Non-Euclidean Geometry

 The study of geometry on surfaces which are not flat.

 Any geometry that is not the same as Euclidean.
 Can be seen by drawing lines on a sphere or other object.
 Non-Euclidean geometry studies curved, rather than flat surfaces.
 Non-Euclidean Geometry may be more useful.
Two types of Non-Euclidean Geometries
1. Hyperbolic Geometry (Lobachevsky-Bolyai-Gauss Geometry)
 Two parallel lines are taken to converge in one direction and diverge in the other.
Beltrami-Klein model
 Also called projective model is the hyperbolic surface is mapped to the interior of a circle, with
geodesics in the hyperbolic surface corresponding to chords in the circle.
Poincare Disk Model
 It is also called the conformal disk model.
 It is a model of 2-dimensional hyperbolic geometry in which all points are inside the unit disk and
straight lines are either circular arcs.
Poincare half-plane model
 It is a model of the hyperbolic plane.
 It consists of the points in the complex upper half-plane, but it has a non-standard arc length
element.
Lorentz or Hyperboloid model
 It employs a 2-dimensional hyperboloid of revolution embedded in 3-dimensional Minkowski space.
2. Elliptic Geometry
 It is the geometry of the sphere (then 2-dimensional surface of a 3 dimensional solid ball), where
congruence transformations are the rotations of the sphere about its center.
Model for Elliptic Geometry
 Any pair of lines must intersect.
 Saccheri Hypothesis is angles c and d are obtuse
 Angle sum of a triangle is greater than pi.
Algebra and Number Theory
 The two oldest fundamental branches of mathematics that are at the very center of mathematics
even today.
 Developed together, enriching each other in the process, and this often makes it difficult to draw a
precise boundary separating these subjects.
Algebra
 The word “algebra” means many things.
 Part of the title of Al-Khw¯arizm¯ı’s book on the subject, but the subject itself goes back4000 years
ago to ancient Babylonia and Egypt.
 About solving numerical problems that we would now identify as linear and quadratic equations.
1500s
 Symbolic algebra was developed – has symbols for the arithmetic operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, powers, and roots as well as symbols for grouping expressions
(such as parentheses), and most importantly, used letters for variables.
1600s
 Algebra become more flourished. Coordinates, analytic geometry, and calculus with derivatives,
integrals, and series were developed in that century.
During the second half of the 19th century, sets in which any two elements can be added or multiplied
together to give a third element of the same set. The elements of the sets concerned could be numbers,
functions, or some other objects.
 A definitive treatise, Modern Algebra, was written in 1930 by the Dutch mathematician Bartel van
der Waerden, and the subject has had a deep effect on almost every branch of mathematics.
Modern Algebra
 Also called abstract algebra, branch of mathematics concerned with the general algebraic structure
of various sets (such as real numbers, complex numbers, matrices, and vector space), rather than
rules and procedures for manipulating their individual elements.
Francois Viete (1540-1603)
 Lawyer, French Mathematician, Astronomer and advisor to King Henri III & IV.
 Father of Modern Algebra
 Focused on algebraic equations in his mathematical writings.
  He used letters as symbols for quantities, both known and unknown.
Évariste galois (1811-1832)
 Galois is renowned for his work on group theory and Galois theory.
 He developed a profound understanding of the solvability of polynomial equations, which eventually
led to the foundation of Galois theory, a fundamental concept in modern algebra.
Niels henrik abel (1802-1829)
 Group theory
 Solvability of polynomial equations
Richard dedekind (1831-1916)
 Number theory and algebraic number theory.
 He introduced the concept of ideals.
David hilbert(1862-1943)
 He made a substantial contributions to the development of axiomatic systems in algebra.
 His 23 Problems set the agenda for 20th-centurymathematics.
 His work on invariant theory and field theory had a significant impact on algebra.
Emmy noether(1882-1935)
 She was known for Noether’s theorem.
 She made a major contributions to ring theory,group theory, and abstract algebra in general.
Andre weil (1906-1998)
 Renowned for his work on number theory and algebraic geometry.
 He played a crucial role in the development of algebraic number theory, introducing the concept of
Adeles and ideles.
Serge lang(1927-2005)
 He made a contributions to various areas of algebra,including number theory and algebraic
geometry.
 His work includes contributions to Diophantine Geometry,transcendental number theory, and
modular forms.
Alexander grothendieck(1928-2014)
 He was a pioneer in category theory and homological algebra.
 He revolutionized algebraic geometry by developing schemes and the theory of motives.
John thompson (1932-2020)
 He was awarded the Fields Medal for his work in finite group theory.
 He is known for proving Thompson’s theorem and his contributions to the classification of finite
simple groups.
Number theory
 Number theory, also known as ‘higher arithmetic’, is one of the oldest branches of mathematics and
is used to study the properties of positive integers.
 It helps to study the relationship between different types of numbers such as prime numbers,
rational numbers, and algebraic integers.
 Considered as one of the purest forms of mathematics, until digital computers proved that this
theory can provide answers to real-world problems.
Definition of number theory
 It is a branch of pure mathematics devoted to the study of natural numbers and integers.
 It is the study of the set of positive whole numbers usually called the set of natural numbers.
 This theory is experimental and theoretical.While the experimental number theory leads to
questions and suggests different ways to answer them, the theoretical number theory tries to
provide a definite answer by solving it.
 Theoretically, numbers are classified into different types, such as natural numbers,whole numbers,
complex numbers, and so on.
Euclid (c.300 bc)
 Euclid’s “Elements” included the first know proof of the infinitude of prime numbers.
 It was laid to the foundation for much of number theory.
Pierre-simon laplace (1749-1827)
 He made significant contributions to probability theory and number theory.
 He introduced the concept of generating functions in number theory.
Carl friedrich gauss(1777-1855)
 Gauss is often called the “Prince of Mathematicians.”
 His work on number theory includes the law of
  Quadratic reciprocity and his work on modular
 Arithmetic and congruences.
Peter gustav lejeune dirichlet(1805-1859)
 Dirichlet made important contributions to number theory.
 Introduced Dirichlet’s Theorem on arithmetic progressions, which has applications in the
distribution of primes.
Leonard adleman (1945)
 He was a computer scientist and mathematician.
 Co-inventor of the RSA encryption algorithm.
Andrew wiles (1953)
 Wiles is famous for proving Fermat’s Last Theorem, a long-standing conjecture that had puzzled
mathematicians for centuries.
Pierre deligne (1944)
 Known for his work in algebraic number theory,and the proof of the Weil conjectures,which have
deep connections to algebraic geometry and number they.
Ken ribet (1948)
 Ribet is known for proving a critical step in Wiles’s proof of Fermat’s Last Theorem.
 His work established the link between elliptic curves and modular forms.
Godfrey harold hardy (1877-1947) and john littlewood (1885-1977)
 Hardy and Littlewood made important contributions to analytic number theory, including the
famous Hardy- Littlewood Conjectures.
Srinivasa ramanujan (1887-1920)
 Ramanujan was a self-taught Indian mathematician. He made some numerous groundbreaking
discoveries in number theory, including remarkable results related to partitions, modular forms,
and theta functions.
Number theory sub-classification
1. Odd numbers
-Odd numbers are those that are not divisible by the number 2. Numbers like 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, and so
on are considered as odd numbers.
-On the number line, 1 is considered as the first positive odd number.
2. Even numbers
-Even numbers are integers that are divisible by the number 2.
-For example, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and so on are even numbers.
3. Square numbers
-A square number or perfect square is an integer that is the square of an integer.
-For example, in 3 x 3 = 9, 9 is a square number.
4. Cube numbers
-Numbers that are multiplied by themselves 3 times are called cube numbers.
-For example, 27 is a cube number because 3 x 3 x 3 = 27. Similarly, 1, 8, 64 are cube numbers.
5. Prime numbers
-Prime numbers are numbers that have only 2 factors, 1 and the number itself.
-For example, 3 is a prime number because it has only two factors, 1 and 3.
6. Composite numbers
-Unlike prime numbers that have only 2 factors, composite numbers are those that have more than 2
factors.
-In other words, composite numbers can be divisible by more than two numbers.
-For example, 6 is a composite number because it has more than two factors, that is, it is divisible by 1, 2, 3,
and 6.
7. Fibonacci numbers
-A series of numbers where a number is the addition of the last two numbers, starting with 0 and 1 is known
as the Fibonacci sequence.
-The numbers in this series or sequence are known as Fibonacci numbers.
-For example, 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, …, is the Fibonacci sequence. Here, we can see that
1+1=2,1+2=3,2+3=5, 3+58 and so on.

Birth of set theory and problems in the foundations of mathematics

 Set theory is the branch of mathematical logic that studies sets, which can be informally described as
collections of objects. Although objects of any kind can be collected into a set.
  Set theory, as a branch of mathematics, is mostly concerned with those that are relevant to
mathematics as a whole. The study of geometry, sequences, probability, etc. requires the knowledge
of sets. Studying sets helps us categorize information.
 It allows us to make sense of a large amount of information by breaking it down into smaller groups.
 A set is any collection of objects specified in such a way that we can determine whether a given
object is or is not in the collection. In other words A set is a collection of objects. These objects are
called elements or members of the set.

Origin of set theory

 Set theory originated in the late 1873 work of Georg Cantor. Cantor’s groundbreaking discovery
revealed the uncountability of the real line. This marked the birth of set theory as a distinct
mathematical discipline.

Contributions of Georg Cantor and Richard Dedekind.

Richard Dedekind
 A German mathematician, independently worked on foundational aspects of set theory.
 Introduced the concept of “Dedekind Cuts” to define real numbers, contributing to the formalization
of the real number system and the understanding of sets.

Georg Cantor
 A German mathematician, made pioneering contributions to set theory. In the 1870s and 1880s.
 Developed the concept of sets and explored the idea of different infinities, introducing the
revolutionary notion of “transfinite” numbers.

Personalities in set theory

1. Georg Cantor
 Russian- born mathematician who can be considered as the founder of set theory
Introduced the concept of infinite numbers with his discovery of cardinal numbers.
 He also advanced the study of trigonometric series.
2. Richard Dedekind
 His best known contribution is the definition of real numbers through the notion of
Dedekind cut.
 He is also considered a pioneer in the development of modern set theory and of the
philosophy of mathematics known as Logicism.
3. Kurt Godel
 In 1931, the Austrian logician Kurt Gödel published his incompleteness theorem, a result
widely considered one of the greatest intellectual achievements of modern times.
 The theorem states that in any reasonable mathematical system there will always be true
statements that cannot be proved.
4. Paul J. Cohen
 Born April 2, 1934, in Long Branch, N.J., received the Fields Medal in 1966.
 He earned this prestigious award for proving independence of the the continuum hypothesis
from other set theory axioms.
5. Ernst Zermelo and Abraham Fraenkel
 Proposed by mathematicians Ernst Zermelo and Abraham Fraenkel in the early 20 th century.
 It’s an axiomatic system designed to create a consistent theory of sets without the paradoxes
encountered in early set theory, like Russell’s paradox.

Foundation of set theory

 Introduction to foundational issues.
 Russell’s Paradox and its implications.
 Development of axiomatic systems (Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory).

Introduction to foundational issues.

  Set theory, a crucial part of math, faces deep questions about how sets work and what rules govern
them. This exploration dives into the philosophical and logical challenges that have shaped set
theory, helping us understand the nature of sets and the fundamental principles guiding them.

Russell’s paradox and its implications

 Russell’s Paradox, discovered by Bertrand questioned the consistency of set theory. Russell in 1901,
The paradox arises when considering sets that do not contain themselves, leading to logical
contradictions and prompting a reevaluation of the foundations.

Development of axiomatic systems (zermelo- fraenkel set theory)

 To address foundational issues, mathematicians developed axiomatic systems that provide a formal
framework for set theory. Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory, formulated in the early 20 th century, became
a widely accepted axiomatic foundation, addressing some of the issues raised by Russell’s Paradox.

What is Mathematics?
 The Pythagoreans of fifth century Greece believed numbers were both living entities and universal
principles. They called the number one, the “monad”, the generator of all other numbers and source
of all creation.

Plato
 Argued mathematical concepts were concrete, and as real as the universe itself, regardless of our
knowledge of them.
Euclid 325 BC-265 BC
 Euclid was an ancient Greek mathematician active as a geometer and logician. Considered the
“father of geometry”, believed nature itself was the physical manifestation of mathematical laws.
 Others argued that while numbers may or may not exist physically, mathematics statements
definitely don’t. Their truth value are based on rules that humans created. Mathematics is thus.
 Mathematics is thus an invented logic exercise with no existence outside mankind’s conscious
though a language of abstract relationships based on patterns discerned by brain built to use those
patterns to invent useful but artificial order from chaos.
Leopold Kronecker 1855
 His belief is sent up in his famous statement: “God created the natural numbers, all else is the work
of men”
 As Euclid had down with geometry. He and the others were attempted this saw mathematics is a
deeply philosophical game, but the game nonetheless.
Henri Poincaré 190 BC-120 BC
 “Father of non-euclidian geometry”, believe the existence of nun Euclidean geometry, dealing with
the non-flat surfaces of the hyperbolic an elliptical curvatures prove that Euclidean geometry, the
long-standing geometry of flat surfaces was not a universal truth, but rather one out com of using
one particular set of game rules.
Eugene Wigner 1960
 Noble Physics Eugene Wigner, coined the phrase, “the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics”,
pushing strong with for the idea that mathematics is real and is covered by people.
Gottfried Hardy
 The number theory of British mathematician Gottfried Hardy, who had boasted that none of his
work would ever be useful in describing any phenomena in the real world. Help establish
cryptography.
 In ancient times, people needed math to conduct trade, build pyramids, and measure long distances.
 It is the powerful aid to the human mind and the most glorious creation of the human intellect
Uses of mathematics
 Mathematics is the very foundation of the modern civilization, and is the key to problem-solving and
logical reasoning, and creative thinking. Hence the very act of learning math help us acquire
accurate thinking which is necessary in life.
What do mathematicians do?
 A mathematician specializes in the study and exploration of mathematics.
 Their works involves a deep understanding of abstract mathematical concepts, problem-solving
abilities, and a strong foundation in logical reasoning.
 Mathematicians engage in research, analysis, and the development of mathematical theories and
applications to solve complex problems and uncover new mathematical insights.
What do they study?
  A mathematician studies quantity, structure, space, change and patterns.
Why do they study math?
 It is this very same enjoyment of solving puzzles that derives mathematicians to solve mathematical
problems.
Why study mathematical Problems?
 Because they were curious about the problems and want to know the answers; it’s fun to find new
things out.
How do mathematicians discover things?
 Often mathematicians make discoveries by working on an applied problem, and being confronted
with a mathematical problem that is either new, or at least not well-known.
What do mathematicians do?
 They count
 They use numbers
 They solve problems
 They measure
 They make mistakes
 They try and try again
 They ask questions
 Mathematicians advance human knowledge and understanding of the world.
 Their work leads to the development of new theories, models, and algorithms that have practical
applications and contribute to technological innovations.
 Mathematicians help society by providing rigorous analyses and critical thinking skills that aid in
decision-making, policy development, and problem-solving in diverse domains.
Duties and responsibilities of mathematician
 Research and Analysis: Mathematicians engage in in-depth research and analysis to explore
mathematical concepts, develop new theories, and solve complex problems.
 Problem Solving: Mathematicians are skilled problem solvers. They apply mathematical principle
and techniques to address practical problems in various fields such as science, engineering, finance
and technology.
 Theoretical Development: Mathematicians contribute to the development of mathematical theories
and frameworks. They formulate conjectures, create mathematical proofs, and refine existing
theories to advance mathematical knowledge and understanding
 Collaboration and Communication: Mathematicians often collaborate with other researchers,
scientists and professionals in interdisciplinary projects. They participate in academic conferences,
publish research papers and present their findings to mathematical community and broader
audiences.
 Teaching and Mentoring: Many mathematicians also engage in teaching and mentoring roles. They
may supervise research projects, guide students in their mathematical studies, and inspire the next
generation of mathematics.
Types of mathematician
1. Pure Mathematician
 They focus on the theoretical aspects of mathematics.
 They explore abstract concepts and develop new mathematical theories, proofs, and
structures.
 Their work often involves areas such as number theory, algebra, geometry, analysis and
topology.
2. Applied Mathematician
 They use mathematical principles and techniques to solve real-world problems.
 They work in interdisciplinary fields, collaborating with scientists, engineers and
professionals in areas such as physics, computer science, economics, finance, and
engineering.
3. Mathematical Physicist
 Mathematical physicists study the mathematical foundations of physical phenomena.
 Mathematical physicists play a crucial role in developing mathematical frameworks to
explain and understand the laws of nature.
4. Financial Quantitative Analyst
 Financial quantitative analyst or quants work in the finance industry using mathematical
models and statistical techniques to develop investment strategies, analyze market trends
and assess financial risk.
 5. Data Scientist
 Data Scientists analyze and interpret large datasets to extract insights and make data-driven
decisions
6. Actuary
 Actuary assess and manage risks in insurance and finance industries.
 They use mathematical models and statistical methods to evaluate probabilities, forecast
financial outcomes, and design insurance policies.
7. Operation Research Analyst
 Operations research analysts use mathematical modeling and optimization techniques to
solve complex problems in business, logistics, supply chain management and decision-
making processes.
8. Cryptographers
 Cryptographers specialize in the field of cryptography, which involves the design and
analysis of secure communication systems and encryption algorithms.
9. Statistician
 Statisticians specialize in the field of statistics, which involves collecting, analyzing, and
interpreting data. They develop statistical models and methods to study and draw
meaningful conclusions from data sets.
Was Math invented or discovered?
There are two types of believers:
1. Platonists/Realists
 Those who believe that math exists independently of humans.
 Discovered. Would exists even if humans did not.
2. Nominalists/Non-Platonists
 Math was created by humans.
 Invented. Like a “language”/ creation of human culture.
Why could it be considered as discovered?
 Math is found in nature, there are patterns anywhere.
 Fractals; Fibonacci sequence- discovered through rabbit population growth.
 Numbers = 1, object+ another = more than 1 object.
Invented?
 Language of Science. Units of measurement.
 Make mathematics to make our lives easier (to suit our purposes).
 If we fail to create something, we find new ways of improving our creations.
Who believed in what?
 Plato- Platonism, Ancient Greece, numbers were concrete, real regardless of our knowledge.
 Leopold Kronecker- “God created the integers, all else is work of man”, 19th Century, German,
humans invented everything based off of numbers.
THE CONCEPTS OF THE PROOF
 A proof is a rhetorical device for convincing another mathematician that a given statement (the
theorem)Is true. Thus a proof can take many different forms. The most traditional form of
mathematical proof is that it is a tightly knit sequence of statements linked together by strict rules of
logic.
THE ROLE OF THE PROOF
 A proof serves to convince or justify that a certain statement is true. But it also helps to Increase the
understanding of the result and the related concepts. That is why a proof also has the role of
explanation.
WHAT DOES A PROOF CONSIST OF?
 These include proof by mathematical induction, proof by contradiction, proof by exhaustion, proof
by enumeration, and many others. But they are all built on one simple rule: modus ponendo ponens.
This rule of logic says that if we know that “A implies B”, and if we know “A”, then we may conclude
B. Thus a proof is a sequence of steps linked together by modus ponendo ponens. The statement that
is proved is often called a theorem. Once a theorem is proved, it can be used as the basis to prove
further statements. A theorem may also be referred to as a lemma, especially if it is intended for use
as a stepping stone in the proof of another theorem.
The purpose of proof
 Isaac Newton derived Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion from just his universal law of
gravitation and calculus. There is a complete mathematical theory of the refraction of light (due to
 Isaac Newton, Willebrord Snell, and Pierre de Fermat). There is a mathematical theory of the
propagation of heat. There is a mathematical theory of electromagnetic waves.
 All of classical field theory from physics is formulated in terms of mathematics. Einstein’s field
equations are analyzed using mathematics. The motion of falling bodies and projectiles is
completely analyzable with Mathematics. The technology for locating distant submarines using
radar and sonar waves is all founded in mathematics. The theory of image processing and image
compression is all founded in mathematics. • The design of music CDs is all based on Fourier
analysis and coding. Theory, both branches of mathematics.
The History of Mathematical Proof:
 The history of mathematical proof is a fascinating journey that reflects the evolution of
mathematical thought and reasoning. Key milestones include contributions from ancient
mathematicians such as Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and Euclid.
1. Pythagoras-a greek mathematician associated with the pythagorean theorem, a² + b² = c²,
describing the relationship between the sides of a right-angled triangle.
2. •he was a Greek mathematician who is considered to be the “father of geometry”, authored
“Elements”, a comprehensive compilation of knowledge covering geometry, number theory, and
mathematical logic. Developed the systematic approach to mathematical proof, organizing the
material into definitions, axioms, postulates, and propositions. Established Euclidean geometry as
the standard for centuries. Introduced the axiomatic method, starting with self-evident truths and
building a logical structure of theorems. Proofs in “Elements” are deductive, relying on previously
proven results and axioms.
3. EUDOXUS and the concept of theorem- Initiated the tradition of organizing mathematics into
theorems and was among the first to use the term “theorem” in a mathematical context. He
demonstrated proficiency in astronomy and number theory. He developed the theory of proportions,
expanded on Pythagorean ideas, and introduced methods to compare irrational numbers. His
method of exhaustion, a precursor to modern integration theory in calculus, facilitated calculations
of areas and volumes.
4.