневої енергетики, електро-
ніки тощо.
Ключові слова: низькі температури, тверді тіла, деформація,

структурний стан, ультразвук, магнітні поля,
опромінення, фізико-механічні властивості.

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Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11, pp.

Low-temperature investigations of the physico-mechanical

Received June 12, 2023, published online September 26, 2023

Introduction part of the results obtained is related to the achievements

Table 1. Elastic limit σ0 at T = 4.2 K for some metals [19]

properties do not depend on the content of interstitial im-

2.2. Deformation-induced polymorphism

So, on titanium nickelide, it manifests itself in the form of

2.3. Fatigue of fcc and hcp metals and alloys

Fig. 5. Temperature dependencies of the tensile strength for the Ti-Ni

Fig. 8. Surface structure and distribution of dislocations in Ni:

conditions is different. Thus, the action of the power law of

Fig. 13. Dependence for In of the magnitude of softening effect

phonon distribution function, a significant increase in the

Fig. 17. Dependencies of the strength drop on the current density.

about the regularities in the formation of structure and

of technological operations during their making, or at ex-

135. V. N. Voevodin, O. I. Volchok, L. S. Ozhigov et al., Probl. Низькотемпературні дослідження

Ключові слова: низькі температури, тверді тіла, деформація,

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