Psychology

Edited By Mohamed Abdeljalel By Dr.
Hossam Elkhatib Med Psy

Introduction to psychology
• Intended learning outcome (ILOs)

✓ By the end of the lecture the student will be able to:
✓ Define Psychology.
✓ Recognize different psychological perspectives.
✓ Recognize Psychology as science.
✓ Describe the various fields and subfields of psychology.
• What is psychology?
It is the scientific study of human behavior and mental process
• History of psychology
First discovered by GREECE philosophers
Socrates
Plato
Aristotle
To ask about what is rational and irrational
Do really have choices in life?
• Perspectives within Psychology

1- Biological perspective: explain the neurobiology of behavior and mental process.
2- Behavioral perspective: observing behavior and its analysis.
3- Cognitive perspective: perceiving, remembering, reasoning, problem solving and their
relation to our behavior.
4- Psychoanalytic perspective: understanding behavior and its relation to unconscious motives
arising from sex and aggression.
5- subjectivist perspective: understanding behavior through personal subjective reality people
construct.
• Subfields of psychology
1- Biological psychology.
2- Cognitive psychology.
3- Developmental psychology.
4- Social and personality psychology.
5- Clinical and counseling psychology(addiction, marrital, mental illness and family conflicts).
6- School and educational psychology ( evaluate learning and educational progress).
7- Organizational and engineering psychology( selecting people for a company, improve
relation with engineers and machines.
Developmental psychology
Edited By Mohamed Abdeljalel By Dr.Hossam Elkhatib Med Psy
• Definition :
It is the advance in the emotions, thinking and behavior of the child as he grows up.
• N.B. advance means change in the quality and quantity of the action.
• Developmental psychology
1- Prenatal (intrauterine) factors affecting development:
2- Nourishment of the mother.
3- Drugs.
4- Smoking.
5- Maternal stress.
• Parameters of Development
1- Cognitive development.
2- Psychosocial development.
3- Moral development.
4- Motor development.
• Cognitive development
Founder: Jean Piaget
This theory describes how the child understands the world around him during different ages.
• Cognitive development
A) Methods of understanding:
1- Schemas:
first, the child develop a schema for every thing around him, for example; schema for "mother",
"dog", "food”…etc. Schemas are formed by experience.
2- Assimilation:
involves taking new information and fitting it into an existing schema. For example, when the
child develops a schema about "dog" he simply enlarges it by adding "cat" to this schema. This
occurs through assimilation.
3- Accommodation:
Involves changing and revising existing schemas in the face of new experiences or new
information. For example; he starts to differentiate between the dog and the cat, by their voices,
ear shape, etc.
• Stages of development:
A) Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years): At this stage the child discovers the world through sensation
(hearing, seeing, smelling…).
The main schema is that of causality (cause – effect) or (sensation –motor act). For example,
when he taps the table, a voice occurs
B) Preoperational stage (2-6 years):

Children begin to develop and use symbols usually in the form of words to represent
concepts.
At the same time they start speaking.
The amount of knowledge increases and (the number of schemas increase).
At this stage children are egocentric (selfish).
C) Concrete operational stage (6–12 years):

1- Organization: Children start formation of concepts and rules, for example animals, fruits,
colors…. etc.
2- Conservation: of volume, length, and mass. This involves the cognitive awareness that
changing the form or appearance of something does not necessarily change what it really is.
3- Understands relational term, for example above, under, beside….etc.
4- Begins using simple logic concepts.
D) Formal operational stage (above 12 years):

1- Thinking becomes abstract and symbolic.
2- Reasoning skills develop.
3- Hypothetical concepts develop.
• Psychosocial development
A) Epigenetic theory:
Founder: Erik Erikson
He developed what was called epigenetic theory which means that development occur across
successive stages limited by age ranges.
Each stage has its own crisis (conflict between two opposing forces straggling with each other).
There should be proper resolution to each crisis in order to develop to the next stage.
Proper resolution occurs through a balanced management by the parents.
If the crisis did not resolute, there will be fixation at this stage.
As a reaction to any psychogenic stress that may occur later on in life, there would be a
regression to the fixation stage and appearance of symptoms.
Erikson's eight stages of social development
Age /years
Edited By Mohamed Abdeljalel
Crisis Proper resolution
By Dr.Hossam Elkhatib
Pathological resolution
Med Psy
Birth - 1 Trust vs. mistrust Basic sense of safety Insecurity and anxiety.
1–3 Autonomy vs. shame Perception of self as Feeling inadequate to

agent capable of control events.
controlling own body
and making things
happen
3–6 Initiative vs. guilt Confidence in oneself Feeling of lack of self
as initiator and creator confidence.
6 - 12 Competence vs. Mastering of basic Feeling of failure.
inferiority social and intellectual
skills
12 – 18 Identity vs. role Comfortable sense of Unclear sense of self.
diffusion self as a person
Early adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation Capacity for long Feeling of loneliness
lasting intimate and separation.
relationship with a
partner.
Middle adulthood Generativity vs. Focus on concern Lack of future
stagnation beyond oneself to orientation.
family, society and
future generations.
Late adulthood Integrity vs. despair Basic satisfaction with Feeling of
life. disappointment.
B) Temperament theory:
Founder: Chess and Thomas (1986).
It describes the inborn mood-related personality characteristics or it is the style that characterizes
each child.
• Nine categories of behavior constitute temperament

1. Activity level
2. Rhythmicity
3. Approach or withdrawal response
4. Adaptability to change in the environment
5. Threshold of responsiveness
6. Intensity of reaction
7. Mood
8. Distractibility
9. Persistence in the face of obstacles
• Three broad temperament types are described

1. Easy infant (40% of babies): playful, regular, and well adapted.
2. Difficult infant (10%): irritable, irregular, intense responses, and poorly adapted.
3. Slow to warm up infant (15%): inactive, tends to withdraw, mild reactivity, requires more time
to adapt.
The remaining 35% are not rated either low or high.
C) Attachment theory:
Founder: Bowlby
It assumes that there is a tendency to seek closeness to particular people and to feel more secure
in their presence.
The baby becomes attached to his. At the same time the mother develops bonding to her baby.
This attachment should occur within a certain period (sensitive period) in order to develop;
otherwise it does not develop at all.
Attachment usually occurs through physical contact of the baby with his mother during feeding,
caring hugging.
• Types of attachment:
A) Secure attachment.
B) Unsecure attachment.
1. Anxious resistant
2. Anxious avoidant
• Long-term implications of attachment deprivation:

When the infant fails to develop a good attachment with his mother, it was found that this child
when grows up is characterized by:
1. As an adult they tend to have inappropriate social relationships.
2. They tend to be aggressive.
3. Sexual behavior patterns were disrupted.
4. Females tended to be very poor mothers.
D) Moral development
Founder: Kohlberg
This theory describes how the child accepts his moral values during different ages.
Here there is no definite age limit for going from one stage to another.
He may behave according to the rules of the previous one at times.
1. Pre-conventional morality (0-10 years):
Punishment orientation: the boy or girl obeys rules to avoid punishment.
Reward orientation: he or she conforms to obtain rewards.
2. Conventional morality (10-13 years):

Good boy/good girl orientation: he or she conforms to avoid disapproval.
Authority orientation: he or she upholds laws and social rules to avoid unsure of authorities.
3. Post-conventional morality:
Social contract orientation: principles are upheld to retain respect of peers and thus, self-
respect.
Ethical principle orientation: actions are guided by self-accepted ethical principles.
• Physical development
1) Weight:
A) Growth in the period shortly after birth is measured in terms of weight and length.
B) A newborn infant loses up to 10% of body weight in the first 4 days of life.
C) Birth weight is regained by the 10th day.
2) Length and height:

A) Skeletal maturations used as an indicator of growth progress.
B) Bone age behind chronological age indicates that there is more growing time left and
predicts a taller adult.
• Motor development:
1) Reflexes:
Automatic built in responses to certain stimuli that govern the newborn's movements.
A) Suckling reflex, rooting reflex and Moro reflex (disappear by 3-4 months).
B) Cough, blinking and yawning (persist throughout life).
C) Grasp reflex becomes more voluntary.
2) Gross motor movements:

A) Head support: 2 months
B) Sitting with supported: 4 months
C) Crawling: 6 months
D) Standing: 9 months
E) Walking: 12-15 months
F) Running: 2 years
G) Jumping 3 steps: 4 years
H) Balancing on one leg for 10 seconds: 5 years
I) Hopping 6 years
J) Mature gait: 7 years
3) Fine motor movements:
Needed in eating, dressing, coloring, tracing up to playing musical instruments,
A) Pincer grip, pushing buttons: 1-2 years.
B) Unscrewing jar lid: 2-3 years.
C) Finger tracing, Cutting with a scissors: 3-4 years.
D) Nuts and bolts: 4-5 years.
E) Weaving place mats: 5-6 years.
Personality
• Definition :
Personality is the total quality of an individual’s behavior, as shown in his/her characteristic habits,
thoughts and expressions, attitudes and interests, manner of acting and philosophy in life.
The word personality comes from the Greek word “persona” which means mask.
• Personality is formed of:
1- Character which is the conduct that can be called right and wrong, that meets or fails to
meet accepted social standards.
2- Trait which is a type of behavior which characterizes the individual in a wide range of his/her
activities and which is fairly consistent over a period of time.
• Factors affecting personality

1) Biological (physical factors):
It includes general health of the individuals and how physical and biological factors can affect
personality such as drug intake, endocrinal diseases (myxedema, Cushing disease) and nutritional
factors.
2) Geographical factors: which include a number of readymade impressions of stereotypes (e.g.

British people do not show emotions, Irish are argumentative Middle Eastern people talk in a loud
voice, etc…)
3) Pre-natal effects: which include fetal exposure to maternal smoking or substance abuse or
hormonal therapy and low birth weight.
4) Social: It includes the order of birth of a child in a family (oldest or youngest child) and whether
parents are overcautious and protective or emotionally cold and give harsh punishments to their
children.
• Approaches to understanding personality

There are different schools to try and understand personality and they include:
1)Trait (Biological) approach
2) Psychoanalytical approach
3) Social learning (behavioral) approach
4) Humanistic approach
5) Cognitive approach
1) Trait (Biological) approach :

This theory describes personality according to either body image or traits and includes several
scientists.
1. According body image 2. According traits
• Kretschmer • Carl Jung

• Sheldon • Eysenck
• Cloninger
1. According to the body image

Kretschmer:
Pyknic Asthenic Athletic Dysplastic

short and fat tall and thin intermediate incongruous
and muscular mixture of the
different
types in
different parts
of the body.
prone to prone to epilepsy and
mood swings psychosis and multiple
and schizophrenia. physical
depression complaints
1. According to the body image

B - Sheldon:
Endomorphy Ectomorphy Mesomorphy
Fatty skinny muscular
Associated with viscerotonia Associated with cerebrotonia somatotonia (assertednes of
(relaxed posture, love of (restrained tight posture, fast posture, love of physical
physical comfort, food and drink reaction and chronic fatigue). adventure, competitive and
and slow reactions) aggressive).
2. According to the personality traits

a) Carl Jung:
the first scientist to talk about personality traits on a dimensional level and described the
dimension of “Extraversion/Introversion”.
Introvert (tends to withdraw into themselves, shy and prefers to work alone).
Extravert (seeks company of others, sociable and chooses occupations that permit them to deal
with people).
b) Eysenck: he proposed 5 dimensions instead of only one dimension and they include
1. Extraversion/Introversion
2. Neuroticism (emotionality, anxiety and instability Vs stability)
3. Psychoticism (tough mindedness, psychopathy & aggressiveness)
4. Conservatism versus Radicalism and Liberalism
5. Intelligence (general ability)
c) Cloninger: proposed to examine personality from different biological aspects which included:
1. Temperament: is unconscious, automatic, mainly genetic and is sub-cortical.

2. Character: is conscious, intentional, mainly environmental and is cortical.
1. Temperament
Harm Avoidance:
- It has a heritable bias to behavioral inhibition & anxiety to signals of frustration or punishment.
- It is related to the neurotransmitter Serotonin in Dorsal Raphe nucleus & GABA.
- It is associated with Anxiety and Depression.
Novelty seeking:
- It has a heritable bias to behavior activation to novel & pleasant signals.
- It is related to the neurotransmitter Dopamine.
- It is associated with substance abuse disorder and Borderline personality disorder.
Reward dependence:
- It has a heritable bias to maintain behavior in response to cues of social reward.
- It is related to the neurotransmitter Noradrenalin& Serotonin in the Median Raphe Nuclei.

- It is associated with dependant personality disorder and Schizoid personality disorder.
Persistence:
- It has a heritable bias to maintain behavior despite frustration, fatigue and intermittent
reinforcement.
- It is related to the neurotransmitter Glutamate and Serotonin in Dorsal Raphe nucleus.
- It is associated with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder.
2. Character:
1-Self- directedness: which is described as someone who is responsible, reliable, goal oriented
and self confident.
2-Cooperativeness: which is described as how a person considers being a part of human society.
3-Self-transcendence: which is described as someone who is a part of the universe as a whole.
• Methods of rating:
1-Personality inventory EPQ= Eysenck Personality Questionnaire and MMPI= Minnesota Multi
Phasic Inventory).
2) Rating Scales which requires that the rater must understand the scale, be sufficiently
acquainted with the person being rated so that meaningful judgments could be made and avoid
the halo effect which is the tendency to rate a person in a favorable direction on all traits because
of a good impression made.
• Psychoanalytical approach:
• Freud compared the human mind to an iceberg, a small part that floats on the surface of the
water is the conscious experience and a larger mass under the water is the unconscious
experience which is the storehouse of impulses, passions and primitive instincts that affects
our thoughts and behaviours.
• It was the unconscious part of the mind that Freud thought to explore and did so by “free
association”. In this method a person talks about everything that comes into the conscious
mind no matter how trivial or ridiculous it might seem.
• By analyzing free association, including recall of dreams and early childhood memories, Freud
thought to puzzle out the basic determinants of personality.
A) Structure of personality
1. The Id
It is the collective name for the primitive biological impulses and all instincts.
The acting role of the Id is that of the pleasure principle and immediate gratification.
If is strong it leads to irresponsible, selfish and pleasure seeking behavior.
2. The Ego “reality self”

It contains evaluation, judging, compromising, solution forming and defense creating aspects of
personality.
Most importantly it maintains harmony between the desires of the Id and the aspirations of the
Super-Ego.
If the Ego is weak it will undergo disintegration and will be unable to withstand the strain of the
continued repression.
3. TheSuper-Ego
It is the inhibiting and conscious component of personality.
It functions is to sustain the moral and social values through criticizing the Ego and causes it pain
whenever the latter tends to accept the impulses from the Id.
If the Superego is inflexible and severe, it will result in a rigid, inhibits, unhappy and anxious
person.
B) Psychosexual development of personaliy:
I- Infancy period (0-3 years): a child’s personality is influenced to a large extent by the continuous,
warm, intimate and secure relationship with the mother (stage of pleasure principle and
immediate gratification). This period is divided into Oral and anal phases
1- Oral phase: from birth to 18 months

the child gets pleasure from the mouth.
The child is dependent on the mother and if a child is left for too long on breast feeding it will be
difficult to pass through the further stages of development and will try to achieve his/her
emotional, sexual and nutrient pleasures through the mouth.
2- Anal phase: from 18 months to 3 years

the child experiences pleasure through the inability and ability to control the sphincters.
This is the first challenge between the child’s pleasure (Id) and parent’s desires (Super-Ego).
If parent try to control a child too early this will lead to many obsessive and compulsive traits.
II- Childhood period: Phallic or Genital phase (3 years to 6 years)
the child starts to be interested in his/her genitalia and begins to be curious about the differences
between girls and boys and they start to touch their genitalia.
This may disturb the parents who try and punish the child, where the child does not understand
why this punishment is taking place. The child starts to have sexual fears and this is the origin of
the “castration complex” and the fear of men that they will lose their sexual power.
III- Socialization period: (6 years to 12 years) when the child’s interest start to move away from
the family and to the outside world.
During this period the child acquires the traditions and habits of the society and learns how to
become social and integrate and deal with other children.
IV- Adolescence period: (12 years to 18 years)

the first part of this period is when both boys and girls are interested in the same sex and choose
all the friends from the same sex forming groups, gangs and enjoying journeys, sports and outings
together.
IV- Adolescence period:

The second part they start to become interested in the opposite sex as well as other people’s
opinions and they try hard to be independent to feel a sense of self identity and they usually
attempt to assert themselves and enjoy arguments with their parents trying to be different in
their thoughts, behaviour and appearance.
V- Adulthood or maturity period:

Maturity and personality do not depend on a specific age; the mature adult is a person who can
establish an intimate, continuous and loving relationship with a mature member of the opposite
sex.
They should be able to bear responsibilities of family life and the rearing of children.
This approach understands the individual’s personality by finding out about their unconscious
conflicts and motives.
Projective tests (Rorschach Test and the Thematic Apperception Test-TAT) offer an ambiguous
stimulus to which the individual responds as they wish, so they project their personality or
unconscious through their responses.
3) Social Learning (Behavioral) approach

This approach believes that personality can be learned (environmentally determined) as any
other kind of response. It considers the situation as an important determinant of behavior.
It assumes that different behavior does not necessarily reflect variations on the same
underlying motive they are often discrete responses to different situations.
Some of the individual variables that determine what an individual will do in a particular
situation include the following:
a) Competencies: includes intellectual abilities, social skills and other abilities.
b) Cognitive strategies: the selective attention to information and the way of organizing it into
meaningful units
c) Outcome expectancy: expectations about the consequences of different behaviour
d) Subjective value of outcome
e) Self regulatory systems and plans: rules guiding behavior, self imposed rewards for success
or punishment for failure and ability to plan and execute steps leading to a goal will lead to
difference in behavior.
Methods of assessment:
Social learning theorists assess personality by discovering the kinds of situations in which specific
behavior occurs (either through observation or self report) and noting that stimulus conditions
that appear to match with behavior.
4) Humanistic approach
They are concerned with the self and the individual subjective experiences.
Most humanistic theories stress our positive nature, or push towards growth and self
actualization.
The emphasis is also on the “here and now” rather than on events in early childhood that may
have shaped the individuals personality.
Carl Rogers “client centered approach”

He assumes that each person knows the factors that shape his/her personality and the best
procedures for modifying them and has the ability to change.
The therapists task is to simply facilitate progress towards this change.
Rogers discussed the “self concept” which consists of all the ideas, perceptions and values that
characterize “I” or “me”, it includes the awareness of what “I am” and “what I can do”. There is
also the “ideal self” which is a conception of the person we would like to be. Rogers believed that
the basic forces motivating the human is “Self actualization” towards maintenance and
enhancement of the human species.
Abraham Maslow:
Self actualization meant the development of the full individuality with all parts of the personality
in harmony.
Many people experience transient moments of self actualization called “peak experiences”.
A peak experience is one of happiness and fulfillment, an experience of being in a temporary state
of perfection and goal attainment.
5) Cognitive approach
Cognitions are thoughts, anticipations, beliefs and other mental processes that are peculiar to
any individual.
The cognitive approaches are concerned with how people view their world and with
understanding their behavior as arising from these views.
Kelly: “The Personal Construct Theory”

Behavior is determined by our perceptions and interpretations of our interactions with others,
rather than by the actual interactions themselves.
Kelly used the word “construct” to refer to the particular way of categorizing or making sense of
the world that individuals use. People differ in both number and types of constructs which they
use in interpreting the world. Each person behaves according to his own system of constructing
Rotter: “locus of control theory” which attempts to describe individual differences in the perceived
control over events in people’s lives.
It determine beliefs that individuals hold about the causes of events, and the extent to which
events in their lives are attributed to themselves (internal control) or to external or chance factors
(external control).
Seligman: “learned helplessness theory” which postulated that people who are prone to
depression see adverse happenings in their environment as due to themselves, where as good
events are thought to be due to chance.
According to this theory, an individual’s interpretations or attributions of environmental events

may be instrumental in generating feelings of
Beck:
He believed that depressed patients had a triad of negative view of the past, negative view of the
present and negative view of the future.
• Personality differences in response to illness and treatment

Symptom perception:
This refers to the way in which people perceive symptoms occurring in their own bodies. The
variation is situational and culturally determined.
E.g.: Introverts were found to have a lower pain threshold than extraverts.
Anxiety can amplify the perception of a symptom.
Symptom action: This describes what action people take in response to the perception of a
symptom and in particular whether they seek medical help.
E.g.: The locus of control can influence the type of action which follows the perception of a
symptom. External locus of control patients are more likely to seek medical and psychiatric help.
Symptom formation: Describes the possibility of different types of people might be prone to
different types of disorders. (Type A, Type B)
Response to illness: Some people appear to over-react, and others appear to under react, or deny
the seriousness or inconvenience of an illness.
Response to treatment: Not everybody shows a placebo response, and there is a range in the
magnitude of response among those who do. People who show large placebo responses are
found to be fairly suggestible and dependant. People with more suspicious natures tend not to
respond to placebo tablets.
Learning
The process by which experience produces a relatively permanent change in an organism’s

behavior or abilities.
Learning helps us in mastering new skills and academic subjects.
Learning leads to change in thinking, emotions and behavior.
• Approaches to learning
Behavioral theories:
Focus only on the objectively observable aspects of learning.
They fall under two broad categories of S-R theory
(stimulus- response)
1. S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory without reinforcement

Pavlov- Classical Conditioning
2. S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory with reinforcement
Thorndike- Trial and Error theory
Skinner- Operant Conditioning
1. S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory without reinforcement

Pavlov- Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a term used to describe learning, which has been acquired through
experience.
The Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov introduced classical conditioning through his experiments
on dogs.
Pavlov showed how a reflex (salivation, a natural bodily response to food) could become
conditioned (modified) to an external stimulus (the bell) thereby creating a conditioned
reflex/response.
In order to do this he first showed them food, the sight of which caused them to salivate.
Later Pavlov would ring a bell every time he would bring the food out, until eventually, the dogs
started to salivate just by ringing the bell and without giving the dogs any food.
Components Involved In Classical Conditioning

The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):
It can evoke a response without prior learning or conditioning. For example, when a dog eats
some food it causes his mouth to salivate.
Therefore the food is an unconditioned stimulus, because it causes a reflex response
(salivation) automatically and without the dog having to learn how to salivate.
• Components Involved In Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (CS):

Is created by learning, and therefore does not produce a response without prior
conditioning. For example, if dogs had not learnt to associate the bell with food, they would
not salivate when the bell rings.
Conditioned Reflex (CR):

Is a response that was learnt by associating it with an unconditioned stimulus. For example
salivation in response to hearing the bell WITHOUT any food.
• Phenomena occurring in classical conditioning
Extinction: a conditioned response will disappear over time when the conditioned stimulus is
no longer presented.
Spontaneous recovery: sometimes there is the weak appearance of a previously extinguished

response.
Stimulus generalization: this is when individuals respond in this same way to experience
stimuli. For example, all fuzzy animals scaring a young child instead of just a fuzzy cat.
Stimulus discrimination: organisms can learn to discriminate between various stimuli.
2. S-R theory with reinforcement
A-Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of Learning

learning takes place because of formation of an association between stimulus and response.
He further says that learning takes place when a person makes a number of trials, some
responses do not give satisfaction to the individual but he goes on making further trials until he
gets satisfactory responses.
Thorndike conducted a number of experiments on animals to explain learning.

He placed a hungry cat in a puzzle box.
The box had one door, which could be opened by manipulating a latch of the door.
A fish was placed outside the box.

The cat made random movements inside the box indicating trial and error type of behavior
biting at the box, scratching the box, walking around, in the course of her movements, the latch
was manipulated accidently and the cat came out to get the food.
Over a series of successive trials, the cat took shorter time, committed less number of errors,
and the cat was opened the latch as soon as it was put in the box and learnt the art of opening
the door.
Thorndike concluded that it was only after many random trials that the cat was able to hit upon
the solutions.
He named it as Trial and Error Learning.
B) Skinners’ Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through

rewards and punishments for behavior.
Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence
for that behavior.
Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the
environment to generate consequences"
Skinner introduced a new term- Reinforcement. Behavior that is reinforced tends to be
repeated (i.e. strengthened); behaviour that is not reinforced tends to die out-or be
extinguished (i.e. weakened).
The Skinner box involved placing an animal (such as a rat) into a sealed box with a lever that
would release food when pressed.
If food were released every time the rat pressed the lever, it would press it more and more
because it learnt that doing so gives it food.
Pressing the lever is the operant behaviour, because it is an action that results in a
consequence.
The food that is released as a result of pressing the lever is known as a reinforcer, because it
causes the behavior (lever pressing) to increase.
Food could also be described as a conditioned stimulus because it causes an effect to occur.
A reward is something, which has value to the person giving the reward, but may not
necessarily be of value to the person receiving the reward.
A reinforcer is something, which benefits the person receiving it, and so results in an increase
of a certain type of behavior.
Skinner identified three types of responses can follow behavior:

Neutral response:
Responses from the environment neither increase nor decrease the repetitions of behavior
Reinforcers:
Any event that increases the behavior it follows.
There are two kinds of reinforcers :
1. Positive reinforcers
favorable outcomes that are presented after the behavior. I.e. behavior is strengthened by
the addition of something positive as praise or a direct reward behavior.
2. Negative reinforces
removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these
situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant,
e.g. removal from detention list for students
Negative punishment: occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior
occurs e.g. preventing a student from going on a school trip.
In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases
Schedules of Reinforcement:
Continuous reinforcement - reinforcement is given every time the animal gives the desired
response.
Intermittent reinforcement - reinforcement is given only part of the times the animal gives
the desired response.
Ratio reinforcement - a pre-determined proportion of responses will be reinforced.

Fixed ratio reinforcement - reinforcement is given on a regular ratio, such as every fifth time
the desired behavior is produced.
Variable ration reinforcement (random)- reinforcement is given for a predetermined
proportion of responses, but randomly instead of on a fixed schedule..
Interval reinforcement- reinforcement is given after a predetermined period of time.

Fixed interval reinforcement - reinforcement is given on a regular schedule, such as every five
minutes.
Variable interval reinforcement - reinforcement is given after random amounts of time have
passed.
Skinner found that continuous reinforcement in the early stages of training seems to increase
the rate of learning.
Later, intermittent reinforcement keeps the response going longer and slows extinction.
• Cognitive theory of learning

Learning has been considered partly a cognitive process and partly a social and affective one.
It qualifies as a cognitive process because it involves the functions of attention, perception,
reasoning, analysis, drawing conclusions, making interpretations and giving meaning to the
observed phenomena.
Cognitive learning involves acquisition of knowledge or understanding.
• Applications of learning theories in treatment of psychiatric disorders

3. Aversion therapy in addiction and sexual paraphilia.
4. Systematic desensitization in phobias.
5. Shaping and chaining in mental retardation.
6. Positive reconditioning in nocturnal enuresis.
7. Experimental deconditioning in tics.
• Types of learning
Non-associative learning: A relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a single
stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus. Non-associative learning can be divided
into habituation and sensitization.
Habituation: is a progressive diminution of behavioral response probability with repetition of

stimulus. An animal first responds to a stimulus, but if it is neither rewarding nor harmful the
animal reduces subsequent responses.
Sensitization: the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of

a stimulus.
An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves
that will occur if a person rubs his arm continuously.
Sensitization: After a while, this stimulation will create a warm sensation that will eventually
turn painful.
The pain is the result of the progressively amplified synaptic response of the
Associative learning:
Is the process by which an association between two stimuli or a behavior and a stimulus is
learned.
The two forms of associative learning are classical and operant conditioning as explained
before.
Imprinting:
Is any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life
stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior.
Observational learning:
Observational learning involves a neural component.
Mirror neurons may play a critical role in the imitation of behavior as well as the prediction of
future behavior.
Mirror neurons are thought to be represented in specific sub-regions in the frontal and parietal
lobes, and there is evidence that individual sub-regions respond most strongly to observing
certain kinds of actions.
Play:
Play as a form of learning is central to a child’s learning and development.
Through play, children learn social skills such as sharing and collaboration, emotional skills such
as learning to deal with the emotion of anger, and facilitate the development of thinking and
language skills in children.
There are five types of play
1-Sensorimotor play (functional play), characterized by repetition of activity.
2-Role play occurs from 3 to 15 years of age.
3-Rule-based play authoritative prescribed codes of conduct are primary.
4-Construction play involves experimentation and building.
5-Movement play (physical play).
Episodic learning:
Is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an event.
For example, a fear of dogs that follows being bitten by a dog is episodic learning.
Episodic learning is so named because events are recorded into episodic memory.
Enculturation:
It is the process by which a person learns the requirements of their native culture, and acquires
values and behaviors that are appropriate or necessary in that culture.
The influences which limit direct or shape the individual, whether deliberately or not, include
parents, other adults, and peers.
If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values and rituals of the
culture.
E-learning and augmented learning:

Is a general term used to refer to computer-enhanced learning.
A specific and more diffused e-learning is mobile learning (m-learning), which uses different
mobile telecommunication equipment, such as cellular phones.
Multimedia learning:
Is where a person uses both auditory and visual stimuli to learn information.
This type of learning relies on dual-coding theory.
Rote learning:
Is a technique which focuses on memorizing the material so that it can be recalled by the
learner exactly the way it was read or heard.
The major practice involved in rote learning techniques is learning by repetition, based on the
idea that one will be able to quickly recall the material (but not necessarily its meaning) the
more it is repeated.
• Factors affecting learning
Personal factors
Intelligence.
Attention.
Motivation.
Psychological state.
Physiological state.
Past experiences
Learned materials and learning strategy.

Meaningful more than meaningless materials.
Using of mnemonic devices.
Type of learning Content learning better than rote learning.
Attention and Perceptrion
Attention
• Definition
It is the process by which we select some stimuli for further processing while ignoring others
Or
The ability to focus our awareness on some stimuli while ignoring others.
• Characteristic of attention
Attention span:
The time you can sustain attention
Measured by digit subtraction or days of week inversely
Attention field:
The number of stimuli that you can pay attention to at the same time
Measured by digit 7+2
Attention focus:
The ability to discriminate between stimulus and background.
Adaptability:
If you focus for a long time on one stimulus this leads to adaptation i.e. ↓ attention.
Attention shift:
To avoid the adaptation attention shifts from one focus to another (attention isn't static).
• Types of attention
Involuntary attention:
Involuntary direction of our attention towards the stimulus
e.g. gunshot or a flash of light (stimulus related).
Voluntary attention:
The ability to sustain inner mental operation intentionally without disputation
e.g. listening to a lecture (personal related).
Spontaneous attention:
It is non-conscious effort that made for awareness when the stimulus is interesting
e.g. watching an action movie.
Habitual attention:
The ability to focus on specific stimulus out of a related experience and mental set
e.g. the neurologist who observe personal gait
• Neuroanatomical basis of Attention
Reticular formation (RAS): for arousal state, activation and filtering of stimuli so that the cortex
doesn't become loaded with stimuli.
cerebral cortex: Inferior Parietal , Orbital Frontal , Dorso-lateral and Medial Frontal Lobe
Voluntary awareness of different stimuli.

Focused attention
Sustained attention
B- Response control; switching or shift
Reticular formation (RAS): for arousal state, activation and filtering of stimuli so that the cortex
doesn't become loaded with stimuli.
cerebral cortex: Inferior Parietal , Orbital Frontal , Dorso-lateral and Medial Frontal Lobe
Voluntary awareness of different stimuli.

Focused attention
Sustained attention
B- Response control; switching or shift
Limbic System:
hippocampus: memory encoding and retrieval constrain attention).
Subcortical System:
relay of sensory input through thalamus
B-caudate nucleus: selection of motor responses and coordination of sensory information.
• Factors stimulating attention
External (important in the art of advertising)
Type of stimulus: picture > words

Position of stimulus: upper half > lower
Contrast of stimulus
Intensity of stimulus
Changeability
Repetition of stimulus: flickering light > steady one.
Internal (individual related)
Biological needs: hungry persons attend readily to foodstuff.

Emotional state
Motives
Mental set: your expectations and aspirations affect the scope of stimuli you attend to
Factors stimulating distraction: ↓attention
1. Internal factors:
Physical: fatigue, lack of sleep, malnurt.

social: family troubles
psychological: amotivation, day dreams, obsessions
psychiatric: delusion, hallucination, thought disorder
Factors stimulating distraction: ↓attention
2. External factors:
Light
Noise
Temperature of environment
Perception
It is an active mental process of transferring a sensory stimuli into psychological information

(interpretations of sensory stimuli into meaning).
i.e. cognitive response to sensory input
A percept is a product of a perceptual process.
Difference between sensation and perception
Sensation Perception
Definition The act of receiving stimuli Giving interpretations to
by sensory organs stimuli
Site Primary sensory areas Secondary association areas
(Parietal lobe) (Parietotemporal)
Role of brain Passive active
Basis Physiological Psycho-physiological
(neuropsychological)
University Universal Variable
• Functions of the perceptual system:
This system will have to do the following perceptual functions:

1. Recognition of objects.
2. Localization of objects.
3. Perceptual constancy.
1-Selectivity
It is the first part of the perception process, in which we pay our attention on certain incoming
sensory information.
It is mediated through reticular formation in the brain stem
• Factors affecting perceptual selectivity

A) Stimulus factors
Contrast:
the most important stimulus factor is the extent to which a given stimulus is different from
other stimuli around it (background).
e.g. size, intensity, position, motion.
Changeability:
Perception is a response to some change in the environment (related to adaptation)
e.g.: Continuous bad smell
Darkness
monotonous speech
B) Individual factors:
Emotional state
Motives
Past experience
Mental set: your expectations and aspirations affect the scope of stimuli you
attend to.
2- Organization
It is the second part of the perception process, in which we sort and categorize information
that we perceive based on innate and learned cognitive patterns
• Perception organization theories

1- Gestalt theory “The German word “Gestalt” = whole”
the Gestalt concept: people perceive objects as a whole pattern and the whole is greater than
the sum of its parts i.e. stimuli are usually perceived in groups or being related to one another
The Gestalt principles of grouping include four types: similarity, proximity, continuity, and
closure.
Proximity
perception tends to group stimuli that are close together as part of the same object,
and stimuli that are far apart as two separate objects.
Similarity
Stimuli will be perceived as being together (grouping) if they share same common character.
• Perception organization theories

1- Gestalt theory
Closure
It refers to the mind's tendency to see complete figures or forms even if a picture is
incomplete, partially hidden by other objects, or if part of the information needed to make a
complete picture in our minds is missing.
Continuity
It makes sense of stimuli that overlap: when there is an intersection between two or more
objects, people tend to perceive each as a single uninterrupted object.
2- Perceptual Constancy law

It is the ability of perceptual systems to recognize a stable and consistent object from widely
varying sensory inputs i.e. the tendency to perceive an object you are familiar with as having
a constant shape, size, and brightness despite the stimuli changes that occur.
3- Perception of distance and depth

Auditory cues:
1- distance includes intensity and clarity
2- Direction
Visual cues: we relay on it to correlate the third dimension

binocular cues
monocular cues
Binocular cues refer to those depth cues in which both eyes are needed to perceive.
There are two important binocular cues; convergence and retinal disparity.
Convergence refers to the fact that the closer an object, the more inward our eyes need to turn
in order to focus. The farther our eyes converge, the closer an object appears to be.
Since our eyes see two images which are then sent to our brains for interpretation, the distance
between these two images, or their retinal disparity, provides another cue regarding the distance
of the object.
Monocular cues are those cues which can be seen using only one eye.
They include size; texture, overlap, shading, height, and clarity.
Size refers to the fact that larger images are perceived as closer to us, especially if the two images
are of the same object.
The texture of objects tend to become smoother as the object gets farther away, suggesting that
more detailed textured objects are closer.
The shading or shadows of objects can give a clue to their distance, allowing closer objects to
cast longer shadows which will overlap objects which are farther away.
4- Perception of motion
Motion can be perceived in absence of movement.eg stroboscopic motion (flash dots).
Real motion with selective adaptation as in airplane.

• Interpretation
It is the key element to discover the meaning of our perception as it answers the question
what does it mean
Mechanism: By matching a new stimulus against generalized models that are stored in the
memory e.g.: familiar events or faces generalized model is prototype or schema
• Disorders of perception
Perceptual loss (agnosia)

Visual agnosia: inability to recognize images with intact vision
alexia (inability to recognize written material with intact vision and previous knowledge).
Prospagnosia: Faces
Perceptual distortion:
Micropsia (objects appear smaller)
macropsia (objects appear larger)
hyperacusis (sounds are louder)
hypoacusis (sounds are softer).
Perceptual deception:
Illusions: misinterpretation of existing stimuli, e.g. mirage, seeing a rope as a snake.
Hallucinations: perception in the absence of external stimuli
• Extrasensory perception
These are phenomena where processes of information and/or energy exchange exist without
explanation in terms of current science or physical mechanisms.
Telepathy: thought transference from one person to another without the mediation of any
known channel of sensory communication.
Clairvoyance: perception of concealed objects i.e. that does not give a stimulus to the known
senses.
Precognition: perception of future events without any known inferential process.
Memory
• Definition
It is the process by which we select some stimuli for further processing while ignoring others
Or
The ability to focus our awareness on some stimuli while ignoring others.
• Functions
Encoding is an automatic process and happens without our awareness.
When information comes into our memory system (from sensory input) it needs to be changed
into a form that the system can cope with, so that it can be stored.
Encoding is the modification of information to fit the preferred format for the memory system.
we do it in three ways:
1- Semantic Encoding
encoding of meaning including meaning of words
2- Acoustic Encoding
encoding of sounds
3- Visual Encoding
encoding of pictures, images
Storage is the process of holding or retention of encoded information in memory over time.
This concerns the nature of memory stores…i.e.
• where the information is stored

• how long the memory lasts for (duration)
• how much can be stored at any time (capacity)
• what kind of information is held.
The way we store information affects the way we retrieved it.

- In terms of storing material, we have three stages of memory
• Sensory Memory
• Short-term memory
• Long-term Memory
Retrieval is the process of recovery the information, which is stored in memory (remembering).
When we are asked to retrieve something from memory, the differences between short-term
memory and long-term memory become very clear.
Anatomical areas involved in memory:

• Hippocampus
• Amygdala
• Temporal Lobe
• Medial Frontal Gyrus
• Mammillary Bodies
Neurotransmitters involved in memory:

Acetyl choline
Serotonin
Dopamine
Nor-Epinephrine
Some Neuropeptides
Others (protein, DNA, RNA)
• Types and Levels of Memory
Sensory Memory:
Hold large amounts of information.
Registered at the sensory receptors (auditory, visual.…)
Very brief period : - visual:1/2 second
auditory:3 seconds
It is based on electrical changes.
Short Term Memory (STM):

Limited capacity (7±2 bits of information).
Limited duration (15-20 seconds).
Limited storage.
Encoding = we have to pay attention to the information process.
Forgetting occur by decay or displacement.
Information in STM could pass to long-term memory LTM rehearsal or consolidation.

It is stored and retrieved sequentially. e.g., if a group of participants are given a list of
words to remember and then asked to recall the fourth word on the list, participants
go through the list in the order they heard to retrieve the information.
• Types and Levels of Memory
Long Term Memory:

Unlimited capacity.
Very Long duration.
Permanent but subjected to distortion or replacement.
It is stored and retrieved by association.
Organizing information can help and aid retrieval.
Long term memory is based on:

Neurotransmitters (Acetyl choline mainly).
Formation of new circuits.
Protein synthesis involvement of RNA, DNA.
• Types of long term memory
Procedural memory: is a apart of long term memory that is responsible, for knowing how to
do things i.e. memory of motor skills.
It does not involve conscious thought and is not declarative. For example how to ride a
bicycle.
Semantic memory: is a part of long-term memory that is responsible for storing information
about the world.
This includes knowledge about the meaning of words as well as general knowledge, for
example, London is the capital of England. It involves conscious thought and is declarative.
Episodic memory: is a part of the long-term memory responsible for storing information
about events (i.e. episodes) that we have experience in our lives. It involves conscious
thought and declarative.
e.g. Memory of our 1st day at faculty.
Causes of Forgetting
Interference:
-Proactive interference:
when an old memory makes it more difficult or impossible to remember a new memory.
-Retroactive interference:
when new information interferes with the ability to remember previously learned information.
• Causes of Forgetting
Repression:
It is sometimes called motivated forgetting. It occurs when anxiety producing or traumatic
events are forced into the unconscious level of the mind (repression is a concept introduced by
Freud).
Failure of encoding:
one reason that we forget is because we fail to encode the information so that the information
never entered the long term memory for example old age.
Failure of registration:
consolidation and storage of the learned materials. This may be due to changes in molecular
structures in the areas implicated such as hippocampus and limbic system. It may be due to:
• Lesion or disease in these areas.
• Being under the effect of narcotics.
• Head trauma.
Failure of retrieval:
depends on
• The subject's emotional and physical state.
• The subject's interest and psychological state.
• Being under the effect of drugs.
• Guidelines to improve memory

Heightened emotionality at encoding generally creates memories that are easier to retrieve.
Meaningfulness: in general meaningful material (or material that can be made meaningful) is
easier to retrieve than meaningless material.
Mnemonic devices (encoding devices): these are strategies used a encoding in order to help
organization of the learned material to be retrieved easier e.g. rhyming, chaining, mental
images.
Over-Learning: This involves the rehearsal of information (encoding) more than is needed for
immediate recall. Within limit the more one over-learns, the greater the likelihood of accurate
retrieval.
Visualize concepts to improve memory and recall: many people benefit greatly from visualizing
information they study. Pay attention to the photographs, charts and other graphics in your
textbooks. If you do not visual cues help, try creating your own. Draw charts or figures in the
margins of your notes or use highlighters or pens in different colors to group related ideas in
your written study materials.
Teach new concepts to another person: reading materials out loud significantly improves
memory. It has also discovered that having students actually teach new concepts to others
enhances understanding and recall.
Focus your attention on the materials you are studying: in order for information to move from
short term into long term, you need to actively attend to this information. Avoid studying in
places of distractions such as television, music and other diversions.
Rotate new information to things you already know: by establishing relationships between new
ideas and previously existing memories, you can dramatically increase the likelihood of recalling
the recently learned information.
Change your study routine. If you are accustomed to studying in one specific location, try moving
to a different spot your next study session. Novelty can increase effectiveness and improve your
long term recall.
• Disorders of Memory
Amnesia: partial or total inability to recall past experience.
Psychogenic amnesias:
a- Anxiety amnesia: Anxiety tends to impair perception, concentration, understanding and
consequently memory.
b. Dissociative or hysterical amnesia: there is loss of memory and identity but personality
remains intact. It is often related to the conflicting situation.
Organic amnesia :
A. Transient global amnesia occurred due transient ischemic cerebral attaches (TICA)
B. Anterograde amnesia: amnesia for events occurs after a point of time. They may occur in
head injuries due to failure of encoding storage and registration of information at the
time around trauma.
C. Retrograde amnesia: amnesia for events occurs before a point of time.
D. Amnesia for recent events occurs early in dementia.
E. Amnesia for recent and remote events in advanced cases of dementia.
The Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS)

is a neuropsychological test designed to measure different memory functions in a person
(age 16 through 90).
A person performance is reported as 5 index scores ( auditory memory, visual memory, visual
working memory,immediate memory and delayed memory).
Thinking
• Definition
It is a mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to
understand information and communicating information to others.
It can be considered “Language of the Mind”.
Thinking requires the ability to imagine and mentally represent objects and events that are
not physically present (mental image), i.e., concept formation.
Concepts: are the building blocks of mental representation and thoughts (it is the tool of
thinking).
Concepts are mental categories we form to group objects, events, or situations that share
common characteristics or features.
- Concepts represents categories or groups not just individual cases

- Idea is a specific item (individualization)
To know the concept, It is essential to know the common properties of this categories
(attributes).
• Attributes: They are elements of stimuli, which are abstracted to enable us to form concepts.
• Rule: The rule is the way in which attributes are related.
• Prototype: It is the model or best example, i.e., the most typical and familiar members of a
category, or concept class.
• The types of concepts:

1. Formal concept: These have rigid rules or features that define a particular concept (i.e., all
or nothing categorization process). Example: Categories for solid, liquid or gas
2. Natural concept: These are concepts people form as a result of their experience in the
real world.
They do not have boundaries that are sharply defined.
• Members of natural concepts share a kind of “family resemblance” that helps us to

recognize that they belong to the same category, even if they are not identical.
• Example: Space shuttle & hot air balloon are both examples of the natural concept
“aircraft”
Acquiring Concepts
1) Inborn Concepts: As the concept of “time” and “space”.

2) Learned Concepts: It can either be explicitly taught or learned by experience.
• Concept hierarchy: Organize basic concepts to specific ones as animals.
• Concept formation:
Learning a new concept is a matter of learning the attributes that characterize it and the rule
that relates these attributes
Mostly; we form concepts with mental images or typical examples (prototypes).
e.g.: a pigeon is a prototype of a bird, but a penguin is not
• Phases of concept formation

1) Generalization:
Inability to discover differences between familiar and unfamiliar objects.
It occurs usually during the first three years of life.
2) Differentiation:
Making distinction between different items.
Usually this phase extends along childhood period.
Phases of concept formation
3) Abstraction:
It is the ability to grasp the essentials of a whole, to break the whole into its parts, and to
discern common properties.
• Types of thinking
1- Imaginative (Autistic) Thinking
1- It is unrealistic, uncontrolled thinking.
2- Not goal directed.
3- Does not need attention.
4- Does not lead to exhaustion.
5- Forms: a) Imaginative play in children.
6- b) Day dreams.
• If moderate it may be beneficial because it is a way of gratifying desires and wishes.

• If severe…..withdrawal from reality and isolation from community
2) Controlled or purposive Thinking

It is a creative type of thinking and can be logic and goal directed.
Examples of controlled thinking:
a) All forms of creation as in story writing, poems, and various forms of arts.
b) Scientific innovations.
c) Problem solving.
• Purposive thinking passes through the following four phases:

a) Preparation
- Recognizing the problem.
- Defining the goals.
b) Information gathering
- Collection of data related to the problem.
c) Solving state:
- Elimination of the non-essential information and irrelevant solution.
- Choosing the most appropriate solution.
- Putting the different and alternative solutions.
- Use of different strategies for solving problems.
d) Evaluation: Assessment of results/Criticism.

Problem solving
- It is an active intellectual or cognitive process requires manipulation of cognition to resolve
a problem.
- It is one of the highest cognitive processes that requires:
1) Perceive the problem nature.
2) Learns the most efficient path towards the solution.
3) Memories are used as we go along.
4) Problem solving
A) Strategies:
1) Trial and Error
- Mechanical solution.
- Problem solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a
successful one is found.
2) Algorithms
- A systematic step-by-step method of trying every possible solution.
- Methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
e.g.: Obsessive personality never to be creative → All his life by algorithms.
3) Heuristics
- Heuristics are simple thinking strategies in which generating and testing hypothesis that
may solve the problem in a sensible organized way.
- An educated guess based on prior experience that helps narrow down - -- the possible
solutions for a problem.
Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms. e.g. to reach a
case diagnosis: what common is common
4) Reduction strategy
- Used to deal with complex problems.
- This can be done by cutting it down into parts.
- Fixing each part.
- At the end the problem will be fixed.
5) Finding analogue
An analogy is a similarity between two or more items, events or situations.
Example: if you observe that you do well on a test for one class, you may try that technique
again next time you have a test, even if the next test is in a different class.
5) Creative thinking:
Creativity is the ability to produce valued outcomes in a novel way.
Creative solutions to problem are original new, innovative, and useful. Creative means
more unusual, rare, or different.
We should not view the plan as creative if it does not work.
Seeing a problem in a new way, or combining elements of a problem in a new and

different way, may lead to creative solutions.
• Creative Problem Solving Stages

1. Preparation:
The basic elements of the problem are considered.
Past experience becomes relevant, but should not become restrictive.
Different ways of expressing the problem are considered, but a solution is not found yet.
It is important to overcome the negative effects of mental set and functional fixedness.
2. Incubation: In this stage, the problem is put away for a while and not thought about.
Perhaps unconscious process can be brought to bear on the problem.
3. Illumination: This is the most mysterious stage of the problem-solving process. Like insight,
a potential solution to a problem seems to materialize from nowhere.
4. Verification: Now the proposed solution must be tested (or verified) to see it if it does in
fact provide the answer to the question posed by the problem.
• Elements of creativity:
a) Originality: seeing unique solutions to a problem.
b) Fluency: generating a large numbers of possible solutions.
c) Flexibility: shifting with ease from one type of problem solving strategy to another.
• Divergent thinking (ability to produce many alternatives or ideas) is linked to creativity.

• Convergent thinking (attempting to find one correct answer) is linked to conventional, non-
creative thinking (e.g., 2 + 2 = ?).
• Key Barriers to Problem Solving
1. Mental Sets:
Persistence use of strategies that have worked in the past even if no longer appropriate.
We often form expectations or set tendency when we try to solve problem so, this often
interfere with what are doing.
2. Functional Fixedness:
It is a type of mental set in which an object is seen as serving a few fixed functions.
i.e. Thinking of an object as only functioning in its usual way.
3. Confirmation Bias
Preferring information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring
contradictory evidence.
4- Availability heuristic: estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in

memory.
d) Representativeness heuristic:
Rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to
represent or match particular prototypes.
e) Framing heuristic:
Decision making based on the frame work in which a situation or item is presented.
Intelligence
Definition
It is the general ability to solve intellectual problems on basis of past learning and present
grasp of essentials or the ability to solve problems and to cope with environment.
• Theories of Intelligence
▪ Charles Spearman- General Intelligence (g factor):
- He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and
numerically expressed.
- He viewed intelligence as a single general ability
▪ Louis Thurstone (Primary Mental Abilities):
- Instead of viewing intelligence as a single general ability, he focused on seven different
"primary mental abilities.“
1- Verbal comprehension: ability to understand words.

2- Word fluency: ability to think of words rapidly.
3- Number : the ability to do mathematic problems.
4- Space: the ability to understand spatial relationship.
5- Rote memory: ability to memorize and recall.
6- Perceptual: grasp similarities, differences and details of objects.
7- Reasoning: ability to understand principles of problem solving.
8- General factors: linking all characteristics.
▪ Howard Gardner- Multiple Intelligences: Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of

human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities.
His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are
valued within different cultures.
▪ The eight intelligences Gardner described are:

1- Visual-spatial Intelligence.
2- Verbal-linguistic Intelligence.
3- Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence.
4- Logical-mathematical Intelligence.
5- Interpersonal Intelligence.
6- Musical Intelligence.
7- Intra personal Intelligence.
8- Naturalistic Intelligence.
▪ Robert Sternberg:
Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to,
selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one’s life."
While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability,
he instead suggested some of Gardner's intelligences are better viewed as individual talents.
Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence,' which is comprised of three

different factors:
• Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities.

• Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal with new
situations using past experiences and current skills.
• Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment
• Intelligent Quotient calculation (IQ)

It was first coined by William Stern, it continues to spur controversy over the use of
intelligence tests, cultural biases, influences on intelligence and even the very way we define
intelligence.
• Intelligent Quotient calculation (IQ)

It is mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100.
- Mental age: is the score obtained by a child who passes all the test items which are
normally passed by the average ability child of his age.
- Chronological age: actual age.
No available unit for IQ.
- Average intelligence: If both are near to each other.
- Above average intelligence: if mental age is more than chronological age.
- Below average: if chronological age is more than mental age.
• Distribution of intelligence
 Genius ≥ 140.
 Superior: 120-140.
 Above average: 110-120
 average: 90-110.
 Below average: 80-90.
 Borderline 70-80.
 Mental retardation…..mild=moron:50-70
o moderate=imbicil:25-50
o severe=idiot: below 25
• Distribution of intelligence
Growth of intelligence: This continues throughout childhood. It increases progressively till
age of 15 years, then more slowly till the age of 18 years
• Factors determining intelligence
Evidence of genetic influences:

- Twin studies suggest that identical twins IQ's are more similar than those of fraternal twins
Siblings reared together in the same home have IQ's that are more similar than those of
adopted children raised together in the same environment.
Evidence of environmental influences:

- Identical twins reared apart have IQ's that are less similar than identical twins reared
in the same environment.
- School attendance has an impact on IQ scores.
- Children who are breastfed during the first three to five months of life score higher
on IQ tests at age 6 than same-age children who were not breastfed.
- Hereditary is responsible for 70% of intelligence, while environment factors affect 30% of
intelligence.
- Enrichment the environment will lead to general increase in levels of intelligence by about
20-30 points.
Standardization: The median Full Scale IQ is centered at 100, with a standard deviation of 15.
In a normal distribution, the IQ range of one standard deviation above and below the mean
(i.e., between 85 and 115) is where approximately 68% of all adults would fall
• Differences in intelligence
Group difference in intelligence:
i. Sex: females do relatively better in tests involving language; males do relatively better
in mathematical tests.
ii. Race: no difference.
iii. Country and city children: slight superiority of IQ in city children.
Intelligence tests
- Stanford Binet test (2-18 years): This test is very useful in assessing the intellectual
capabilities of people ranging from young children.
- The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children (5-15 years).
- The Wechsler preschool Intelligence Scale for children (below 5 years).
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is a test designed to measure intelligence in
adults and older adolescents.
Subscales of Wechsler intelligence tests:
A-verbal IQ:
1- verbal comprehension index:
vocabulary, similarities, information, comprehension.
2- working memory:
Digit span( attention, concentration, mental control.
- Arithmatic.
Letter, number sequences.
B-performance IQ:
1- perceptual organization index
- Picture completion.
- Block design( visual abstract processing)
- Matrix reasoning ( non verbal abstract problem solving).
2- processing speed index:
Symbol coding(visual motor coordination, motor and mental speed).
- Symbol search: scanning speech.
• Uses of intelligence tests
i. Educational purpose: to direct according to abilities.

ii. Vocational guidance: to select employers to certain jobs.
iii. Measurement of level of intellectual impairment in certain diseases.
iv. Marital counseling
v. To check effect of therapy on intellectual abilities.
• The mentally gifted

Giftedness is a demonstrated achievement or aptitude for excellence in any of these areas:
1.Psychomotor ability: strength, speed, and quickness.
2. Visual performance: unusual talent for art or music.
3. Leadership ability.
4. Creative or productive thinking.
5. Intellectually gifted.
Emotional intelligence:
Is the ability to identify, assess, and control the emotions of oneself, of others and of groups.
The our branches of emotional intelligence :

1) Perceiving emotions: it is understanding emotions accurately.
2) Reasoning emotions: use emotions to promote thinking and cognitive activity
3) Understand emotions: it is understanding the cause of emotions
4) Managing emotions: regulate and to respond appropriately to the emotions of others
- The influence of non-intellective factors on intelligent behavior.

1) Interpersonal intelligence: the capacity to understand intentions, motivations and desires
of other people.
2) Intrapersonal intelligence: the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings,
fears and motivation.
Aggression and violence

• Definition
Aggression is an intentional behavior aimed at causing either physical or psychological
pain. It intends to harm another living being and to increase social dominance.
Violence is the severe form of aggression
Violence is directed towards nonliving things
• Definition
1- It is a behavior → not an emotion as anger
→ not a motive as revenge
→ not a negative attitude as
ethnic and racial rejection
2- It is intended not an accident.
• Forms of aggression
1-Physical aggression is aggression that involves harming others physically e.g. hitting,
kicking, stabbing, or shooting them.
2-Nonphysical aggression includes:

- Relational or social aggression, which is defined as intentionally harming another
person’s social relationships e.g. by gossiping about another person, excluding others from
our friendship.
- Verbal aggression (yelling, screaming, swearing).
- Nonverbal aggression also occurs in the form of sexual, racial, and homophobic jokes
and epithets, which are designed to cause harm to individuals.
• Theories of Aggression
1- Biological Theories of Aggression
A) Genetic factor:
- Twin Studies: Concordance rates for monozygotic twins is higher than dizygotic as
regards aggressive behavior, when one of two identical twins tends to be violent, the other
twin will also tend to be violent.
- Presence of extra Y chromosome has already been identified as a risk factor for
aggression, and 7% of criminals in prison are xyy
B) Anatomical Basis:
Amygdala: Stimulation of the amygdala results in augmented aggressive behavior, while
lesions of this area greatly reduce one's competitive drive and aggression.
In animal studies damage to the amygdala increased the proportion of rats displaying
aggression.
Hypothalamus: it is believed to serve a regulatory role in aggression. The hypothalamus
causes aggressive behavior when electrically stimulated, but also has receptors that
determine aggression levels through the neurotransmitters serotonin and vasopressin.
Frontal lobe: helps to control impulsive behavior

Lesions in the frontal cortex are characterized by aggression, irritability and short tempers.
Hypo function of the frontal lobes has been found in studies on violent criminals.
C) Neuro-chemical factors:
Serotonin is the major neurotransmitter implicated in the regulation of violence
Dec.5HT: aggression, impulsivity and suicide
Inc.5HT as SSRIs: calmness, decrease violence
Catecholamines (dopamine, norepinephrine) may potentiate violent behavior
Testosterone may influence aggressiveness, but is more associated with dominance than
aggression
2- Psychological theories of aggression:

A. Psychoanalytical Theory (innate theories).
B. Humanistic Theory (drive theories).
C. Social Learning theory.
Psychoanalytical Theories (Instinctive theory):

It states that all human beings are genetically or constitutionally programmed for
aggressive behaviors i.e. innate and inevitable.
Sigmund Freud (the father of psychoanalysis) In his early theory, Freud asserts that human
behaviors are motivated by sexual and instinctive drives known as the libido, which is
energy derived from the Eros, or life instinct. Thus, the repression of such libidinal urges is
displayed as aggression.
Later, Freud added the concept of Thanatos, or death force, to his Eros theory of human
behavior. Contrary to the libido energy emitted from the Eros, Thanatos energy
encourages destruction and death. In this conflict between Eros and Thanatos, some of the
negative energy of the Thanatos is directed toward others, to prevent the self-destruction
of the individual.
Thus, Freud claimed that the displacement of negative energy of the Thanatos onto others
is the basis of aggression.
Freud's psychoanalytic theory demonstrates the idea that aggression is an innate

personality characteristic common to all humans, and aggression in children is instinctual
and should be resolved by adulthood.
Lorenz Theory: (The evolutionary theory of aggression)

Lorenz looked at instinctual aggressiveness as a product of evolution.
Aggressiveness is beneficial and allows for the survival and success of populations of
aggressive species since the strongest animals would eliminate weaker ones and over the
course of evolution, the result would be an ultimate stronger, healthier population.
Humanistic Theory:
There are various external condition as humiliation, frustration, physical pain leads to
strong motive to engage in harm-producing behavior like overt assaultive behavior i.e.
Aggression is an elicited external drive.
Frustration-aggression hypothesis:
It attributes that aggression is an impulse created by an innate need. In this theory,
frustration and aggression are linked in a cause and effect relationship. Frustration is the
cause of aggression and aggression is the result of frustration.
Social learning Theory:

Albert Bandura and his colleagues were able to demonstrate one of the ways in which
children learn aggression. Bandura's social learning theory proposes that learning occurs
through observation and interaction with other people.
Regarding aggression as any form of behavior that can be learnt. It acquire such response
through either past experience or receive various rewards for performing such actions
It is evitable because it is learnt and can be extincted
• Media violence
Although most young people who are exposed to a great deal of violence in TV and movies
and playing violent video games do not become violent criminals, they can become more
open to acts of violence.
However, media violence is explicitly not considered a causal influence of aggression but in
a combination with genetic and early social influences could have an influence.
• Determinants of aggression
1. Social and Environmental determinants

Frustration is a major cause of aggression. The frustration aggression theory states that
aggression increases if a person feels blocked from achieving a goal.
Pain and discomfort increase aggression. Even the simple act of placing one's hands in hot
water can cause an aggressive response.
Uncomfortable hot weather and crowdedness have been implicated as factors in a

number of studies. Students were found to be more aggressive and irritable after taking a
test in a crowded and hot classroom.
2. Previous aggressive experience:

When aggressive behavior has rewarded us in past experiences, we are more likely to act
aggressively in the future.
3. Exposure to aggressive models:

Aggression can be learned through cultural models of violence. Kids who view violent acts
are more likely to show aggressive behavior but also fear that the world is scary and that
something bad will happen to them.
TV characters often show risky behaviors, such as smoking and drinking, and also reinforce
gender-role and racial stereotypes.
• Methods for reducing aggression
1. Punishment
Physical punishment is itself aggressive, it actually models such behavior to children and
may engage greater aggressiveness, punishment often fails to reduce aggression because
it does not communicate what the aggressor should do, only what he should not do.
it may be effective deterrent to overt aggression if it is non-physical and delivered

immediately after aggression.
2. Catharsis:
The theory of catharsis predicts that venting one’s anger would serve to make one less
likely to engage in subsequent acts of aggression. Guided by this theory, many educators
encourage aggressive person to express aggression in another form as contact sport.
3. Defusing anger through apology:

Apology plays an integral part to reduce aggressive behavior but the first question is
whether the person believes an apology is even necessary and here a gender difference is
seen, many men think that apology is not “manly “.
4. Modeling Nonaggressive Behavior:

Exposing children to non-aggressive models, to people who, when provoked, express
themselves in a restrained, rational, pleasant manner. Later, children will behave
peacefully and gently if put in a provoking situation.
5. Training in communication and problem – solving skills:

People are not born knowing how to express anger non-violently, teaching people
techniques how to communicate anger in constructive ways, how to negotiate and
compromise when conflicts arise and how to be more sensitive to the needs and desires of
others.
6. Building Empathy:
Empathy has shown significant effect in reducing levels of aggression among school
children while raising social/emotional competence and reducing anger.
7. Aggression Replacement Training (ART) Cognitive behavioral intervention focused on

adolescents, a program that has three components: Social skills, Anger Control Training,
and Moral Reasoning.
8- Humor.
9- Participation in an absorbing cognitive tasks (problem solving situation).
10- Medications if needed.

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Edited By Mohamed Abdeljalel By Dr.

Hossam Elkhatib Med Psy

• Intended learning outcome (ILOs)

• Perspectives within Psychology

B) Preoperational stage (2-6 years):

C) Concrete operational stage (6–12 years):

D) Formal operational stage (above 12 years):

1–3 Autonomy vs. shame Perception of self as Feeling inadequate to

• Nine categories of behavior constitute temperament

• Three broad temperament types are described

• Long-term implications of attachment deprivation:

2. Conventional morality (10-13 years):

2) Length and height:

2) Gross motor movements:

• Personality is formed of:

• Factors affecting personality

2) Geographical factors: which include a number of readymade impressions of stereotypes (e.g.

• Approaches to understanding personality

1) Trait (Biological) approach :

1. According body image 2. According traits

• Kretschmer • Carl Jung

1. According to the body image

Pyknic Asthenic Athletic Dysplastic

1. According to the body image

2. According to the personality traits

1. Temperament: is unconscious, automatic, mainly genetic and is sub-cortical.

- It is related to the neurotransmitter Noradrenalin& Serotonin in the Median Raphe Nuclei.

2. The Ego “reality self”

B) Psychosexual development of personaliy:

1- Oral phase: from birth to 18 months

2- Anal phase: from 18 months to 3 years

IV- Adolescence period: (12 years to 18 years)

IV- Adolescence period:

V- Adulthood or maturity period:

3) Social Learning (Behavioral) approach

Carl Rogers “client centered approach”

The therapists task is to simply facilitate progress towards this change.

Kelly: “The Personal Construct Theory”

According to this theory, an individual’s interpretations or attributions of environmental events

• Personality differences in response to illness and treatment

The process by which experience produces a relatively permanent change in an organism’s

1. S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory without reinforcement

1. S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory without reinforcement

Components Involved In Classical Conditioning

• Components Involved In Classical Conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus (CS):

Conditioned Reflex (CR):

• Phenomena occurring in classical conditioning

Spontaneous recovery: sometimes there is the weak appearance of a previously extinguished

2. S-R theory with reinforcement

A-Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of Learning

Thorndike conducted a number of experiments on animals to explain learning.

A fish was placed outside the box.

B) Skinners’ Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through

Skinner identified three types of responses can follow behavior:

There are two kinds of reinforcers :

Ratio reinforcement - a pre-determined proportion of responses will be reinforced.

Interval reinforcement- reinforcement is given after a predetermined period of time.