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Praise for Whole System Design:

Speaking recently, I outlined what I thought were the requirements for the engineer of tomorrow. I was quickly
corrected. Today’s engineer needs to be engineering with tomorrow already clearly in mind. This book encourages
and leads today’s engineer on a journey to meet tomorrow’s needs. Systems thinking and asking the right questions
opens up far more design options and solutions than we first expect. And some of those solutions bring the
breakthrough improvements that go far beyond the incremental. Like many books, this one seems a little too simple
at first, but I challenge the reader who feels that way to jump to the back and look at the examples. Then go back
and read again. There is real power in its simple approach. Engineers are often caught up in looking for the
incremental improvement, but I would suggest that our current challenges need more than that. I’d encourage all
engineers to look at this book. Dip into it at first, then, come back to it. There is an elegance in the approach it
advocates. I had a design lecturer once who commented that I had correctly answered the question, but that I might
have done better by asking a very different question. I think he would like this book.
Martin Dwyer, Director, Engineering Practice and Continuing
Professional Development (CPD), Engineers Australia

Whole System Design is a comprehensive resource to support professional, academic and student engineers in
complex problem-solving around sustainability – an area of focus recommended by the 2008 Review of Engineering
Education in Australia, Engineers for the Future. As the book shows, engineers and designers can make a significant
difference to the current global environmental crisis by reducing environmental impacts in the design phase of a
wide range of projects.
Associate Professor Roger Hadgraft, Director, Engineering Learning Unit, Melbourne School of Engineering,
and President of Australasian Association for Engineering Education, Australia

The Natural Edge Project’s Whole System Design book will provide a valuable resource that can contribute
significantly to the technical design curriculum in university courses and professional training. I have used a Whole
System Design approach, as is described and demonstrated in this book, to improve resource efficiency of products
and industrial processes often by a factor of 2 or better. An exciting consequence of applying a whole system design
approach is the drastically reduced need for end-of-pipe treatment, both in the local area and potentially in the
wider air, soil and waterways. This book is the first resource that I’ve seen that goes into sufficient detail for
the reader to comprehensively grasp the concepts involved in a Whole System Design approach. A great attribute
of the book is that it is not simply a set of a stand-alone ideas – it provides a strong foundation for embedding
sustainable design into the popular design process already taught to students and professionals in Australia and
around the world. It is evident that a great deal of thought went into ensuring that the ideas in the book could be
quickly and easily integrated with current practices, and ensuring that the ideas are universally applicable to all
engineering and technical design disciplines. I commend The Natural Edge Project for their efforts and the
Department of the Environment and Water, Heritage and the Arts for supporting the project.
Adjunct Professor Alan Pears, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning, Royal Melbourne
Institute of Technology, Australia

Whole System Design underpins efforts to help get our societies onto sustainable pathways. This book is a much-
needed contribution providing, in detail, instructions on how to implement sustainable design for green buildings,
more eco-efficient products, ICT systems and fuel-efficient cars, to help us build healthy cities.
Dr Steve Morton, CSIRO Group Executive, Manufacturing, Materials and Minerals, CSIRO, Australia
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Climate change poses a significant challenge but also a great opportunity. Mitigating climate change successfully
will involve transforming our energy systems. As part of this transformation, it is vital that existing technologies and
designs are re-examined to identify new ways to make them more energy efficient. The Whole System Design
approach presented in this book offers engineers an advanced strategy to enable them to achieve large energy
efficiency savings. We urge you to read and absorb the book’s whole system design framework and then see how
whole system design can be applied to achieve large energy-efficiency savings in the book’s detailed technical case
studies.
Dr John Wright, Director, CSIRO Energy Transformed Flagship, CSIRO, Australia

Whole System Design (WSD) developed by The Natural Edge Project (TNEP) will be an invaluable resource in
the near future for the education of systems engineers on matters of sustainability and design. It provides a seamless
link between the traditional system engineering design approach and the wider perspective of environmental and
social effects that future engineers need to consider. The WSD material is lucid and concise but also has sufficient
technical depth to be useful and challenging for all students in the tertiary sector. In particular, the high impact
examples and case studies clearly illustrate the new systems thinking. I am already integrating the WSD book into
the systems engineering curriculum of the ANU Engineering undergraduate programme and the impact, in terms
of sustainability awareness and responsibilities for future engineer practice, is immediate. The TNEP material is,
therefore, already changing the perspective and thinking of our future engineers and aligning their design skills to
address the global environmental challenges.
Dr Paul Compston, Department of Engineering, Australian National University, Australia

We all have a major role to play in reinventing our business model and shaping our future, whether we are engineers,
designers, governments, business people or entrepreneurs ... small, simple steps won’t cut it to deal with the major
global challenges of climate change and environmental degradation we are all facing. There are thousands of cases
that demonstrate that, yes, we can transform these challenges into the foundations of a more sustainable, profitable,
and desirable societal model. But where to start? What is the most effective, profitable and desirable way to
implement the change we want to see? Whole System Design provides essential, hands-on guidance to kick-start this
next industrial revolution. This book moves the reader from thinking ‘hmmm ... this is interesting’ to ‘I’m gonna
do this!’ It reframes the future not as fate, but as choice. A choice each one of us can define, prioritize and execute.
Professor Serge de Gheldere, Founder and Managing Director of Futureproofed and Guest Professor and
Director at Group T University College Leuven, Belgium

The book Whole System Design is a clever feat of engineering that bridges the traditional divide between
technological and design thinking. It shows how we can cross the giant chasm between conventional and sustainable
systems in small, easy steps – provided we start now. It should be read by all engineers as a matter of urgency.
Professor Janis Birkeland, School of Design, Queensland University of Technology, Australia
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Whole System Design gives a comprehensive introduction to whole system design approach as the basis for
transformative action. Education for Sustainability has to be more than ‘bolt on’ environmental papers in existing
programmes, and this is the best example I’ve seen of resources to support sustainability as an integrated and
transformative driver.
Associate Professor Samuel Mann, Department of Information Technology,
Otago Polytechnic, New Zealand

The Industrial Pumping Systems Chapter is a nice example that illustrates the point well.
Emeritus Professor Bruce R. Munson, Department of Aerospace Engineering,
Iowa State University, USA

The Chapter on Domestic Water Systems within Whole System Design developed by TNEP eloquently captures
the current household water challenge; that is, achieving both fit-for-purpose and efficient water use, to reduce the
water footprint of this sector of the economy. Current data about water consumption, available technology, and cost
across the life cycle of the technology illustrate sensible, simple and appropriate design solutions for engineers
looking to understand and implement best-practice water systems engineering. Capital and operating costs are
included by TNEP through case studies, to confirm that water-efficient design is the only way forward to meet
water needs for households, on a least-cost basis, and a quality appropriate to purpose. In addition, the chapter will
enlighten users on the environmental and economic benefits of moving from linear household water use, treatment
and disposal systems, to more enclosed water-use systems, through appropriate and sensible engineering design.
Nick Edgerton, AMP Capital Sustainability Fund, formerly of the Institute for
Sustainable Futures at the University of Technology Sydney, Australia
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Prelims.qxd 12/1/2008 6:24 PM Page v

Whole System Design

An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Engineering

Peter Stasinopoulos, Michael H. Smith,

Karlson ‘Charlie’ Hargroves and Cheryl Desha

p u b l i s h i n g fo r a s u s t a i n a b l e fu t u re
London • Sterling, VA
Prelims.qxd 12/1/2008 6:24 PM Page vi

First published by Earthscan in the UK and USA in 2009

Copyright © The Natural Edge Project, 2009

The views and opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of the collaborating parties:
Australian Government; Australian Federal Minister for the Environment, Heritage and the Arts; Australian
Federal Minister for Climate Change and Water; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization; and the World Federation of Engineering Organizations. While reasonable efforts have been made
to ensure that the contents of this publication are factually correct, these parties do not accept responsibility for
the accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not be liable for any loss or damage that may be
occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the contents of this publication.

All rights reserved

ISBN: 978-1-84407-642-0 hardback

978-1-84407-643-7 paperback

Typeset by Domex e-Data, India

Printed and bound in the UK by MPG Books, Bodmin
Cover design by Andrew Corbett

For a full list of publications please contact:

Earthscan
Dunstan House
14a St Cross St
London, EC1N 8XA, UK
Tel: +44 (0)20 7841 1930
Fax: +44 (0)20 7242 1474
Email: [email protected]
Web: www.earthscan.co.uk

22883 Quicksilver Drive, Sterling, VA 20166-2012, USA

Earthscan publishes in association with the International Institute for Environment and Development

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The paper used for this book is FSC-certified.

FSC (the Forest Stewardship Council) is an
international network to promote responsible
management of the world’s forests.
Prelims.qxd 12/1/2008 6:24 PM Page vii

This book is dedicated to Amory B. Lovins and Alan Pears.

To Amory, for his significant contribution to expanding the solution space
for sustainable design and for taking the time to mentor our team,
and to Alan for sharing with us his enthusiasm, insights and lessons learnt
from a life dedicated to whole system design.
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Contents
List of Figures and Tables xi

Forewords by Benjamin S. Blanchard, Barry J. Grear, Tony Marjoram and

Ernst Ulrich von Weizsäcker xv

Acknowledgements xxi

Author Biographies xxiii

1 A Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design 1

2 The fundamentals of Systems Engineering to inform a Whole System Approach 19

3 Enhancing the Systems Engineering process through a Whole System

Approach to Sustainable Design 45

4 Elements of applying a Whole System Design Approach (elements 1–5) 61

5 Elements of applying a Whole System Design Approach (elements 6–10) 75

6 Worked example 1 – Industrial pumping systems 95

7 Worked example 2 – Passenger vehicles 109

8 Worked example 3 – Electronics and computer systems 123

9 Worked example 4 – Temperature control of buildings 139

10 Worked example 5 – Domestic water systems 157

Index 175
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List of Figures and Tables

Figures
1.1 Energy use of a typical production system compared with one with
zero energy overheads and the ideal process 11
1.2 Comparing The Netherlands’ economic growth and reduction of
environmental impacts 13
1.3 World oil production 15
2.1 Comparison of the incurred costs and committed costs for each phase of
system development 20
2.2 The cost of making design changes throughout each phase of system development 21
2.3 The value of Front End Loading in reducing costs and risks 22
2.4 The composition of a system 23
2.5 Application areas for System Engineering 24
2.6 A system and the many layers of its environment 27
2.7 Variables, links and feedback loops applied to the issues of urban expansion
and induced traffic 29
2.8 The collapsing of Atlantic cod stocks off the east coast of
Newfoundland in 1992 31
2.9 Southern bluefin tuna catch in thousands of tons, 1950–2006 32
2.10 The melting of the polar ice cap from (a) 1979 to (b) 2005 33
2.11 Average annual ground temperature from Fairbanks, illustrating the warming
trend observed across the Arctic that is causing permafrost to melt 34
2.12 The Great Ocean Conveyor 35
2.13 Stabilization levels and probability ranges for temperature increases 36
3.1 Systems engineering technological design activities and interactions by phase 47
3.2 Hierarchy of design considerations 48
3.3 Enhancing Systems Engineering through a Whole System Approach to help
achieve sustainability 50
4.1 A model of the resource and decisions inputs to providing a service 62
4.2 The range of potential technologies that can be used to provide the
service of clean clothes, and the dependence of each technology on energy resources 62
4.3 The brick manufacturing process 65
4.4 Potential (a) mass and (b) cost reductions through subsystem synergies arising
from a low mass primary structure and low drag shell components in passenger
vehicles 68
5.1 The energy transmission and losses from raw material to the service of a pumped
fluid in a typical industrial pumping system 76
5.2 Subsystem synergies in a photovoltaic system with respect to materials and
energy resources 77
5.3 Subsystem synergies in the production system for photovoltaic systems 78
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xii WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

5.4 Energy use of a typical production system compared with one with zero
energy overheads and the ideal process 80
5.5 Opportunities to reduce energy consumption in a dishwasher 81
5.6 Comparison of task efficiencies of standard, 4-star rated and a highly efficient
hybrid hot-water system (the significance of managing standby losses is shown
by two different options for the 4-star model) 83
5.7 Micro hydro village lighting system: Comparison of (a) capital costs and (b)
10-year annual costs per household of various lighting technologies when
powered by renewable microhydro technology 85
5.8 The standard decision tree compared to a sustainability design tree 87
5.9 Using the elastic band analogy to compare forecasting with backcasting 89
5.10 Backcasting a sustainable passenger vehicle platform 89
5.11 The Self-Replenishing System (product life extension) 91
6.1 A typical production plant scenario 97
6.2 A typical single-pump, single-pipe solution 98
6.3 A WSD single-pump, single-pipe solution 101
6.4 Comparing the effects of Step 1 and Step 2 104
7.1 The component optimization strategy of conventional vehicle design 111
7.2 The system design strategy of Whole System vehicle design 111
7.3 Selecting vehicle components after backcasting from an ideal sustainable vehicle 112
7.4 The component optimization strategy of conventional vehicle design 114
7.5 The flow of compounding mass reduction in the system design strategy of
Whole System vehicle design 115
7.6 Mass comparison between the conventional passenger vehicle and the WSD
vehicle, by subsystem 117
8.1 Simple diagram of client–server system set-up 124
8.2 Schematic of a conventional server, including power consumption 126
8.3 Energy efficiencies over full load spectrum of various power supplies 127
8.4 Schematic of the WSD server, including power consumption 128
8.5 Server rack unit with liquid cooling system 130
8.6 Comparing the three design solutions 133
8.A.1 Power supply architecture incorporating an intermediate DC–DC conversion to
achieve high conversion efficiency 135
9.1 Design cooling load components for the conventional solution 145
9.2 Building feature design sequence for minimizing energy consumption 146
9.3 Design cooling load components for the WSD solution 150
9.4 Comparing the cooling loads for the two solutions 152
10.1 Distribution of Earth’s water 158
10.2 Australian water consumption in 2004–2005 158
10.3 Australian household water consumption in 2004–2005 158
10.4 Components of a conventional onsite wastewater treatment and reuse system 160
10.5 Cross-section of a single-compartment septic tank 161
10.6 Cross-section of a slow sand filter 162
10.7 Cross-section of the Biolytix Deluxe system 165
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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES xiii

10.8 Comparing the capital costs of components 168

10.9 Comparing the running costs of components 169
10.10 Comparing the total cost of conventional and WSD systems over 20 years 169

Tables
1.1 DfE and business competitive advantage 3
1.2 Comparison of the best and the worst efficiency motoring systems 5
1.3 Case studies of a Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design (as outlined
in Chapters 6–10) 9
1.4 Sample of the Big Energy Projects (BEP) scheme and Best Practice People and
Processes (BPPP) modules under the Energy Efficiency Best Practice government
programme 11
2.1 Kenneth Boulding’s classification of systems 38
2.2 Classification of systems according to Jordan’s Principles 38
2.3 Systems archetypes 39
4.1 Resource management for an optimal system 63
5.1 Contrasting conventional forecasting and backcasting 88
6.1 Symbol nomenclature 98
6.2 Pump power calculated for a spectrum of pipe diameters 102
6.3 Summary of system costs for a range of pump types and pipe diameters 103
6.4 Comparing the costs of the two solutions 103
7.1 Symbol nomenclature 115
7.2 Average life of some serviceable components in a conventional passenger vehicle 118
7.3 Some environmental impacts of a conventional vehicle and the Hypercar Revolution 119
8.1 Power consumption by the major server components 132
8.2 Costs and operating performance comparisons between a conventional
server and hyperservers 132
8.3 Cost and operating performance comparisons between various a conventional
server and hyperservers with DRA 133
9.1 Symbol nomenclature for design cooling load equations 142
9.2 Values used to calculate design cooling load, QDES, for the house 144
9.3 Breakdown of design cooling load components for the conventional solution 145
9.4 Values used to calculate the design cooling load, QDES, for the house 149
9.5 Breakdown of design cooling load components for WSD solution 150
9.6 Comparing breakdown of the cooling loads for the two solutions 152
9.7 Comparing the costs of the two solutions 153
10.1 Wastewater treatment actions for each treatment stage 159
10.2 Daily water consumption for standard domestic appliances 160
10.3 Daily water consumption for water-efficient domestic appliances 164
10.4 Comparing the costs and water consumption of standard and water-efficient appliances 167
10.5 Comparing the capital and running costs of the water treatment and reuse systems 168
10.6 Comparing the total cost of conventional and WSD systems over 20 years 169
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Forewords

I outlined in this book, to the design and development of

sustainable future systems. System requirements must
Many of the systems currently in place are not very be well defined from the beginning. Systems are
environmentally sustainable or cost effective in terms of addressed in ‘total’ to include not only the prime
their utilization and the associated costs of operation and mission-related elements utilized in accomplishing one
support. System performance requirements (and the or more mission scenarios, but also the various
system’s ultimate impact on the operational environment) elements of the system support infrastructure as well.
rarely meet rising customer (i.e. the ‘user’) expectations All aspects of the entire system life cycle are considered
for products to be both effective and environmentally in the day-to-day decision-making process, including
benign. The life-cycle costs of most products and possible impacts on the various phases of system design
technical systems are high. We see symptoms of poor and development, construction/production, system
design all around us, manifested in growing problems operation and support, and system retirement and
such as the current environmental crisis. When material recycling/disposal. Applicable design
addressing ‘cause-and-effect’ relationships, many of these characteristics such as reliability, maintainability,
related problems stem from the management and human factors, environmental sustainability,
technical decisions made during the early stages of system supportability, environmental compatibility, quality,
design and development. In general, the initial economic feasibility (from a life-cycle perspective), etc.
requirements for a given system were not very well must be properly integrated within the design process,
defined, the system was not addressed in totality (as a along with the required electrical, mechanical,
‘whole’ entity), and a total system life-cycle approach to structural, and related parameters.
design for sustainability was not assumed from the Proper implementation of systems engineering
beginning. All of this occurred at a critical point early in constitutes a top-down/bottom-up process, and not just a
the system design and development process, and at a time bottom-up design-it-now-and-fix-it-later approach.
when the results of such decisions would have the greatest The principles and concepts of whole system
impact on the overall effectiveness, efficiency and approaches to sustainable design outlined in this book
environmental sustainability of systems in the are based on the recommendations and experience of
performance of their intended functions later on. leading designers and engineers. Success in applying a
Given today’s environment, there is an ever- whole system approach to sustainable design does
increasing need to develop and produce systems that require a ‘change in thinking’ and a slightly different
are robust, reliable and of high quality, supportable, approach in the design and development of future
cost-effective and environmentally sustainable from a systems.
total life-cycle perspective, and that will respond to the Implementation of the principles and concepts of
needs of the customer/user in a satisfactory manner. whole system design can be applied effectively in the
Systems in the future must be environmentally friendly, design and development of any type of system, whether
socially compatible and interoperable when interfacing addressing communication(s) systems, electrical power
with other systems in a higher-level hierarchical distribution systems, mining systems, manufacturing
structure. Meeting these challenges in the future will systems, materials handling systems, defense systems,
require a more comprehensive sustainable design consumer product systems, and the like. In each and all
approach from the start, dealing with whole systems and instances, we are dealing with a top-down, whole
in the context of their respective overall life cycles. system and life-cycle approach throughout the initial
From past experience, these objectives can best be design and development, and subsequent operation
met through proper implementation of the systems and maintenance phases of the life cycle. The proper
engineering process, or a whole system approach, as implementation of a whole system approach, from the
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xvi WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

beginning, is essential in meeting the desired goals in land planning and to research, study, design,
stated herein. construct and operate new and expanded facilities. This
Based on a review of the content of this book, I future built environment must be developed while
sincerely believe that implementing the concepts sustaining the natural resources of the world and
presented will greatly facilitate accomplishing the enhancing the quality of life for all people. Top priority
objectives defined earlier – that is, leading to the design must be placed on sustainable development because of
and development, production and installation of future its global importance today.
systems that are robust, reliable and of high quality, Over the last few years, the world community has
supportable and environmentally sustainable, and will focused on a number of sustainable development issues
be highly responsive in meeting the needs of the for which members of the engineering profession can,
customer/user. Of particular interest is the foundation and must, take a leading role in improving
established by the material presented in Chapters 1 to understanding. The following issues are but a few for
3. Additionally, the systems engineering process, which which part of the solution is technological:
is critical in its implementation, is well defined and
described in Chapter 3. I feel that following the • Climate change is important for us all and the
guidelines presented here will lead to much success in projected changes will bring difficulties to all
the future. communities. The evidence is clear that there will
Finally, I wish to thank The Natural Edge Project be increasingly severe weather events leading to
for providing me with the opportunity to both review greater incidences and severity of natural disasters.
and comment on the material presented within this Engineering professionals can assist in mitigating
book, and also for inviting me to be a participant by further effects of climate change by developing
including this foreword. energy-efficient user products and industrial
Professor Emeritus Benjamin S. Blanchard processes, and by enhancing renewable energy
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, technologies. Engineering professionals can also
Blacksburg, Virginia, USA assist communities to be safer, experience fewer
October 2008 disruptions and lose fewer lives by creating safer,
adaptable and resilient buildings and structures.
• Energy production has been raised in profile
II because of the cost of fuels, environmental impacts
and the development of renewable energy sources.
The priorities for the community of engineering Engineering professionals can assist in reducing
professionals, including engineers, technologists and dependence on high-cost fuels by developing low-
scientists, must necessarily change over the next few energy products and appliances that can be cost
years. The rapidly changing world of political, effectively run off renewable energy. Engineering
environmental, social and economic challenges professionals can also assist developing countries in
demands that we do change and go forward with securing their energy networks by selecting the
everything we do. most appropriate energy sources and by creating
Engineering professionals must cooperate with reliable and innovative systems to deliver the
other professionals in constructively resolving energy where it is needed.
international and national issues for the benefit of • Water scarcity is a high-risk reality in many
humanity. Engineering professionals around the world developed and developing counties. Engineering
understand that they have a tremendous responsibility professionals can assist in providing water security
in implementing sustainable development. Many by developing water-efficient and waterless products
forecasts indicate there will be an additional 5 billion and processes, and by creating integrated, round-put
people in the world by the middle of the 21st century. processes where water is reused and recycled.
Supporting these people will require more water, waste • Material waste volumes are increasing in almost
treatment systems, food production, energy, every country and threaten to continue to escalate
transportation systems and manufacturing – all of with population growth. Engineering professionals
which require engineering professionals to participate can assist in reducing waste rates by developing
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FOREWORDS xvii

durable, high-value, low-waste products and presented makes it a valuable reference handbook. The
processes. Engineering professionals can then assist examples highlight the simple application of the theory
in stabilizing waste through designing products for presented and make the book suitable for self-learning
end of life and by creating integrated, round-put as well as in classroom or tutorial use.
processes where the waste of one component The team at The Natural Edge Project is to be
becomes the food of another. Finally, engineering complimented on their preparation of such a valuable
professionals can assist in reversing waste rates by resource. Everyone working and studying in this field
developing innovative products and processes that of engineering should buy it and use it.
use and consume existing waste. Barry J. Grear AO
• Many of our emissions and material wastes are also President, World Federation of Engineering
toxic and find their way into the air, soil and Organizations (WFEO) 2007–2009
waterways that support humans and all other Paris, France
organisms on Earth. Engineering professionals can October 2008
assist in protecting the integrity of the natural
environment human health by developing products
and processes that use clean energy sources, benign III
materials and produce benign emissions and wastes.
Engineering professionals can also assist developing The need for sustainable environmental, social and
countries to leapfrog the developed world’s last few economic development, with specific reference to such
decades of wasteful and toxic practices and issues as climate change, is one of the major challenges
technologies by selecting the most appropriate we face both today and into the future. The importance
solutions for their transitioning economies. of environmental sustainability is underlined as one of
the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in
It is now recognized that engineering professionals need developing and least-developed countries, and the
considerable support in enhancing the practice of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
engineering to address these issues and to promote has emphasized the importance of technology in
sustainable development. Education on sustainable climate change mitigation and adaptation.
development issues must be given the highest priority. Despite this, the role of engineering and
Engineering professionals will be involved in technology in sustainable social and economic
promoting, planning and implementing development development is often overlooked. At the same time,
in the future and will require the skills to develop and there is a declining interest and enrolment of young
implement sustainable technologies. people, especially young women, in engineering. This
This book’s contribution to the discussion and will have a serious impact on capacity in engineering,
theory about sustainable solutions and Whole System and our ability to address the challenges of sustainable
Design is an important step to ensure that engineers social and economic development, poverty reduction
integrate the theory and practice within their regular and the other MDGs.
design activity. Taking the broader view and the The development and application of knowledge in
consideration of the widest set of factors into design is engineering and technology underpins and drives
now an imperative if the engineering community is to sustainable social and economic development.
develop its commitment to sustainability. This book is Engineering and technology are vital in addressing
an important contribution to ensuring that the broadest basic human needs, poverty reduction and sustainable
possible gains are achieved from the current interest in development to bridge the ‘knowledge divide’ and
life-cycle and ecological costing of products and promote international dialogue and cooperation.
projects. What can we do to promote the public
The authors, in producing this introductory understanding of engineering, and the application of
technical teaching material and these important engineering in these vital contexts? It appears that the
examples, have provided a publication that can, and decline of interest and entry of young people into
must be, widely used in our university and technical science and engineering is due to the fact that these
training institutions. The way in which the material is subjects are often perceived by young people as nerdy,
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xviii WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

uninteresting and boring; that university courses are Transformation in engineering education needs to
difficult and hard work; that jobs in these areas are not respond to rapid change in knowledge production and
well paid; and that science and engineering have a application, emphasizing a cognitive problem-solving
negative environmental impact. There is also evidence approach, synthesis, awareness, ethics, social
that young people turn away from science around the responsibility, experience and practice within national
age of ten, that good science education at primary and and global contexts. We need to learn how to learn and
secondary levels is vital, and that science teaching can to emphasize the importance of lifelong and distance
turn young people off as well as on to science. There are learning, continuous professional development,
clear needs to show that science and engineering are adaptability, flexibility, inter-disciplinarity and multiple
inherently interesting and to promote public career paths.
understanding and perception, to make education and Such transformation of engineering and
university courses more interesting, with better salary engineering education is essential if engineering is to
scales (although this is already happening through catch and surf the ‘seventh wave’ of technological
supply and demand), and to promote science and revolution – relating to knowledge for sustainable
engineering as part of the solution, rather than part of development, climate change mitigation and
the problem of sustainable development. adaptation, and new modes of learning. This follows
The promotion of public understanding and the sixth wave of new modes of knowledge generation,
interest in engineering is facilitated by presenting dissemination and application, and knowledge and
engineering as part of the problem-solving solution to information societies and economies in such areas as
sustainable development and poverty reduction. information and communications technology (ICT),
University courses can be made more interesting biotechnology, nanotechnology, new materials,
through the transformation of curricula and pedagogy, robotics and systems technology, characterized by
and more activity, project and problem-based learning, cross-fertilization and fusion, innovation, the growth of
just-in-time approaches and hands-on applications new disciplines and the decline of old disciplines,
rather than the more formulaic approaches that turn where new knowledge requires new modes of learning.
students off. These approaches promote the relevance The fifth wave of technological revolution is based on
of engineering, address contemporary concerns and electronics and computers, the fourth wave on oil,
help to link engineering with society in the context of automobiles and mass production, the third wave on
related ethical issues, sustainable development, poverty steel, heavy engineering and electrification, the second
reduction, and building upon rather than displacing wave on steam power, railways and mechanization, and
local and indigenous knowledge. The growth of the first wave on the technological and industrial
Engineers without Borders and similar groups around revolution, and the development of iron and water
the world demonstrates the attractiveness of power.
participating in finding solutions to today’s ‘real world’ The main applications challenges relate to how
problems; the young seem to have a common desire to engineering and technology may most effectively be
‘do something’ to help those in need. developed, applied and innovated to reduce poverty,
Science and engineering have changed the world, promote sustainable development and address climate
but are professionally conservative and slow to change – change mitigation and adaptation. It is apparent that
we need innovative examples of schools, colleges and these challenges are linked to a possible solution – many
universities around the world that have pioneered young people and student engineers are keen to address
activity in such areas as problem-based learning. It is international issues, especially poverty reduction and
also interesting to look at reform and transformation in sustainable development. This is reflected, as
other professions – such as medicine, where some of mentioned above, by the interest of young people
the leading medical schools have changed to a ‘patient- in Engineers without Borders groups around the
based’ approach. If the medics can do this when there world and the United Nations Educational, Scientific
is no enrolment pressure, then so can engineers. and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)–Daimler
Engineers practice just-in-time techniques in industry; Mondialogo Engineering Award. To promote
why not in education? engineering and attract young people, we need to
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FOREWORDS xix

emphasize these issues in teaching curricula and such initiatives, especially now that Australia has signed
practice. the Kyoto Protocol. UNESCO supported the
In the context of the need for transformation in production of earlier material on engineering and
engineering education to include sustainable sustainable development by The Natural Edge Project,
development and wider social and ethical issues, the and is very happy to be associated with this innovative
work of the Engineering Sustainable Solutions initiative. I would like to congratulate Peter
Programme of The Natural Edge Project, and this Stasinopoulos, Michael Smith, Charlie Hargroves and
publication on Whole System Design: An Integrated Cheryl Desha on their pioneering activity, and look to
Approach to Sustainable Engineering, could not be more continued cooperation with The Natural Edge Project
timely and relevant. It is also important because while on this area of increasing importance.
the need for whole/holistic and integrated systems Dr Tony Marjoram
approaches in engineering have been recognized and Senior Programme Specialist,
spoken about for some time, there is still a need to United Nations Educational, Scientific and
share information on what this means in practice, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
to share pedagogical approaches and curricula Paris, France
developed in this context. This is particularly October 2008
important for universities and colleges in developing
countries, who face serious constraints regarding
human, financial and institutional resources to develop IV
such curricula and learning/teaching methods. It is also
timely in view of the United Nations Decade of This is the challenge:
Education for Sustainable Development, 2005–2014,
Around 9 billion people will be living on this Earth in
for which UNESCO is the lead agency.
the middle of this century. They will all want to conduct
Engineering is about systems, and so it should be
a decent life. They will want a certain minimum
taught. Engineers understand systems, and Nature is
standard of material wealth, requiring food, water,
the very epitome of a whole system – so it is surprising
shelter and the basic services now taken for granted in
that engineers have not been more interested in holistic
our advanced civilizations. However, resources are
and whole systems approaches in the past. Engineering,
limited, our climate is vulnerable and changing, and the
however, derives from the 17th-, 18th- and 19th-
restorative capacities of ecosystems are declining rapidly.
century knowledge models and ‘modern science’ of
Let us look, for example, at the restrictions related to
Galileo, Descartes and Bacon, based on reductionism
climate. Consider that greenhouse gas emissions will
and the objectification and control of Nature. So the
roughly double by mid century if we continue with
rediscovery of holistic thinking is perhaps not
business as usual. However, stabilizing our climate
surprising and, indeed, overdue, prompted, for
requires at least halving greenhouse gas emissions. In
example, by the renewed interest in biomimetics that
addition, many analysts now tell us that we have but
links engineering and technology with natural life
precious few decades to do so.
structures and systems. This marks a belated return to
the biomimetics of Leonardo da Vinci in the 15th and
What are some potential solutions ?
16th centuries, although this rediscovery has been
facilitated by the development of computer science and Renewable energy technologies such as wind and solar
technology and new materials – one wonders what power currently provide a small quantity of our total
Leonardo would have done with computer aided energy requirements and will likely take many years to
design (CAD)/computer aided manufacturing (CAM) expand sufficiently. Renewable fuels such as biofuels
and carbon fibre! require large areas of land for crops, and compete with
This publication is supported by the Department and drive up the price of grain staples. Biofuels are also
of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts of expensive, even in the European Union where they are
the Australian government, Engineers Australia and more cost competitive since many other technologies
Earthscan, and we look forward to further support of require the purchase of permits to emit carbon dioxide.
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xx WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Nuclear energy is more ecologically controversial, more as the equivalent transport services that other mobility
economically costly and more socially disruptive than modes provide per input of a specified resource.
biofuels, and the insurance industry refuses to cover the There are, of course, some low hanging fruits, such
full range of risks. Integrated gasification combined as efficient lighting, hybrid cars, energy efficient
cycle (IGCC) systems combined with carbon capture buildings, water purification and waste recycling:
and storage (CCS) so far look like an expensive dream. combined, they might take care of a factor of two in
resource productivity. Achieving a factor of five (80 per
cent) increase in resource productivity calls upon our
So aren’t there any options that meet our energy
creativity and ability to innovate as we search for
requirements without emitting excessive greenhouse gases ?
new ways of redesigning technologies, processes,
The answer may lie in a more radical approach. Why infrastructure and systems. Focusing only on optimization
not reinvent technological progress and develop the at the component level of a system will not deliver the
appropriate changes of behaviour? Imagine a 10kg resource productivity needed – optimization at the
bucket of water. How much electricity would you need system level is critical. Systemic improvements go
to lift the bucket from sea level to the top of Mount considerably further than isolated component
Everest? It may come as a surprise that you would need improvements. Synergies between components and
only one quarter of a kilowatt hour (kWh). Meaning cascades of resource use are abundantly available but
that a kilowatt hour is an amazing powerhouse! But have to be identified and properly designed in order to
what do we do with one quarter of a kilowatt hour? We deliver the resource productivity needed.
power a single 75W incandescent lamp for 3.3 hours. I To this end, the team from The Natural Edge
submit that we can realize far more economic and social Project, led by Charlie Hargroves, offers this book to
benefits than we currently do with each kilowatt hour those wishing to use design to deliver the types of
of energy and, indeed, each kilogram of material and improvements I call for above by taking an integrated
water, each kilometre of transport and each square approach to sustainable engineering. I was thrilled and
metre of the Earth’s surface. impressed reading this volume, which features an
A fivefold increase in resource productivity, I integrated approach towards resource productivity and,
suggest, will make our ecological and social challenges ultimately, sustainability both at a small and large scale.
manageable – that is, a fivefold increase in energy Each chapter in this book is self-explanatory and self-
productivity, materials productivity, water productivity, sufficient, making for easy reading and teaching; but
transport productivity and land productivity. Rich taken as a whole, it is a wonderful contribution to
countries could stabilize their wealth while reducing engineering design, as you would expect from a book
their energy and resource consumption by 80 per cent. with this title. Good luck readers, students and teachers!
Poor countries would be encouraged to grow fivefold
while stabilizing their demand on resources. In order to Professor Ernst Ulrich von Weizsäcker
achieve these significant improvements, we will require Co-recipient of the 2008 DBU
a paradigm shift in productivity. Labour productivity German Environmental Award
has risen 20-fold since 1850, and now we also require Lead author of Factor Four (1995)
resource productivity to rise. It is important to note Lead author of Factor Five (2009)
here that productivity is more than efficiency. Former Chairman, Bundestag Environment Committee
Efficiency is measured in the closed box of a distinct Former President of the Wuppertal Institute for Climate,
function, such as the kilometres that a car can drive on Environment and Energy
1 litre of fuel. Productivity, on the other hand, is Emmendingen, Germany
measured in a broader perspective of the solution, such October 2008
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Acknowledgements

The Natural Edge Project (TNEP) would like to thank Pears for taking the time to share with us his personal
the following individuals and groups for making the experiences and lessons learnt from whole system
development of this publication possible. Firstly, a design projects to inform the development of the
special thank you must go to the authors’ families. methodology on which this book is based.
Peter would like to thank his family and friends for The Secretariat would also like to thank Barry
their love and support, especially his family Bill, Grear AO, Benjamin S. Blanchard, Ernst Ulrich von
Georgina, George, Steven and Olivia, and partner Weizsäcker, and Tony Marjoram for taking the time to
Jacquelina. Mike would like to thank his wife Sarah mentor our team and contribute forewords for this
Chapman for her love, support and for sharing a publication. We would like to thank the following
lifelong passion for sustainable engineering. Charlie individuals for taking the time to provide peer review
would like to thank his wife, Stacey, for her patience and mentoring for this publication:
and love. Cheryl would like to thank her family for
their love and support of her commitment to make a Al Blake, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology
difference. The authors would also like to thank Alan Pears, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology
Fatima Pinto for her tireless efforts in managing the Angus Simpson, University of Adelaide
TNEP office. Benjamin S. Blanchard, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
TNEP Secretariat – Charlie, Michael, Cheryl, and State University
Peter, Stacey Hargroves and Fatima Pinto – would like Bolle Borkowsky, CDIF Group
to thank the Australian Federal Department of the Bruce R. Munson, Iowa State University
Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (DEWR) Chandrakant Patel, Hewlett-Packard
for funding the development of the publication as part Colin Kestel, University of Adelaide
of the 2005/06 and 2006/07 Education for Dylan Lu, University of Sydney
Sustainability Grants Program. Janis Birkeland, Queensland University of Technology
A special thank you must go to Amory Lovins as he Kazem Abhary, University of South Australia
was the inspiration for this publication, in particular Lee Luong, University of South Australia
the starting point for the development of the Mehdi Toophanpour Rami, University of Adelaide
methodology, and the unique format of the case Nick Edgerton, AMP Capital Sustainability Fund
studies. During our trip to Rocky Mountain Institute (formerly of the University of Technology Sydney
in 2004, we asked Amory what a team of young Institute of Sustainable Futures)
engineers could do to make a difference to our Paul Compston, The Australian National University
profession and he responded simply that we should Philip Bangerter, Hatch
contribute to the ‘non-violent overthrow of bad Robert Mierisch, Hydro Tasmania Consulting
engineering’, and the many conversations that followed Veronica Soebarto, University of Adelaide
inspired our team to develop this book. Wim Dekkers, Queensland University of Technology
Thank you to Paul Compston and Benjamin S.
Blanchard for taking the time to mentor our team on The work was copy-edited by TNEP Professional
Systems Design and Systems Engineering. Additional Editor Stacey Hargroves.
thanks must go to Paul for trialing the book’s material Work on original graphics and enhancements to
in his Systems Design course at The Australian existing graphics has been carried out by Mr Peter
National University. A special thank you goes to Alan Stasinopoulos, Mrs Renee Stephens and Earthscan.
Prelims.qxd 12/1/2008 6:24 PM Page xxii
Prelims.qxd 12/1/2008 6:24 PM Page xxiii

Author Biographies
The Natural Edge Project (TNEP) is an independent sustainability think-tank based in Australia, which operates
as a partnership for education, research and policy development on innovation for sustainable development. TNEP’s
mission is to contribute to and succinctly communicate leading research, case studies, tools, policy and strategies for
achieving sustainable development across government, business and civil society. The team of early career
professionals receives mentoring and support from a wide range of experts and leading organizations, in Australia
and internationally. Since forming in 2002, TNEP have developed a number of internationally renowned books on
sustainable development, which include contributions from colleagues Alan AtKisson, Amory Lovins, Ernst von
Weizsäcker, Gro Brundtland, Jeffery Sachs, Jim McNeill, Leo Jensen, R. K. Pachauri and William McDonough.

Peter Stasinopoulos is the Technical Director of The Michael Smith is a co-founder and the Research Director
Natural Edge Project. He is a graduate of the University of The Natural Edge Project. Michael is also a co-author
of Adelaide, holding a Bachelor of Mechatronic and co-editor of The Natural Advantage of Nations
Engineering with First Class Honours and a Bachelor (Earthscan 2005) and co-author of Cents and Sustainability
of Mathematical and Computer Science, and is (Earthscan 2009). Michael is a graduate of the University
currently completing a PhD in Systems Design under of Melbourne, holding a Bachelor of Science with a double
Dr Paul Compston and Dr Barry Newell at The major in Chemistry and Mathematics with Honours and
Australian National University. Since starting with has submitted his PhD thesis entitled Advancing and
TNEP in 2005, Peter has worked on a variety of Resolving the Great Sustainability Debates under Professor
projects across TNEP’s Education and Industry Steve Dovers and Professor Michael Collins at The
Consultation portfolios. Australian National University.
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xxiv WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Karlson ‘Charlie’ Hargroves is a co-founder and the Cheryl Desha is the Education Director of The Natural
Executive Director of The Natural Edge Project. Edge Project and a lecturer in the School of
Charlie is also a co-author and co-editor of The Natural Engineering at Griffith University. She is a co-author of
Advantage of Nations (Earthscan 2005) and co-author The Natural Advantage of Nations (Earthscan 2005).
of Cents and Sustainability (Earthscan 2009). Charlie Cheryl is a graduate of Griffith University, holding a
graduated from the University of Adelaide, holding a Bachelor of Environmental Engineering with First
Bachelor of Civil and Structural Engineering and is Class Honours and receiving a University Medal and
currently completing a PhD in Sustainable Industry Environmental Engineering Medal. She is currently
Policy under Professor Peter Newman at Curtin completing a PhD in Education for Sustainable
University. Prior to co-founding TNEP in 2002, Development under Professor David Thiel at Griffith
Charlie worked as a design engineer for two University. Prior to joining TNEP in 2003, Cheryl
years. Charlie spent 12 months on secondment as the worked for an international consulting engineering
CEO of Natural Capitalism Inc, Colorado, and firm for four years. In 2005, she was selected as the
represents the team as an Associate Member of the Engineers Australia Young Professional Engineer of the
Club of Rome. Year.
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1
A Whole System Approach
to Sustainable Design

Educational aim
Required reading
Chapter 1 explains the importance and relevance of a
Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design in Environment Australia (2001) Product
addressing the pressing environmental challenges of the Innovation: The Green Advantage: An Introduction
21st century. It introduces the main concepts of a to Design for Environment for Australian Business,
Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design and Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra,
how it complements ‘design for environment’ and pp1–10, www.environment.gov.au/settlements/
‘design for sustainability’ strategies. It also introduces industry/finance/publications/producer.html,
the need to innovate efficient holistic solutions to accessed 5 January 2007
reduce our negative impact on the environment and Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy efficiency – Its
reduce our dependence on fossil fuels. An outline is potential: Some perspectives and experiences’,
given of the numerous benefits that Whole System background paper for International Energy
Design brings to business and the nation. These include Agency Energy Efficiency Workshop, Paris,
how Whole System Design can help to achieve April 2004, pp1–13
sustainable development by enabling the decoupling of Porter, M. and van der Linde, C. (1995)
economic growth from environmental pressure. The ‘Green and competitive: Ending the stalemate’,
chapter concludes with a summary of the main concepts Harvard Business Review, September/October,
of Whole System Design that can be used to deliver Boston, MA, pp121–134
such solutions. In this book the terms ‘Whole System Rocky Mountain Institute (1997)
Design’, a ‘Whole System Approach to Sustainable ‘Tunnelling through the cost barrier’, RMI
Design’, a ‘Whole System Approach to Design’ and Newsletter, Summer 1997, pp1–4, www.rmi.org
‘Sustainable Design’ are used interchangeably. /images/other/Newsletter/NLRMIsum97.pdf,
accessed 5 January 2007
Why does design matter?
As Amory Lovins et al wrote in Natural Capitalism:1 represent only a fraction of the building’s life-cycle costs,
when just one per cent of a project’s up-front costs are
By the time the design for most human artefacts is spent, up to 70 per cent of its life-cycle costs may already
completed but before they have actually been built, about be committed. When seven per cent of project costs are
80–90 per cent of their life-cycle economic and ecological spent, up to 85 per cent of life-cycle costs have been
costs have already been made inevitable. In a typical committed. That first one per cent is critical because, as
building, efficiency expert Joseph Romm explains, the design adage has it, “all the really important mistakes
‘Although up-front building and design costs may are made on the first day”.’
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2 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Infrastructure, buildings, cars and many appliances all The Department of the Environment and Heritage has
have long design lives, in most cases from 20 to 50 published an introduction to DfE for Australian
years. The size and duration of infrastructure and businesses, Product Innovation: The Green Advantage,4
building developments, for instance, demand that they which highlights the benefits of pursuing a DfE
should now be much more critically evaluated for approach. This is backed up by numerous studies. DfE
efficiency and function than ever before. Australian provides a new way for business to cost-effectively
Ambassador to the United Nations Robert Hill, talking achieve greater efficiencies and competitiveness from
about the new Australian Parliament House, sums up product redesign. Harvard Business School Professor
the loss of opportunities from a failure to incorporate Michael Porter, author of The Competitive Advantage of
environmental considerations into design:2 Nations, and Claas van der Linde highlight a range of
ways that DfE at the early stages of development of a
Across Lake Burley Griffin is one of Australia’s most project can both reduce costs and help the environment
famous houses – Parliament House. Built at considerable in their 1995 paper ‘Green and Competitive’.5
cost to the Australian taxpayer, it was officially opened in Some of businesses’ most significant costs are
1988. Since 1989, efforts have been made to reduce capital and inputs such as construction materials, raw
energy consumption in Parliament House, resulting in a materials, energy, water and transportation. It is
41 per cent reduction in energy use with the flow-on effect therefore in businesses’ best interests to minimize these
of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by more than costs, and hence the amounts of raw materials and
20,000 tonnes annually. This has also brought about a other inputs they need to create their product or
saving of more than AU$2 million a year in running costs. provide their service. Business produces either useful
But the new wave of environmental thinking would have products and services or waste, better described as
us question why these measures weren’t incorporated in unsaleable production, because the company pays to
the design of the building in the first place and what other produce it. How does it assist a business to have plant
opportunities for energy-saving design features were equipment and labour tied up in generating waste?
missed? It’s a simple example of how the environment is Table 1.1 below lists the numerous ways companies can
still considered an add-on option as opposed to being profitably reduce waste. Addressing such opportunities
central to the way we do business. therefore gives businesses numerous options to reduce
costs and create new product differentiation.
Currently considerable opportunities are being missed A DfE approach to reducing environmental
at the design phase of projects to significantly reduce impacts is one of the best approaches business and
negative environmental impacts. There is a great deal of government can take to find win-win opportunities to
opportunity here for business and government to both reduce costs and help the environment. The DfE
reduce process costs, and achieve greater competitive approach is reminiscent of the ‘total quality movement’
advantage through sustainable engineering designs. As in business in the 1980s, where many were sceptical at
Robert Hill also stated:3 the beginning that re-examining current business and
engineering practices would make a difference. Many
Building construction and motor vehicles are two high- doubted that win-win opportunities could be found.
profile industry sectors where producers are utilizing Today, on the other hand, it is assumed that such win-
Design for Environment (DfE) principles in their product win opportunities exist if business takes a total quality
development processes, thereby strategically reducing the approach. The Department of the Environment and
environmental impact of a product or service over its Heritage publication Product Innovation: The Green
entire life-cycle, from manufacture to disposal. Advantage showed that many companies are finding
Companies that are incorporating DfE are at the forefront win-win ways to reduce costs and improve product
of innovative business management in Australia. As the differentiation through a DfE approach. Expanding on
link between business success and environmental this concept, companies and government programmes
protection becomes clearer, visionary companies have the are finding that if a Whole System Design approach is
opportunity to improve business practices, to be more taken, then the cost savings and environmental
competitive in a global economy and to increase their improvements can be in the order of Factor 4–10
longevity. (75–90 per cent).
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A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 3

Table 1.1 DfE and business competitive advantage

DfE can Improve Processes and Reduce Costs: DfE Provides Benefits to Reduce Costs and Create
Product Differentiation:

• Greater resource productivity of inputs, energy, water and • Higher quality, more consistent products;
raw materials to reduce costs; • Lower product costs (e.g. from material substitution, new
• Material savings from better design; improved plant efficiencies etc);
• Increases in process yields and less downtime through • Lower packaging costs;
designing out waste and designing the plant and process • More efficient resource use by products;
to minimize maintenance and parts; • Safer products;
• Better design to ensure that by-products and waste can • Lower net costs to customers of product disposal;
be converted into valuable products; • Higher product resale and scrap value; and
• Reduced material storage and handling costs through • Products that meet new consumer demands for
‘just in time’ management; environmental benefits.
• Improved OH&S; and
• Improvements in the quality of product or service.

Source: Adapted from Porter and van der Linde (1995), p1266

This book discusses a Whole System Approach to systems can be improved towards this end. A number
Sustainable Design. It is important here to discuss the of leading Sustainable Design experts – Bill
meaning of the term ‘Sustainable Design’ in this McDonough,7 Paul Hawken, Amory Lovins8, Hunter
context, where the focus is primarily on technical Lovins,9 Karl-Henrik Robert,10 Paul Anastas,11
engineered systems. Sustainable Design refers to the Friedrich Schmidt-Bleek,12 and Sim Van der Ryn13 –
design and development of systems that, throughout have developed guides to Sustainable Design that are in
their lifecycle: accord with the criteria outlined above. There are also
many other important criteria in developing systems
• Consume natural resources (energy, materials and that are ‘sustainable’ throughout their life-cycle in the
water) within the capacity for them to be traditional sense – in other words, their services are
regenerated (thus favouring renewable resources), reliable, maintainable, supportable, available and
and preferably replace or reuse natural resources; producible.14
• Do not release hazardous or polluting substances
into the biosphere beyond its assimilative capacity
(thus zero release of hazardous persistent and/or A Whole System Approach
bio-accumulative substances), and preferably are explained
benign and restorative;
• Avoid contributing to irreversible adverse impacts
on ecosystems (including services and biodiversity), A Whole System Approach is a process
biogeochemical cycles and hydrological cycles, and through which the interconnections between
preferably protect and enrich ecosystems, sub-systems and systems are actively
biogeochemical cycles and hydrological cycles; considered, and solutions are sought that
• Provide useful and socially accepted services long address multiple problems via one and the
term, and enrich communities and business by same solution.
providing multiple benefits; and
• Are cost effective and have a reasonable rate of
return on total life-cycle investment, and
preferably are immediately profitable. In the past engineers have failed to see these large
potential energy and resource savings, because they have
Currently, not all systems will reflect the above been encouraged to optimize only parts of the system –
description of a sustainable system. However, almost all be it a pumping system, a car or a building. Engineers
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4 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

have been encouraged to find efficiency improvements in Schilham did this in two simple ways. First, he revisited
part of a plant or a building, but rarely encouraged to seek pipe width. The friction in pipes decreases rapidly
to re-optimize the whole system. ‘Incremental product (nearly to the fifth power) as the diameter increases. He
refinement’ has been traditionally undertaken by isolating found that the existing pipe arrangement wasn’t taking
one component of the technology and optimizing the advantage of this mathematical relationship, and so he
performance or efficiency of that one component. designed the system to use short, fat pipes instead of
Though this method has its merits with the traditional long, thin ones. Second, he adjusted the system to
form of manufacturing and management of engineering minimize bends in pipes (to further reduce friction).
solutions, it prevents engineers from achieving significant This Whole System Approach created a 12-fold
energy and resource efficiency savings. Over the last 20 reduction in the energy required to pump the fluids
years, engineers using a Whole System Approach to through the pipe system, resulting in the big reduction
design has enabled designers to achieve Factor 4–20 in motor size, and subsequent energy and cost savings.
(75–95 per cent) efficiency improvements, which in Why is this significant? As Amory Lovins writes:
many cases has opened up new more cost–effective ways
to reduce our load on the environment. This is because in Pumping is the biggest use of the motors, and motors use
the past many engineered systems did not take into 3/5 of all the electricity, so saving one unit of friction in
account the multiple benefits that can be achieved by the pipe save 10 units of fuel. Because of the large amount
considering the whole system. of losses of electricity in its transmission from the power
For example, as the Rocky Mountain Institute plant to the end use, saving one unit of energy in the
points out, most energy-using technologies are designed pump/pipe system saves upwards of ten units of fuel at the
in three ways that are intended to produce an optimized power plant.17
design but actually produce suboptimal solutions:
A Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design allows
1 Components are optimized in isolation from other multiple benefits to be achieved in the design of air-
components (thus ‘pessimizing’ the systems of handling equipment, clean-rooms, lighting, drivepower
which they are a part). systems, chillers, insulation, heat-exchanging and other
2 Optimization typically considers single rather than technical systems in a wide range of sizes, programmes
multiple benefits. and climates. Such designs commonly yield energy
3 The optimal sequence of design steps is not usually savings of 50–90 per cent. However, only a tiny fraction
considered.15 of design professionals routinely apply a Whole System
Approach to Sustainable Design. Most design projects
Hence the Whole System Approach is now recognized deal with only some elements of an energy/materials-
as an important approach to enable the achievement of consuming system and do not take into account the
Sustainable Design. To illustrate this, consider the work whole system. This is the main reason why they fail to
of Interface Ltd engineer Jan Schilham in designing an capture the full savings potential. A Whole System
industrial pumping system for a factory in Shanghai in Approach to Sustainable Design is increasingly being seen
1997, as made famous largely by Amory Lovins and as the key strategy to achieving cost-effective ways to
profiled in Natural Capitalism:16 reduce negative environmental impacts.
This was one of the main conclusions of the five-
One of its industrial processes required 14 pumps. In year Australian Federal Government Energy Efficiency
optimizing the design, the top Western specialist firm Best Practice (EEBP) programme run by the
sized the pump motors to total 95 horsepower. But by Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources
applying methods learned from Singaporean efficiency (DITR).18 The team involved found that through a
expert Eng Lock Lee (and focusing on reducing waste in ‘whole-of-system’ approach they could achieve 30–60
the form of friction), Jan Schilham cut the design’s per cent energy efficiency gains across a wide range of
pumping power to only seven horsepower – a 92 per cent industries, from bakeries to supermarkets, mines,
or 12-fold energy saving – while reducing its capital cost breweries, wineries and dairies, to name but a few. The
and improving its performance in every respect. programme explicitly recommends that project teams
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A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 5

take a whole-of-system approach to understanding the Table 1.2 Comparison of the best and the worst
complex challenges and identifying energy-efficiency efficiency motoring systems
opportunities.19 The programme considered a number
System Component Best Efficiency Worst Efficiency
of industry applications, including motor systems that
are used in almost every industry. It found that electric Electrical wiring 0.98 0.9
motors are used to provide motive power for a vast Motor 0.92 0.75
Drive (e.g. gearbox or belt) 1.0 0.7
range of end uses, with crushers, grinders, mixers, fans,
Pump 0.85 0.4
pumps, material conveyors, air-compressors and Pipes 0.9 0.5
refrigeration compressors together accounting for 81 Process demand Can vary enormously but assumed
per cent of industrial motive power. The programme constant for this example.
pointed out that with a whole-of-system approach to Overall efficiency of system 0.69 0.095
optimizing industrial motor-driven applications, Source: Pears, A. (2004)21
coupled with best practice motor management,
electricity savings of 30–60 per cent can be realized.
For example, consider an electric motor driving a Whole System Design – a rediscovery
pump that circulates a liquid around an industrial of good Victorian engineering
site.20 This system comprises:
During the 20th century, engineering became more
• An electric motor (sizing and efficiency rating); and more specialized as scientific and technological
• Motor controls (switching, speed or torque knowledge increased exponentially, so much so that
control); now in the 21st century engineers are no longer trained
• Motor drive system (belts, gearboxes, etc); across fields of engineering as they were before and thus
• Pump; no longer keep up with the latest breakthroughs in
• Pipework; and every field. As a result, opportunities are often missed
• Demand for the fluid (or in many cases the heat or to optimize the whole system, as the engineer only
‘coolth’ it carries). knows their field in detail and has little interaction with
other designers on the project.
The efficiencies of these elements interact in complex A classic example of this is industrial pressurized
ways. However, consider a simplistic situation, where filtration, which is responsible for over one-third of all the
the overall efficiency of the motor is improved by 10 per energy used in filtration globally. For the last 80 years
cent (by a combination of appropriate sizing and most have assumed that these industrial pressurized filters
selection of a high-efficiency model). The efficiencies of had been designed optimally. However, closer inspection
these elements interact in complex ways. However, by Professors White, Bogar, Healy and Scales at the
consider a simplistic situation of a motor system with six University of Melbourne revealed that they had in fact
components in series. If the efficiency of every not yet been optimized. The design had been developed
component is improved by 10 per cent (by a 80 years ago by a mechanical engineer who had designed
combination of appropriate sizing and selection of a a system which, when given very concentrated
high-efficiency model), then the overall level of energy suspensions to filter, simply pushed harder rather than
use is 0.9 × 0.9 × 0.9 × 0.9 × 0.9 × 0.9 = 0.53. That is adjusting the chemistry of the suspension to make it
47 per cent savings are achieved. This is why taking the easier to push through, as the research team from the
Whole System Approach to Design is yielding over 50 University of Melbourne have now done. In this case the
per cent improvements previously ignored in resource engineer did not have the training in chemistry, or
productivity, with corresponding reductions in negative consult a chemist, to see possibilities to improve the
environmental impacts. If the most efficient component design of the whole system. This clearly demonstrates the
is chosen for each part of a motor system (even if benefit of engineers working together across disciplines to
the difference in efficiency is not significant for the examine and optimize engineering systems by pooling
individual components), the overall efficiency of the their collective knowledge. Most engineering firms have
whole system is about 7 times greater (see Table 1.2). this capacity.
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6 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Another factor in why components of the extremely inefficient. Though the jet of water
engineering project are optimized in isolation rather condensed the steam in the cylinder very quickly, it had
than as part of a system is because today large the undesirable effect of cooling the cylinder down,
engineering projects are highly complex. Hence the resulting in premature condensation on the next stroke.
engineer managing the project inevitably has to break In effect the cylinder had to perform two contradictory
up the project into components which are then worked functions at once: it had to be boiling hot in order to
on by individual engineers and designers. Therefore prevent the steam from condensing too early but also
often when undertaking the components of such had to be cold in order to condense the steam at just
projects, the individual engineer is not responsible for the right time.
the whole project and has little choice but to focus on Watt redesigned the engine by adding a separate
optimizing smaller components of the system, and condenser, allowing him to keep one cylinder hot by
hence missing those opportunities achievable only jacketing it in water supplied by the boiler. This
through a Whole System Approach to design. But this cylinder ensured that the water was turned into steam
can be avoided and significant time and money can be and then another condenser was kept at the right
saved if extra time is taken at the planning stage of the temperature to ensure the steam would condense at just
process to consider Whole System Design opportunities the right time. The result was an immensely more
and unleash the creativity of the designers through powerful machine than the Newcomen ‘steam’ engine,
multidisciplinary design processes such as design the original steam engine.
charrettes. Watt’s initial successful Whole System Design was
Engineers thrive on challenges, and the recently followed by further remarkable improvements of his
developed field of engineering called ‘Systems own making. The most important of these was the sun-
Engineering’ has evolved to address the need on and-planet gearing system, which translated the
complex engineering projects for an engineer to ensure engine’s reciprocating motion into rotary motion. In
that all the parts of the project relate and fit. A systems simple terms, the new machine could be used to drive
engineer needs to use a Whole System Approach to other machines. Watt alone had used a whole system
design and communicate the opportunities effectively optimization of the design to turn a steam pump into a
to the other engineers involved with developing machine that had vastly improved resource
components of an engineering project. Best practice in productivity and applicability.
Systems Engineering still performs reductionist
analyses of engineering challenges, but without losing The need for sustainable Whole
sight of how one component of the system interacts
System Design
with and affects all other components of the system or
the system’s behaviour and characteristics as a whole. As Whole System Design provides ways to both improve
engineers seek to collaborate across the different fields conversion efficiency and resource productivity and
of engineering once more, any Whole System reduce costs. James Watt showed this over 200 years
Approach to design involving multidisciplinary ago. But in the 21st century it needs to go further. We
engineering teams becomes a rediscovery of the rich need to seek to be restorative of the planet rather than
heritage of ‘Victorian’ engineering. destructive, and thus Whole System Design needs to
Engineering has a rich tradition of valuing and design for sustainability.24 In other words we need a
practising a Whole System Approach to design and Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design. In the
optimization. The first industrial revolution, as we context of the loss of natural capital and the loss of
know it today, would not have been possible if engineer resilience of many of the world’s ecosystems,
James Watt had not practised a Whole System development must be redesigned not to simply harm the
Approach to design optimization to achieve major environment less, but rather to be truly restorative of
resource productivity gains on the steam engine in nature and ecosystems, and society and communities.
1769. The first industrial revolution was only possible This involves the complete reversal of the negative
because of the significant improvement in the impacts of existing patterns of land use and
conversion efficiency of the steam engine22 thus development, improving human and environmental
achieved.23 Watt realized that the machine was health, and increasing natural capital (increasing
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A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 7

renewable resources, biodiversity, ecosystem services Design). For example, when the company first sought to
and natural habitat). meet our desire for an environmentally safe fabric, it
To achieve sustainability, we must transform our presented what it thought was a wholesome option:
design and construction processes well beyond what cotton, which is natural, combined with PET
many today see as ‘best practice’, which merely aims to (polyethylene terephthalate) fibres from recycled beverage
reduce adverse impacts relative to conventional bottles. Since the proposed hybrid could be described with
development in an ‘end-of-pipe’ manner. Many of what two important eco-buzzwords, ‘natural’ and ‘recycled’, it
are currently regarded as ‘ecological’ design goals, appeared to be environmentally ideal. The materials were
concepts, methods and tools are not adequately geared readily available, market–tested, durable and cheap. But
towards the systems design thinking and creativity when the project team looked carefully at what the
required to meet this challenge. An entirely new form manifestations of such a hybrid might be in the long run,
of design for development is required, of which a we discovered some disturbing facts. When a person sits in
Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design, as an office chair and shifts around, the fabric beneath him
outlined in this book, provides many of the keys: or her abrades; tiny particles of it are inhaled or swallowed
by the user and other people nearby. PET was not
To use an analogy; in the healthcare fields we have moved designed to be inhaled. Furthermore, PET would prevent
(conceptually) from (a) alleviating symptoms to (b) curing the proposed hybrid from going back into the soil safely,
illness, (c) preventing disease and (d) improving health. and the cotton would prevent it from re-entering an
Development control is still largely at the first stage – industrial cycle. The hybrid would still add junk to
mitigating impacts (in other words alleviating symptoms). landfills, and it might also be dangerous.
Restorative Whole System Approaches to Sustainable
Design instead seek to reverse impacts, eliminate The team decided to design a fabric so safe that one could
externalities and increase natural capital by supporting the literally eat it. The European textile mill chosen to
biophysical functions provided for by nature to restore the produce the fabric was quite ‘clean’ environmentally, and
health of the soil, air, water, biota and ecosystems.25 yet it had an interesting problem: although the mill’s
director had been diligent about reducing levels of
Taking a Whole System Approach to Sustainable dangerous emissions, government regulators had recently
Design is not simply about reducing harm, but about defined the trimmings of his fabric as hazardous waste. We
restoring the environment. It is also about not just sought a different end for our trimmings: mulch for the
ensuring that future generations can meet their needs. local garden club. When removed from the frame after the
A Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design is chair’s useful life and tossed onto the ground to mingle
about designing systems which create a greater array with sun, water and hungry micro-organisms, both the
of choices and options for future generations. fabric and its trimmings would decompose naturally. The
One of the leading proponents of Sustainable team decided on a mixture of safe, pesticide-free plant and
Design, Bill McDonough tells the following story to animal fibres for the fabric (ramie and wool) and began
illustrate the benefits of a restorative perspective to working on perhaps the most difficult aspect: the finishes,
design. This case study is given in full to give a sense dyes and other processing chemicals. If the fabric was to
of the potential of design for sustainability:26 go back into the soil safely, it had to be free of mutagens,
carcinogens, heavy metals, endocrine disrupters, persistent
In 1993, we helped to conceive and create a compostable toxic substances and bio-accumulative substances.
upholstery fabric, a biological nutrient. We were initially
asked by Design Tex to create an aesthetically unique Sixty chemical companies were approached about joining
fabric that was also ecologically intelligent, although the the project, and all declined, uncomfortable with the idea
client did not quite know at that point what this would of exposing their chemistry to the kind of scrutiny
(tangibly) mean. The challenge helped to clarify, both for necessary. Finally one European company, Ciba-Geigy,
us and for the company we were working with, the agreed to join. With that company’s help the project team
difference between superficial responses such as recycling considered more than 8000 chemicals used in the textile
and reduction and the more significant changes required industry and eliminated 7962. The fabric – in fact, an
by the Next Industrial Revolution (and Whole System entire line of fabrics – was created using only 38
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8 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

chemicals. The resulting fabric has garnered gold medals Examples of how a Whole System Approach can
and design awards and has proved to be tremendously lead to big advances are now very common:
successful in the marketplace. The non-toxic fabric,
Climatex(R)Lifecycle(TM), is so safe that its trimmings can • Whole System Design improvements mean that
indeed be used as mulch by local garden clubs. refrigerators today use significantly less energy than
those built in the early 1980s. In Australia the
The director of the mill told a surprising story after the average refrigerator being purchased is 50 per cent
fabrics were in production. When regulators came by to test more efficient than the ones bought in the early
the effluent, they thought their instruments were broken. 1980s. But a Whole System Approach to Sustainable
After testing the influent as well, they realized that the Design motivates the designer to see if this could still
equipment was fine – the water coming out of the factory be improved. As Chapter 5 will show, the latest
was as clean as the water going in. The manufacturing innovations in materials science from Europe mean
process itself was filtering the water. The new design not that there are now better insulating materials
only bypassed the traditional three-R responses to available that will allow the next generation of
environmental problems, but also eliminated the need for refrigerators to be still more energy efficient.
regulation. • A Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design
involves setting a high stretch goal of seeking to
design a system as sustainably and cost effectively as
Benefits to business of a Whole possible. The laptop computer is a classic case
System Approach to Sustainable study, because it shows what happens when you
give engineers a stretch goal. In this case the stretch
Design goal was that computer companies needed laptops
Product improvements and increased to be 80 per cent more efficient than desktop
computers so that the computer could run off a
competitive advantage
battery. With this stretch goal the engineers
A Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design can delivered a solution through Whole System Design.
help designers to help businesses develop new business • The built environment is another major area where
opportunities through developing ‘greener’ products. many are now taking a Whole System Approach to
Such an approach prompts the designer to re-examine Sustainable Design. In Melbourne, Australia, the
existing systems to design totally new ways to meet 60L Green Building demonstrated what is possible
people’s needs, design completely new products, or through retrofitting old buildings with a Whole
simply redesign and significantly improve old products. System Design Approach. This commercial
These new product improvements can create new building now uses over 65 per cent less energy and
business opportunities, markets and new competitive over 90 per cent less water than a conventional
advantages for a company. commercial building. It features many innovations,
This is being understood by major companies. For using the latest in stylish office amenities
instance in May 2005, General Electric (GE), one of completely made from recycled materials.
the world’s biggest companies, with revenues of • Whole System Approaches to Design also can help
US$152 billion in 2004, announced ‘Ecomagination’, metal processing and industrial processes.
a major new business driver expected to double Developed in Australia, Ausmelt was a totally new
revenues from greener products to US$20 billion by smelting process for base metals that increased the
2010. This initiative will see GE double its research and capacity of metal producers to repeatedly recycle the
development in eco-friendly technologies to US$1.5 planet’s finite mineral resources. The technology has
billion by 2010, and improve energy efficiency by 30 since been further developed to reprocess toxic
per cent by 2012. In May 2006, the company reported wastes such as the cyanide- and fluorine-
revenues of US$10.1 billion from its energy-efficient contaminated pot-lining from aluminium smelters.
and environmentally advanced products and services, The Sirosmelt, Ausmelt and Isasmelt technologies
up from US$6.2 billion in 2004, with orders nearly have become the system of choice as smelting
doubling to US$17 billion. companies slowly modernize internationally.
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A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 9

Table 1.3 Case studies of a Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design (as outlined in Chapters 6–10)
Case Study Summary

Industrial Pumping Systems A Whole System Approach to the redesign of a single-pipe, single-pump system focused on a)
reconfiguring the layout for lower head loss and b) considering the effect of many combinations of
pipe diameter and pump power on life-cycle cost. The WSD system uses 88% less power and has a
79% lower 50-year life-cycle cost than the conventional system.
Passenger Vehicles A Whole System Approach to the redesign of a passenger vehicle focused on reducing mass by 52%
and reducing drag by 55%, which then reduces rolling resistance by 65% and makes a fuel cell
propulsion system cost effective. The WSD vehicle is also almost fully recyclable, generates zero
operative emissions and has a 95% better fuel-mass consumption per kilometre than the equivalent
conventional vehicle.
Electronics and Computer Systems A Whole System Approach to the redesign of a computer server focused on using the right sized
energy-efficient components, which then reduced the heat generated. The WSD server has 60%
less mass and uses 84% less power than the equivalent server, which would reduce cooling load in a
data centre by 63%.
Temperature Control of Buildings A Whole System Approach to the redesign of a simple house focused on a) optimizing the building
orientation, b) optimizing glazing and shading, and c) using more energy-efficient electrical
appliances and lamps. While the WSD house has a AU$3000 greater capital cost than the
conventional house, its 29% lower cooling load will reduce energy costs by AU$15,000 over 30
years.
Domestic Water Systems A Whole System Approach to the redesign of a domestic onsite water system focused on a) using
water-efficient appliances in the house and b) optimizing the onsite wastewater treatment
subsystem, which then reduces the capacity and cost of the subsurface drip irrigation subsystem,
and reduces operating and maintenance costs. The WSD system uses 57% less water and has a
29% lower 20-year life-cycle cost than the conventional system.

Improving competitive advantage material substitution and closed-loop processes to limit

through reduced costs pollution before it occurs. Although pollution prevention
is an important step in the right direction, ultimately
A Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design helps companies must learn to frame environmental
companies move away from end-of-pipe approaches to improvement in terms of resource productivity.
pollution control, towards designing out waste in the
first place and improving eco-efficiency and resource Today managers and regulators focus on the actual costs of
productivity. eliminating or treating pollution. They must shift their
Companies are starting to realize that resource attention to include the opportunity costs of pollution –
inefficiencies in their businesses are often indicators of wasted resources, wasted effort and diminished product
much greater waste occurring in areas from product value to the customer. At the level of resource productivity,
design to overall plant design and operation. Professor environmental improvement and competitiveness come
Michael Porter, internationally renowned expert in together. This new view of pollution as resource
business competitiveness, summarizes the key insight inefficiency evokes the quality revolution of the 1980s and
that many are still failing to realize, as he and Claas Van its most powerful lessons. Today many businesspeople have
der Linde write:27 little trouble grasping the idea that innovation can improve
quality while actually lowering cost.
Environmental improvement efforts have ... focused on
pollution control through better identification, processing But as recently as 15 years ago, managers believed there
and disposal of discharges or waste – costly approaches. In was a fixed trade-off. Improving quality was expensive
recent years, more advanced companies and regulators have because it could be achieved only through inspection and
embraced the concept of pollution prevention, sometimes rework of the ‘inevitable’ defects that came off the line.
called source reduction, which uses such methods as What lay behind the old view was the assumption that
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10 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

both product design and production processes were fixed. The Australian Department of Industry, Tourism and
As managers have rethought the quality issue, however, Resources (DITR) energy efficiency programme has
they have abandoned that old mindset. Viewing defects as shown that a Whole System Approach provides a way
a sign of inefficient product and process design – not as an to achieve large resource efficiency savings while
inevitable by-product of manufacturing – was a reducing costs to business (see Table 1.4). One area
breakthrough. Companies now strive to build quality into where design can often help businesses save money is
the entire process. The new mindset unleashed the power by looking at equipment – is it optimized for the job
of innovation to relax or eliminate what companies had it was intended to do? For instance, most air-
previously accepted as fixed trade-offs. conditioners are currently optimized for the most
extreme of weather conditions, rather than being
optimized for the conditions in a building in which
Improved productivity they are required to run most of the time. Another
A Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design can question not often asked is whether there are more
encourage new approaches and innovations that can systems running than needed. When undertaking a
improve businesses’ resource productivity significantly. whole system analysis of an industrial plant, office
If industry simply tinkers with the way modes building or factory, it is often found that energy
of production currently meet consumer demand, then consumption far exceeds the levels expected on the
the productivity gains will be small, but larger resource basis of computer simulation. In most systems, from
productivity gains, achieved wisely through Design for household appliances to office buildings to industrial
Environment and whole system redesign strategies, can sites, the nature of energy use can be characterized as
help businesses achieve higher productivity gains shown in Figure 1.1.
than usual. Large resource productivity gains can lead In practice, most plant and equipment has
to significant total productivity improvements that, to surprisingly high fixed energy overheads, because
date, have been largely ignored by business due to engineers have not checked that what is switched on is
relatively low energy and water prices and the relatively only what absolutely needs to be running. In an ideal
low costs of landfill. A Whole System Approach to process, no energy is used when the system is not doing
Sustainable Design is a strategy for achieving large anything useful. The gradient of the graph should reflect
resource productivity gains as cost effectively as the ideal amount of energy used to run the process, but
possible. Numerous business case studies now have the gradient of the typical process is steeper than the ideal
been reported to prove this in internationally graph, reflecting the inefficiencies within the process
bestselling books such as Factor 4: Doubling Wealth, (Figure 1.1). Systems ranging from large industrial plants
Halving Resource Use and Natural Capitalism. Amory to retail stores to homes show similar characteristics. Why
Lovins, a co-author of these books, has been working in is this happening? It is occurring because, whether the
recent years with Wal-Mart, the world’s largest retailing system is an industrial plant or a home, there is very
company. In October 2005, Wal-Mart announced a limited measurement and monitoring of energy and
US$500 million climate change commitment, resource use at the process level.
including initiatives to: Further, rarely are there properly specified
benchmarks against which performance can be
• Reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20 per cent in evaluated. So often plant operators do not know what
seven years; and is possible. An effective strategy looks at both the fixed
• Increase truck fleet fuel efficiency by 25 per cent in energy overheads and the system’s marginal efficiency.
three years and double it in ten through a Whole Often only one or the other is addressed. The message
System Redesign of its trucking fleets (to reduce, here is that energy-consuming systems are not simple.
for instance, their air-resistance). Ideally, they should be modelled under a range of
realistic operating conditions, so that appropriate
With the savings from greater energy efficiency, Wal- priorities for savings measures can be set and reasonable
Mart has also committed to operating on 100 per cent estimates of energy savings from each measure can be
renewable energy. made.
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A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 11

Source: Pears (2004)28

Figure 1.1 Energy use of a typical production system compared with one with zero energy overheads and the ideal process

Table 1.4 Sample of the Big Energy Projects (BEP) scheme and Best Practice People and Processes (BPPP) modules
under the Energy Efficiency Best Practice government programme
Site Core Business Elements of the programme

Barrett Burston Malting, Malt Manufacture BEP (new plant with focus on heating/cooling).
Geelong, Victoria (and across sites nationally) BPPP modules: refrigeration compressed air and
BEP outcomes workshop.
Savings across six sites in the year to December 2001 yielded an improved energy consumption of around 50,000Gj of combined gas and
electricity savings, while maintaining product quality. Total operational costs bettered the budget by 12%, with savings in excess of 20% in
one malt house. The improved trend is being continued to this day in all six plants. Significant savings have been identified for the Geelong
site and future greenfield sites with the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 43%.
Amcor Packaging, Thomastown, Victoria Bottle Closure Manufacturing BPPP module: energy management team.
In the first phase, a ‘changeover’ project was identified by the team, resulting in a productivity increase with a sales value of AU$330,000
annually.
Amcor Packaging, Dandenong, Victoria Aluminium Can Manufacturing BPPP module: energy management.
Efficiency of one gas-fired oven has been improved by 25%, with a saving of 4Gj per hour as well as reliability and productivity benefits. A
power factor correction project has been identified that will yield savings of AU$17,000 per year. A compressed-air optimization project has
identified savings of AU$46,000 per year.
Bakers Delight Mascot, Sydney Bakery BEP: designed a showcase bakery.
The project achieved 32% savings in annual energy costs and 48% reduction in greenhouse emissions per year compared to a standard
Bakers Delight bakery. The project also led to improvements in waste minimization, water conservation and purchasing energy from
renewable sources.

Source: Australian Government’s Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources, cited in Hargroves and Smith (2005), p15429
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12 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Improved decision-making and This compares with a typical insulation value in a

problem-solving house ceiling of R3. The unnecessary 8 kW of heat
loss from this oven was a major contributor to the
Initiatives using a Whole System Approach encourage an discomfort of staff in the kitchen. In turn, the
organization to reconsider outdated processes and uncomfortable working conditions are a key factor
assumptions, and can create simultaneous improvements affecting the difficulty of attracting staff to this
in resource productivity and economic performance. A industry. The business is actually paying for the
new approach for engineers to encourage them to re- energy that undermines its ability to employ good
examine the assumptions underlying long-established people.
manufacturing processes may lead firms to discover
opportunities for simultaneously reducing costs and Participants in the DITR energy-efficiency
pollutant emissions. Many participants in the US programmes found that taking a Whole System
voluntary challenge programmes, such as 33/50 and Approach helped their consultant engineers find new
Green Lights, reported that the programmes forced them ways to address and solve long-standing problems:
to re-examine their decision-making methods. In
Australia the Department of Industry, Tourism and The specialists participating in the workshop were able to
Resources (DITR) Energy Efficiency Best Practice consider the malting process from a completely fresh
programme found that time and again companies can angle, generating a host of valuable creative ideas for
benefit from re-examining assumptions. The sorts of future plant designs and many solutions for retrofitting
things engineers30 have found, using a whole system existing plants. ... I heard more innovative ideas about
analysis of existing systems, included: how we can improve our process during this workshop
than I’ve heard in the last 30 years. (Grant Powell, Vice
• Large boiler feed water tanks that were uninsulated President of Production, Barrett Burston Maltings)
but sitting in the open air at 75ºC. Why? Staff had
noted that when the plant wasn’t running, the We found the DITR’s Energy Efficiency Best Practice
temperature of the water in these tanks fell quite programme to be particularly valuable as a means to
slowly: it was therefore inferred that heat loss was incorporate a wide range of external points of view. The
not great. In reality this outcome was due to the specialists involved were able to look at our refrigeration
very high thermal capacity of a large volume of issues without the constraints of having worked in the
water, and actual heat losses were hundreds of brewing industry previously. (Phil Browne, Manager
watts per square metre of surface area, and even Infrastructure and Utilities Capability, CUB)
more when it was windy or raining.
• Many plants that operated for 50–80 hours per week
had large boiler systems or refrigeration systems that Benefits to governments
could not be shut down and restarted reliably or
quickly, so there was massive standby energy waste Assist the decoupling of economic
because they ran more or less continuously. growth from environmental
• Some facilities, for example wineries, had large
pressures
amounts of high-capital-cost equipment that was
fully utilized for very short periods of time: load As Yukiko Fukasaku wrote for the OECD in 1999:31
management strategies offer both capital and
energy savings. It used to be taken for granted that economic growth
• Thermal bridging and air leakage were often major entailed parallel growth in resource consumption, and to
contributors to energy losses and can be easily a certain extent environmental degradation. However, the
overcome. For example, a bakery oven evaluated experience of the last decades indicates that economic
based on actual standby energy consumption had growth and resource consumption and environmental
an effective average thermal resistance of R0.22. degradation can be decoupled to a considerable extent.
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A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 13

The path towards sustainable development entails Profitable reductions in greenhouse

accelerating this decoupling process32 ... in other words gas emissions
transforming what we produce and how we produce it.
The world’s largest economic powers – countries and
The scientific results of the 2005 United Nations companies – now acknowledge that greenhouse gas
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment show that it is vital emissions will need to be drastically reduced over the
that all nations achieve rapid decoupling of economic next 30–50 years to avert catastrophic environmental
growth from environmental pressures.33 Many nations, damage leading to significant social and economic
such as The Netherlands (see Figure 1.2), Sweden and damages, as indicated by the IPCC’s fourth Assessment
the UK, are achieving significant decoupling of (2007). The President of the US, George W. Bush,
economic growth from several environmental stated in 2005 that:
pressures, showing that it is possible through eco-
efficiencies and Whole System Design to achieve I recognize that the surface of the Earth is warmer and that
decoupling.34 an increase in greenhouse gases caused by humans is
In 2001 the Australian Government committed to contributing to the problem. (George W. Bush, quoted in
the goal of decoupling economic growth from The Washington Post)37
environmental pressures through the then Federal
Environment Minister Robert Hill’s36 active participation At the 2005 World Economic Forum, CEOs from the
in, and support for, the 2001–2011 OECD world’s biggest companies agreed: ‘The greatest
Environmental Strategy, which included ‘Achieving challenge facing the world in the 21st century – and the
Decoupling of Economic Growth from Environmental issue where business could most effectively adopt a
Pressure’ as the second of five key objectives. leadership role – is climate change’.38

Source: The Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (2007)35

Figure 1.2 Comparing The Netherlands’ economic growth and reduction of environmental impacts
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14 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

While Australia is well on track to achieving its energy sources – and we are on the threshold of incredible
Kyoto target,39 it is widely acknowledged that this is advances. ... This and other new technologies will help us
but a small step in a long journey of greenhouse gas reach another great goal: to replace more than 75 per cent
reduction for our country. The Intergovernmental of our oil imports from the Middle East by 2025. By
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) suggest that applying the talent and technology of America, this
stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations at double the country can dramatically improve our environment, move
pre-industrial levels will require deep cuts in annual beyond a petroleum-based economy and make our
global emissions of 60 per cent or more.40 The Sydney dependence on Middle Eastern oil a thing of the past.42
Morning Herald reported in 2004 that Australia’s Chief
Scientist Robin Batterham suggests that an 80 per cent Modern economies’ transportation needs are
reduction is required in Australia’s CO2 emissions by remarkably dependant on oil. Without new discoveries,
the end of the 21st century.41 Australia’s domestic oil reserves are forecast by the
A Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design Australian Petroleum Association to run out by 2030.
will be a crucial tool to enable the achievement of such Overall oil production has now peaked in over 60
large greenhouse gas reductions. As shown above, countries (for example, in the US, the rate of oil
already there are numerous Whole System Design production peaked in 1972). Increasingly, experts
innovations – pipe and pump systems, motor systems, believe that oil production will peak anytime between
hybrid cars, laptop computers, and green buildings – 2010 and 2030, as shown in Figure 1.3 below. The
which achieve at least 50 per cent energy-efficiency combination of the approaching oil production peak
savings. Numerous further case studies of a Whole and increasing oil demand has led to oil prices rising
System Approach to Sustainable Design are outlined in quite rapidly since late 2003 and even more rapidly
Chapters 4 and 5 showing that 30–80 per cent energy- since early 2007.43
efficiency savings can be achieved, thus making low- Two US Government reports have given serious
carbon-energy-supply options economically viable. The warnings on this issue and recommended early action.
technical Whole System Design ‘worked examples’ in The US Department of Energy’s Office of Naval
Chapters 6–9 – industrial pumping systems, passenger Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves released a report in
vehicles, electronics and computer systems, and 2004 which outlined that, with oil, ‘A serious supply-
temperature control of buildings – are all examples of demand discontinuity could lead to worldwide
how Whole System Design can reduce energy usage economic crisis.’ The authors of this report argue for an
and greenhouse gas emissions. emergency plan to keep US oil supplies strong and
ensure that the US Naval Fleet can stay afloat.44 And,
Reducing oil dependency in 2005, Robert Hirsh45 of the Science Applications
International Corporation (SAIC) released a report
Reducing our use and dependence on fossil fuels such commissioned by the US Department of Energy titled
as oil is not only necessary for reasons associated with Peaking of World Oil Production: Impacts, Mitigation
global warming – there is also an economic imperative. and Risk Management.46 It delivered a blunt message:
Whenever oil prices have risen significantly in the past, that the world has, at most, 20–25 years before world
this has hurt economies in two ways. First, rising oil oil production peaks. It argues that it will take
prices are inflationary and reduce consumer spending economies over 20 years to adapt to a world of
in other parts of the economy. US President George W. constantly high oil prices. Therefore it argues that
Bush committed the US to reducing oil dependency by humanity does not have a moment to lose.
75 per cent by 2025; he outlined this in his 2006 State A Whole System Approach to design of our cities
of the Union Address, stating: and transport systems will be vital to addressing this
problem. Many sustainable transport experts argue that,
And here we have a serious problem: America is addicted to effectively reduce oil dependency in the transport
to oil, which is often imported from unstable parts of the sector, we need to transform our cities from their
world. The best way to break this addiction is through current automobile-dependant design to a more
technology. Since 2001, we have spent nearly $10 billion automobile-independent one. Therefore achieving
to develop cleaner, cheaper and more reliable alternative sustainable transportation now, with what technology is
Chapter 1.qxd 12/1/2008 5:13 PM Page 15

A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 15

World Energy
Outlook 2006

Source: Energy Watch Group (2007)47

Figure 1.3 World oil production

available, will require governments, business and 25 per cent in three years and double it in ten. And in
citizens to work together to reduce their transportation England the first double-decker hybrid bus was
needs through better urban/regional design and a shift launched in 2005 and already there are numerous
to low-carbon-emitting transportation modes – hybrid motorbikes on the market.
especially through increased public transportation, rail,
cycling and walking. Improvements in fuel efficiency of Conclusion
transportation vehicles (cars, trucks, buses and
motorcycles) through Whole System Design approaches Concern for these issues is not new. As far back as
is also seen as a key strategy to reduce oil dependency.48 1919, Svante Arrhenius, Director of the Nobel
Chapter 7, the Hypercar technical worked example, Institute, urged engineers to think of the next
explains the benefits of a Whole System Approach to the generation and embrace sustainable development:
design of cars. Many of the ideas outlined in the
Hypercar are already being applied to hybrid cars, Engineers must design more efficient internal combustion
trucks, buses and motorbikes. Companies leading in engines capable of running on alternative fuels such as
this area are reaping significant financial benefits. Even alcohol, and new research into battery power should be
as early as 2006, the Academy Awards car-park for undertaken. ... Wind motors and solar engines hold great
Hollywood stars looked like a showroom for a hybrid promise and would reduce the level of CO2 emissions.
car dealership. At that time, hybrids sold for as little as Forests must be planted. ... To conserve coal, half a tonne
US$22,000 in the US. This is affordable for the average of which is burned in transporting the other half tonne to
family, especially since such vehicles can cut the family market ... the building of power plants should be in close
fuel bill in half. In 2006, there was an eight-month wait proximity to the mines. ... All lighting with petroleum
for anyone wanting a hybrid in the US, such is their products should be replaced with more efficient electric
popularity. lamps. (Svante Arrhenius, 1926)49
As stated above, in October 2005, the world’s
largest retailer, Wal-Mart, announced a US$500 Arrhenius called for the amount of waste from industry
million climate change commitment, including to be reduced so as to ensure that future generations
initiatives to increase truck fleet fuel efficiency by could also meet their needs. He argued that the
Chapter 1.qxd 12/1/2008 5:13 PM Page 16

16 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

industrial world had given rise to a new kind of Notes

international warrior, who he called the ‘Conquistador
of Waste’. Arrhenius wrote eloquently: 1 Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. (1999)
Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial
Revolution, Earthscan, London.
Like insane wastrels, we spend that which we received in
2 An address to The International Society of Ecological
legacy from our fathers. Our descendants surely will Economists by the Federal Minister for the
sensor us for having squandered their just birthright. ... Environment and Heritage Senator the Hon Robert
Statesman can plead no excuse for letting development go Hill, Australian National University, Canberra, 6 July
on to the point where mankind will run the danger of the 2000, www.deh.gov.au/minister/env/2000/sp6jul00.
end of natural resources in a few hundred years. html, accessed 19 October 2007.
3 The Department of the Environment and Heritage
A Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design will (2001) Product Innovation: The Green Advantage: An
assist engineers to identify and design out waste in the Introduction to Design for Environment for Australian
first place and ensure that they play their part in Business, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra,
www.environment.gov.au/settlements/industry/finance/
achieving sustainable development. Hence Whole
publications/producer.html, accessed 7 May 2008.
System Design offers exciting opportunities in which
4 The Department of the Environment and Heritage
engineers can play their part to help companies, (2001) Product Innovation: The Green Advantage: An
Australia and the world to achieve sustainable Introduction to Design for Environment for Australian
development in the 21st century. Business, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra,
www.environment.gov.au/settlements/industry/finance/
publications/producer.html, accessed 7 May 2008.
Optional reading 5 Porter, M. E. and van der Linde, C. (1995) ‘Green and
Birkeland, J. (ed) (2002) Design for Sustainability: A competitive: Ending the stalemate’, Harvard Business
Sourcebook of Ecological Design Solutions, Earthscan, Review, Boston, Reprint 95507.
London 6 Porter, M. and van der Linde, C. (1995) ‘Toward a new
Hargroves, K. and Smith, M. H. (2005) The Natural conception of the environment-competitiveness
Advantage of Nations: Business Opportunities, Innovation relationship’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol IX–4,
and Governance in the 21st Century, Earthscan, London fall, p126.
Hawken, P., Lovins, A. and Lovins, L. (1999) Natural 7 William McDonough and Partners (1992) The
Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution, Hannover Principles: Design for Sustainability, William
Earthscan, London, www.natcap.org/sitepages/pid20. McDonough Architects, www.mcdonough.com/
php, accessed 19 October 2007 principles.pdf, accessed 19 October 2007.
Lovins, L. H. (2005) ‘Green is good’, Sydney Morning Herald, 8 See Rocky Mountain Institute – ‘Natural capitalism’ at
19 April www.rmi.org/sitepages/pid69.php, accessed 18 October
McDonough, W. and Braungart, M. (2002) Cradle to Cradle: 2007; Hawken, P., Lovins, A. and Lovins, L. (1999)
Remaking the Way We Make Things, North Point Press, Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial
New York Revolution, Earthscan, London, www.natcap.org/
OECD (1998) Eco-efficiency, OECD, Paris sitepages/pid20.php, accessed 19 October 2007.
Porter, M. and van der Linde, C. (1995) ‘Toward a new 9 See Rocky Mountain Institute – ‘Natural capitalism’ at
conception of the environment-competitiveness www.rmi.org/sitepages/pid69.php, accessed 18 October
relationship’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol IX–4, 2007; Hawken, P., Lovins, A. and Lovins, L. (1999)
fall, pp97–118 Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial
Scheer, H. (2004) The Solar Economy, Earthscan, London Revolution, Earthscan, London, www.natcap.org/
Van der Ryn, S. and Calthorpe, P. (1986) Sustainable sitepages/pid20.php, accessed 19 October 2007.
Communities: A New Design Synthesis for Cities, Suburbs 10 See The Natural Step – ‘What is sustainability?’ at
and Towns, Sierra Club Books, San Francisco, CA www.naturalstep.org/com/What_is_sustainability/,
Von Weizsäcker, E., Lovins, A. and Lovins, L. (1997) Factor accessed 18 October 2007; Robert, K. H. (2002) The
Four: Doubling Wealth, Halving Resource Use, Earthscan, Natural Step Story, New Society, Gabriola Island,
London Canada.
Chapter 1.qxd 12/1/2008 5:13 PM Page 17

A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 17

11 US Environmental Protection Agency (n.d.) ‘Twelve 21 Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy efficiency – Its potential: Some
principles of green chemistry’, www.epa.gov/green perspectives and experiences’, background paper for
chemistry/pubs/principles.html, accessed 19 October International Energy Agency Energy Efficiency
2007; Anastas, P. L. and Zimmerman, J. B. (2003) Workshop, Paris, April, www.naturaledgeproject.net/
‘Design through the 12 principles of green engineering’, Documents/IEAENEFFICbackgroundpaperPearsFinal.
Environmental Science and Technology, 1 March, ACS pdf, accessed 30 March 2008.
publishing, pp95–101. 22 The steam engine was invented in 1710 to pump water
12 Schmidt-Bleek, F. (1999) Factor 10: Making out of coal mines.
Sustainability Accountable, Putting Resource Productivity 23 Christianson, G. (1999) Greenhouse: The 200 Year
into Practice, p41, www.factor10-institute.org/pdf/ History of Global Warming, Walker & Company, New
F10REPORT.pdf, accessed 10 September 2007. York.
13 See Van der Ryn Architects – ‘Five principles of 24 Weizsäcker, E., Lovins, A. and Lovins, H. (1997) Factor
ecological design’ at http://64.143.175.55/va/index- Four: Doubling Wealth, Halving Resource Use, Earthscan,
methods. html, accessed 18 October 2007; van der Ryn, London; McDonough, M. and Braungart, M. (2002)
S. and Calthorpe, P. (1986) Sustainable Communities: A Cradle to Cradle – Remaking The Way We Make Things,
New Design Synthesis for Cities, Suburbs and Towns, North Point Press, New York, www.mcdonough.com/
Sierra Club Books, San Francisco, CA. cradle_to_cradle.htm; Birkeland, J. (2002) Design for
14 For detailed discussions on these criteria, readers are Sustainability, Earthscan, London.
directed to Blanchard, B. S. (2004) Logistics Engineering 25 Birkeland, J. (2005) Design for Ecosystem Services – A
and Management (sixth edition), Pearson Prentice-Hall, New Paradigm for Eco-design, International Sustainable
Upper Saddle River, NJ. Buildings Conference, Tokyo; Birkeland, J. (ed) (2002)
15 Hawken, P., Lovins, L. H. and Lovins, A. B. (1999) Design for Sustainability: A Sourcebook of Ecological
Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Design Solutions, Earthscan, London.
Revolution, Earthscan, London, Chapter 6: ‘Tunnelling 26 McDonough, M. and Braungart, M. (2002) Cradle to
through the cost barrier’. Cradle – Remaking The Way We Make Things, North
16 Hawken, P., Lovins, L. H. and Lovins, A. B. (1999) Point Press, New York.
Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial 27 Porter, M. E. and van der Linde, C. (1995) ‘Green and
Revolution, Earthscan, London, Chapter 6: ‘Tunnelling competitive: Ending the stalemate’, Harvard Business
through the cost barrier’. Review, Boston, Reprint 95507, p122.
17 Hawken, P., Lovins, L. H. and Lovins, A. B. (1999) 28 Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy efficiency – Its potential: Some
Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial perspectives and experiences’, background paper for
Revolution, Earthscan, London, p121. International Energy Agency Energy Efficiency
18 This programme has now become the Department of Workshop, Paris, April 2004, www.naturaledgeproject.
Resources, Energy and Tourism’s Energy Efficiency net/Documents/IEAENEFFICbackgroundpaperPears
Opportunities Program. Final.pdf, accessed 30 March 2008.
19 National Framework for Energy Efficiency and 29 Hargroves, K. J. and Smith, M. H. (2005) The Natural
Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources (2006) Advantage of Nations: Business Opportunities, Innovation
Energy Efficiency Opportunities: Assessment Handbook, and Governance in the 21st Century, Earthscan, London,
Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, www.energy p154.
efficiencyopportunities.gov.au/assets/documents/energy 30 Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy efficiency – Its potential: Some
efficiencyopps/EEO%20handbook%20screen2006110 perspectives and experiences’, background paper for
2144033.pdf, accessed 7 March 2008; see also International Energy Agency Energy Efficiency
Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism, Energy Workshop, Paris, April 2004, www.naturaledgeproject.
Efficiency Best Practice (EEBP) programme, ‘EEBP’ in net/Documents/IEAENEFFICbackgroundpaperPears
the ‘X Sector Documents’ at www.ret.gov.au/ Final.pdf, accessed 30 March 2008.
Programsandservices/EnergyEfficiencyBestPracticeEEB 31 Fukasaku, Y. (1999) ‘Stimulating environmental
PProgram/Pages/default.aspx, accessed 7 March 2008. innovation’, The STI Review, vol 25, no 2, Special Issue
20 Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy efficiency – Its potential: Some on Sustainable Development, OECD, Paris.
perspectives and experiences’, background paper for 32 According to the OECD, the term ‘decoupling’:
International Energy Agency Energy Efficiency
Workshop, Paris, April, www.naturaledgeproject.net/ has often been used to refer to breaking the link between
Documents/IEAENEFFICbackgroundpaperPearsFinal. the growth in environmental pressure associated with
pdf, accessed 30 March 2008. creating economic goods and services. In particular it
Chapter 1.qxd 12/1/2008 5:13 PM Page 18

18 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

refers to the relative growth rates of a pressure on the 42 Office of the Press Secretary (2006) ‘President Bush
environment and of the economically relevant variable delivers State of the Union Address’, Office of the Press
to which it is causally linked. Decoupling occurs when Secretary, www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/01/
growth rate of the environmentally relevant variable is 20060131-10.html, accessed 18 March 2008.
less than that of its economic variable (e.g. GDP) over a 43 Index Mundi website: Crude Oil (petroleum) Monthly
Price at http://indexmundi.com/commodities/?commodity
period of time.
=crude-oil&months=300, accessed 5 September 2008.
33 See UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment at 44 In late May 2005, Robert Hirsch presented the substance
www.maweb.org/en/index.aspx, accessed 28 March of the report at the annual workshop of the Association
2008 for the Study of Peak Oil (ASPO) in Lisbon, Portugal,
34 OECD (1998) Eco-efficiency, OECD, Paris, p71. to an audience of about 300, www.cge.uevora.pt/aspo
35 Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (2007) 2005/abscom/Abstract_Lisbon_Hirsch.pdf, accessed
Environmental Balance 2007, Netherlands 18 March 2008.
Environmental Assessment Agency (MNP), Bilthoven, 45 Johnson, H. R., Crawford, P. M. and Bunger, J. W. (2004)
The Netherlands. Strategic Significance of America’s Oil Shale Resource: Volume
36 See Organisation for Economic Co-operation and I – Assessment of Strategic Issues, US Department of Energy,
Development – ‘Draft Agenda 2001’ at www1.oecd.org/ Washington, DC, p10, www.fossil.energy. gov/programs/
env/min/2001/agenda.htm, accessed 18 March 2008. reserves/npr/publications/npr_strategic_significancev1
37 VandeHei, J. (2005) ‘President holds firm as G-8 .pdf, accessed 18 March 2008.
summit opens: Bush pledges to help Africa, but gives no 46 Hirsch, R. L., Bezdek, R. and Wendling, R. (2005)
ground on environmental policy’, Washington Post, Peaking of World Oil Production: Impacts, Mitigation and
7 July 2005, pA14, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/ Risk Management, US Department of Energy, National
content/article/2005/07/06/AR2005070602298.html, Energy Technology Laboratory, www.hilltoplancers.org/
accessed 20 August 2008. stories/hirsch0502.pdf, accessed 19 October 2007.
38 Lovins, L. H. (2005) ‘Green is good’, Sydney Morning 47 Energy Watch Group (2007) Crude Oil: The Supply
Herald, 19 April. Outlook, Report to the Energy Watch Group, Energy
39 DEH: Greenhouse Office (2005) Tracking to the Kyoto Watch Group, p68, www.energywatchgroup.org/
Target 2005, DEH, www.greenhouse.gov.au/projections/ fileadmin/global/pdf/EWG_Oilreport_10-2007.pdf,
pubs/tracking2005.pdf, accessed 18 March 2007. accessed 23 July 2008.
40 IPCC (2001) Climate Change 2001: Synthesis of the 48 Lovins, A. B., Datta, E. K., Bustnes, O. E., Koomey, J. G.
Third Assessment Report, Intergovernmental Panel on and Glasgow, N. J. (2004) Winning the Oil Endgame:
Climate Change, United Nations Environment Innovation for Profits, Jobs and Security, Book and
Program/World Meteorological Organisation, Technical Annexes, Rocky Mountain Institute, Snowmass,
Cambridge University Press. CO, www.oilendgame.com, accessed 29 July 2007.
41 Peatling, S. (2004) ‘Carbon emissions must be halved, 49 Arrhenius, S. (1926) Chemistry in Modern Life, Van
says science chief ’, Sydney Morning Herald, 19 July. Nostrand Company, New York, NY.
Chapter 2.qxd 12/1/2008 5:13 PM Page 19

2
The Fundamentals of Systems Engineering
to Inform a Whole System Approach
Educational aim Design into engineering design courses and practices.
Also, traditional Systems Engineering will be greatly
Chapter 2 provides an introduction to conventional enriched by integrating it with the latest insights from the
Systems Engineering so that we can show in Chapters Whole System Design literature.
3–5 how a Whole System Approach to Sustainable
Design will enhance the discipline. In Chapter 1, we
introduced the fact that many engineered systems are
sub-optimally designed, because engineers have not taken Required reading
the time to optimize the whole system. Chapter 1
described how this fact has inspired the field of Whole Blanchard, B. S. and Fabrycky, W. J. (2006)
System Design. Chapter 2 now shows that this fact has Systems Engineering and Analysis (fourth
also inspired Systems Engineering. It first highlights the edition), Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
similarities between some of the principles and River, NJ, Chapter 1, pp2–21
motivations of good Systems Engineering and Whole Honour, E. C. (2004) Understanding the
System Design, before outlining the differences: a Whole Value of Systems Engineering, proceedings of the
System Approach to Sustainable Design covers more than Fourteenth Annual Symposium of the
simply engineering design. Whole System Approaches to International Council on Systems Engineering,
Sustainable Design can be applied to all fields of design – Toulouse, France, pp1–16, www.incose.org/
by architects and industrial, urban and landscape secoe/0103/ValueSE-INCOSE04.pdf, accessed 5
designers, not just by engineers. Whole System Design is October 2007
also different from traditional Systems Engineering in Rocky Mountain Institute (1997)
that it has been more focused on better whole system ‘Tunnelling through the cost barrier’, RMI
optimization to go beyond simply better efficiencies and Newsletter, summer, pp1–4, www.rmi.org/
achieve ecological sustainability. This key difference is images/other/Newsletter/NLRMIsum97.pdf,
highlighted in Chapters 3–5, with Chapter 3 illustrating accessed 5 October 2007
how Whole System Design enhances traditional Systems
Engineering with its greater emphasis on ecological
sustainability in the design process. Chapter 2 also
overviews key terminology and concepts derived from the Introduction: Whole system
field of systems science that are relevant to systems design and systems engineering
engineers and whole system designers. It is important to
put Whole System Design Approaches in the context of In Chapter 1, the benefits of Whole System Design
traditional Systems Engineering to assist the rapid (WSD) were outlined. Chapter 1 and the books
mainstreaming of the latest insights from Whole System and reports referenced within it show that,
Chapter 2.qxd 12/1/2008 5:13 PM Page 20

20 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

historically, many engineered systems have not gone Chapter 1 showed that pursuing a Whole System Approach
through a rigorous WSD optimization process. For to Sustainable Design can help engineers to achieve
example, as the Rocky Mountain Institute1 write, significant resource efficiency and productivity gains and
most energy-using technologies are designed in thus help reduce pressures on the environment. An effective
ways that are intended to produce an optimized WSD optimization, carried out in the early stages of design
projects, provides significant economic, social and
design, but actually produce sub-optimal solutions:
environmental benefits. Decisions made early in the design
process have an enormous impact on life-cycle system costs,
1 Components are optimized in isolation from other both economic and environmental.2 Figure 2.1 shows that
components (potentially ‘pessimizing’ the systems approximately 60 per cent of life-cycle costs are determined
of which they are a part). in the concept phase (Need Definition and Conceptual
2 Optimization typically considers single rather than Design), and a further 20 per cent are determined in the
multiple benefits. design phase (Preliminary Design and Detail Design).
3 The optimal sequence of design steps is not usually In addition to the direct costs associated with the
considered. project, the cost of making design changes escalates as

Source: Adapted from Andersen (2008)3

Figure 2.1 Comparison of the incurred costs and committed costs for each phase of system development
Chapter 2.qxd 12/1/2008 5:13 PM Page 21

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SYSTEMS ENGINEERING TO INFORM A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH 21

system development progresses. Figure 2.2 shows that production, integration and testing. In a Whole System
the cost of making design changes is lowest during the Approach to Sustainable Design process, greater
initial design phase, is 10 times higher during the pre- emphasis on Front End Loading creates easier, more
production phase and more than 80 times higher rapid integration and testing by avoiding many of the
during the production phase. problems normally encountered in these phases. By
These facts have led many in the design professions reducing risk early in the design process, the overall result
to call for greater effort to be made in the concept and is a saving in both time and cost, with a higher quality
early design phases – known as Front End Loading. There system design. There are now a range of empirical studies
is tremendous leverage in investing adequate human and that support the idea that increasing the level of Systems
financial resources into the earliest phases of the Engineering has a positive effect on cost compliance and
development process. A Front End Loading can lead to the quality of the project.4
better considered decisions, lower life-cycle costs and One of the reasons why so many technical systems
fewer late changes, through a concentration of design are not based on a Whole System Approach to
activity and decisions in the earliest phases, where Sustainable Design is because the engineering and design
changes cost the least. This emphasis on more Front End professions have become highly specialized. As the field
Loading makes intuitive sense, as shown in Figure 2.3. In of engineering has grown exponentially, there has been a
traditional design, without consideration of whole need for engineers to specialize, as no one person can
system approaches and the life-cycle of a product or now master all the individual fields of engineering.
development, the creation of a system is focused on Through that process of specialization over the last

Source: Ranky5

Figure 2.2 The cost of making design changes throughout each phase of system development
Chapter 2.qxd 12/1/2008 5:13 PM Page 22

22 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

The field of Systems Engineering, like WSD, has been

created out of the recognition that any changes to the
design of sub-systems affect the overall system design
and performance. Systems Engineering has been created
by the engineering profession out of recognition that, as
engineering has grown more sophisticated and complex,
it has become necessary to focus more on managing
carefully how the engineering of components affects the
Source: Honour (2004)6 overall system design. Done well, Systems Engineering
ensures that the whole is greater than the sum of the
Figure 2.3 The value of Front End Loading in reducing
parts, just as WSD does. Systems Engineering is the
costs and risks
traditional field of engineering which helps engineers
understand how to optimize an entire system.
century, many engineers have lost the Victorian7 However, rarely do Systems Engineering textbooks
engineering art of a multi-disciplinary whole system emphasize ecological sustainability as a key goal to be
optimization, simply because they do not know enough included in the daily practise of Systems Engineering. A
technical detail to individually complete a true whole Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design is also
system optimization. While engineers have become more different from traditional Systems Engineering in that it
and more specialized, modern technologies have become is more focused on whole system optimization not only
increasingly complex. As Blanchard and Fabrycky for efficiencies, but also for ecological sustainability.
comment in their textbook on Systems Engineering:8 These key elements of a Whole System Approach to
Sustainable Design are highlighted in Chapters 3–5 to
Although engineering activities in the past have adequately demonstrate how it can enhance traditional Systems
covered the design of various system components Engineering. Also, a Whole System Approach to
(representing a bottom–up approach), the necessary Sustainable Design is a broader concept than Systems
overview and understanding of how these components Engineering, since the Whole System Approach field is
effectively perform together is frequently overlooked. relevant for many professionals – architects and
industrial, urban and landscape designers, not just
Whole system designers like Amory Lovins, Hunter engineers. We believe it is vital that engineers understand
Lovins, Ernst von Weizsäcker, Bill McDonough, John this difference in order to appreciate how the latest
Todd, Janis Birkeland and Alan Pears (see Optional insights from the Whole System Approach field (see
reading, p40) have recognized the desperate need for optional reading) complement and enhance traditional
designers to be able to step back and analyse the whole Systems Engineering to help them focus on achieving
system to ensure that the solution is as effective as ecologically sustainable outcomes.
possible. It is also important for engineers and Chapter 2 and the start of Chapter 3 provide an
designers not only to think of their own scope of work overview of traditional Systems Engineering. This is
in a whole system manner, but also to understand how done so that the second half of Chapter 3 and Chapters
their expertise can be optimized within the context of 4 and 5 can highlight how the latest operational insights
the WSD team as well. Chapter 1 described how the from a Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design
field of WSD was developed to address these issues. As can enhance the operational implementation of Systems
well as WSD, a new field of engineering has been Engineering principles to achieve more sustainable
created, called ‘Systems Engineering’ to also address outcomes. We believe that it is also important to put a
these issues. Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design in the
The field of Systems Engineering, like WSD, has context of traditional Systems Engineering to assist the
arisen out of the recognition of: rapid mainstreaming of the latest insights from leading
thinkers in the field of WSD for sustainability, such as
• The need for better Front End Loading; and Amory Lovins, Ernst von Weizsäcker, Bill McDonough,
• The need for engineering designs to optimize the Janis Birkeland and Alan Pears (see optional reading).
whole system using a life-cycle approach. This is a key goal of Chapters 2–5.
Chapter 2.qxd 12/1/2008 5:13 PM Page 23

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SYSTEMS ENGINEERING TO INFORM A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH 23

Also, we believe Systems Engineering is greatly • Components are the operating parts of a system (see
enriched by integrating it with the large body of work Figure 2.4), consisting of input, process and
on a Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design output. Each system component may assume a
(see optional reading). There are many Systems variety of values to describe a system state set by
Engineering success stories, like the hybrid car, which control actions and restrictions.
can help society achieve ecological sustainability, and • Attributes are the properties or discernible
yet these are not covered in most Systems Engineering manifestations of the components of a system.
textbooks, which seem to overlook case studies that These attributes characterize the system.
apply the Systems Engineering methodology to • Relationships are the links between components
improving the environmental performance of designs. and attributes.
Chapters 6–10 of this volume provide engineering
practitioners, lecturers and students with detailed As Blanchard and Fabrycky explain:9
technical worked examples of WSD for sustainability
that could be both included in Systems Engineering A system is a set of inter-relating components that form an
textbooks and taught in Systems Engineering and integrated whole with a common goal or purpose. In
Systems Design courses around the world. engineering, the objective or purpose of a system must be
explicitly defined and understood so that system
components may be selected to provide the desired
What is systems engineering?
outcome. The purposeful action performed by a system is
Systems Engineering is a process whereby engineers referred to as its function. Common system functions
analyse and optimize the whole technical system, which include those of transforming and altering material, energy
is composed of components, attributes and relationships, and/or information. Systems that alter material, energy or
to achieve a specified goal. Components, attributes and information are composed of structural components,
relationships, in an engineering sense, are defined as operating components and flow components. Structural
follows: components are the static parts, operating components are

Source: Adcock (n.d.)10

Figure 2.4 The composition of a system

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24 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

the parts that perform the processing, and flow components In Systems Engineering, as with any engineering
are the material, energy or information being altered. Every discipline, the objective or purpose of the system must
system is made up of components and any component can be explicitly defined and understood to ensure that an
be broken down into smaller components. effective solution is designed. Once the purpose is
defined, this allows the engineer to determine the best
Systems engineers usually work with engineers from all way to meet a desired outcome. There are almost
the traditional engineering disciplines to optimize the always several different ways to engineer a solution to
whole system to achieve a defined goal or purpose. meet a specified need or service. It is up to the systems
Systems Engineering plays the role of integrating all the engineer to conceive of and work on alternative ways to
fields of engineering to achieve still greater results (see meet these needs and provide these services. It is the
Figure 2.5). Blanchard and Fabrycky sum this up as role of the good engineer or designer to determine
follows:11 which of these alternatives is the optimal way to
provide a service and meet society’s needs. As Blanchard
Systems Engineering involves an interdisciplinary or team and Fabrycky write:12
approach throughout the system design and development
process to ensure that all design objectives are addressed in A better and more complete effort is required regarding the
an effective and efficient manner. This requires a complete initial definition of system requirements, relating these
understanding of many different design disciplines and requirements to specific design criteria and the follow-on
their inter-relationships, together with the methods, analysis effort to ensure the effectiveness of early decision-
techniques and tools that can be applied to facilitate making in the design process. The true system requirements
implementation of the system engineering process. need to be well defined and specified, and the traceability of

Source: Blanchard and Fabrycky (2006)13

Figure 2.5 Application areas for System Engineering

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THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SYSTEMS ENGINEERING TO INFORM A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH 25

these requirements, from the system level down, needs to be In the past, due to engineers not considering a wide
visible. In the past, the early ‘front-end’ analysis was range of options, some engineering applications have
minimal. The lack of defining an early ‘baseline’ has performed poorly as part of the larger system. This is
resulted in greater individual design efforts downstream. partly due to a lack of knowledge beyond one’s own
engineering discipline and a lack of knowledge
Taking a Systems Engineering approach helps ensure amongst designers of natural systems and their limits
that engineers examine the many choices that are and thresholds. Confidence in the intrinsic value of
available to meet the specific needs of society, with each technological progress has also led at times to scientific
approach having its own unique energy and material and engineering designers being too quick to reach
needs and environmental impacts. Energy and materials their conclusions. There has been an under-
are not used for their own sake. They are inputs into a appreciation of the value of a precautionary approach
system that provides a function that is considered useful to technological development. Two examples that
or valuable by society. The client or customer wants cold illustrate this were the development of leaded petrol
beer and warm showers, not kilowatts of energy. People and ozone destroying CFCs for air-conditioning and
want to drink out of something hygienically packed and refrigerators.
easy to handle, and don’t so much want to use a Thomas Midgley, the chief engineer responsible for
container that creates a waste problem. People want the decision to add lead to petrol15 and to use
mobility, they wish to get from A to B, but don’t chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)16 for numerous industrial
necessarily want more congestion from cars. They want and consumer applications, did not appreciate the
the services that energy, materials and information ecological effects of heavy metals and certain chemicals.
provide, not the environmental costs and by-products Midgley died believing that CFCs were of great benefit
that they can inadvertently create. This means that there to the world, and a great invention. He was not the
are numerous ways that engineers can provide these only expert to be guilty of ignorance. Almost all
services whilst dramatically reducing the environmental scientists and engineers until the 1950s were ignorant
impacts of the energy and materials used to provide of the negative environmental effect of burning fossil
them. Taking a services perspective can free engineers to fuels. All assumed that the oceans and forests would
create totally new ways of meeting people’s everyday absorb all the carbon dioxide produced from burning
needs. fossil fuels, and it never occurred to them that this
Systems Engineering emphasizes the importance of human behaviour could be a problem. The reason
stepping back from the problem and asking crucial plastics do not degrade in the environment is because
questions to ensure that the most appropriate solutions they are designed to be persistent; similarly fertilizers
are found. Hitchins’s list of Systems Engineering tenets14 were designed to add nitrogen to soil, so it is not an
serves as a general guide for effective Systems accident that they also add nitrogen to waterways, thus
Engineering: leading to algae blooms. Part of the problem, as argued
by Commoner in his book The Closing Circle,17 is that
1 Approach an engineering problem with the highest designers make their aims too narrow. Commoner
level of abstraction for as long as practicable. argued that historically designers have seldom aimed to
2 Apply ‘disciplined anarchy’ – that is, explore all protect the environment, but that technology can be a
options and question all assumptions. successful part of the Earth’s natural systems, ‘if its aims
3 Analyse the whole problem breadth-wise before are directed towards the system as a whole rather than
exploring parts of the solution in detail; understand some apparently accessible part’. Commoner advocated
the primary system level before exploring the sub- a new type of technology that is designed with the full
system. knowledge of ecology and the desire to fit in with
4 Understand the functionality of the whole system natural systems.
before developing a physical prototype. A lack of appreciation of the need to take the
broader environmental and social systems approach
Chapter 3 will show how Systems Engineering can be when addressing problems has been an issue not only in
enhanced to incorporate sustainability considerations and engineering, but also in many other disciplines, such as
hence encourage the development of sustainable systems. medicine. The following case study illustrates well what
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26 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

can go wrong when the broader system is not taken that this relationship could be acted upon
into consideration when designing solutions to independently of any other variables or relationships.
problems, effectively treating the symptoms but not They considered one aspect of the system, rather than
creating lasting solutions. the whole system (the entire ecology).
This example demonstrates the importance of a
Whole System Approach to challenges/problems in
Why an understanding of systems seeking sustainable (lasting) solutions. In the real
matters world, one relationship strand (for example,
mosquito–human) cannot be separated from the rest of
Case study: Operation Cat Drop the system. All of the parts of the system are tied
In the 1950s in Borneo, malaria was identified as a together in a complex fabric, and changing one part of
significant health issue. In response to this problem, the the system can lead to profound changes throughout
World Health Organization (WHO) decided to take the rest of the system which may not at first glance
measures to significantly reduce the mosquito appear at all connected to the point of action.
population, since mosquitoes are carriers of malaria. To
achieve this they used the insecticide DDT, which
effectively reduced mosquito populations and
Broadening the problem definition
significantly reduced the incidence of malaria. However, Systems Engineering has evolved out of this
the WHO failed to appreciate the full scope of their understanding of the need to consider the complex
actions. DDT not only successfully killed mosquitoes, it inter-relationships of systems. Changes which are
also attacked a parasitic wasp population. These wasps seemingly narrow in scope can set off a domino effect
had kept in check the population of thatch-eating that reaches much wider than ever anticipated.
caterpillars. So with the unforeseen removal of the Systems Engineering recognizes that systems exist
wasps, the caterpillar population blossomed, and soon throughout the natural and man-made world, wherever
thatch roofs started falling all over Borneo. there is complex behaviour arising from the interaction
There were additional unforeseen effects. Insects between things. This behaviour can only be understood
poisoned by DDT were consumed by geckoes. The by considering ‘complete systems’ as they interact within
biological half-life of DDT is around eight years, so their ‘natural’ environment. The goal of Systems
animals like geckoes do not metabolize it very fast, and it Engineering is to consider the whole system, in its
stays in their system for a long time. The geckoes carrying environment, through its whole life-cycle (see Figure 2.6).
the DDT poison were in turn hunted and eaten by the The viability of an engineered system, design or product
cat population. With more cats dying prematurely, rats generally relies upon interactions outside of its immediate
took over and multiplied, and this in turn led to boundary. Systems Engineering simultaneously focuses
outbreaks of typhus and sylvatic plague (which are passed on the specific product to be designed while considering
on by rats). At this stage the effects of the intervention on how that product fits within the context of one or more
the health of the people of Borneo were worse than the ‘containing systems’, including the natural environment.
original malaria outbreak. So the World Health To solve complex ‘System Problems’, we must
Organization (WHO) resorted to the extraordinary step engineer complete ‘System Solutions’ through a
of parachuting cats into the country. The event has combination of:
become infamously coined ‘Operation Cat Drop’.18
The WHO had failed to consider the full • The ability to understand, describe, predict,
implications of their actions on the delicate natural specify and measure the ways in which elements of
systems of Borneo. Because they lacked understanding an engineered system will affect elements of a
of the basic effects of DDT (now banned in many complex system;
countries), a high cost was paid for this mistake. By • The ability to apply ‘traditional’ engineering
considering only the first-level relationship between knowledge to create, modify or use system
mosquitoes as carriers of malaria and humans as elements to manipulate, maintain or enhance the
recipients of malaria, the WHO unrealistically assumed resilience of the complex system; and
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THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SYSTEMS ENGINEERING TO INFORM A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH 27

Source: Adcock (n.d.)19

Figure 2.6 A system and the many layers of its environment

• The ability to organize, manage and resource What is a system?

projects in such a way as to achieve the above aims,
within realistic constraints of cost, time and risk. Systems are everywhere. Our universe, the Earth, even
a tiny atom is a system. But only very recently has
It is vital, with the Earth’s ecosystems having already lost humanity started to engineer human-made systems.
so much of their resilience and now under increasing And only in the last few hundred years has humanity
environmental pressures, that engineers in the 21st begun to truly understand the detailed workings, laws
century ensure their engineering solutions do not create and relationships of both natural and human-made
new, unforeseen problems which further add to systems. We have all heard of various forms of
environmental pressures. Before discussing in Chapter 3 technological systems: computer systems, security
the detailed operational steps of conventional Systems systems and manufacturing systems, for example. But
Engineering and how this can be enhanced through a what do we actually mean when we describe something
Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design, it is as a ‘system’?
important to overview some systems definitions and
concepts to provide a foundation for the rest of the
A system is an open set of complementary,
book. The rest of this chapter therefore introduces some
interacting parts, with properties, capabilities
of the key terminology of systems analysis and Systems
and behaviours emerging both from the parts
Engineering. Chapters 3–5 then discusses the key
and from their interactions. Hence changing
operational process steps of good Systems Engineering
one part of the system will ultimately have an
and how these can be enhanced by the 10 Elements of
effect on the performance of other parts in
a Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design.
the system.
Chapters 6–10 then provide more detailed technical
worked examples to demonstrate further the value of a
WSD approach. Blanchard and Fabrycky define a system as follows:20
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28 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

A system is any combination of elements or parts forming • System of interest: engine; assembly process for the
a complex of unitary whole, such as a river system or a engine; procedures for maintenance and end-of-
transportation system; any assemblage or set of correlated life processing; spare components;
members, such as a system of currency; an ordered and • Wider system of interest: production processes for
comprehensive assemblage of facts, principles or doctrines engine components and raw materials; infrastructure
in a particular field of knowledge or thought, such as a for fuel access, maintenance, spare components
system of philosophy; a coordinated body of methods or a access and end-of-life processing; car; assembly
complex scheme or plan of procedure, such as a system of process for the car;
organization and management; or any regular or special • Operating environment: car; local climate; and
method or plan of procedure, such as a system of marking, • Wider environment: roads; urban and built
numbering or measuring. Not every set of items, facts, environment; biosphere.
methods or procedures is a system. A random group of
items ... would constitute a set with definite relationships If the task is strictly limited to engine development,
between the items, but it would not qualify as a system, then the system boundaries encompass only the
because there is an absence of unity, functional subsystems listed in ‘system of interest’. These
relationship and useful purpose. subsystems’ components will be selected, modified and
manipulated to optimize the system. For example, the
In analysing and developing systems, it is important to most suitable crankshaft will be selected by the OEM’s
establish system boundaries. Strategies to establish designer from a pool of crankshafts manufactured by
system boundaries vary. Typically, the wider the various suppliers – thus, the engine development
boundaries, the greater the opportunities to influence process has a direct influence on the performance of the
system performance, service delivery, environmental crankshaft. Engine development also actively considers
impact and cost-effectiveness. In this volume, where the ‘wider system of interest’, ‘operating environment’
the focus is primarily on analysing and developing and ‘wider environment’. These subsystems will not be
technical engineered systems for environmental modified by the engine development process, but the
sustainability, the boundaries generally encompass: subsystems may be modified in response to demand for
their services. For example, the production process used
• All subsystems involved in developing, operating, by suppliers for engine crankshafts will not be modified
maintaining and retiring the system that can be by the designer, but may be modified by the suppliers
directly influenced; to consume less energy if the OEM has committed to
• All other subsystems involved delivering the reducing its greenhouse gas emissions – thus, the
system’s services that can be directly influenced; and engine development process has an indirect influence
• The interactions between the subsystems within on the production process for crankshafts.
the boundaries. Expanding the boundaries to encompass the whole
car will increase the opportunities to develop a better
In addition, analysing and developing systems actively car (including a better engine) by granting the designer
considers the subsystems and interactions beyond the access to directly select, modify and manipulate a wider
boundaries, particularly those related to the creation variety of subsystems and components. Chapter 7
and delivery of input resources at the system presents a worked example of designing a car with the
boundaries and those related to the processing of system boundaries at the level of the car. Chapters 6, 8,
output resources at the system boundaries. 9, and 10 present similar worked examples for other
As an example of establishing a system boundary, technical engineered systems.
consider the (simplified) task of an automotive original
equipment manufacturer (OEM) developing a modern
internal combustion engine for a car. The development
Systems analysis
process typically involves selecting and integrating Increasingly, engineers are being asked to analyse and
engine components produced by external suppliers, address complex systems problems, such as traffic
and assembling the engine. In relation to Figure 2.6, congestion, climate change and urban water
the relevant systems are: management.21 Many of the sustainability challenges
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THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SYSTEMS ENGINEERING TO INFORM A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH 29

faced by society involve complex interactions between However, it should be recognized that the variables in a
the technical, social and economic dimensions. An systems diagram, such as Figure 2.7, don’t occur in
ability to undertake systems analysis can help series. In reality, all of these events occur
engineers tackle the complexity of real world problems simultaneously, which further places emphasis on the
with greater confidence, and there is an extensive field interconnected relationship between variables. There
of such systems analysis which engineers can turn to are two ways to represent feedback systems – as
for ideas on how to tackle complex systems reinforcing loops or balancing loops.
problems.22
Analysis of systems involves an investigation of the Reinforcing loops
multiple relationships of elements that comprise a
system. Systems analysis uses diagrams, graphs and Reinforcing loops generate exponential growth and
pictures to describe and structure inter-relationships of then collapse. As just described, an example of
elements and behaviours of systems. Every element in a reinforcing loops is urban expansion/induced traffic in
system is called a variable, and the influence of one many western cities. Several studies confirm just how
element on another element is called a link; this can be quickly urban expansion/induced traffic can take over
represented by drawing an arrow from the causing landmass, as the Sierra Club explain:
element to the affected element. In analysis of systems,
links always comprise a ‘circle of causality’ or a feedback Shortly after the lanes or road is opened traffic will
loop, in which every element is both cause and effect. increase to 10 to 50% of the new roadway capacity as
For example, take the urban expansion/induced traffic public transit or carpool riders switch to driving, or
issue depicted below (Figure 2.7). To relieve traffic motorists decide to take more or longer trips or switch
congestion in cities (variable #1), freeways are added or routes. This is short-term induced travel. In the longer
extended (variable #2). By adding more/extending term (three years or more), as the new roadway capacity
freeways, people are able to live further out from the stimulates more sprawl and motorists move farther from
city, and hence more residential properties are built work and shopping, the total induced travel rises to 50 to
further out from the city (variable #3). More people 100% of the roadway’s new capacity. This extra traffic
living further out means more people drive into the city clogs local streets at both ends of the highway travel.23
via the new freeways, hence contributing even more to
the traffic congestion problem (feedback loop). The expansion of several US cities is visible on satellite
images by the US Geological Survey.24 This expansion
occurs despite some of these cities having politically-
defined urban growth boundaries in place to control
urban expansion. It is important to note that, in
contrast to western cities, rapid road development in
Chinese cities was in anticipation of increased traffic as
the country became more ‘modernized’ and
industrialized, and that urban development did not
necessarily follow road development. Such urban
expansion, as in Chengdu, China, is also visible on
satellite images by NASA.25
Reinforcing loops, by definition, are incomplete.
Somewhere, sometime, it will encounter at least one
balancing mechanism that limits the spiralling up or
spiralling down effect.

Balancing loops
Figure 2.7 Variables, links and feedback loops applied to Balancing loops are forces of resistance that balance
the issues of urban expansion and induced traffic reinforcing loops. They can be found in nature
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30 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

(chemical buffers in oceans or cellular organizations) 2005 book Collapse27 that this delayed feedback was a
and indeed other systems, and are the processes that fix factor in the collapse of many past civilizations.
problems and maintain stability. An example of Richard St. Barbe Baker, renowned UK forester and
balancing loops in engineering systems is the founder of Men of Trees in the 1920s, was one of the
suspension system in an automobile. The suspension first to draw the modern world’s attention to the risks
system is designed to cushion and control disturbances that arise from the fact that natural systems often
to the height of the passenger cabin. While a exhibit delayed feedback:
disturbance will initially change the cabin’s height, the
suspension system will eventually restore the cabin to The great Empires of Assyria, Babylon, Carthage and
its original height. Systems that are self-regulating or Persia were destroyed by floods and deserts let loose in the
self-correcting comprise of balancing loops. Balancing wake of forest destruction. Erosion following forest
processes are bound to a constraint or target which is destruction and soil depletion has been one of the most
often set by the forces of the system, and will continue powerfully destructive forces in bringing about the
to add pressure until that target has been met. downfall of civilizations and wiping out human existence
A significant characteristic of many systems, and from large tracts of the Earth’s surface. Erosion does not
often the most ignored, is delay. Delays in loops occur march with a blast of trumpets or the beating of drums,
when a link takes a relatively long time to act out, and but its tactics are more subtle, more sinister. (Richard
can have an enormous influence on a system, often St. Barbe Baker, I Planted Trees, 1944)28
exaggerating the behaviour of parts of the system and
hence the general behaviour of the whole system. Delays Until the 19th century, most believed that ecosystems
are subtle and often neglected, yet they are prevalent in would always be able to recover from the pressure
systems and must be actively considered. Delayed effects humanity had put on them. The fact that
are very common in natural systems. This is environmental pressures can push ecosystems’ resilience
fundamentally one of the reasons why we currently have past a threshold and into irreversible decline was
the loss of resilience globally of many of the Earth’s understood and first articulated effectively to the
ecosystems, as highlighted by the UN Millennium mainstream in 1864 by George Perkins Marsh. Marsh
Ecosystem Assessment.26 Delayed effects of humanity’s emphasized, in his bestselling publication Man and
pressure on the environment mean that we can Nature: Or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human
overshoot ecological system thresholds without knowing Action, that some acts of destruction exceeded the
it. This has been a major factor in lulling humanity in Earth’s recuperative powers:
general and designers in particular into a false sense of
security that things are ‘not that bad’ environmentally. The ravages committed by man subvert the relations and
destroy the balance which nature had established between
her organized and her inorganic creations; and she avenges
Natural systems often exhibit herself upon the intruder, by letting loose upon her
delayed feedbacks: The problem defaced provinces destructive energies hitherto kept in
check by organic forces destined to be his best auxiliaries,
of overshoot
but which he has unwisely dispersed and driven from the
Over the last two centuries, scientists have researched field of action. When the forest is gone, the great reservoir
and begun to understand complex natural systems. of moisture stored up in its vegetable mould is evaporated,
They have found that the inherent resilience of natural and returns only in deluges of rain to wash away the
systems means that they often exhibit a delayed parched dust into which that mould has been converted ...
feedback to environmental pressures. It is therefore The Earth is fast becoming an unfit home for its noblest
often difficult to simply see with the naked eye how inhabitant, and another era of equal human crime and
pollution and development are reducing the resilience human improvidence ... would reduce it to such a
of natural ecosystems until it is too late and the condition of impoverished productiveness, of shattered
ecological system has been pushed past a particular surface, of climatic excess, as to threaten the depravation,
irreversible threshold. Jared Diamond showed in his barbarism and perhaps even extinction of the species.29
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THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SYSTEMS ENGINEERING TO INFORM A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH 31

Marsh was a senior US diplomat and his book Man and 1950s, the fishery was exploited by both migratory
Nature was a bestseller and a very influential book in the seasonal fleets and local fishermen. But from the late
late 19th century. Until the publication of Man and 1950s, offshore deep trawlers began exploiting the
Nature, many had believed that it is always possible to deeper part of the stock in larger quantities, leading to
pull back once humanity’s environmental pressure starts a large catch increase. Internationally agreed quotas in
to cause serious ecological collapse. However, often by the early 1970s and, following the declaration by
then the ecosystem may have already passed the Canada of an Exclusive Fishing Zone in 1977, national
ecological threshold, and the collapse is either irreversible quota schemes, ultimately failed to arrest the decline
or the environmental pressure (pollution or other system and collapse of this fishery. The stock collapsed rapidly
change) will need to be reduced significantly (by 90 per due to very low population levels in the 1980s and early
cent or more) to allow the ecosystem to recover. This 1990s. The fishery was closed indefinitely from 2003.
phenomenon is known as hysteresis. All over the world we are seeing ecosystems and
However, the 2005 UN Millennium Ecosystem their ecosystem services already collapsing, from
Assessment provides significant evidence that Australia’s bluefin tuna stocks to the wheat fields of
environmental pressures can push an ecosystem’s Western Australia being overcome by salinity, to the
resilience past a threshold and into irreversible decline. algae blooms suffocating lakes in the northern
One of the examples featured in the UN Millennium hemisphere. There are now significant global efforts to
Ecosystem Assessment was the collapse of the better understand where these ecological limits and
Newfoundland cod fishery (see Figure 2.8). This tipping points are.31 How is it that so many ecosystems
sudden collapse forced the indefinite closure of the are close to collapse or have already collapsed? Simply
fishery to commercial fishing in 2003. Until the late stated, it comes down to the fact that humanity has

Source: UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005)30

Figure 2.8 The collapsing of Atlantic cod stocks off the east coast of Newfoundland in 1992
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32 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

based its management of natural resources on flawed decades about the dangers of many chemicals that
assumptions. Take the paradigm of maximum were later recognized as pollutants. Examples include
sustainable yield management of natural resources. In cigarettes and nicotine, asbestos33 (first warning:
most cases the maximum sustainable yield is very close 1898), PCBs34 (1899), benzene35 (1897) and acid
to the thresholds for collapse of that ecosystem. Also, in rain36 (1872), with causal links having been
the past, there has been an expectation that change will demonstrated between each of these chemicals and
be incremental and linear, when in fact with natural significant negative health and environmental health
systems it is always non-linear. As reported in Chapter 2 consequences. One of the reasons that causal links are
of Hargroves and Smith’s The Natural Advantage of hard to prove is that there is inherent uncertainty in
Nations, rapid non-linear natural systems collapse, natural systems, because the systems are so complex.
appropriately called ‘environmental surprise’, is Hence it often takes years and many people to collate
occurring.32 enough data and analyse it to reduce the uncertainty
Natural ecosystems are very complex. Therefore it significantly and to demonstrate a causal link. There is
is often hard to determine what a ‘safe’ level of a long history of scientists’ warnings being ignored
pollutants is. It is also difficult to understand the about a range of issues due to such uncertainties,
causal links between pollutants and negative stemming from the complexity of natural systems and
environmental effects – there is usually significant human health.
uncertainty. Faced with uncertainty, some often call One of the reasons for the collapse of the
for ‘more research’ to be done despite a history of Newfoundland cod fishery shown in Figure 2.8 is the
scientists and health researchers warning in vain for significant uncertainty in assessing fish stocks.

Source: Larcombe and McLoughlin (2006)37

Figure 2.9 Southern bluefin tuna catch in thousands of tons, 1950–2006

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THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SYSTEMS ENGINEERING TO INFORM A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH 33

Government estimates of the state of fish stocks usually (a)

rely on the catch that fishermen report. It is too
expensive and too difficult for governments to
themselves go out into the oceans and take enough
samples to know what the state of fish stocks are.
Hence often by the time scientific consensus is built on
an issue, it is decades after the concerns were raised by
the original scientists. The catch history of the southern
bluefin tuna shown in Figure 2.9 illustrates this.
By this time it is often too late and the ecological
system is in irreversible decline or, at best, solving the
problem will require a dramatic reduction of
environmental pressures for the ecosystem in question to
have a chance to recover.
(b)
Natural systems case study: Climate
change
Addressing climate change in order to ensure that positive
feedback loops in the Earth’s biosphere are not unleashed
is one challenge that will require a dramatic reduction of
environmental pressures. The Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC) has warned that deep cuts to
greenhouse gas emissions, of at least 60 per cent by 2050,
will be needed to avoid dangerous climate change.38 The
Earth has a number of positive feedback loops that are
already accelerating climate change. These are as follows.
Source: NASA40

Widespread melting of icebergs and ice-sheets Figure 2.10 The melting of the polar ice cap from
(a) 1979 to (b) 2005
Already sea ice in the Arctic has shrunk to the smallest area
ever recorded (see Figure 2.10).39 Almost all the world’s
glaciers are now retreating. Ice has a high albedo effect, so Climate scientists now warn that it is critical to reduce
it reflects heat, while water absorbs more heat, helping to greenhouse gas emissions rapidly to avoid passing a two
warm the Earth faster and leading to more ice melting. degree warming threshold. The reason, they say, is
because a two degree rise may invoke some additional
Permafrost critical reinforcing positive feedbacks. For instance,
scientists predict that the terrestrial carbon sink (forest
Permafrost, a permanently frozen layer of soil beneath ecosystems and soils which are currently net sinks of
the Earth’s surface, is melting, releasing methane into the CO2) will change from net sinks to net sources of
atmosphere (see Figure 2.11). The Western Siberia bog carbon. Another significant climate feedback
alone, which began melting in 2005, is believed to mechanism is the Great Ocean Conveyor. Empirical
contain 70 billion tons of the gas.41 Western Siberia has studies show that rapid climate change has occurred in
warmed faster than almost anywhere else on the planet, Earth’s history when global warming has triggered the
with an increase in average temperatures of some 3ºC in slowing and eventual halt of this significant ocean
the last 40 years.42 The National Centre for Atmospheric current that warms Europe (see Figure 2.12).43
Research estimates that 90 per cent of the top 10 feet of If this ocean current slowed significantly or halted,
permafrost throughout the Arctic could thaw by 2100. the effects on human civilization would be devastating.
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34 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Source: Adapted from Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (2005)44

Figure 2.11 Average annual ground temperature from Fairbanks, illustrating the warming trend observed across the
Arctic that is causing permafrost to melt

In addition, a negative feedback – global dimming – is We live on a planet whose climate is dominated by
being lessened by effective reductions in NOx, SOx positive feedbacks, which are capable of taking us to
and soot particulate emissions.45 The first IPCC report dramatically different conditions. The problem that we
in 1990 summed up why these reinforcing feedbacks face now is that many feedbacks that came into play
are such a concern:46 slowly in the past, driven by slowly changing forcings, will
come into play rapidly now, at the pace of our human-
It appears likely that, as climate warms, these feedbacks made forcings, tempered a few decades by the oceans’
will lead to an overall increase, rather than decrease, in thermal response time.
natural greenhouse gas abundances. For this reason,
climate change is likely to be greater than the estimates we The risks of unleashing further positive feedbacks are
have given. well summarized by the 2006 UK Stern Review (see
Figure 2.13). To ensure that humanity avoids the critical
Atmospheric carbon-dioxide levels that would increase threshold of two degrees will require us to de-carbonize
climate change and unleash the positive feedbacks and transform the entire global industrial economy.
uncontrollably could possibly be reached in the coming A new industrial revolution is needed which will be
decades. As James Hensen from NASA explains:47 every bit as profound as the first industrial revolution.
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THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SYSTEMS ENGINEERING TO INFORM A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH 35

Source: UNEP (2007)48

Figure 2.12 The Great Ocean Conveyor

Former US Vice-President, Al Gore, in a recent address aids to lowering the amount of CO2 released into the
to US engineers at the US Embedded Systems atmosphere. Asking better questions and systems
Conference, argued that engineers can lead their design are really key to this.’ He concluded that, ‘An
societies in addressing climate change. Since there are engineer is someone who has a vision and puts that
significant energy efficiency opportunities of 30–60 vision into a solution. ... Engineers can lead this
per cent in most sectors of the economy and half of evolution, because engineering is making vision real.’50
greenhouse gas emissions come from the built As well as understanding more about natural
environment and infrastructure, engineers are in a very systems, engineers also need to understand systems
powerful position to make a positive difference. science, because many ideas of Systems Engineering
As we will show in Chapters 4–10, advanced energy- and Whole System Approaches to Sustainable Design
efficiency strategies through WSD allow significant have been taken from advances in systems science.
improvements in energy efficiency and reductions in Hence we consider this next.
greenhouse gas emissions. Engineers’ ability to redesign
technical systems to reduce significant greenhouse gas
emissions on the planet is vital to preventing more Science and systems science
positive feedbacks that may further destabilize the Earth’s Earlier in this chapter we outlined how, since many
climate system. As Gore stated:49 engineering systems have become more complex and
engineers have become more specialized, there has
Those in the (technical) embedded-systems field can be a emerged a recognized need for a new holistic,
big part of a solution to the climate crisis. ... Embedded integrating discipline of engineering – Systems
systems can be a big part of this. Engineering. A similar process has occurred in science.
Over the last 200 years, the amount of scientific
Without going into the technical detail, Gore pointed knowledge has expanded exponentially. This made it
to how ‘power conservation and better efficiency are necessary to classify what was discovered into scientific
Chapter 2.qxd 12/1/2008 5:14 PM Page 36

36 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Source: Stern (2006)51

Figure 2.13 Stabilization levels and probability ranges for temperature increases

disciplines. Over the last two centuries, over 100 new development based on the insight that systems have
scientific disciplines have been created to manage and general characteristics, independent of the area of
classify this explosion of knowledge and discovery. science to which they belong. Some key ideas of
Systems science is a relatively new unifying systems science are now discussed to show how these
Chapter 2.qxd 12/1/2008 5:14 PM Page 37

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SYSTEMS ENGINEERING TO INFORM A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH 37

ideas are being used by Systems Engineering and WSD automated self-regulation that is at the heart of
to help achieve sustainability. This is covered next by cybernetics. The goal of General Systems Theory is to
overviewing some key developments in cybernetics, develop a framework for describing general
general systems theory and systemology. relationships in the natural and human-made world.
The goal is motivated by a desire to develop a common
Cybernetics language and robust framework to facilitate
communication and collaboration across the disciplines
The word ‘cybernetics’, first used in 1947 by Norbert of science, social sciences and engineering. Blanchard
Wiener, is from the Greek word for ‘steersman’. and Fabrycky explain that:53
Cybernetics is concerned with the role feedback plays in
facilitating self-regulation of systems, whether One approach to creating such a framework is the
mechanical, electrical, electromechanical or biological. structuring of a hierarchy of levels of complexity for
Systems Engineering and WSD are focused on simple units of behaviour in the various fields of research.
achieving a stated goal. To ensure this goal is achieved, A hierarchy of levels can lead to a systematic approach to
often it is important to control dynamic processes using systems that has broad application.
automated feedback. Engineering courses tend to focus
on the aspects of control engineering and the role Kenneth Boulding’s54 efforts to do this are summarized
feedbacks can play to assist engineers to create ‘cool’ and in Table 2.1.
complicated engineering systems such as robotics. But Another classification of General Systems Theory
control engineering has a critical role to play throughout uses three organizing principles to define characteristics
all of society to help reduce energy, water and materials of systems: rate of change, purpose and connectivity. Each
waste and help achieve sustainability. An everyday principle comprises a pair of ‘polar-opposite’ systems
example of this is the thermostat in domestic heaters. A properties:55
thermometer measures temperature, allowing the user
to program the heater to only come on at certain 1 Rate of change: structural (static) or functional
temperatures or at certain times of the day. This ensures (dynamic);
that energy wastage is minimized. Numerous countries 2 Purpose: purposive or non-purposive; and
are now rolling-out smart metering to provide 3 Connectivity: mechanistic (mechanical) or organismic.
residential households with feedback every half hour on
the amount of energy they are using to help them There are eight ways that these systems properties can
reduce their energy consumption. Control engineering be arranged to form eight general ‘cells’, or types of
is also critical in better managing distributed energy and systems (Table 2.2).
waste systems that will be critical to achieving a cost- Significant work has been done in the area of
effective transition to a sustainable society. Engineers are General Systems Theory to also analyse systems
already building automated feedback into many archetypes, in other words common system inter-
industrial processes to better manage these processes in relationships and patterns of behaviour that arise again
real time and thus minimize the amount of energy, and again in the real world.56 These are well
water and chemicals used. But there is still significant summarized in Peter Senge’s classic text on systems
potential for engineers to use automated feedback more theory, The Fifth Discipline.57 Systems scientists have
widely in order to help reduce energy and material usage analysed many systems and developed systems
and help achieve sustainability. archetypes to describe various standard types of
common system relationships that arise again and again
in the real world. Some forms of systems have common
General Systems Theory
trends of behaviour and can be generally identified as
General Systems Theory is a broader unifying approach being of a particular family, or ‘archetype’, as described
than cybernetics and was invented in the late 1940s by in Table 2.3. Quite often one particular archetype may
L. von Bertalanffy.52 It is based on the premise that not fit a certain type of situation; hence it is possible to
there are basic principles common to all systems and overlap a number of archetypes to more accurately
has gone well beyond the concept of control and describe system behaviour.
Chapter 2.qxd 12/1/2008 5:14 PM Page 38

38 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Table 2.1 Kenneth Boulding’s classification of systems

Level Characteristic Examples Relevant disciplines

1. Structures, frameworks Static Bridges Description, verbal or pictorial,

in any discipline
2. Dynamic system of clock-works Predetermined motion Natural physical Chemistry, physics, natural
(may exhibit equilibrium) universe sciences
3. Thermostat or cybernetic system Closed-loop control Thermostats Control theory, cybernetics
4. The Level of the Cell, or open Structurally self-maintaining Biological cells Theory of metabolism
systems such as the cell, where life (information theory)
begins to be evident
5. The Level of the Plant, with the Organized whole with functional Plants Botany
genetic–societal structure making parts, ‘blue-printed’, growth,
up the world of botany reproduction
6. The Level of the Animal, A brain to guide total behaviour, Birds Zoology
encompassing mobility and ability to learn.
self-awareness
7. The Level of the Human, Self-consciousness, knowledge Humans Biology,
encompassing self-consciousness of knowledge, symbolic language. psychology
8. Level of Social Organization Roles, communication, Families History, sociology, anthropology,
transmission of values behavioural science
9. The Level of Unknowables – ‘Inescapable unknowables’ God ?
transcendental systems

Source: Checkland (1999), p10558

Table 2.2 Classification of systems according to Jordan’s Principles

Cell Example

Structural – Purposive, Mechanical A road network

Structural – Purposive, Organismic A suspension bridge
Structural – Non-purposive, Mechanical A mountain range
Structural – Non-purposive, Organismic A bubble (or any physical system in equilibrium)
Functional – Purposive, Mechanical A production line (a breakdown in one machine does not affect other machines)
Functional – Purposive, Organismic Living organisms
Functional – Non-purposive, Mechanical The changing flow of water as a result of a change in the river bed
Functional – Non-purposive, Organismic The space–time continuum
Source: Checkland (1999), p10559

Conclusion: Transition to the while not considering impacts on the larger system. In so
doing, there is the very real potential to create more
systems age problems than they solve (take the unsustainability of
The world – including the physical ecosystems and the certain biofuels)... These complex problems require a
societies that exist within them – is facing a new set of whole-system approach in order to find long-term
problems, the scale and complexity of which are solutions that address the root causes of these impacts.
unmatched in human history... We are currently stuck in a (Archie Kasnet, Greenland Enterprises, 2008)60
re-enforcing cycle. Our entrenched life-style and mind-set
will continue to lead to unsustainable results unless these Kasnet’s quote is indicative of a significant shift that
issues are addressed at the source... As problems associated comes out of the recognition that taking a systems
with societal design arise (finite oil supply), governments approach is more effective in addressing today’s
are attempting to choose ‘winners’ for energy technologies challenges.
Chapter 2.qxd 12/1/2008 5:14 PM Page 39

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SYSTEMS ENGINEERING TO INFORM A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH 39

Table 2.3 Systems archetypes

Systems archetype Behaviour Example

Reinforcing loop: an important Climate change melts ice, reducing the albedo
variable accelerates up/down, with effect, further warming the planet.
exponential growth/collapse.

Balancing loop: oscillating around a Managing population levels of an

single target (with delay), or movement endangered species.
towards a target (without delay).

‘Fixes that backfire’: a problem Negative rebound effects from efficiency

symptom temporarily improves and investments.
then deteriorates, worse than before.

‘Limits to growth’: there is growth Oil production rates have peaked and are
(sometimes dramatic), then falling into now in decline in over 60 countries.
decline or levelling off.

‘Shifting the burden’: three patterns exist – Modern agriculture’s dependence on artificial
reliance on a short-term fix grows, while fertilizers leads to algae blooms downstream.
efforts to fundamentally correct the real
problem decline, and the problem symptom
alternately improves and deteriorates.

‘Tragedy of the commons’: total activity grows, Collapse of fishing stocks.

but gains from individual activities decline.

‘Accidental adversaries’: each competitor’s Disputes between supplier and

performance stays low or declines, while manufacturer.
hostility increases over time.

Source: Senge et al (1998)61; examples added by The Natural Edge Project

Over the last 200 years, humanity has sought to achieve increasingly complex set of relationships due to the
progress through a largely reductionist approach to phenomena of globalization – which has been
technological innovation and problem-solving. The particularly enhanced by the uptake of access to the
reductionist approach has been very successful and has internet. At the same time, better global
helped advance society. But the world we live in today communications are raising expectations of consumers
is very different to the world 200 years ago. Through in the Third World, who now aspire to First World
the advent of advanced technologies in communication living standards. Increasing global population and the
and transportation, time barriers have dramatically desire for larger and better systems is leading to greater
compressed. Every aspect of human existence has and greater levels of resource exploitation and
become more inter-related and intertwined, with an environmental degradation. This means, for example,
Chapter 2.qxd 12/1/2008 5:14 PM Page 40

40 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

that the levels of greenhouse gas pollution in countries www.environment.gov.au/settlements/industry/finance/

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Van der Ryn, S. and Calthorpe, P. (1986) Sustainable
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human-made systems and a basis for the improvement in
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In this new century we need to combine the best of

Notes
reductionist knowledge, Systems Engineering and
enhance this with a Whole System Approach to 1 Rocky Mountain Institute (1997) ‘Tunnelling through
Sustainable Design. Chapters 3–5 next consider how to the cost barrier’, RMI Newsletter, summer 1997, pp1–4,
enhance conventional Systems Engineering through a w w w. r m i . o r g / i m a g e s / o t h e r / N e w s l e t t e r /
Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design. They NLRMIsum97.pdf, accessed 5 January 2007.
2 Anderson, D. M. (P.E., fASME, CMC) (2008) Design
outline the key operational steps and processes of a
for Manufacturability and Concurrent Engineering, How
Whole System Approach to Sustainable Design
to Design for Low Cost, Design in High Quality, Design for
informed by the fundamentals of Systems Engineering. Lean Manufacture, and Design Quickly for Fast
This new Whole System Approach to Sustainable Production, CIM Press, www.halfcostproducts.com/
Design, outlined next in Chapter 3, will help engineers dfm_article.htm, accessed 11 July 2007.
proactively reduce the environmental, social and 3 Anderson, D. M. (P.E., fASME, CMC) (2008) Design
economic risks of their design projects. Chapters 3–5 for Manufacturability and Concurrent Engineering, How
are designed to create a robust framework to then, as Al to Design for Low Cost, Design in High Quality, Design for
Gore stated above, ask better questions in the technical Lean Manufacture, and Design Quickly for Fast
worked examples in Chapters 6–10 to achieve a Whole Production, CIM Press, www.halfcostproducts.com/
System Approach to Sustainable Design. dfm_article.htm, accessed 11 July 2007.
4 Honour, E. C. (2004) Understanding the Value of
Systems Engineering, proceedings of the Fourteenth
Optional reading Annual Symposium of the International Council on
Systems Engineering, Toulouse, France, www.incose
Benyus, J. (1997) Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature, .org/secoe/ 0103/ValueSE-INCOSE04.pdf, accessed 16
HarperCollins, New York July 2007.
Birkeland, J. (ed) (2002) Design for Sustainability: A 5 Reprinted with permission. Original source: Professor
Sourcebook of Ecological Design Solutions, Earthscan, Paul G. Ranky ‘Concurrent engineering and PLM
London (Product Lifecycle Management)’, published 2002–2008
Department of the Environment and Heritage (2001) by CIMware USA, Inc., www.cimwareukandusa.com,
Product Innovation: The Green Advantage: An Introduction www.cimwareukandusa.com/All_IE655/IE655Spring
to Design for Environment for Australian Business, DEWR, 2007.html, accessed 16 July 2007.
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56 Senge, P. M., Kleiner, A., Roberts, C., Ross, R. B. and 60 Archie Kasnet, Greenland Enterprises, personal
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Chapter 3.qxd 12/1/2008 5:14 PM Page 45

3
Enhancing the Systems Engineering
Process through a Whole System
Approach to Sustainable Design
Educational aim teaching or lecturing this chapter or using it for a
tutorial, both figures are designed to be useful handouts
Chapter 1 introduced the concept of a Whole System for the class to help summarize the key points.
Approach to Sustainable Design and outlined some of
the benefits of undertaking such a design process to
help society achieve ecological sustainability. It featured Required reading
exciting case studies of the work of leading Whole
System Designers like Amory Lovins and the Rocky Blanchard, B. S. and Fabrycky, W. J. (2006)
Mountain Institute. Chapter 2 showed that Systems Systems Engineering and Analysis (fourth edition),
Engineering is an established field of engineering that Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ,
has been developed, like a Whole System Approach, to pp3–6 and 17–32
address the same weaknesses of traditional specialized Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H.
engineering. This chapter illustrates clearly how a (1999) Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next
Whole System Approach fits into the traditional Industrial Revolution, Earthscan, London, Chapter
engineering methodologies of Systems Engineering 6, pp111–124, www.natcap.org/images/other/NC
that are taught in engineering schools all around the chapter6.pdf, accessed 3 October 2007
world. It outlines traditional operational Systems International Council on Systems
Engineering processes as described in leading Systems Engineering (1993) ‘An identification of
Engineering textbooks and highlights how they can be pragmatic principles: Final report’, International
further enhanced through a Whole System Approach Council on Systems Engineering, pp7–10,
to Sustainable Design. Starting with an overview of the www.incose.org/ProductsPubs/pdf/techdata/PI
standard phases of Systems Engineering in practice that TC/PrinciplesPragmaticDefoe_1993-0123_
are common to most engineering projects and PrinWG.pdf, accessed 3 October 2007
problem-solving exercises, the chapter demonstrates
that there is a need to more explicitly include
sustainability considerations in Systems Engineering. It
then identifies 10 key operational elements of a Whole
Systems engineering in practice
System Approach to Sustainable Design that enhance The typical system life-cycle consists of development
traditional Systems Engineering to assist all designers to (including production), operation and retirement
leave a positive legacy. It includes two key diagrams that stages. Systems Engineering is performed primarily
summarize the traditional Systems Engineering process during the development stage, excluding production,
(See Figure 3.1) and how it can be enhanced through a while the production, operation and retirement stages
Whole System Approach (See Figure 3.3). If you are are key design considerations.
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46 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

The Systems Engineering process consists of several Phase 4: Detail design

phases. The name, aims and activities of each phase vary
between literature sources. Here, the Systems Engineering The aim of the Detail Design phase is to develop the
process is presented in four phases that are approximately selected preliminary system into the detail system. This
consistent with the phases presented in popular literature phase typically involves:
sources. Phase 2, Phase 3 and Phase 4 feed back into
earlier phases, so the process may be iterative in practice. • Designing physical subsystems and components in
detail while incorporating production-based ‘Design
for X’;
Phase 1: Need definition • Subsystem testing and refining; and
The aim of the Need Definition phase is to develop an • Integration and system testing against the detailed
understanding of the system, its purpose and its design specifications.
feasibility. This phase typically involves:
Figure 3.1 shows the typical technical design activities
• Performing a feasibility study, including and interactions in the four phases throughout the
requirements analysis and trade-off studies; system life-cycle. Note that in the figure, some activities
• Drafting design specifications using customer of the Conceptual Design phase are absorbed into the
interaction, quality function deployment and Preliminary Design phase. Figure 3.2 shows the typical
benchmarking against best-in-class competitors; and hierarchy of design considerations that can guide
• Planning. design specifications. Lower-order considerations
depend on higher-order considerations.

Phase 2: Conceptual design

Potential modifications to the
The aim of the Conceptual Design phase is to systems engineering process
thoroughly explore the solution space for all possible
options that address the Need Definition; and then to Blanchard and Fabrycky loosely define Systems
generate a set of conceptual systems for further Engineering as ‘good engineering with special areas of
development. This phase typically involves: emphasis’, which includes a top–down approach, a life-
cycle orientation, a more complete definition of system
• Researching; requirements and an interdisciplinary team approach.3 It is
• Performing a functional analysis and decomposition; proposed that an additional overarching area of emphasis,
• Brainstorming a set of conceptual systems; and sustainability, is required to promote the development of
• Short-listing the conceptual systems by testing systems that are in balance with the Earth’s capacity.
against the draft design specifications. Incorporating sustainability considerations
primarily affects two of the original areas of emphasis:
Phase 3: Preliminary design 1 Emphasize sustainable end-of-life options: The
The aim of the Preliminary Design phase is to develop original emphasis on life-cycle orientation suggests
the set of conceptual systems into a set of preliminary that decisions need to be based on life-cycle
systems; and then to select the best system for further considerations, highlighting the often overlooked
development. This phase typically involves: impact on the production, operation (including
maintenance and support) and retirement
• Developing a physical architecture; (specified as disposal) stages. Incorporating a
• Designing major physical subsystems and sustainability emphasis will primarily affect the
components while incorporating ‘Design for X’; considerations for the retirement stage, which
• Defining interfaces; originally emphasized disposal over other end-of-
• Selecting the best preliminary system by testing life options. In Figure 3.1, ‘Phase-out and Disposal’
against the draft design specifications; and becomes ‘Retirement’, for which activities include
• Developing detailed design specifications. recovery, disassembly and prioritized end-of-life
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ENHANCING THE SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PROCESS THROUGH A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 47

Source: Blanchard and Fabrycky (2006)1

Figure 3.1 Systems Engineering technological design activities and interactions by phase

processing – reuse, remanufacturing, recycling and added to ‘Operating Cost’ – ‘Energy

disposal. In Figure 3.2, ‘Retirement and Disposal Consumption’ is upgraded from a fifth-order
Cost’ becomes ‘Retirement Cost’. Considerations consideration to a fourth-order consideration,
are added to ‘Recycle Cost’, and considerations are third-order considerations are added to ‘System
added to ‘Disposability’. These modifications will Effectiveness’, and considerations are added to
shift the emphasis from disposable systems and ‘Pollutability’. These modifications will place an
built-in obsolescence to closed-loop systems. emphasis on resource productivity, Factor X
2 Emphasize sustainable resource use (energy, material targets, and benign and restorative design.
and water inputs and outputs): The original
emphasis on a more complete definition of system These two key features are also largely absent in other
requirements suggests that the true system key Systems Engineering texts. Ulrich and Eppinger,
requirements need to be identified and made authors of Product Design and Development4 (another
traceable from the system level downward. Systems Engineering textbook used in university
Incorporating a sustainability emphasis will undergraduate engineering courses), do not emphasize
primarily affect the considerations for the sustainable end-of-life options or sustainable resource
production and operation stages, which originally use. Dieter,5 author of Engineering Design: A Materials
did not emphasize resource use and did emphasize and Processing Approach (another Engineering Design
pollutability over restorability as the measure of textbook used in university undergraduate engineering
biological impact. In Figure 3.2, considerations are courses), discusses recycling as an end-of-life alternative
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48 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Source: Adapted from Blanchard and Fabrycky (2006)2

Figure 3.2 Hierarchy of design considerations

to disposal and briefly mentions a few aspects of Incorporating sustainability into

sustainable resource use in a review of ‘design for
the process more explicitly
environment’. The International Council on Systems
Engineering6 emphasizes disposal over sustainable end- A Whole System Approach builds on from Systems
of-life options and does not emphasize sustainable Engineering by more explicitly emphasizing the
resource use. steps required to develop sustainable systems.
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ENHANCING THE SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PROCESS THROUGH A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 49

Sustainability is emphasized through the following Enhancing systems engineering

activities:
through a whole system approach
• Sustainability considerations are brought to the to help achieve sustainable design
fore along with economic and performance Figure 3.3 shows the general Whole System Approach
considerations. The main sustainability to design, which incorporates an emphasis on
considerations are resource use (energy, material sustainability, as based on Systems Engineering.
and water inputs and outputs), biological impact Feedback between phases is not shown, but steps can
and providing options for future generations. feed back to previous steps. There are three key terms
These considerations are incorporated in the used in Figure 3.3 and the subsequent process
specifications during the Need Definition phase to description, which are defined as follows:
ensure they are regularly consulted during the
remaining phases. They also ensure that 1 Design: Selecting and integrating subsystems and
benchmarking is against a sustainable system, not components based on (1) an educated initial estimate
just the best-in-class system. of the optimal options for the system and (2) basic-
• Research is emphasized as an early step during the level testing that verifies that the system will work;
Conceptual Design, Preliminary Design and 2 Optimize: Refining the system composition based
Detail Design phases. Research in each phase is on analysis and testing so that specifications are
used to populate a database of possible best met; and
technological and design options of suitable scope 3 Test: Measuring the system performance using
for the phase. Latest technological innovations can tools such as mathematical, computer and physical
provide opportunities for effectively fulfilling the modelling, and monitoring, and comparing to the
specifications without compromising on some specifications.
aspect of performance.
• There are elements that help streamline the design The following sections provide a description of the basic
process during the Preliminary Design phase and WSD for the sustainability process. This process is
the optimization process during the Detail Design complementary to the Whole System Integration Process
phase. Streamlining these processes shortens the developed by Bill Reed and colleagues.9 There will be
time required to converge on the optimal solution. cases where some steps of the process are not relevant. In
The elements encourage developing the global these cases, experience and common sense will dictate
optimal system of the entire solution space. modifications to the process. Where a step is repeated in
Ignoring these elements generally encourages multiple phases, it is discussed and justified only in the
developing, at best, the local optimal system, that first instance.
is, a system that is optimal given arbitrary
constraints imposed by some ill-selected subsystem
or component. The elements are based on the Phase 1: Need definition
Whole System Design (WSD) precepts presented The aim of the Need Definition phase is to develop an
in the book Natural Capitalism.7 understanding of the system, its purpose and the
• Testing is emphasized as a basis for validation and attributes that will make it sustainable. There are three
selection during the Conceptual Design, steps of Need Definition to consider:
Preliminary Design and Detail Design phases.
Testing involves a variety of mathematical, 1 service specification;
computer and physical modelling, plus 2 operating conditions specification; and
monitoring, to ensure that the system fulfils the 3 genuine targets specification.
specifications and to rank the set of potential
systems. For large or complex systems, final Service specification
testing and optimization of the delivered system
may be extended into the operation stage of the The service specification defines the service
life-cycle. requirements (What services must the system provide?),
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Figure 3.3 Enhancing Systems

Engineering through a Whole System
Approach to help achieve sustainability
Source: Adapted from Blanchard and Fabrycky
(2006), p298; additions by The Natural Edge Project
Note: A high resolution, colour version of Figure 3.3
is available at www.naturaledgeproject.net/
Whole_System_Design.aspx.
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ENHANCING THE SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PROCESS THROUGH A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 51

customer requirements (What does the customer want requirements in order to optimize the operating impacts.
the system to do?) and performance requirements For example, electrical equipment such as electric motors
(What are the measurable performance requirements?). and power supplies have energy efficiency of 85–98 per
Service requirements and customer requirements are cent near full load conditions and disproportionately
used to derive performance requirements. reduced energy efficiencies at part load conditions. The
The customer requirements can be quite different operating energy costs of these units can easily eclipse the
to the service requirements. For example, while a capital costs of the units themselves within months of
service requirement for a modern car may be ‘provides continual use. Typically, electrical units are designed and
passenger mobility on roads up to 120km/h’, a optimized for full load plus extra load factored in as a
customer requirement may be ‘provides passenger precaution, but the system of which they are a part will
mobility on roads up to 220km/h’. In addition, not all most commonly operate at part load and hence very low
customer requirements are available from the customer – efficiency. A better system may incorporate two units – a
analysis is sometimes required to ensure that the smaller electrical unit designed and optimized for the
customer gets what they want, rather than what they most common operating load and a secondary unit that
specified. For example, some new water-efficient only operates when required. The two smaller units will
shower heads have been criticized by customers for not cost about the same as the single large unit but will
providing the sensation that ‘enough’ water is striking operate near maximum efficiency and thus cost far less to
their heads. Had this requirement been identified operate.
earlier, the performance requirements may have defined
a survey-based, user-satisfaction metric, in addition to Genuine targets specification
the specified water flow rate and spread metrics.
Performance requirements relate to several system The genuine targets specification defines targets based
attributes, including mass, geometry, safety, reliability on sustainability drivers and limitations of existing
and ergonomics, to name just a few. systems that provide similar services. The genuine targets
specification defines targets based on both sustainability
Operating conditions specification drivers and the limitations of existing systems that
provide similar services. At the Need Definition phase,
The operating conditions specification defines the the targets are usually defined qualitatively because there
operating environment and most common is insufficient information to confidently define realistic,
performance conditions. An understanding of the non-limiting quantitative targets, and in order to avoid
operating environment is important, because the defining arbitrary targets and constraints.
system does not act in isolation – it, like its subsystems, Sustainability is emphasized in the design process by
must be designed and optimized for the larger system defining specific targets from the Need Definition phase.
of which it is a part. The operating environment Depending on the preferred definition of sustainability,
conditions usually include temperature, pressure, the targets can, for example, be qualified as:
humidity, geographic location, and the technological
awareness and skill level of the local population. For • minimize materials unrecovered;
example, a building designed for hot, dry central • maximize energy efficiency:
Australia is not suitable for temperate northern • maximize bio-restoration; or
Canada. Another example: a typical pair of scissors • minimize land use.
with exposed blades is not suitable in a preschool.
Identifying the most common performance Additional targets are derived from the limitations of
conditions will assist in right-sizing subsystems and thus existing systems that provide similar services. That is,
in optimizing operating impacts. Most systems are existing systems can be redesigned without their original
designed and optimized for the maximum performance limitations by simply defining targets that do not
requirements. A better strategy is to design for the promote those limitations. For example, until the early
maximum performance requirements in order to ensure 1990s, before standby energy consumption was a design
that the system can competently fulfil its services, and issue for electrical appliances, fax machines consumed
optimize for the most common performance about the same amount of energy whether they were
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52 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

servicing a call or idling. The main issue was that fax • Design concepts that assist in developing novel and
machines spent about 90 per cent of the time idling, exciting systems.
and so consumed about 90 per cent of their operating
energy on non-service-providing tasks. By identifying System architectures can vary dramatically between
this limitation, subsequent fax machines and electrical systems that provide similar services. Basic subsystems
appliances were designed to consume relatively low refer to purposely broad and non-prescriptive subsystems,
amounts of energy when in idle mode. Limitations that such as the ‘power subsystem’, ‘structure subsystem’,
are abundant in many modern systems include: ‘control subsystem’ and ‘communication subsystem’.
Brainstorming is used to encourage a creative
• excessive resource consumption; design environment and assist in revealing all possible
• poor end-of-life options; options – past, present and novel.
• built-in obsolescence; The review results are used to develop a database of
• technological risks such as reliance on unstable technology and design concepts and their attributes for
resource sources; and system architectures and each basic subsystem.
• social risks such as exposing humans and other Important attributes to research include resource
organisms to toxic substances that can impair health. requirements, operating environment, performance
conditions, attributes identified in the performance
Defining these targets emphasizes superior competitiveness requirements of the Need Definition, integratability
over existing systems. and capital cost.

Phase 2: Conceptual design Generate conceptual systems

The aim of the Conceptual Design phase is to Technologies and design concepts are combined to
thoroughly explore the solution space for all possible generate a set of conceptual systems. A conceptual system
options that address the Need Definition, and to then can be graphically represented as a functional diagram,
generate a set of conceptual systems for further wherein subsystem blocks are connected by functional
development. There are four steps of the Conceptual relationship links. External subsystems, such as resource
Design phase to consider: pools and subsystems of the operating environment, are
also represented as blocks. The links represent some
1 research:
relationship relevant to the Need Definition, such as
2 generate conceptual systems;
‘impacts the mass of’, ‘impacts the ease of disassembly of’
3 testing; and
or ‘impacts the concentration of ’. Impacts include
4 selection.
impacts through synergies and hidden impacts (see
Chapter 4) and can be weighted with positive or negative
Research magnitude using the information in the database.
Research is critical in understanding the breadth of Backcasting assists in developing conceptual systems
options available to address the Need Definition. In the that meet sustainability targets and provide options for
Conceptual Design phase, the research focus is on future generations. Backcasting involves designing a
reviewing advances in technology and design concepts ‘future system’ that is optimal in a sustainable future and
relevant to system architecture and the basic then working backwards to develop a system that most
subsystems, as new technologies that provide the same closely matches the future system with currently
services can become outdated within six months. available technologies. The outcome is that the
Design concepts include: developed system is the first model of a series on the
path to a sustainable system.
• Biomimetic design, which is nature- or bio-
inspired system design;
Test
• Green engineering and green chemistry, which are
design for environmentally benign and restorative The set of conceptual systems are tested against the
systems; and Need Definition. Tests reveal the approximate or at least
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relative potential for the conceptual systems to fulfil the Thus a sequence for designing and optimizing the
Need Definition, including how far below or above the subsystems must be developed. The sequence relies on
specifications the conceptual systems perform. determining the potential impacts of each subsystem on
the other subsystems and on the system as a whole.
Select Updating the functional diagram with new information
in the database assists in identifying the impacts.
The best or top few conceptual systems of the set are The probable-best sequence will have subsystems in
selected for further development and testing. Selection decreasing order of net positive impacts. That is, the
criteria include the potential to fulfil the Need sequence will start with the subsystem with the most
Definition (based on testing), feasibility and the capacity positive impacts and end with the subsystem with the
to provide the best options for future generations. least positive impacts. Typically, the sequence correlates
inversely with the transmission of resources through the
Phase 3: Preliminary design system. That is, while the transmission of resources is
from upstream (raw input) to downstream (end use), the
The aim of the Preliminary Design phase is to develop sequence is usually downstream to upstream. However,
the set of conceptual systems into a set of preliminary the sequence is not necessarily linear; its general topology
systems by designing their subsystems such that the is a web.
system as a whole best fulfils the Need Definition, and Each subsystem is designed in sequence. The
then to select the best system for further development. technology and design concepts for each subsystem are
There are five steps of the Preliminary Design phase to selected such that the system best fulfils the Need
consider for each conceptual system: Definition. Usually, several combinations of technologies
and design concepts can fulfil the Need Definition. In
1 research; this case, emphasis is on meeting the genuine targets and
2 designing the system; providing options for future generations. Backcasting
3 testing; assists in designing a preliminary system that meets
4 selection; and sustainability targets and provides options for future
5 review. generations. In addition, technology and design concepts
are selected such that the subsystems can be integrated
Research with minimal performance loss.
In the Preliminary Design phase, the research focus is on Different technologies and design concepts have
reviewing advances in technology and design concepts different impacts. Thus it is possible that designing, say,
relevant to the subsystems. The subsystems refer to the the last subsystem in the sequence will affect the
types of technologies and design concepts that have been suitability of the technology or design concept selected
assigned to basic subsystems, such as the ‘air pump’, for the first subsystem. Consequently, multiple iterations
‘insulated wall’, ‘biomimetic mixing chamber’, ‘pressure through the sequence are usually required to ensure that
sensor’ and ‘environmentally benign solvent’. no further improvements are possible and hence that the
The review results are used to develop a database of system best fulfils the Need Definition. The subsystems
technology and design concepts and their attributes for are then integrated to create a preliminary system.
each subsystem.
Test
Design the system
The preliminary system is tested against the Need
In designing the system, it is critical to design the Definition to verify that it works in theory. Emphasis is
subsystems in the right sequence. A flaw of the popular on testing the system as a whole. Tests reveal, with some
component engineering methodology, wherein accuracy and some degree of itemization, the potential
subsystems are designed and optimized in isolation, is for the preliminary system to fulfil the Need
that committing to particular subsystem technologies Definition. If the preliminary system fails any tests,
without testing their impact on the system as a whole there is value in considering revisiting previous steps of
can result in an inherently non-optimizable system. the design process to correct the faults. It is possible
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54 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

that some earlier decisions that seemed arbitrary at the gaseous emissions the system generates. Another example:
time were, in fact, influential. where a preliminary cross-country cargo transport system
Tests are used to define theoretical benchmark was designed to ‘avoid disturbing the local ecosystems’, a
targets. The targets reflect the theoretically optimal set of constraints can now be defined as to the minimum
genuine targets. Benchmarking against theoretical distances between the system and certain ecosystems
testing is preferred over benchmarking against best depending on the noise, vibration and air emissions that
practice, because best practice is rarely optimal. the system generates.
Indicators and metrics are quantitatively defined for
every specification in the Need Definition. Typically,
Select
indicators and metrics are defined for internally
The best preliminary system is selected for further measurable specifications, such as specifications for
development and testing. Selection criteria include: service output, reliability and operating life. It is
important to also define indicators and metrics for
• the theoretical potential to meet the genuine externally measurable specifications, such as the
targets (based on benchmarking); environmental impact of input resources, the impact on
• the capacity to fulfil the Need Definition; the operating environment and the potential to provide
• feasibility; and options for future generations at end of life. The
• the capacity to provide the best options for future majority of sustainability driven specifications are
generations. externally measurable specifications. If indicators and
metrics cannot be defined for a particular entry in the
Review specification, then that entry is either vaguely defined,
incorrectly defined or not relevant.
Having now determined the subsystems technologies It is important to avoid defining targets, constraints,
and design concepts, the Need Definition is reviewed indicators and metrics arbitrarily.
and updated with more-detailed specifications. A better
understanding of the system and testing assists to
identify and define quantitative genuine targets, genuine Phase 4: Detail design
practical constraints, and indicators and metrics. The aim of the Detail Design phase is to develop the
Genuine targets can be upgraded from being selected preliminary system into the detail system by
defined qualitatively in terms of ‘maximize’ and optimizing its subsystems such that the system as a
‘minimize’ to being defined quantitatively, such as whole best fulfils the updated Need Definition. There
‘achieve at least a factor five improvement in resource are three steps of the Detail Design phase to consider:
productivity’, ‘reduce greenhouse gas emission by 80
per cent’ or ‘reduce pollution by half ’. 1 research;
Genuine practical constraints are usually a 2 optimizing the system; and
consequence of customer requirements and the operating 3 testing.
environment. Up until now, these constraints have only
been passively considered, with only the relatively
Research
influential constraints being considered in the form of
requirements. For the first time, the constraints are In the Detail Design phase, the research focus is on
actively defined in detail for the purposes of providing a reviewing available technologies from a range of sources
comprehensive Need Definition and hence undertaking relevant to the subsystems. The subsystems refer to the
meticulous assessment and optimization of the selected types of relatively specific technologies that have been
preliminary system. For example, where a preliminary assigned to subsystems, such as ‘reverse cycle air-
system was required by the customer to ‘replace the old conditioner’, ‘proton exchange membrane fuel cell’,
blast furnace and fit in the same room’, now a set of ‘wireless transceiver’, ‘sorting algorithm’ or ‘volatile
constraints can be defined as to the minimum distance organic compound-free fabric’. It is important to review
between the system and human operators depending on a range of sources, because the performance and
the room geometry and the heat, ash emissions and suitability of similar technologies can vary dramatically.
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It is also important to obtain detailed specifications of multiple iterations through the sequence are usually
the technologies, such as performance graphs, from required to ensure that no further improvements are
sources. Basic performance specifications, such as possible and hence that the system best fulfils the
nameplate specifications on electrical equipment, usually updated Need Definition. The subsystems are then
reveal very little information about performance at the integrated to create the detail system.
most common operating condition or about the change
in performance over time. Test
The review results are used to develop a database of
technologies and their attributes for each subsystem. The detail system is tested against the updated Need
Important attributes to research include interfacing Definition and tested to verify that it works in practice.
specifications and attributes derived from the updated Emphasis is on testing the system as a whole. Tests reveal,
Need Definition. with good accuracy and itemization, the potential for the
detail system to fulfil the Need Definition. If the detail
system fails tests, previous steps of the design process
Optimize the system must be revisited to correct the faults.
In optimizing the system, it is critical to optimize the Tests are used to define theoretical benchmark
subsystems in the right sequence. Having now targets. The targets reflect the theoretically optimal
determined the subsystems technologies, the sequence genuine targets and account for genuine practical
for designing and optimizing the subsystems is reviewed constraints.
and modified if necessary. Updating the functional During testing, the performance of the detail system
diagram with new information in the database assists in is measured and compared against the benchmark
identifying potential improvements to the sequence. targets. It is unlikely that all attributes can be measured
Equal emphasis is applied to optimizing both accurately using non-destructive processes. Some
subsystems and the subsystem interfaces such that the attributes are better estimated using alternative processes.
system best fulfils the updated Need Definition. Direct Comparisons assist in meticulously identifying potential
interactions between subsystems are just as influential for improvements in the detail system towards meeting
on the system performance as are the subsystems the benchmark targets and providing better options
themselves. Both internal interfaces between subsystems for future generations. The improvements are then
and external interfaces to the operating environment are incorporated into the system.
considered. Initially, the probable-best interface Iterating through the test step until no further
specifications are defined based on the information in improvements are possible will optimize the detail
the database. system for the available technology.
Each subsystem is optimized in sequence. The
technology for each subsystem is selected such that Elements of a Whole System
the system best fulfils the updated Need Definition.
Approach to Sustainable Design
Any combination of technologies is now likely to meet
the service specification and operating conditions There will be cases where some steps of the general
specification. Thus emphasis is on meeting the now Whole System Approach to design are not relevant.
quantified genuine targets specification, meeting the There are, however, ten key operational elements that
new genuine practical constraints and providing options leverage the greatest benefits. These elements are briefly
for future generations. In addition, technologies are discussed here, and further discussion about their
selected to meet the interface specifications. practical use is given in Chapters 4 and 5. The ten key
Since the initial interface specifications are not operational elements that are outlined below are
necessarily optimal, they must be reviewed and perhaps integrated from lessons learnt by experienced designers,
redefined based on their suitability to the subsystems including Amory Lovins,10 Hunter Lovins, Ernst von
technologies selected during the first iteration through Weizsäcker, Bill McDonough, John Todd, Janis
the sequence. Different technologies and interface Birkeland11 and Alan Pears12 (see optional reading).
specifications have different impacts. Consequently, These 10 key elements are widely seen as effective
continuously redefining the interface specifications and operational elements – many of them are consistent
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56 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

with operational principles and guidelines for cost barrier and how to get to it by selectively relaxing
engineering design developed by Dieter13 and The your constraints. ... Whole-system engineering is back-to-
International Council on Systems Engineering.14 the-drawing-board engineering. ... One of the great myths
of our time is that technology has reached such an exalted
plateau that only modest, incremental improvements
Element 1: Ask the right questions
remain to be made. The builders of steam locomotives and
What is the required service? How can the service be linotype machines probably felt the same way about their
provided optimally? Are there other possible approaches? handiwork. The fact is, the more complex the technology,
For example, consumers want hygienic, comfortable the richer the opportunities for improvement. There are
containers out of which to drink. It makes no difference huge systematic inefficiencies in our technologies;
to consumers whether the container is made of glass or minimize them and you can reap huge dividends for your
aluminium or if it is made of recycled material or not. It pocketbook and for the Earth. Why settle for small savings
does, however, make a significant difference to the planet’s when you can tunnel through to big ones? Think big!
ecosystems. This example demonstrates the potential (Rocky Mountain Institute, 1997)15
impacts of decisions on the interpretation of the required
service and the corresponding technologies and resource Element 4: Account for all measurable
use. A service-based perspective assists in preventing
arbitrary constraints, particularly on resource use.
impacts
Modifications at the subsystem level can influence
Element 2: Benchmark against the optimal behaviour at the system level and achieve multiple
system benefits for single expenditures:

It is often useful to develop a simple functional model of This might seem obvious, but the trick is properly
the system, which assists the designer in thinking about counting all the benefits. It’s easy to get fixated on
the interacting components and to evaluate potential optimizing for energy savings, for example, and fail to take
improvements to existing systems. The model is used to into account reduced capital costs, maintenance, risk or
benchmark against both the theoretically and practically other attributes (such as mass, which in the case of a car,
optimal systems. Benchmarking against ‘best practice’ is for instance, may make it possible for other components
a dangerous strategy, as existing best practice is actually to be smaller, cheaper, lighter and so on). Another way to
‘best of a bad lot of practice’, because the reference cases capture multiple benefits is to coordinate a retrofit with
typically were designed decades ago and the cost- renovations that need to be done for other reasons anyway.
effectiveness criteria for resource efficiency was likely to Being alert to these possibilities requires lateral thinking
have been very stringent (less than a three-year payback and an awareness of how the whole system works. (Rocky
period is a typical threshold). Today, it is possible to do Mountain Institute, 1997)16
much better.

Element 3: Design and optimize the whole Element 5: Design and optimize subsystems
system in the right sequence
In order to develop a system that meets the Need Large improvements in resource use are, in many cases,
Definition with optimal resource use (energy, material a process of multiplying small savings in the right
and water inputs and outputs) and biological impact, it sequence. There is an optimal sequence for designing
is important to consider all subsystems and their and optimizing the components of a system. The steps
synergies, rather than single subsystems in isolation: that yield the greatest impacts on the whole system
should be performed first. For example, consider solar
Optimizing an entire system takes ingenuity, intuition power for home energy supply. Solar cells are costly and
and close attention to the way technical systems really provide perhaps one half or one third of the electricity
work. It requires a sense of what’s on the other side of the consumed by a big heat pump striving to maintain
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indoor comfort in a building with an inefficient measurement and monitoring of resource consumption
envelope, as well as inefficient glazing, lights and at the process level, and rarely are there properly
appliances. Suppose that the building was instead first specified benchmarks. Thus plant operators rarely
made thermally insulated so it didn’t need as big a heat know where the potential for resource efficiency
pump (there are several much simpler ways to handle improvements lie. Monitoring and measurement help
summer humidity). Then suppose the lights and identify the system’s performance inadequacies, which,
appliances were made extremely efficient, with the when improved, can substantially improve
latest technologies to reduce the house’s total electric performance and reduce costs. The integrated nature of
load. Now, the home’s heating and cooling needs would systems provides a platform for the impact of
be very small, its electrical needs could be met by only individual improvements to compound and thus to
a few square metres of solar cells, and it would all work generate an overall improvement greater than the sum
better and cost less. of the individual impacts.

Element 6: Design and optimize subsystems Element 8: Model the system

to achieve compounding resource savings
Mathematical, computer and physical models are
Life-cycle analysis shows that end-use resource valuable for addressing relatively complex engineering
efficiency is the most cost-effective way to achieve large systems. For example, the Commonwealth Scientific
improvements in resource use, because less resource and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) has used
demand at the end use creates opportunities to reduce computer modelling to make significant breakthroughs
resource demand throughout the whole supply chain: in fluid dynamics. Modelling of fluid dynamics by
CSIRO is presenting opportunities for substantial
An engineer looks at an industrial pipe system and sees a efficiency improvements. A better understanding of
series of compounding energy losses: the motor that drives liquid and gas flow has also helped CSIRO designers to
the pump wastes a certain amount of electricity improve the efficiency and performance of processing
converting it to torque, the pump and coupling have their technologies in a wide range of applications. From such
own inefficiencies, and the pipe, valves and fittings all modelling, CSIRO has developed the Rotated Arc
have inherent frictions. So the engineer sizes the motor to Mixer (RAM), which consumes five times less energy
overcome all these losses and deliver the required flow. But than conventional industrial mixers. The RAM is able
starting downstream – at the pipe instead of the pump – to mix a range of fluids that were previously not mixable
turns these losses into compounding savings. Make the by other technologies.
pipe more efficient, and you reduce the cumulative energy
requirements of every step upstream. You can then work
back upstream, making each part smaller, simpler and
Element 9: Track technology innovation
cheaper, saving not only energy but also capital costs. And A key reason that there are still significant resource use
every unit of friction saved in the pipe saves about nine improvements available through a Whole System
units of fuel and pollution at the power station. (Rocky Approach is that the rate of innovation in basic sciences
Mountain Institute, 1997)17 and technologies has increased dramatically in the last
few decades. Innovations in materials science in such
things as insulation, lighting, super-windows, ultra-light
Element 7: Review the system for potential metals and distributed energy options are creating new
ways to re-optimize the design of old technologies.
improvements
Innovation is so rapid that six months is now a long time
It is important to identify potential resource use in the world of technology. For example, consider the
improvements and eliminate true waste (unrecovered average refrigerator, for which most of the energy losses
resources) in each subsystem and at each stage of the relate to heat transfer. The latest innovations in materials
life-cycle. For example, at most sites (from homes to science in Europe have created a new insulation material
large industrial plants) there is very limited that will allow refrigerators to consume 50 per cent less
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58 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

energy. Other examples include innovations in Lyle, J. (1999) Design for Human Ecosystems, Island Press,
composite fibres that make it possible to design Washington, DC
substantially lighter cars and innovations in light metals, Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy efficiency – Its potential: Some
which can now be used in all forms of transportation, perspectives and experiences’, background paper for
International Energy Agency Energy Efficiency
from aircraft to trains to cars, and allow resource
Workshop, Paris, April
efficiency improvements throughout the whole system.
Pears, A. (2005) ‘Design for energy efficiency’, presentation
to Young Engineers Tasmania
Element 10: Design to create future options18 Rocky Mountain Institute (1997) ‘Cover story: Tunnelling
through the cost barrier’, RMI Newsletter, summer, pp1–4,
A basic tenet of sustainability is that future generations www.rmi.org/images/other/Newsletter/NLRMIsum97.pdf,
should have the same level of life quality, accessed 5 January 2007
environmental amenities and range of options as Ulrich, K. T. and Eppinger, S. D. (2006) Product Design and
‘developed’ societies enjoy today. It is also important to Development (third edition), McGraw Hill
consider going beyond best practice and help create Van der Ryn, S. and Calthorpe, P. (1986) Sustainable
more options for future generations. It is crucial for Communities: A New Design Synthesis for Cities, Suburbs
designers to be aware of how new systems affect the and Towns, Sierra Club Books, San Francisco, CA
options of future generations. For example, China is
currently developing new coal-fired power stations at a
Notes
rate of at least one per week. It is vital that these new
power stations are correctly sited and designed to 1 Blanchard, B. S. and Fabrycky, W. J. (2006) Systems
provide options for geo-sequestration of CO2 emissions Engineering and Analysis (fourth edition), Pearson
when the technology becomes commercially available. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, p29. This is a
textbook used in university undergraduate courses.
2 Blanchard, B. S. and Fabrycky, W. J. (2006) Systems
There is now a wealth of literature on ways to achieve
Engineering and Analysis (fourth edition), Pearson
more sustainable designs through a Whole System
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, p39.
Approach. Some of this literature is given in the 3 Blanchard, B. S. and Fabrycky, W. J. (2006) Systems
optional reading section. Engineering and Analysis (fourth edition), Pearson
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, pp18–19.
Optional reading 4 Ulrich, K. T. and Eppinger, S. D. (2006) Product Design
and Development (third edition), McGraw Hill.
Birkeland, J. (2005) ‘Design for ecosystem services: A new 5 Dieter, G. E. (2000) Engineering Design: A Materials and
paradigm for ecodesign’, presentation to SB05 Tokyo Processing Approach (third edition), McGraw-Hill,
‘Action for Sustainability: The World Sustainable Building Singapore.
Conference’, September 6 International Council on Systems Engineering (1994) A
Blanchard, B. S. and Fabrycky, W. J. (2006) Systems Process Description for a New Paradigm in Systems
Engineering and Analysis (fourth edition), Pearson Prentice Engineering, International Council on Systems
Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, pp1–150 Engineering, www.incose.org/ProductsPubs/pdf/techdata/
Dieter, G. E. (2000) Engineering Design: A Materials and PITC/ProcDescForNewParadigmForSE_1995-0810_
Processing Approach (third edition), McGraw-Hill, SEPWG.pdf, accessed 11 July 2007.
Singapore, p228. 7 Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. (1999)
Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. (1999) Natural Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial
Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution, Earthscan, Revolution, Earthscan, London, Chapter 6: ‘Tunnelling
London, www.natcap.org, accessed 13 August 2007 through the cost barrier’, www.natcap.org/images/other/
International Council on Systems Engineering (1994) A NCchapter6.pdf, accessed 5 January 2007.
Process Description for a New Paradigm in Systems 8 Blanchard, B. S. and Fabrycky, W. J. (2006) Systems
Engineering, International Council on Systems Engineering and Analysis (fourth edition), Pearson
Engineering, www.incose.org/ProductsPubs/pdf/techdata/ Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, p29.
PI TC / Pr o c D e s c Fo r Ne w Pa r a d i g m Fo r S E _ 1 9 9 5 - 9 Reed, B., Boecker, J., Taylor, T., Pierce, D., Maine, G.,
0810_SEPWG.pdf, accessed 11 July 2007 Loker, R., Kessler, H., Borthwick, G., Culman, S.,
Chapter 3.qxd 12/1/2008 5:14 PM Page 59

ENHANCING THE SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PROCESS THROUGH A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 59

Batshalom, B., Settlemyre, K., Freehling, J., Sheffer, 13 Dieter, G. E. (2000) Engineering Design: A Materials
M., Martin, M., Toevs, B., Zurick, J., Mozina, T., and Processing Approach (third edition), McGraw-Hill,
Keiter, T., Albrecht, J., Montgomery, J., Prohov, R., Singapore, p228.
Wardle, K., Dimond, D., Italiano, M., Gruder, S., 14 International Council on Systems Engineering (1993)
Wong, M., Vujovic, V. and Swann, M. (2006) Whole ‘An identification of pragmatic principles: Final report’,
System Integration Process (WSIP) – Market International Council on Systems Engineering,
Transformation to Sustainability Guideline Standard, www.incose.org/ProductsPubs/pdf/techdata/PITC/Prin
Report on workshop in Chicago, September 2006, ciplesPragmaticDefoe_1993-0123_PrinWG.pdf,
www.integrativedesign.net/resources, accessed 28 accessed 11 July 2007.
September 2008. 15 RMI (1997) ‘Tunnelling through the cost barrier’, RMI
10 RMI (1997) ‘Tunnelling through the cost barrier’, RMI Newsletter, summer, p3, www.rmi.org/images/other/
Newsletter, summer, www.rmi.org/images/other/Newsletter/ Newsletter/NLRMIsum97.pdf, accessed 5 January 2007.
NLRMIsum97.pdf, accessed 5 January 2007. 16 RMI (1997) ‘Tunnelling through the cost barrier’, RMI
11 Birkeland, J. (2005) ‘Design for ecosystem services: A Newsletter, summer, p2, www.rmi.org/images/other/
new paradigm for ecodesign’, presentation to SB05 Newsletter/NLRMIsum97.pdf, accessed 5 January
Tokyo ‘Action for Sustainability: The World Sustainable 2007.
Building Conference’, September. 17 RMI (1997) ‘Tunnelling through the cost barrier’, RMI
12 Pears, A. (2005) ‘Design for energy efficiency’, Newsletter, summer, p3, www.rmi.org/images/other/
presentation to Young Engineers Tasmania; Pears, A. Newsletter/NLRMIsum97.pdf, accessed 5 January 2007.
(2004) ‘Energy efficiency – Its potential: Some 18 Birkeland, J. (2005) ‘Design for ecosystem services: A
perspectives and experiences’, background paper for new paradigm for ecodesign’, presentation to SB05
International Energy Agency Energy Efficiency Tokyo ‘Action for Sustainability: The World Sustainable
Workshop, Paris. Building Conference’, September.
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4
Elements of Applying a Whole System
Design Approach (Elements 1–5)

Educational aim elements of a WSD approach can be applied. This

Chapter presents a ‘how-to’ of the first five elements of
Despite the increasing popularity of books that WSD that were outlined in Chapter 3. The application
promote Whole System Design (WSD), like Natural of each element for optimal sustainability and
Capitalism, only a tiny fraction of technical designers competitive advantage is also discussed and then
routinely apply a WSD approach. Most conventionally demonstrated with case studies.
trained technical designers will require, as an
introduction to WSD, an operational guide to how the
Introduction
The sustainability emphasis of taking a WSD approach
Required reading brings environmental and social issues to the fore for
consideration along with economic issues. The results
Adcock, R. (n.d.) ‘Principles and practices of to date of applying WSD consistently demonstrate
systems engineering’, presentation, Cranfield environmental and social benefits, such as resource
University, UK, pp1–12, www.incose.org.uk/ efficiency improvements by a factor of 2–10, pollution
Downloads/AA01.1.4_Principles%20&%20prac reduction, improved safety for users and the
tices%20of%20SE.pdf, accessed 2 July 2007 environment, and improved comfort for users
Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. compared to conventional systems. WSD also
(1999) Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next demonstrates economic benefits such as equal or
Industrial Revolution, Earthscan, London, reduced capital cost and reduced operating costs by a
Chapter 6, pp111–124, www.natcap.org/ factor of 2–10 compared to conventional systems.
images/other/NCchapter6.pdf, accessed 5 For these reasons, WSD is a powerful tool in
January 2007 achieving enhanced competitive advantage by reducing
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy efficiency – Its real costs and delivering quality systems. Despite
potential: Some perspectives and experiences’, increasing popularity, however, currently only a small
background paper for International Energy fraction of technical designers routinely take a WSD
Agency Energy Efficiency Workshop, Paris, approach. For many technical designers, a basic
pp1–16 understanding of what a WSD approach is and what it
Rocky Mountain Institute (1997) can achieve can be attained by reviewing existing WSD
‘Tunnelling through the cost barrier’, RMI case studies and literature. However, most case studies and
Newsletter, summer, pp1–4, www.rmi.org/ literature do not accommodate an understanding of how
images/other/Newsletter/NLRMIsum97.pdf, to actually take a WSD approach in the design process.
accessed 5 January 2007 It is challenging for many technical designers to
make the unassisted mental leap from WSD case
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62 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

studies to a WSD approach. The main reason for this

challenge is that conventional technical training
typically focuses on specialized skills that are relevant to
only a few subsystems or components – there is little
foundation in systems thinking or systems engineering.
Consequently, most conventionally trained technical
designers will require, as an introduction to WSD, a
clear understanding of the elements of a WSD
approach. Chapter 5 builds on from this Chapter by
presenting a ‘how-to’ of the final five of the ten
elements of WSD.

Element 1: Ask the right

questions Source: Adapted from Pears (2004)2

Taking a disciplined approach to questioning the need Figure 4.2 The range of potential technologies that can
and suitability of each system feature and each step in be used to provide the service of clean clothes, and the
the development process can greatly assist in dependence of each technology on energy resources
developing an optimal system in a short period of time.
Asking the right questions at the right time is the providing clean clothes. This figure shows the range of
primary strategy for acquiring a deep understanding of potential technologies that can emerge from a single
the system and eliminating costly late modifications to question regarding the service of clean clothes, and the
it. The question that drives the system development light grey boxes illustrate the unique dependence of
process is ‘How can a system be developed to provide each technology on energy resources.
the required service?’. Developing a system to provide a There are three primary questions to ask during the
particular service is a process of working backwards to Need Definition phase. These questions are critical for
define the required system behaviours, researching embedding a sustainability focus into the design
available technologies and design concepts, and then specifications.
selecting and integrating technologies and design
concepts based on the Need Definition, as in Figure 4.1
(which also shows that social, technological and Question 1: What is the required
resource considerations drive questions throughout the service? (service specification)
development process). A service is an intangible version of a good. Service
An example of working backwards from the provision engages goods and resources but does not
required service is illustrated in Figure 4.2, based on necessarily consume any resource other than time. It is
important to consider the number of times that the
service is required during the system’s operating life.
Designing for too few services means the system could
fail prematurely; designing for too many services means
that more resources than necessary are engaged and lost.
Thinking in terms of service (pull) rather than
product (push) eliminates the temptation to engage
resources unnecessarily. For example, SafeChem,3 a
company established by The Dow Chemical Company,
provides the service of cleaning metal components
Source: Pears (2004)1
rather than providing solvents. SafeChem’s solutions
Figure 4.1 A model of the resource and decisions inputs involve a closed-loop leasing system, wherein all
to providing a service solvents delivered to the customer are recovered,
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ELEMENTS OF APPLYING A WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH (ELEMENTS 1–5) 63

recycled and reused. Since any resources used to An example of a system that closely reflects Table 4.1 is
provide the service come at a cost, SafeChem have an Carnegie’s Climatex®, a series of upholstery fabrics and
incentive to develop the most resource-efficient its manufacturing process, developed in conjunction
solution. This service model strikes a stark contrast with MBDC. Climatex®4 fabrics are coloured,
with the conventional product sales model, wherein the biodegradable (materials favourably dispersed, restorative
chemical supplier has an incentive to maximize the impact), non-toxic (toxic impact) and do not require
amount of solvent required. Calculations suggest that additional chemical treatment. The fabrics contain
the enhanced model can reduce solvent consumption pure wool from free-range sheep, polyester and
in already low-emission plants by 40 to 80 per cent. organically grown ramie, and offer a combination of
natural heat conservation, moisture absorption, good
humidity transport and high elasticity. In developing
Question 2: What is the optimal
the manufacturing process, approximately 1600 dye
service? (genuine targets chemicals were tested, of which only 16 met ecological
specification) safety targets (toxic impact). Testing revealed that the
A single service can be provided by any number of outgoing process water, which is safe to drink, was
systems. The role of a WSD approach is to ensure the cleaner than the incoming water (materials upgraded,
service is provided optimally. The optimal service restorative impact).5 The biodegradable and non-toxic
delivers the most benefits for the least cost while process material scrap is used to feed strawberry farms
providing the required service. For the purposes of this (materials un-recovered, restorative impact).6
chapter, we will be measuring the benefits and costs
against environmental and economic sustainability. Question 3: What are the system’s
Social sustainability is another important consideration
to measure against, but it is not discussed here, because
operating conditions? (operating
its requirements vary substantially between systems, conditions specification)
applications, regions and cultures. There are two key considerations of a system’s
Throughout its life, a theoretically optimal system operational life:
will:
1 A system always operates within a larger system, so it
• Manage resources as in Table 4.1; is important to account for external interactions.
• Optimize the number of times its services are 2 Most systems are required to operate at several
fulfilled; different loads and in several different
• Be cost-effective; and environments, so it is important to optimize the
• Provide social fulfilment. system for the most common operating conditions
while still designing the system to be reliable at
A system’s ‘life’ extends from the development stage up
maximum load.
to and including the system’s final processing, after
which the resources are no longer part of the system.
There is an abundance of examples of these
This interpretation encompasses system upgrades and
considerations, particularly the second, being
refurbishing.
overlooked. An example is air-conditioners: to ensure
reliability, many air-conditioners are designed and
Table 4.1 Resource management for an optimal system optimized to operate at full load on extremely hot days.
However, the most common operating conditions for
Resource Minimize Maximize
air-conditioners are warm days at part load.
Materials Materials un-recovered Materials upgraded Another example is gas hot-water systems.
Materials adversely Materials favourably
Manufacturers design their gas hot-water systems in line
disturbed dispersed
with the Australian energy-rating scheme, which
Energy Energy un-recovered Energy upgraded
assumes that the average Australian home has 3–4
Space Space required
people and that hot water consumption is 200 litres
Biological Impact Toxic impact Restorative impact
per day. However, this profile is only relevant to
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64 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

15 per cent of homes. Single-person homes make up 25 a conventional cabinet against an optimal cabinet, which
per cent of homes, while two-person homes make up an is developed using theoretical modelling and practical
additional 25 per cent. Consequently, at least half of all testing, reveals several performance differences and
gas hot-water systems provide twice the required correspondingly several opportunities for improving the
capacity. The primary significance of this over-sizing is conventional cabinet. Firstly, the addition of a glass door
that standby heat losses are large in systems that over the cabinet’s open face, similar to that of a
maintain a full tank of hot water and increase with tank supermarket freezer, can reduce energy consumption by
capacity. There is not yet a hot-water system small 68 per cent, preserve food more effectively and deliver a
enough to match the needs of the 1–2-person home. host of other benefits.7 The largest portion of this
This gap in the market presents a significant business reduced energy consumption is from preventing the
opportunity for an entrepreneur. extreme leakage of cooling air from the open face. In
addition, the otherwise leaked air contributes
enormously to the supermarket’s heating load and thus
Element 2: Benchmark against the may unnecessarily increase the required capacity of the
optimal system space heating system. The open face allows moist
Benchmark targets are embedded in the system surrounding air to flow into the case and hence create a
specifications. They are regularly consulted throughout very high demand for defrost energy of 0.9 kWh/litre.
the system development process, particularly to address The additional moisture also complicates both internal
questions and to evaluate the system during testing. It and external temperature control. Secondly, these display
is important to benchmark against the optimal system, cabinets are usually lit internally by inefficient lamps,
not merely against the best existing system. Most which radiate heat directly above food items.
existing systems are sub-optimal and thus Benchmarking shows that this heat not only contributes
benchmarking against them can introduce arbitrary to the cooling load, but also creates abnormal thermal
constraints that restrict the solution space. In addition, profiles around food products that are difficult to control
and thus could lead to poorly preserved products.
setting ambitious targets encourages breaking away
Finally, some cabinets incorporate inefficient fans and
from possibly restrictive cultural norms in order to
explore new opportunities for service provision and motors that contribute further to the cooling load.
system development.
An example of not benchmarking against the A two-stage process for developing
optimal system is early fax machines. In the early
1990s, it became apparent that fax machines were
benchmark targets
consuming as much energy in idle mode (which is 90 In WSD, benchmark targets are generally developed in
per cent of the time), as they did in servicing phone a two-stage process (although minor updates are usually
calls. Similar observations about other electrical and made throughout the process as the understanding of
electronic appliances then began to emerge. These the system improves):
events led to a deliberate effort to improve standby
operation by setting benchmark targets for low energy 1 Initial benchmark targets are developed during the
consumption. Today, there is an industry-wide Need Definition phase. At this stage, they reflect
benchmark of 1 Watt standby energy consumption in theoretical optimal service provision as determined
electrical and electronic appliances. This has led to by Element 1: Ask the right questions, and are
significant cost savings and reductions in greenhouse largely qualitative.
gas emissions for businesses, governments, organizations 2 The benchmark targets are reviewed at the end of
and households. the Preliminary Design phase. At this stage,
An example of the opportunities for improvement practical constraints are superimposed onto the
through benchmarking is refrigerated supermarket theoretical targets to determine the practical
display cabinets. The service of a typical open-case targets, many of which are quantitative. Ensuring
display cabinet is to cool and preserve meat and dairy that any practical constraints are genuine prevents
products for health and safety reasons. Benchmarking restricting the solution space.
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ELEMENTS OF APPLYING A WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH (ELEMENTS 1–5) 65

Case study: Brick making heat per 1000 bricks to increase the water
temperature from about 20°C to 100°C.
A good example to demonstrate the difference between • The quantity of moisture in bricks before drying
theoretical and practical benchmark targets is brick depends on the forming method. Stiff-mud bricks
manufacturing. Brick manufacturing is a multistage are 12–15 per cent moisture by mass.
process (see Figure 4.3) in which water is added during • Given that a batch of 1000 stiff-mud bricks has a
forming and removed primarily during drying and less mass of 3000 kg, the 12 per cent moisture would
so during firing. This example shows the theoretical have a mass of 360 kg.
and practical considerations for optimizing energy • Thus the theoretical target for heat energy required
consumption with respect to drying a batch of 1000 to remove all the water from 1000 stiff-mud bricks
stiff-mud bricks. Note that designing and optimizing a by drying is 2.26 MJ/kg × 360 kg + 100 MJ = 914
subsystem in isolation from the rest of the system, as MJ.
this case study suggests, is counter to a WSD approach.
In fact, isolating the drying process as the sole means of There are a few practical constraints in the drying
removing moisture from brick will most likely result in process:
a suboptimal solution, because there is an opportunity
to reduce the quantity of input water during the earlier • The rate of removing moisture depends on the
forming process and another opportunity to remove circulation and humidity of air around the bricks,
moisture during the subsequent firing process. while circulation of air depends on the spacing of
The theoretical benchmark targets for removing the bricks and the size and spacing of the holes in
moisture depend on the type of processes used for each the bricks; thus there are spacing and hole size
step of the production phase. For example, drying is an constraints.
evaporation process that requires a certain quantity of • The consistency of the bricks may not be uniform,
thermal energy to evaporate a given quantity of water. so drying time may be extended to allow insulated
Firing, on the other hand, is a chemical process that regions of moisture to evaporate.
requires a certain quantity of thermal energy at a given • The kiln and cart absorb some heat energy at
temperature to break and reform chemical bonds. The a rate dependent on their heat capacity and
theoretical target for energy consumption in the drying temperature, so additional heat energy is required
process can be determined as follows: for cold starts.
• The consistency of bricks located near the cart
• Evaporation of water requires 2.26 MJ/kg of latent may be affected by the different local thermal
heat of evaporation, plus about 100 MJ of sensible profile.

Source: The Brick Industry Association (2006)8

Figure 4.3 The brick manufacturing process

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66 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Superimposing these constraints onto the theoretical indirect-fired, controlled-atmosphere kiln developed by
targets gives the practical targets. Note that these Wabash Alloys, an aluminium recycler and provider of
constraints may only be genuine constraints if their aluminium alloy, in conjunction with Energy Research
inclusion in the system was established in earlier phases Company (ERCo). It optimizes the synergies between
of the development process. Constraints related to the subsystems to:
cart affecting brick consistency, for example, is only
genuine if the system must incorporate a cart. • Clean aluminium with lower energy consumption;
• Have lower volatile organic compound (VOC)
emissions;
Element 3: Design and optimize • Reduce aluminium loss; and
the whole system • Better process unwanted substances than
comparable kilns.
Many systems and technologies are believed to be so
complex and refined that only incremental System-level design provides the opportunities for
improvements are possible. However, a WSD approach reducing energy consumptions that may not be
reveals that the more complex a technology is, the more identified with subsystem-level design (component
opportunities there are for improvements. design). The primary opportunities are reusing the
IDEX’s own heat to remove organic contaminants,
Cleansheet design hence reducing the IDEX’s energy consumption, as
well as being able to use cleaned, preheated aluminium
System development is facilitated by cleansheet design.
scrap from the IDEX in the kiln at the next step of the
Cleansheet design is the process of developing a system
process, which reduces the kiln’s heating energy. If air
from only a set of requirements and a ‘clean sheet of
leaks are eliminated and preheated scrap is used, the
paper’. Cleansheet design creates a design environment
IDEX could save the aluminium recycling market three
that offers the flexibility and creative space to innovate
trillion British Thermal Units annually. Using the
by investigating options that lie outside the bounds of
IDEX’s cleaned and preheated aluminium in the
the typical systems. In this environment, the system can
furnace can also reduce aluminium loss and other metal
be designed and optimized as a whole, and
particulate emissions by up to 34 per cent. Emissions
consequently compromise can be minimized. Cleansheet
from the IDEX are 5–50 times lower than stipulated by
design discourages defining arbitrary constraints, which
the New York State Department of Environmental
can promote compromise and premature commitment
Conservation Standards.
to a particular solution, and hence lead to an inherently
non-optimizable system. A special case of setting
arbitrary constraints is developing a system based on a Optimizing the system as a whole
previous version. Optimizing the system as a whole is of value primarily
during the Detail Design phase. It involves comparing
Designing the system as a whole subsystem modifications against changes in both system
service-provision and subsystem functionality, and is
Designing the system as a whole is of value primarily usually an iterative process. Comparing against the
during the Conceptual Design and Preliminary Design system and subsystem levels ensures that both the
phases. It involves taking a system-level emphasis on synergies and subsystems are optimized for the benefit
selecting and integrating subsystems and hence allowing of the system. In the case of a contradiction, optimizing
synergies between subsystems to be identified and optimized. system service-provision is more important than
System-level design is assisted by multidisciplinary optimizing the subsystem functionality.
development teams that have expertise in a broad range
of relevant technology and design concepts. Case study: Passenger vehicle design
An example of substantial benefits through
optimizing synergies between subsystems is the An example of applying Element 3’s features to
IDEX ™ kiln.9 The IDEX is an energy-efficient, transport vehicles is the Hypercar Revolution. Hypercar
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ELEMENTS OF APPLYING A WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH (ELEMENTS 1–5) 67

used cleansheet design to develop the Revolution power for acceleration is drawn from auxiliary 35 kW
concept vehicle10 – a safe, well-performing, ultra- batteries. The batteries are recharged by a regenerative
efficient passenger vehicle that is almost fully recyclable braking subsystem,17 which is coupled with the electric
and competitively priced compared to current popular motors. The braking system reduces energy losses to
cars. Hypercar, having removed the constraints the surroundings.
associated with upgrading past car models, was also The subsystem synergies in the Revolution are
able to overcome the compromises of conventional similar to those in all transport vehicles. Trucks, trains,
automobile design, such as making cars ‘light or safe’ ships and aircraft all have the potential to double or
and ‘efficient or spacious’. Hypercar took advantage of triple their fuel efficiency by 2025 (compared to
synergies between subsystems to make the Revolution conventional vehicles) if they incorporate the
‘light and safe’ and ‘efficient and spacious’. following:
Hypercar identified a synergy between the mass of
the Revolution’s primary structure and almost every • Low mass primary structures;
other subsystem, as in Figure 4.4 (a). Hypercar • Low drag shells;
determined that a low mass primary structure would • Small, high-efficiency propulsion systems and
ultimately help meet ambitious targets for cost, as in drive trains; and
Figure 4.4 (b), safety, efficiency, performance and • Electronic control.18
comfort.11
The primary structure is made from an advanced Some organizations are already taking the first steps –
composite material and consists of only 14 major for example, Boeing has announced that its new
components – about 65 per cent fewer than that of a passenger aircraft, which incorporates low-mass
conventional, stamped steel structure.12 The composite materials, will consume 20 per cent less fuel
components are made using a manufacturing process than other comparable aircraft. Wal-Mart has
called Fibreforge™. Fibreforge requires very few sharp announced that its fleet of 6800 heavy trucks, which
bends or deep draws, and thus has low tooling costs, incorporate low drag shells, will double fuel efficiency
high repeatability and fewer processing steps than by 2015, saving US$494 million by 2020.19
conventional car assembly.13 Unlike steel, the
composite materials are lightweight, stiff, fatigue- Element 4: Account for all
resistant and rust-proof.14 The higher cost of the
composite materials is compensated for by a reduction
measurable impacts
in replacement parts and assembly complexity. The A defining feature of a system is the fact that making a
smoothly shaped shell components also reduce the single modification will create at least one other impact
Revolution’s drag. beyond that modification. This feature can be leveraged
The low mass of the primary structure and low drag to assist in developing an optimal system in a short
of the shell components reduce the mechanical load on period of time. This leverage is created by designing and
the chassis and propulsion subsystems, which thus can optimizing for the most positive impacts, which is of value
be made relatively small and, again, low mass. primarily during the Conceptual Design, Preliminary
Furthermore, some technological substitutions also Design and Detail Design phases. The aim is to
become viable. For example, relatively small and very optimize as much of the system as possible, not just a
energy-efficient electric motors can power the wheels particular subsystem, with each decision.
and thus eliminate the need for axles and differentials.15 There are two general types of impacts to consider
The Revolution’s low mass (about half that of in determining a decision’s true value:
similar-sized conventional vehicle) requires only 35 kW
for cruising.16 The low power requirement makes viable Impacts through synergies
ambient pressure fuel-cell technology, which emits only
pure water vapour and which would be too expensive at Impacts through synergies occur internally within
a large capacity. The fuel cell operates efficiently since subsystems other than the subsystem that was acted on.
it is mainly for cruising and thus can be optimized to These impacts can manifest themselves throughout the
operate over a very small power range. Additional life of the system. Impacts through synergies are not
Chapter 4.qxd 12/1/2008 5:14 PM Page 68

68 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

(a)
H2
Reduce Less power Smaller drivetrain
mass & drag needed New technology Smaller, lighter
Chassis parts Better packaging
More crush space

H2 H2
HH22

H2

(b)

H2
Reduce
mass & drag Less power
mixed Smaller drivetrain
New technology Smaller, lighter
Chassis parts Better packaging
More crush space

Less mass of easily costly materials, lower

+$ peak power, mechanically simpler

Upfront cost of design and development,

costly materials, new technologies −$

New design strategy, materials, and technologies

Source: Brylawski and Lovins (1998)20

Figure 4.4 Potential (a) mass and (b) cost reductions through subsystem synergies arising from a low mass primary
structure and low drag shell components in passenger vehicles

always tangible, so further action on the subsystems of An example that demonstrates accounting for
impact may be required to optimize the full impact of impacts through synergies is RLX’s blade server.21 In
the original action. 2001, RLX developed a blade server centred around an
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ELEMENTS OF APPLYING A WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH (ELEMENTS 1–5) 69

energy-efficient Transmeta processor. The Transmeta An example that demonstrates accounting for
processor required 7–15W of electrical power while the hidden ecological impacts is EnviroGLAS ®.22
leading competitor’s equivalent processor required EnviroGLAS create hard surfaces such as floors,
75W. Using the Transmeta processor invoked several countertops and landscaping materials from landfill-
impacts through synergies, including the following: bound post-consumer and industrial ceramic materials.
EnviroGLAS products are composed of about 75 per
• The high energy-efficiency of the Transmeta cent recycled glass or porcelain and 25 per cent epoxy
processor and other components led to RLX’s server binder by volume. EnviroGLAS’s products have a
consuming 0.13A while the leading competitor’s favourable hidden processing impact compared to similar
server consumed 79A to provide a similar service. products made from virgin materials. The hidden
The Transmeta processor generated relatively little impact of 1kg of recycled glass includes 550g of abiotic
heat and thus did not require auxiliary cooling material and 7kg of water.23 By contrast, the hidden
through heat sinks and cooling fans (energy-efficiency impact of 1kg of virgin bottle glass includes 2.6kg of
impacts on number of components). abiotic material and 13kg of water.24 The higher
• Fewer cooling components and other component consumption of hidden input resources for virgin
consolidation contributed to the size of the RLX bottle glass is attributed largely to two differences:
server being 1/8 that of the leading competitor’s
server (number of components impacts on volume). 1 The disturbance of earth in order to obtain the
Consequently, where RLX could house 336 of its silica sand, calcium, soda and magnesium
servers in a rack, the leading competitor could ingredients; and
house only 42, albeit with 2 processors per server 2 The high energy demand to heat the ingredients to
(volume impacts on number of racks). Fewer 1500°C in a furnace.
components also contributed to the RLX server
having a mass of 3lbs while the leading EnviroGLAS’s products also have a favourable hidden
competitor’s server had a mass of 29lbs (number of transportation impact. EnviroGLAS’s materials are
components impacts on mass). sourced from local recycling programmes, so fuel
• While the RLX server’s capital cost may have been consumption, gas emissions and human labour costs
greater that of the leading competitor’s server are low. By contrast, each individual material input for
(depending on options), the total cost of virgin ceramics is transported separately over large
ownership is about six times lower. The RLX server distances, often internationally.
generated relatively little heat and thus required An example that demonstrates accounting for
less cooling at the data centre level, which makes hidden social impacts is lead in electronic equipment.
up about half of the total data centre operating cost Most notably, lead makes up 40 per cent of electrical
(energy efficiency impacts on cooling load). The RLX solder in printed circuit boards; it makes up 1–3kg of
server was also hot-pluggable with 12 times fewer glass panes in cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors and
Ethernet cables per rack, and did not require tools televisions;25 and it comprises a substantial portion of
to install or remove, making management mass in hard drives. If not properly managed during
substantially easier (number of components impacts production and at end-of-life, lead can be consumed by
on management complexity). humans, other animals, plants and micro-organisms in
a number of ways, including as airborne dust, ash or
fumes, as well as ions in water bodies.26 Associated with
Hidden impacts
lead consumption are negative hidden social impacts.
Hidden impacts occur externally as a result of Lead can accumulate in humans and cause a variety of
transforming resources into the state that they are used health issues, including damage to the nervous system,
to create the system, including transportation. These blood system, kidneys, and reproductive system and
impacts are relevant to input resources for both impairment of children’s brain development and
production and transportation. Hidden impacts can be consequent intellectual impairment.27 The risk of lead
measured using appropriate ecological and social consumption is high since a large portion of waste
indicators. electronic equipment is exported to developing
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70 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

countries for ‘recycling’, which often involves people Case study: Post office design
sorting through the waste in landfills28 or workshops29
without protection. Lead-free alternatives for both An example of applying Element 4’s features to
electrical solder and CRT monitors and televisions are commercial buildings is the Reno post office.31 Reno
now available. Lead-free solder replaces lead with a post office is a modern warehouse with high ceilings
number of other metals and is being used for many and black floors. It houses two noisy mail sorting
electronic products. In addition, liquid crystal display machines, which are so tedious and stressful to use that
(LCD) monitors use plastic instead of glass panels, and an operator can only work on a machine for 30 minutes
many plasma televisions use lead-free glass. at a time. In the early 1980s, the post office was
renovated at a cost of US$300,000 with the aim of
improving energy efficiency. The renovation consisted
Ecological indicators of two parts, both of which invoked impacts through
Ecological indicators are tools that estimate the hidden synergies on other subsystems:
ecological impacts of resources. Several quantitative
and qualitative ecological indicators have been 1 Lowering and sloping the ceiling; and
developed. With so many similar ecological indicators 2 Installing energy-efficient, longer-lasting, softer-
available, it is important to understand the underlying light lamps.
assumptions and ensure that the selected (or developed)
Lowering the ceiling reduced the volume of space that
indicators are effective for the application. Generally,
required heating and cooling and thus reduced the
effective ecological indicators meet the following
energy demand for heating and air-conditioning.
conditions:30
Sloping the ceiling enhanced indirect lighting and
reduced the need for direct lighting. The new ceiling
• They are simple, yet reflect essential environmental
also improved the warehouse’s acoustic properties. The
stress factors;
new lamps reduced direct energy consumption and
• They are scientifically defensible, albeit not
replacement costs. They also emit less heat and
necessarily scientifically complete;
therefore reduce the energy demand for space heating.
• They are based on characteristics that are common
In total, the energy cost savings from these two
to all processes, goods and services;
activities amounted to US$22,400 per year, while
• The selected characteristics are straightforwardly
additional maintenance costs savings amounted to
measurable or calculable, irrespective of geographic
US$30,000 per year. The reduced demand for energy
location;
and paint reduced the hidden impacts of supplying
• Obtaining results with these measures is cost-
those resource inputs, as estimated by the ecological
effective and timely;
indicators.
• The measures permit the transparent and
The renovations also invoked some unplanned and
reproducible estimation of environmental stress
more valuable impacts on other subsystems of the post
potentials of all conceivable plans, processes, goods
office. Productivity increased by 6 per cent and the
and services throughout the system’s life;
frequency of mail sorting errors dropped to the lowest
• Their use always yields directionally safe answers;
error rate in the region. The productivity improvement
• They form a bridge to economic models; and
yielded savings of US$400,000–500,000 per year.
• They are acceptable and usable at all levels: local,
regional and global.
Element 5: Design and optimize
No single ecological indicator estimates all hidden subsystems in the right sequence
ecological impacts. Hence, sets of ecological indicators
are compiled to comprehensively estimate a decision’s While a WSD approach emphasizes system-level design
hidden impacts. Accurate estimations rely on sets of and optimization, there is a clear role for subsystem-
ecological indicators that do not overlap. level design and optimization, primarily in the
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ELEMENTS OF APPLYING A WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH (ELEMENTS 1–5) 71

Preliminary Design and Detail Design phases. In these photo- and motion-controlled energy-efficient lamps
phases, the management of subsystem-level design and (equipment). The lamps are located to emphasize task
optimization is determined by the system synergies. lighting (quality). Lighting electricity consumption
Consistent with Element 4: Account for all measurable (demand) is 50 per cent lower than for conventional
impacts, the decision to design or optimize a certain offices.
subsystem at a given time in the development process The next subsystem with positive potential impact
depends on its potential impact. Decisions that have with respect to energy is the building’s climate control.
the most-positive impact are favoured. An extension of Climate control (application) is primarily provided by
this logic is that there is a single subsystem or small the (passive) ventilation subsystem. The ventilation
number of subsystems that are best designed or subsystem is mainly composed of two heat exchangers,
optimized first, and also that there is a logical sequence, two fans and a heating/cooling coil. The subsystem
or set of parallel sequences, for designing or optimizing supplies offices with fresh outdoor air while displacing
subsystems that will yield the optimal system with stale air. Secondary climate control requirements are
minimal effort and human resource cost. The sequence met with the (active) radiant heating and cooling
is generally non-linear and usually iterative. Visual aids, subsystem (equipment). Compared with forced air
such as schematic system maps, assist in identifying the subsystems, radiant subsystems have lower motor
sequence. energy consumption and fewer moving components,
In practice, subsystem-level design and and are more energy efficient. For example, the
optimization is manifested as the following generally subsystem includes water-based radiant panels that
mutually exclusive sequences:32 cover 30 per cent of the ceiling area. The panels warm
the offices in winter, operating at 35°C, and cool the
• People before hardware; offices in summer, operating at 13°C.
• Shell before contents; The subsystem with the most-positive potential
• Application before equipment; impact with respect to water is the building’s water
• Quality before quantity; system. Water services are provided through a number
• Passive before active; and of subsystems. The bathrooms are equipped with
• Demand before supply. water-efficient fixtures, sensor-controlled shower heads
and urinals (quality), and water-efficient toilets. The
Case study: Office building design bathrooms are centrally located, which reduces hot
water consumption (demand) by 20 per cent. Water is
An example of applying Element 5’s features to heated by a high-efficiency gas boiler. Rainwater is used
commercial buildings is Green on the Grand,33 a two- for irrigation and in the cooling pond, which helps
storey office property in the US, developed in 1995. expel excess heat in summer. The water consumption
The subsystem with the most positive potential impact (demand) of Green on the Grand is 30 per cent lower
with respect to energy is the building’s envelope (shell). than for conventional offices.
Green on the Grand is orientated to the south and its
form helps optimize (passive) daylighting and solar
gain. Optional reading
The next subsystem with positive potential impact
with respect to energy is the building’s lighting Birkeland, J. (2002) Design for Sustainability: A Sourcebook of
subsystem. Lighting (application) is primarily provided Ecological Design Solutions, Earthscan, London
Çengel, Y. and Boles, M. (2008) Thermodynamics – An
by (passive) daylight. Daylight penetration and the
Engineering Approach (6th edition), McGraw-Hill,
associated glare and heat gain are optimized using pp78–96, http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware/
appropriately located large windows, glazed infoCenter.do?isbn=0073529214&navclick=true,
entranceways and interior glass walls. In summer, fabric accessed 28 August 2008
roller-blinds and horizontal blinds with slats provide Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. (1999) Natural
shading while deflecting light into offices. Secondary Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution,
lighting requirements are met with (active) dimmable, Earthscan, London, Chapter 6: ‘Tunnelling through the
Chapter 4.qxd 12/1/2008 5:14 PM Page 72

72 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

cost barrier’, www.natcap.org/images/other/NCchapter6. com/safechem/about/news/20050916.htm, accessed 30

pdf, accessed 26 November 2006 November 2006.
Lovins, A. B., Datta, E. K., Bustnes, O. E., Koomey, J. G. 4 See Climatex, ‘Products’, at www.climatex.com/en/
and Glasgow, N. J. (2004) Winning the Oil Endgame: products/products_overview.html, accessed 28
Innovation for Profits, Jobs and Security, Technical Annex, November 2006.
Rocky Mountain Institute, Snowmass, CO, www.oilendgame 5 Pollock Shea, C. (n.d.) ‘Mimicking nature and
.com/TechAnnex.html, accessed 29 July 2007 designing out waste’, Worldwatch Institute, http://
McDonough, W. and Braungart, M. (2002) Cradle to Cradle: sustainability.unc.edu/index.asp?Type=Materials&Doc=
Remaking the Way We Make Things, North Point Press, wasteDesigningItOut, accessed 28 November 2006.
New York 6 Steelcase (2006) ‘Living in a material world’, Steelcase,
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy efficiency – Its potential: Some www.360steelcase.com/e_000150202000035897.cfm?x
perspectives and experiences’, background paper for =b11,0,w, accessed 28 November 2006.
International Energy Agency Energy Efficiency 7 Faramarzi, R., Coburn, B. and Sarhadian, R. (2002)
Workshop, Paris, April, www.naturaledgeproject.net/ Performance and Energy Impact of Installing Glass Doors
Documents/IEAENEFFICbackgroundpaperPearsFinal.p on an Open Vertical Deli/Dairy Display Case, ASHRAE.
df, accessed 14 August 2007 8 The Brick Industry Association (2006) ‘Manufacturing
Romm, J. J. and Browning, W. D. (1998) Greening the of brick’, Technical Notes on Brick Construction, no 9,
Building and the Bottom Line, Rocky Mountain Institute, The Brick Industry Association, Reston, VA, p2,
CO, www.rmi.org/images/PDFs/BuildingsLand/D94- www.brickinfo.org/bia/technotes/t9.pdf, accessed 31
27_GBBL.pdf, accessed 30 July 2007 March 2008.
Van der Ryn Architects (n.d.) ‘Five principles of ecological 9 See US Department of Energy, ‘Indirect-fired kiln
design’, available at Van der Ryn Architects website, conserves scrap aluminum and cuts costs’, Energy
http://64.143.175.55/va/index-methods.html, accessed Matters, at www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/
14 August 2007 pdfs/em_proheat_firedkiln.pdf, accessed 26 November
Van der Ryn, S. and Cowan, S. (1995) Ecological Design, 2006.
Island Press, New York 10 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars,
Van der Ryn, S. (2005) Design for Life: The Architecture of Sim hydrogen, and the automotive transition’, International
Van der Ryn, Gibbs-Smith Publishers, New York Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, p54.
Von Weizsäcker, E., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. (1997) 11 Brylawski, M. M. and Lovins, A. B. (1998) Advanced
Factor Four: Doubling Wealth, Halving Resource Use, Composites: The Car is at the Cross-Roads, RMI, p6,
Earthscan, London www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T98-01_CarAt
William McDonough Architects (1992) Hanover Principles of Crossroads.pdf, accessed 19 January 2006; Williams, B.
Design for Sustainability, prepared for EXPO 2000, The D., Moore, T. C. and Lovins, A. B. (1997) Speeding the
World’s Fair, Hanover, Germany, www.mcdonough.com/ Transition: Designing a Fuel-Cell Hypercar, Rocky
principles.pdf, accessed 14 August 2007 Mountain Institute, p2, www.rmi.org/images/
other/Trans/T97-09_SpeedingTrans.pdf, accessed 14
January 2005.
Notes 12 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars,
hydrogen, and the automotive transition’, International
1 Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy efficiency – Its potential: Some Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, p65.
perspectives and experiences’, background paper for 13 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars,
International Energy Agency Energy Efficiency hydrogen, and the automotive transition’, International
Workshop, Paris, p8, www.naturaledgeproject.net/ Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, p66.
Documents/IEAENEFFICbackgroundpaperPearsFinal. 14 Cramer, D. R. and Brylawski, M. M. (1996) Ultralight-
pdf, accessed 30 March 2008. Hybrid Vehicle Design: Implications for the Recycling
2 Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy efficiency – Its potential: Some Industry, Rocky Mountain Institute, p2, www.rmi.org/
perspectives and experiences’, background paper for images/other/Trans/T96-14_UHVDRecycleInd.pdf,
International Energy Agency Energy Efficiency accessed 10 July 2005.
Workshop, Paris, p9, www.naturaledgeproject.net/ 15 Moore, T. C. (1996) ‘Ultralight hybrid vehicles:
Documents/IEAENEFFICbackgroundpaperPearsFinal. Principles and design’, paper presented at 13th
pdf, accessed 30 March 2008. International Electric Vehicle Symposium, Osaka, Japan,
3 SafeChem (2005) ‘Chemical leasing within the www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T96-10_UHVPrinDsn
SAFECHEM business model’, SafeChem, www.dow. .pdf, accessed 11 July 2005.
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ELEMENTS OF APPLYING A WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH (ELEMENTS 1–5) 73

16 Moore, T. C. (1996) ‘Ultralight hybrid vehicles: 26 Brigden, K., Labunska, I., Santillo, D. and Allsopp, M.
Principles and design’, paper presented at 13th (2005) Recycling of Electronic Wastes in China and India:
International Electric Vehicle Symposium, Osaka, Workplace and Environmental Contamination,
Japan, www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T96-10_UHV Greenpeace International, p26, www.greenpeace.org/
PrinDsn.pdf, accessed 11 July 2005. raw/content/india/press/reports/recycling-of-electronic-
17 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars, wastes.pdf, accessed 9 July 2006.
hydrogen, and the automotive transition’, International 27 Brigden, K., Labunska, I., Santillo, D. and Allsopp, M.
Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, pp50–85. (2005) Recycling of Electronic Wastes in China and
18 Lovins, A. B., Datta, E. K., Bustnes, O. E., Koomey, India: Workplace and Environmental Contamination,
J. G. and Glasgow, N. J. (2004) Winning the Oil Endgame: Greenpeace International, p26, www.greenpeace.org/
Innovation for Profits, Jobs and Security, Technical Annex, raw/content/india/press/reports/recycling-of-electronic-
Rocky Mountain Institute, Snowmass, CO, www. wastes.pdf, accessed 9 July 2006; Environment Victoria
oilendgame.com/TechAnnex.html, accessed 29 July (2005) Environmental Report Card on Computers 2005:
2007. Computer Waste in Australia and the Case for Producer
19 Rocky Mountain Institute (2007) ‘Wal-Mart announces Responsibility, Environment Victoria, p8, www.envict.
plans to double its heavy-duty truck fleet’s fuel org.au/file/Ewaste_report_card.pdf, accessed 9 July
efficiency, RMI, www.rmi.org/store/p15details10.php? 2006.
x=1&pagePath=00000000, accessed 29 July 2007. 28 Puckett, J., Byster, L., Westervelt, S., Gutierrez, R.,
20 Brylawski, M. M. and Lovins, A. B. (1998) Advanced Davis, S., Hussain, A. and Dutta, M. (2002) Exporting
Composites: The Car is at the Cross-Roads, RMI, pp5–6, Harm: The High-Tech Trashing of Asia, Basel Action
www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T98-01_CarAt Network, www.ban.org/E-waste/technotrashfinalcomp.
Crossroads.pdf, accessed 19 January 2006; Williams, B. pdf, accessed 18 September 2007; Puckett, J.,
D., Moore, T. C. and Lovins, A. B. (1997) Speeding the Westervelt, S., Gutierrez, R. and Takamiya, Y. (2005)
Transition: Designing a Fuel-Cell Hypercar, Rocky The Digital Dump: Exporting Re-Use and Abuse to Africa,
Mountain Institute, p3, www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/ Basel Action Network, www.ban.org/BANreports/10-
T97-09_SpeedingTrans.pdf, accessed 14 January 2005. 24-05/documents/TheDigitalDump.pdf, accessed 18
21 Los Alamos National Laboratory (2001) Supercomputing September 2007.
in Small Spaces, Los Alamos National Laboratory, 29 Brigden, K., Labunska, I., Santillo, D. and Allsopp, M.
http://public.lanl.gov/radiant/pubs/sss/sc2001- (2005) Recycling of Electronic Wastes in China and India:
pamphlet.pdf, accessed 9 January 2005; Transmeta Workplace and Environmental Contamination, Greenpeace
Corporation (2002) ‘Transmeta’s 1GHz Crusoe International, p3, www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/
Processor enables fast, high density blade server from india/press/reports/recycling-of-electronic-wastes.pdf,
RLX Technologies’, Transmeta Corparation, accessed 18 September 2007.
http://investor.transmeta.com/ReleaseDetail.cfm?Releas 30 Schmidt-Bleek, F. B. (1999) Factor 10: Making
eID=97691, accessed 30 March 2007. Sustainability Accountable, Putting Resource Productivity
22 EnviroGLAS Products (2005) Totally Cool!, into Practice, Factor10 Institute, p68, www.factor10-institute
EnviroGLAS Products, www.enviroglasproducts.com/ .org/pdf/F10REPORT.pdf, accessed 11 April 2007.
news-totallycool.html, accessed 30 November 2006. 31 Romm, J. J. and Browning, W. D. (1998) Greening the
23 Sorensen, J. and NOAH Sustainability Group (2005) Building and the Bottom Line, Rocky Mountain
Ecological Rucksack for Materials Used in Everyday Institute, www.rmi.org/images/other/GDS/D94-27_
Products, NOAH, www.noah.dk/baeredygtig/rucksack/ GBBL.pdf, accessed 30 July 2007.
rucksack.pdf, accessed 20 November 2006. 32 Rocky Mountain Institute (1997) ‘Tunnelling through
24 Sorensen, J. and NOAH Sustainability Group (2005) the cost barrier: Why big savings often cost less than
Ecological Rucksack for Materials Used in Everyday small ones’, Rocky Mountain Institute Newsletter, vol 13,
Products, NOAH, www.noah.dk/baeredygtig/rucksack/ no 2, p3, www.rmi.org/images/other/Newsletter/
rucksack.pdf, accessed 20 November 2006. NLRMIsum97.pdf, accessed 6 June 2007.
25 OECD (2003), cited in Brigden, K., Labunska, I., 33 Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors (2005) Green
Santillo, D. and Allsopp, M. (2005) Recycling of Electronic Value: Growing buildings, Growing Assets – Case Studies,
Wastes in China and India: Workplace and Environmental Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors, pp7–10,
Contamination, Greenpeace International, p26, http://rics.org/NR/rdonlyres/4CB60C80-C5E9-46F4-
www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/india/press/reports/ 8D0A-D9D33B7A2594/0/GreenValueCaseStudies.pdf,
recycling-of-electronic-wastes.pdf, accessed 9 July 2006. accessed 6 June 2007.
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5
Elements of Applying a Whole System
Design Approach (Elements 6–10)

Educational aim Element 6: Design and optimize

Chapter 5 builds on from Chapter 4 to describe the subsystems to achieve compounding
final five elements of applying a Whole System Design resource savings
(WSD) approach. It presents a ‘how-to’ of the last five
Many systems have subsystem synergies that resemble a
elements of WSD. The application of each element for
distinct ‘path’ originating in a single or small number of
optimal sustainability and competitive advantage is
subsystems. As discussed in Element 5: Design and
discussed and then demonstrated with case studies.
optimize subsystems in the right sequence, these
subsystems usually have the most-positive impact and
thus are best designed and optimized first. An
Required reading important observation is that the sequences resulting
from applying Element 5 are generally counter to the
Adcock, R. (n.d.) ‘Principles and practices of actual resource transmissions. That is, the subsystem
systems engineering’, presentation, Cranfield design and optimization sequences in the Preliminary
University, UK, pp1–12, www.incose.org.uk/ Design and Detail Design phases are a set of integrated,
Downloads/AA01.1.4_Principles%20&% general downstream to upstream sequences.
20practices%20of%20SE.pdf, accessed 2 July In systems with actual resource transmissions, a
2007 downstream to upstream sequence is equivalent to the
Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. sequence ‘demand before supply’ in Element 5. The
(1999) Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next downstream to upstream sequence also applies more
Industrial Revolution, Earthscan, London, abstractly to systems with unidirectional subsystem
Chapter 6: ‘Tunnelling through the cost synergies that do not represent resource transmissions.
barrier’, pp111–124, www.natcap.org/images/ The impacts of subsystems in series compound rather
other/NCchapter6.pdf, accessed 2 July 2007 than sum. Thus it is important to design and optimize
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy efficiency – Its subsystems such that the compounded impact is
potential: Some perspectives and experiences’, optimized. Compounding impacts can be leveraged to
background paper for International Energy turn several small improvements at the subsystem level
Agency Energy Efficiency Workshop, Paris, into a large positive impact on the system.
pp1–16 Focusing on end-use efficiency can create a cascade
Rocky Mountain Institute (1997) ‘Tunnelling of savings all the way back to the power plant, dam,
through the cost barrier’, RMI Newsletter, mine or forest. This is why an engineering focus on a
summer, pp1–4, www.rmi.org/images/other/ WSD approach to re-optimize ‘end-use’ engineered
Newsletter/NLRMIsum97.pdf, accessed 5 January systems such as motors, HVAC systems, buildings and
2007 cars can help business and nations reduce costs of
infrastructure and environmental pressures significantly.
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76 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

It is by focusing on these engineered systems which to provide the service. However, designing and
actually provide the services we need, close to the end- optimizing this system in the counter sequence,
user, that big energy savings can be achieved back up downstream to upstream, creates an opportunity to
the line. Much electricity has been used to create and turn compounding energy losses (a negative impact)
run these end-user engineered systems. Hence any into compounding energy reductions (a positive
savings in the amount of energy needed to run these impact). The subsystem furthest downstream is the end
end-use engineered systems will produce a cascade of use. Reducing ‘Energy output’ by 1 unit eliminates
savings back to the electrical power plant. Consider the 10.5 (= 100/9.5) units of ‘Fuel energy input’. Next,
example of motors. Motors use about 60 per cent of reducing ‘Pipe losses’ by 1 unit eliminates a further 8.3
the world’s electricity.1 Those used in pumping units; ‘Throttle losses’, 5.5 units; ‘Pump losses’, 4.2
applications use about 20 per cent of the world’s units; and so on up to ‘Power plant losses’, which
energy.2 So if it is possible to reduce the amount of eliminates 1 unit of ‘Fuel energy input’. The result is
energy that a motor system needs to provide, this will that reducing energy losses by 1 unit in each subsystem,
create a cascade of savings all the way back to the or 8 units in total, eliminates 40 units of ‘Fuel energy
power plant. input’.
This effect of compounding savings from improving
the efficiency of an industrial pumping system is seen in Case study: Solar cell design
Figure 5.1, which shows the energy transmission and
losses from raw material to the service of a pumped fluid Size and mass are two physical characteristics that limit
in a typical pumping system. the practicality of current photovoltaic (PV) systems.
In this case, the energy losses compound at every These characteristics are important because PV systems
subsystem downstream of the ‘Fuel energy input’ until are often mounted on roofs or eaves, where space and
only 9.5 per cent of the original input energy remains structural integrity can be limited. Solar cells, the main

Source: Lovins (2005)3

Figure 5.1 The energy transmission and losses from raw material to the service of a pumped fluid in a typical
industrial pumping system
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ELEMENTS OF APPLYING A WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH (ELEMENTS 6–10) 77

functional subsystem, contribute very little mass to the area of just 177cm2.8 The higher cost of complex
PV system. However, the cells’ relatively large surface processing for Sliver cells is offset by the 20 times fewer
area means the solar module’s glass sheets need to be wafer starts per kW.9 Sliver cells also have the advantage
large. Current solar modules also require additional that they can be made from low-quality or radiation-
electrical and electronic subsystems such as diodes and damaged silicon.10 Using Sliver cells to build a PV
inverters. Consequently, most of a PV system’s mass is system has many positive impacts through synergies on
attributed to the supporting subsystems. the materials and energy consumption of upstream
In a PV system, solar cells are the subsystem subsystems. Firstly, Sliver cells’ smaller surface area
furthest downstream in a series of unidirectional reduces the area and hence mass of the Sliver module’s
subsystem synergies (with respect to both material and glass sheets. Secondly, Sliver modules can be connected
energy resources). Figure 5.2 shows the synergies in a in series without protective diodes and could allow for
PV system. The arrows indicate the dependence conversion from DC to AC without a transformer in
between subsystems. the inverter.11 Not only does eliminating these electrical
Sliver® cells developed by the Australian National subsystems reduce the PV system’s mass, it also
University and Origin Energy are a good example of improves its energy efficiency, which means the same
applying Element 6’s features to PV systems. Sliver cells electricity output can be generated with an even smaller
are small, flexible, bifacial solar cells 50–100mm long, face area.12 Finally, the Sliver module’s lower mass
1–2mm wide and 40–70 microns thick. They require reduces the mass and required integrity of the support
about 10 per cent of the silicon4 (the most costly input structure.
in solar-cell production)5 of conventional cells at a Sliver cells’ smaller mass and size also has positive
given power rating. hidden impacts on the mass and energy flow of
Although Sliver cells have a greater conversion upstream subsystems in the production system (see
efficiency (over 19 per cent)6 than conventional solar Figure 5.3). A lower mass requirement for any material
cells (about 15 per cent), the large majority of the also reduces the material and energy demand on the
silicon reduction is as a result of the manufacturing supplier, transporter, processor and extractor.
technology. About 1000 Sliver cells can be micro- The lower material demand and energy
machined from a 150mm, circular, silicon wafer of requirements make Sliver modules at least cost-
thickness 1.5mm.7 The Sliver cells from just one wafer competitive with conventional solar modules in the
have a total surface area of about 1500cm2, whereas retail market, and the energy investment in creating a
conventional cells from one wafer have a total surface Sliver module is less than that of a conventional

Figure 5.2 Subsystem synergies in a photovoltaic system with respect to materials and energy resources
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78 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Figure 5.3 Subsystem synergies in the production system for photovoltaic systems

module. A Sliver module’s energy investment is repaid databases, chemical-risk databases and occupational
in 1.5 years of operation when located on a rooftop in health and safety (OH&S) information when assessing
a temperate climate.13 In comparison, the higher silicon design options. The methodology behind Systems
content in a conventional module contributes to a Engineering recommends that engineers design with an
much longer, 4.1-year energy payback.14 Furthermore, awareness of the broader systems within which
the carbon dioxide equivalent coefficient of a Sliver technologies operate – namely the environmental,
module is about 20 times lower than that of the average social and built environment systems. As Blanchard
electricity generation in Australia (of equivalent and Fabrycky write:17
generating capacity).15
Systems engineering involves a life-cycle orientation that
addresses all phases to include system design and
Element 7: Review the system for development, production and/or construction,
potential improvements distribution, operation, maintenance and support,
retirement, phase-out, and disposal. Emphasis in the past
Chapter 2 highlighted the fact that, in the past, narrow has been placed primarily on design and system acquisition
technological solutions often caused more problems than activities with little (if any) consideration given to their
the one they were designed to solve. Examples like leaded impact on production, operations, maintenance, support
petrol and CFCs were given to show just how significant and disposal. If one is to adequately identify risks associated
design oversights can be. Hence it is important to review with the up-front decision-making process, then such
the whole system to identify potential improvements to the decisions must be based on life-cycle considerations.
system’s environmental, social and safety performances as
well as its cost effectiveness, which is of value primarily Undertaking effective life-cycle analysis can also help to
during the Detail Design phase. Chapter 2 emphasized identify new potential sources of energy, water and
that one of the reasons why there have been these major materials efficiencies. A thorough review of the system
mistakes in the past is a failure to consider impacts of the to identify potential improvements is at the heart of a
design on broader systems. WSD approach. As Amory Lovins, Hunter Lovins and
Life-cycle analysis is a tool to help engineers take a Paul Hawken wrote in Natural Capitalism:18
precautionary approach with their designs to seek to
minimize unforeseen, non-linear, negative system At the heart of this chapter, and, for that matter, the entire
responses, and can help engineers significantly reduce book, is the thesis that 90-95 per cent reductions in
the broader system risks of their design choices.16 To material and energy are possible in developed nations
seek to ensure that such types of design mistakes are not without diminishing the quantity or quality of the services
repeated, Systems Engineering (and most engineering that people want. Sometimes such a large saving can come
disciplines) today recommend using life-cycle analysis from a single conceptual or technological leap, like
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ELEMENTS OF APPLYING A WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH (ELEMENTS 6–10) 79

Schilham’s pumps at Interface in Shanghai ... or a state-of- Case study: Compressed air system
the-art building. More often, however, it comes from design20
systematically combining a series of successive savings.
Often the savings come in different parts of the value Columbia Lighting is a manufacturer of commercial
chain that stretches from the extraction of a raw resource, and industrial fluorescent lighting products. One of its
through every intermediate step of processing and plants operates around the clock and has over 300
transportation, to the final delivery of the service (and motors, including a three-motor, 450hp compressed-
even beyond to the ultimate recovery of leftover energy air system. Fresh out of an electric motor management
and materials). The secret to achieving large savings in seminar in 2003, Dennis Short and Scott Patterson of
such a chain of successive steps is to multiply the savings Columbia Lighting were creating a plant-wide
together, capturing the magic of compounding arithmetic. inventory of all motors when one of the three motors
For example, if a process has ten steps, and you can save of the compressed-air system, a 100hp motor, failed.
20 per cent in each step without interfering with the The typical solution was to replace the failed motor
others, then you will be left using only 11 per cent of what with a more efficient model. However, replacing the
you started with – an 89 per cent saving overall. motor would be twice as expensive as what Columbia
Lighting deemed cost-effective.
Numerous government energy-efficiency programmes Instead, Columbia Lighting pursued an alternative
around the world have found there are between 20 and two-step solution, which resulted in substantial
50 per cent potential energy-efficiency savings across all operating energy and cost reductions. Firstly, they
industry, commercial building and residential sectors. monitored for possible air leaks in the compressed-air
This has been the finding of the Australian Department system using ultrasound techniques on the whole plant.
of Industry, Tourism and Resources (DITR) Energy Repairing the leaks reduced energy losses from both
Efficiency Best Practice programme,19 which covered a pressure drops and heat dissipation, and hence reduced
wide range of industry sectors from 1998 to 2003. the system’s overall power requirement by 47 per cent.
Through this programme the DITR found that best Next, they monitored the system with the aim of
practice was 80 per cent more energy-efficient than improving the controls. The results were a further 26
worst practice among dairy processes in Australia, and per cent reduction in the system’s overall power
that even where a company already had an energy- requirement. The overall 73 per cent power savings
efficiency programme, there were still significant eliminated the need for replacing the failed motor,
energy-efficiency opportunities to be found. since just one of the three original motors, a fixed speed
These results are partly due to the fact that at most 150hp motor, could now handle the load of the whole
sites (from homes to large industrial plants), there is compressed-air system.
very limited measurement and monitoring of energy use The improved system has reduced the electrical
at the process level. Further, rarely are there properly demand from 152.5kW/h to 37.5kW/h, which
specified benchmarks against which performance can translates to an operating cost reduction from
be evaluated. So rarely do the plant operators know US$48,247 per year to US$12,737 per year and a
what is possible. Numerous experiences demonstrate comparable reduction in greenhouse gas emissions – all
that designers and engineers generally assume for the modest cost of assessing and repairing leaks.
equipment is working properly when often this is not Further analysis has identified potential energy savings
the case. Lack of measurement, monitoring and that could make a 100hp variable speed controlled
benchmarking means that problems can remain motor a viable option, reducing the overall power
undiagnosed for long periods, while wasting energy requirements for the system by a factor of 4.5 from the
and money. This can contribute towards risk of failure original three-motor configuration.
and increased maintenance costs.
Energy-consuming systems are not often simple. Case study: Addressing fixed energy
Ideally, they should be modelled under a range of realistic
overheads
operating conditions, so that appropriate priorities for
savings measures can be set and reasonable estimates of It is also important not to overlook the obvious. In
energy savings from each measure can be made. most systems – from household appliances to office
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80 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

buildings to industrial sites – the nature of energy use Preliminary Design and Detail Design phases. Field
can be characterized as shown in Figure 5.4. In an ideal experience, lab tests and computer modelling should be
process, no energy is used when the system is not doing used together where possible to ensure the system
anything useful, but, as Figure 5.4 shows, when this optimum is being approached, and such techniques are
particular industrial plant was not running it was still valuable in addressing more complex engineering
consuming significant amounts of energy. The gradient problems. For instance, the Melbourne University team
of the graph should reflect the ideal amount of energy responsible for successfully redesigning industrial
used to run the process. In practice, most plant and pressurized filtration systems used computer modelling
equipment has surprisingly high fixed energy overheads to ensure their redesign was in fact the optimum.
(which could be described as standby energy use). Also Through modelling, the team has been able to improve
the gradient of the typical process is steeper than the the efficiency of industrial filtration in existing plants
ideal graph, reflecting the inefficiencies within the by as much as 40 per cent.
process.
Experience with systems ranging from large Identifying opportunities for
industrial plants to retail stores to homes shows similar
characteristics. An effective strategy looks at both the optimization
fixed energy overheads and the system’s marginal Modelling by leading Whole System Designers, like
efficiency. Often only one or the other is addressed. RMIT Adjunct Professor Alan Pears, is showing that
many everyday products are sub-optimized. Pears’s
Element 8: Model the system modelling has shown that even the standard dishwasher
could be redesigned to no longer need 1.2kWh/wash
Modelling – including computational/mathematical but instead only 0.56kWh/wash on a normal
modelling and computer-aided modelling – is of value program.22 Re-optimizing the system allowed the
during the Need Definition, Conceptual Design, standard dishwasher to use the least amount of water,

Proportion of maximum production

Source: Pears (2004)21

Figure 5.4 Energy use of a typical production system compared with one with zero energy overheads
and the ideal process
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ELEMENTS OF APPLYING A WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH (ELEMENTS 6–10) 81

operate at the lowest temperatures, and minimize engineers asked Genesis Auto to meter and monitor the
standby electricity consumption and the heat capacity main areas of energy usage – lighting, plug loads (PCs,
of components heated, while optimizing pump and printers, photocopiers) and the server room. They
motor efficiency. Figure 5.5 shows the potential savings developed targets for each of these areas of energy usage
the computer modelling identified. to ensure that the building achieved a 5-star rating.
In office buildings in Australia, energy Metering and monitoring of these three areas
consumption often far exceeds the levels expected on concluded that the building was using more energy
the basis of computer simulation. Thorough inspection simply because the plug loads were far higher than
and benchmarking usually lead to identification of the anticipated. PCs, printers and photocopiers were being
reasons for this, and the problems can be rectified. left on all night instead of being turned off. Once this
Often the problems are related to relatively minor was addressed the building performed at a 5-star level.
issues such as inappropriately operated controls,
excessive reheat, excessive air leakage into the building Understanding complex systems
and so on.
Genesis Auto, an energy-efficiency consultancy Modelling is usually the only cost-effective option for
firm led by Geoff Andrews, were contracted to find out understanding and optimizing complex engineered
why a Commonwealth Government leased building, systems in industry, such as mixing machinery that
which had been designed to be 5-star, was only relies on generating turbulent fluid flows.24 Conventional
operating at 2–3 star efficiency. To work out why the ‘beat-and-stir’ industrial mixing machinery has several
building was not performing to standard, the building’s practical limitations. Static mixers (which are used in

Source: Pears (2005)23

Figure 5.5 Opportunities to reduce energy consumption in a dishwasher

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82 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

cosmetics manufacture) incorporate baffles, plates and designed to meet the needs of just one to two people
constrictions where solids can easily accumulate per house and therefore meet 50 per cent of the
and impede mixing, thus resulting in a poor product residential market for hot-water systems, rather than
and production downtime. Stirred-tank mixers (which the current, larger 200-litre systems that are necessary
are used in the dairy industry) suffer similar issues. for only 15 per cent of the market. Also the amount of
Stirred-tank mixers are also relatively large energy hot water used per household significantly changes if
consumers, and they often develop regions of stagnant AAA shower heads are used, highlighting the
fluids and regions of high shear, which can result in importance of whole-system synergies.
poor mixing and damage to sensitive and biological Oversized water heaters have large standby losses.
materials, and disrupt the formation and growth of The response of the industry, to date, has been the
particles or aggregates in a crystallizer. invention of the instantaneous hot water heater with
Researchers from CSIRO Energy and Thermofluids electronic ignition, which is an improvement. With the
Engineering used modelling to develop the rotated arc instantaneous gas hot-water heater, the water no longer
mixer (RAM). The RAM can mix fluids without the needs to be maintained at a hot temperature all the
issues of conventional mixers. The RAM relies on very time. But for 50 per cent of the market in Australia,
chaotic mixing of highly viscous fluids, where mixing is these heaters are a long way from being optimized for
forced by an outer cylinder rotating around a fixed inner the whole system. Modelling by Adjunct Professor Alan
cylinder. The inner cylinder has flow apertures cut at Pears shows that for a household of one to two people,
strategic locations, and this configuration creates both with people having successive showers and with AAA
axial and transverse flows. The success of mixing is a shower heads, a well insulated 30-litre hot-water heater
function of flow rate, rotation rate and flow aperture has a large enough capacity to meet their daily shower
location. These parameters are optimized using needs.25 Modelling by Pears shows that such a highly
mathematical modelling. When the parameters are efficient unit with a well-insulated 30-litre storage tank,
optimized, the RAM generates very low shear and no using a moderately large burner and electronic ignition,
stagnant regions, consequently mixing twice as well while can achieve significantly higher efficiencies than either
consuming five times less energy than a conventional the 4-star instantaneous hot-water heater systems or the
mixer. Modelling is allowing scientists and engineers to traditional 135-litre systems. As shown in Figure 5.6,
develop new designs that significantly reduce this improved efficiency is considerable, right down to
environmental impacts. very low usage levels. The standby losses are also greatly
reduced compared to traditional systems.
In Australia, when the gas industry looks at the
Case study: Modelling hot-water
performance of their products – in terms of star ratings –
systems they assume a base level of 200 litres is required for
Imagine if you were given the design challenge to showers by the average Australian household. But
design the most energy- and water-efficient gas hot- Pears’s analysis of Australian demographics shows that
water system. What are the right questions to ask? 200l per day is only now needed by 15 per cent of all
Some of these could include: households. Thus the industry has optimized gas hot-
water heaters for an unusual load profile, not an
• How much hot water is needed by the average emerging load profile. This highlights the business
household for showers? opportunity for the first company that designs a truly
• How can the design be optimized to minimize the whole-system-optimized gas hot-water system that
amount of energy used to heat the water? meets the needs of 50 per cent of Australian households
(1–2 person households). Thus it is possible to get a
Statistics show that the percentage of single-person Factor 4 plus improvement through WSD of domestic
households in Australia has now increased to 25 per hot-water systems, and even greater reductions in
cent of the total, while the percentage of two people per environmental impact if these insights were used to
house is also 25. Hence hot-water systems can be redesign solar hot-water systems.
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ELEMENTS OF APPLYING A WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH (ELEMENTS 6–10) 83

Source: Pears (2003)26

Figure 5.6 Comparison of task efficiencies of standard, 4-star rated and a highly efficient hybrid hot-water system
(the significance of managing standby losses is shown by two different options for the 4-star model)

Element 9: Track technology light metals can now also be used in all forms of
transportation, from aircraft to trains to cars, to allow
innovation
further whole-system improvements.29 Chapter 7
One of the main reasons there are still significant resource shows that these materials allow cars to be entirely
productivity gains to be made is the fact that the rate of redesigned.
innovation in basic sciences and technologies has increased
dramatically in the last few decades. Online resources Innovations in appropriate
such as Meta-Efficient.com27 and Engadget.com28 show technology
that, in many fields, innovations are occurring every six
months. Tracking technology innovation is of value Innovations in the efficiency of everyday products and
primarily during the Conceptual Design, Preliminary renewable energy sources is making the impossible
Design and Detail Design phases. An example of rapid possible. Innovations in ultra-energy-efficient lighting
innovation is the refrigerator. The latest innovations in and renewable energy sources now allow many in
materials science in Europe have created a new insulation developing countries to leapfrog the West in terms of
material that will allow refrigerators to be 50 per cent energy development. For example, consider that,
more efficient, since most of the energy losses in current globally, millions of tons of kerosene,30 as well as
systems relate to insulation. This new insulating material disposable batteries and imported fossil fuels for
achieves R4 levels of insulation while still being very thin. running small generators, is in widespread use among
This will enable all heating and cooling devices and indigenous populations (who contribute about one
appliances, from kettles to microwaves to ovens, to be third of the world’s population). However, these energy
significantly better insulated without adding significant sources are relatively costly and the associated
bulk to the appliance. technologies are relatively inefficient. The inefficient
Innovations in composite fibres and light metals in use of these energy resources creates an opportunity in
materials science now make it possible to design which the latest energy-efficient and renewable energy
transportation vehicles to be significantly lighter than technologies can play a significant role in reducing
past car models. Innovations in composite fibres and poverty.
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84 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

This role was recognized in the prestigious journal capacity already to produce significant quantities of
Science in 2005, where Evan Mills, from the US LEDs very cheaply, and there is enough of a profit
Lawrence Berkeley Labs wrote: margin here for private firms to offer other items of
need to villages, such as free malaria nets, as part of the
An emerging opportunity for reducing the global costs deal to further help address the real causes of poverty,
and greenhouse gas emissions associated with this highly build goodwill and achieve rapid market penetration.
inefficient form of lighting energy use is to replace fuel-
based lamps with white solid-state (LED) lighting, which Innovations inspired by nature
can be affordably solar-powered. Doing so would allow
those without access to electricity in the developing world Other new areas of innovation come from biomimicry –
to affordably leapfrog over the prevailing incandescent and innovation inspired by nature. For the last 300 years,
fluorescent lighting technologies in use today throughout engineers have largely looked to anthropogenic designs
the electrified world.31 and to technical scientific solutions to problems rather
than having the humility to learn from nature. CSIRO
A significant effort is underway to further improve the states that, ‘Biomimetic engineering mimics natural
energy-efficiency of LEDs. LEDs have a market both in systems and processes, using molecular self-assembly as
developing countries, which can leapfrog current the key link between physics, chemistry and biology,
electrical lighting technologies and start using LEDs. In and creating novel advanced structures, materials and
the US, for instance, US$55 billion worth of electricity – devices.’33 Biomimicry recognizes the fact that the
some 22 per cent of the nation’s total – goes annually natural world contains highly effective systems and
to light homes and businesses. processes which can inform solutions to many of the
The real advantage here lies in the extremely low waste, resource-efficiency and management problems
maintenance costs due to the low power requirements we grapple with today.
and long life. Once installed, the powerLED lamps, a Biomimicry has already provided some timely
type of LED, should last for 20–40 years. The extreme standout innovations in areas such as energy-
efficiency of LEDs allows them to be powered or to have engineering and waste reuse, where multiple-scale
their batteries recharged through many renewable efficiency improvements are greatly needed.
energy methods – microhydro, wind, solar or biofuels – Biomimicry’s application is predicted across many
for low cost. Furthermore, LEDs are available at power sectors to help humanity achieve dramatic decoupling
ratings as low as 0.5W; the next-lowest-power of economic growth and negative damage to the
technology is the compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), the environment and communities to create truly
smallest of which is 5W. Even a 5W CLF may be cost- restorative systems. Now many scientists and engineers
prohibitive in developing countries when powered by a are turning to nature to find new insights into how we
currently costly renewable-energy technology, such as can better apply our engineering and design expertise
solar photovoltaic panels. The LED’s lower power rating to develop new designs to meet society’s needs.
allows smaller capacity solar panels to be used and thus The Natural Edge Project has also developed an
helps minimize the total infrastructure cost for modern introductory training programme on Biomimetic
lighting technologies. Figure 5.7 shows the (a) capital Design for engineers.34
costs and (b) operating costs of various lighting
technologies when powered by renewable microhydro Innovations in green chemistry and
technology. Also, due to the kerosene market, there are
green engineering
already distribution networks in place throughout the
developing world for LEDs and renewable energy Green chemistry and green engineering are remarkable
technologies. New organizations, like Lighting Up the new fields to help engineers achieve Whole System
World and Barefoot Power, are forming to help both the Redesign, right down to the nano level of chemical
public and private sectors realize this opportunity. A processes, led by pioneers such as Dr Paul Anastas,
rapid scaling-up is technically possible and would Director of the Green Chemistry Institute and former
already be profitable for the private sector. China has the Assistant Director for the Environment in the White
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ELEMENTS OF APPLYING A WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH (ELEMENTS 6–10) 85

(a)

(b)

Source: Craine, Lawrance and Irvine-Halliday (2001)32

Note: Note that Figures 5.7a and 5.7b were developed in 2001. Since then 1) the cost of CFLs has decreased by 20–50 per cent, 2) the cost of
white LEDs (WLEDs) has decreased by about 70 per cent, and 3) the lumens/watt of WLEDs has increased at least two times. In addition, 4) the
total lumen output of the WLEDs in Figure 5.7a is about 20 per cent that of the CLFs (although it can be about 50 per cent that of the CLFs in
the working area since LED light is focused largely in a single direction). Accounting for these four factors, the capital cost of WLEDs increases to
about the same or slightly more than that of CFLs.

Figure 5.7 Micro hydro village lighting system: Comparison of (a) capital costs and (b) 10-year annual costs per
household of various lighting technologies when powered by renewable microhydro technology

House Office of Science and Technology Policy. Dr waste) and reduced use of toxic reagents for the
Anastas created the ‘Green Chemistry Principles’, and production of environmentally benign products.
the new field of knowledge based upon them is helping • Green chemistry and green chemical engineering
to guide efforts in the following areas: seek to utilize catalysts to develop more efficient
synthetic routes and reduce waste by avoiding
• Green chemistry seeks to achieve waste reduction processing steps. Synthetic strategies now employ
through improved atom economy (that is, reacting benign solvent systems (such as ionic water)35 and
as few reagent atoms as possible in order to reduce supercritical fluids (such as carbon dioxide)36.
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86 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

• Biphasic systems and solvent-free methods for America, South America, West Africa and India. The
many reactions are also being tested to integrate Centre for Green Chemistry41 in the School of
preparation and product recovery. For example, Chemistry at Monash University in Australia is at the
phases of liquids that separate are going to be forefront of innovation in green chemistry. Established
much easier to recover without needing an in January 2000, with the goal of providing a
additional extractive processing step. fundamental scientific base for future green chemical
• There has also been significant research into technology, the centre has a primary focus on
utilizing high-temperature water and microwave Australian industry and Australian environmental
heating, sono-chemistry (chemical reactions problems. Among emerging green chemistry centres
activated by sonic waves) and combinations of worldwide, it is noteworthy for its broad spectrum of
these and other enabling technologies. research interests, including benign technologies for
corrosion inhibitors, gold processing and greener
Much work is also being done to harness chemicals for reaction media for chemical synthesis, to name but a
common reactions from renewable biomass feedstocks. few. Green Chemistry Principles, as pioneered by
For instance, in 1989 Szmant estimated that 98 per cent Dr Anastas, and the field of knowledge that is growing
of organic chemicals used in the lab and by industry are based upon them are helping to guide chemists and
derived from petroleum.37 The Netherlands Sustainable chemical engineers in their efforts to assist industry in
Technology Development38 project has found that, in its drive towards sustainability.
principle, there is sufficient biomass production The Natural Edge Project has also developed an
potential to meet the demands for raw organic introductory training programme on Green Chemistry
chemicals from these renewable chemical feedstocks.39 and Green Engineering.42
An excellent example of green chemistry is the
technology developed by Argonne National Lab, a Element 10: Design to create
winner of the 1999 US President’s Awards for Green
future options
Chemistry.40 Every year in the US alone, an estimated
3.5 million tons of highly toxic, petroleum-based A basic tenet of sustainability is that future generations
solvents are used as cleaners, degreasers, and ingredients should have the same level of life quality, environmental
in adhesives, paints, inks and many other applications. amenities and range of options as ‘developed’ societies
More environmentally friendly solvents have existed for enjoy today. Chapters 6–10 will provide examples of
years, but their higher costs have kept them from wide designing systems that can aid society in its transition
use. A technology developed by Argonne National Labs to sustainability. However, it is also important to
produces non-toxic, environmentally friendly ‘green consider going beyond best practice by helping to
solvents’ from renewable carbohydrate feedstocks, such create more options for future generations, as shown in
as corn starch. This discovery has the potential to Figure 5.8.
replace around 80 per cent of petroleum-derived Designing to create options is not an abstract idea.
cleaners, degreasers, and other toxic and hazardous It is crucial that today’s designers are aware of how their
solvents. The process makes low-cost, high-purity ester- systems affect the options of future generations. For
based solvents, such as ethyl lactate, using advanced example, as we discussed at the end of Chapter 3,
fermentation, membrane separation and chemical China is currently developing new coal-fired power
conversion technologies. These processes require very stations at a rate of one per week. However, it is vital
little energy and eliminate the large volumes of waste that new coal-fired power stations can be used for geo-
salts produced by conventional methods. Overall, the sequestration when the technology becomes
process uses as much as 90 per cent less energy and commercially available. There are significant concerns
produces ester lactates at about 50 per cent of the cost that many coal-fired power stations in development are
of conventional methods. not correctly sited nor designed to make geo-
There are currently over 25 research institutions sequestration of CO2 emissions possible in the future.
around the globe focused on the development of To further demonstrate this element, consider the
sustainable chemistry – across Europe, the UK, North following examples:
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ELEMENTS OF APPLYING A WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH (ELEMENTS 6–10) 87

Source: Birkeland (2002)43

Figure 5.8 The standard decision tree compared to a sustainability design tree

• Pipes and pumping systems (covered in Chapter 6): producing the world’s first commercial plug-in
This worked example shows that it is possible to hybrid. Car designers are also trying to improve the
reduce the negative impact on the environment by array of options for future generations by designing
up to 90 per cent. In some cases, there is additional cars and their electrical components to be over 90
opportunity to design pipes that give future per cent re-manufacturable. Remanufacturability is
generations more options. For example, in China now a requirement in many countries in Europe and
new gas pipelines are designed to also Asia, where the manufacturer’s responsibility for its
accommodate hydrogen in the future. products is being extended to the entire life-cycle
• Hybrid cars (covered in Chapter 7): This worked (see the featured Hypercar Revolution case study
example shows that it is possible to significantly below.)
improve the fuel-efficiency of cars, which then opens • The IT and electronics industry (covered in Chapter 8):
up new fuel options. Improved fuel-efficiency makes This worked example shows that a WSD approach
biofuels and hydrogen fuel sources cost-effective. to server design can greatly reduce energy
General Motors’ new plug in hybrid car concept car consumption. IT must also be designed for
eFlex is designed to run on petrol, biofuels or remanufacture and recycling, which can reduce
hydrogen, ensuring that the car design can take e-waste and ensure that precious metals and
advantage of whichever fuel mixes dominate the resources can be reused. The Natural Edge Project
market in the future. General Motors’ Head of has also developed an introductory training
Development, Jon Lauckner, has committed to programme on e-waste.44
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88 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

• The building industry (covered in Chapter 9): This In practice, the technical inadequacies of
worked example shows that a WSD approach to forecasting are usually exacerbated by favouring the
building design can reduce energy consumption. short-term ‘safe bet’ option. Indeed, many modern
Many designers are also developing buildings ‘innovative’ systems based on forecasting still reflect a
where the materials can be dismantled and reused, compromise between the best (long-term) option and
such as the award-winning Newcastle University the risk of a costly failed venture. Figure 5.9 compares
green buildings. forecasting and backcasting using an elastic band
• Domestic water systems (covered in Chapter 10): analogy (wherein the original system is akin to a
This worked example shows that a WSD approach slightly taut elastic band around two pegs).
to water-consuming systems in the home can
greatly reduce water consumption. Beyond the Case study: Passenger vehicle design
scope of this worked example, dual pipes are a
requirement for new building developments in The basic structure of the car has changed very little in
many countries, so that future occupants can the past 50 years and is based on a design platform that
choose to reuse their grey water. first appeared about 100 years ago, at which time that
platform was probably optimal. The state of technology at
There are a number of tools to assist designers to that time suggested that medium- and long-distance
design for increased choice for future generations, such mobility could be most efficiently and cheaply achieved
as backcasting and design or end-of-life processing. by a system such as Henry Ford’s Model T – the first
mass-produced, petrol-driven vehicle with a transmission
Backcasting from the future system mechanism. Since then, and particularly in the last 50
years, cars have evolved incrementally and cautiously, while
Backcasting involves designing a ‘future system’, a technology has progressed rapidly. Consequently, modern
system for an envisioned future, by considering desired passenger vehicles could be substantially different from
technological and political states, and then working existing cars and could potentially be more optimal.
backwards to develop a system that most closely Hypercar used backcasting to develop a new passenger
matches that future system with technologies and vehicle platform.48 The new platform is optimal in an
policies that are available now.45 The envisioned future envisioned future of technological and political sustainability
should represent the desired outcome rather than the and has the characteristics listed in Figure 5.10. The
transition,46 and should be general and non-prescriptive modern-day passenger vehicle of Hypercar’s platform is
so as to be applicable at many levels, to many fields and the Hypercar Revolution. Several subsystems of the
to many industries. A general vision will encourage a Revolution, including the advanced composite structure,
flexible system that can adapt to unforeseen hydrogen fuel-cells, the Fiberforge™ manufacturing
technological and political disturbances. Backcasting is process, and extensive electronic and software control
of value primarily during the Conceptual Design and are a result of backcasting from a future system
Preliminary Design phases. (see Figure 5.10). These subsystems are currently viable
Table 5.1 contrasts forecasting and backcasting. In steps on the path to a sustainable vehicle.
many ways, forecast systems emulate systems that are The Revolution outperforms benchmark vehicles
backcast, but from only a short time into the future. in every category measured. However, it is a concept

Table 5.1 Contrasting conventional forecasting and backcasting

Forecasting Backcasting

Is influenced by the current technological and political Focuses on an envisioned future with desired technological and political
states, and... states, which...
often only looks as far as the next improvement; thus... is independent of both time and current technological and political states;
thus...
facilitates the propagation of otherwise out-dated trends. facilitates the termination of out-dated trends.
Is more of a market push based on convenience and security. Is more of a market pull based on need and incentive.
Chapter 5.qxd 12/1/2008 5:15 PM Page 89

ELEMENTS OF APPLYING A WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH (ELEMENTS 6–10) 89

Forecasting Backcasting

Original system Original system

time time
value value
most optimal most optimal
Source: Adapted from Lovins (2002)47

Forecasting: The original system is the first and worst of the series but is also the most optimal for current technological and political states.
Forecasting introduces a fundamental design compromise. Every forecast upgrade pulls the system away from its original design (original elastic
position), but since the platform does not change with technological and political progress (the pegs are fixed), the ease of adding value to a
system (by pulling away further) reduces with time. This effect is known as diminishing returns.
Backcasting: The original system is the last and best model of the series, and is also the most optimal for future technological and political states.
Every backcast upgrade pulls the system towards its original design, and since this is in the direction of technological and economic progress, the
ease of adding value to a system increases with time. This effect is known as expanding returns.

Figure 5.9 Using the elastic band analogy to compare forecasting with backcasting

Figure 5.10 Backcasting a sustainable passenger vehicle platform

vehicle and, although it can be competitively mass- wherein the fuel-cell-electric power plant is preceded
produced, support infrastructure and resources, such by a petrol-electric power plant. Since the rest of the
as refuelling stations for hydrogen fuel-cell vehicle is compatible with a fuel-cell-electric power
technology, are not yet sufficient. In this situation it is plant, a future upgrade would be relatively cheap and
worthwhile backcasting further to develop a vehicle easy.
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90 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Design for end-of-life processing components required to produce a family of

systems, which helps build economies of scale and
Design for end-of-life has a large influence on the improve re-manufacturability.
system’s legacy and is of value primarily during the
Detail Design phase. Good design seeks to ensure that In the 1970s and 1980s, Walter Stahel and colleagues
non-biological resources can be reclaimed easily at end- proposed that redesigning products to minimize waste,
of-life, or returned to a ‘technological metabolism’, as resources and energy was a good place to start to
Bill McDonough famously put it. This also helps make achieve a sustainable society. In 1982, they formed the
companies and customers money by optimizing the Product Life Institute in Geneva to further these
system’s salvage value. Designing for end-of-life studies.50 They developed for the first time the
processing involves the following:49 methodologies for many of the strategies now accepted
today, such as extended product responsibility. They
• Ease of disassembly: Where disassembly cannot be developed the ideas of how society needs to shift from
avoided, making it easier can reduce the time a linear ‘cradle to grave’ approach to a cyclical ‘cradle to
required for this non-value-adding activity. cradle’ approach for product design and use to
Permanent fastening such as welding or crimping minimize waste. Stahel51 and colleagues pioneered the
should not be used if the product is intended for concepts behind ‘cradle to cradle’, arguing that the
remanufacture. Components should not be damaged following would help to achieve it:52
during disassembly.
• Ease of cleaning: Used components will likely • Product design should be optimized for durability,
require cleaning. Design components for easy remanufacturing and recycling;
cleaning by understanding the cleaning methods, • Remanufacturing – preserving the stable frame
making the surfaces to be cleaned accessible and of a product after use and replacing only worn out
ensuring that cleaning residues cannot accumulate parts;
on the component. • Leasing instead of selling53 – wherein the
• Ease of inspection: Minimize the time required for manufacturer’s interest lies in durability; and
this non-value-adding activity. • Extended Product Liability/Stewardship/
• Ease of part replacement: Components that wear Responsibility – which could induce manufacturers
should be easily accessible so as to minimize the to guarantee low pollution use and easy reuse.
time required for reassembly and prevent damage
during component insertion. Walter Stahel proposed three basic approaches to
• Ease of reassembly: Minimize the time required for encouraging the reduction and minimization of waste.
reassembly – if the system is being processed at end- These are outlined in detail in his Mitchell Prize Award-
of-life, then it will be assembled multiple times winning essay, ‘The product-life factor’,54 in which Stahel
throughout its life. Be aware of tolerances between proposed a complex product life extension system (see
components. Figure 5.11):
• Reusable components: Increasing the number or
A Self-Replenishing System would create an economy based
reusable components increases the cost effectiveness
on a spiral loop system that minimizes matter, energy-flow
of end-of-life processing.
and environmental deterioration without restricting
• Modular components: Modular systems require less economic growth or social and technical progress.
time for assembly and disassembly.
• Fasteners: Using fewer different fasteners reduces Stahel’s 1982 diagram (Figure 5.11) described how,
the complexity of assembly, disassembly and the through reuse (loop 1), repair (loop 2) and reconditioning
materials handling. (loop 3), it is possible to utilize used products or
• Interfaces: Using fewer different component components as a source for new ones, as well as recycling
interfaces reduces the number of different (loop 4), using scrap as locally available raw material.
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ELEMENTS OF APPLYING A WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH (ELEMENTS 6–10) 91

Source: Stahel, W.R. (1982)55

Figure 5.11 The Self-Replenishing System (product life extension)

Optional reading Stahel, W. R. (1982) The Product Life Factor, The Product-
Life Institute, Geneva, www.product-life.org/milestone2.
Amezquita, T., Hammond, R., Salazar, M. and Bras, B. htm, accessed 29 July 2007 (this was a Mitchell Prize-
(1995) ‘Characterising the remanufacturability of Winning paper)
engineering systems’, proceedings of ASME Advances in Van der Ryn, S. and Cowan, S. (1995) Ecological Design,
Design Automation Conference, Boston, MA, vol 82, Island Press
pp271-278, www.srl.gatech.edu/education/ME4171/ Van der Ryn, S. (2005) Design for Life: The Architecture of Sim
DETC95_Amezquita.pdf, accessed 29 July 2007 Van der Ryn, Gibbs-Smith Publishers, http://64.143.
Birkeland, J. (2002) Design for Sustainability: A Sourcebook of 175.55/va/index-methods.html, accessed 29 July 2007
Ecological Design Solutions, Earthscan, London Von Weizsäcker, E., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. (1997)
Çengel, Y. and Boles, M. (2008) Thermodynamics – An Factor Four: Doubling Wealth, Halving Resource Use,
Engineering Approach (6th edition), McGraw-Hill, Earthscan, London
pp78-96, http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware/info William McDonough Architects (1992) Hanover Principles of
Center.do?isbn=0073529214&navclick=true, accessed Design for Sustainability, prepared for EXPO 2000, The
28 August 2008 World’s Fair, Hanover, Germany, www.mcdonough.com/
Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. (1999) Natural principles.pdf, accessed 14 August 2007
Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution,
Earthscan, London, Chapter 6: ‘Tunnelling through the
cost barrier’, www.natcap.org/images/other/ NCchapter6 Notes
.pdf, accessed 26 July 2007
Lovins, A. B., Datta, E. K., Bustnes, O. E., Koomey, J. G. and 1 Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. (1999)
Glasgow, N. J. (2004) Winning the Oil Endgame: Innovation Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial
for Profits, Jobs and Security, Technical Annex, Rocky Revolution, Earthscan, London, p115.
Mountain Institute, Snowmass, CO, www.oilendgame. 2 Lamb, G. (2005) ‘User’s guide to pump selection’,
com/TechAnnex.html, accessed 29 July 2007 WME Magazine, July, pp40–41.
McDonough, W. and Braungart, M. (2002) Cradle to Cradle: 3 Lovins, A. B. (2005) ‘More profit with less carbon’,
Remaking the Way We Make Things, North Point Press, Scientific American, September, p76, www.sciam.com/
New York media/pdf/Lovinsforweb.pdf, accessed 11 April 2008.
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy efficiency – Its potential: Some 4 Blakers, A., Weber, K., Everett, V., Deenapanray, S. and
perspectives and experiences’, background paper for Franklin, E. (2004) Sliver Solar Cells and Modules, 42nd
International Energy Agency Energy Efficiency Workshop, Annual Conference of the Australian and New Zealand
Paris, April, www.naturaledgeproject.net/Documents/ Solar Energy Society, http://energy.murdoch.edu.au/
IEAENEFFICbackgroundpaperPears Final.pdf, accessed Solar2004/Proceedings/Photovoltaics/Blakers_Paper_
29 July 2007 Silver.pdf, accessed 26 March 2005.
Romm, J. J. and Browning, W. D. (1998) Greening the Building 5 Blakers, A. and Stock, A. (2002) New Sliver Cell
and the Bottom Line, Rocky Mountain Institute, CO Offers Revolution in Solar Power, Origin Energy,
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92 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

www.originenergy.com.au/news/news_detail.php?newsid 19th European PV Solar Energy Conference,

=233&pageid=82, accessed 10 April 2005. http://solar.anu.edu.au/level_1/pubs/papers/2CV_3_35
6 Blakers, A., Weber, K., Everett, V., Deenapanray, S. and .pdf, accessed 7 June 2007.
Franklin, E. (2004) Sliver Solar Cells and Modules, 42nd 16 See further explanation on the role of engineers in
Annual Conference of the Australian and New Zealand designing benign technical solutions in Smith, M.,
Solar Energy Society, http://energy.murdoch.edu. Hargroves, K., Paten, C. and Palousis, N. (2007)
au/Solar2004/Proceedings/Photovoltaics/Blakers_Paper Engineering Sustainable Solutions Program: Critical
_Silver.pdf, accessed 7 June 2007. Literacies Portfolio - Principles and Practices in Sustainable
7 Blakers, A., Weber, K., Everett, V., Deenapanray, S. and Development for the Engineering and Built Environment
Franklin, E. (2004) Sliver Solar Cells and Modules, 42nd Professions, The Natural Edge Project, Australia,
Annual Conference of the Australian and New Zealand www.naturaledgeproject.net/TNEP_ESSP_CLP_Princi
Solar Energy Society, http://energy.murdoch.edu.au/ ples_and_Practices_in_Sustainable_Development_for_
Solar2004/Proceedings/Photovoltaics/Blakers_Paper_ the_Engineering_and_Built_Environment_Professions.
Silver.pdf, accessed 7 June 2007. aspx, accessed 3 July 2007.
8 Blakers, A., Weber, K., Everett, V., Deenapanray, S. and 17 Blanchard, B. S. and Fabrycky, W. J. (2006) Systems
Franklin, E. (2004) Sliver Solar Cells and Modules, 42nd Engineering and Analysis (fourth edition), Pearson
Annual Conference of the Australian and New Zealand Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, Chapter 1.
Solar Energy Society, http://energy.murdoch.edu.au/ 18 Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. (1999)
Solar2004/Proceedings/Photovoltaics/Blakers_Paper_ Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial
Silver.pdf, accessed 7 June 2007. Revolution, Earthscan, London.
9 Blakers, A., Weber, K., Everett, V., Deenapanray, S. and 19 See Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources,
Franklin, E. (2004) Sliver Solar Cells and Modules, 42nd ‘Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme’ at www.ret.gov
Annual Conference of the Australian and New Zealand .au/Programsandservices/EnergyEfficiencyBestPracticeE
Solar Energy Society, http://energy.murdoch.edu.au/ EBPProgram/Pages/default.aspx, accessed 12 May 2007.
Solar2004/Proceedings/Photovoltaics/Blakers_Paper_ 20 Electric Motor Management (2004) ‘Motor
Silver.pdf, accessed 7 June 2007. management success: Information, cooperation and
10 Blakers, A., Weber, K., Everett, V., Deenapanray, S. and teamwork lead to superior decisions at Columbia
Franklin, E. (2004) Sliver Solar Cells and Modules, 42nd Lighting’, Electric Motor Management, www.drivesand
Annual Conference of the Australian and New Zealand motors.com/downloads/Columbia_SS_Final.pdf,
Solar Energy Society, http://energy.murdoch.edu.au/ accessed 7 March 2006.
Solar2004/Proceedings/Photovoltaics/Blakers_Paper_ 21 Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy efficiency - Its potential: Some
Silver.pdf, accessed 7 June 2007. perspectives and experiences’, background paper for
11 Stocks, M. J. et al (2003) ‘65-micron thin monocrystalline International Energy Agency Energy Efficiency
silicon solar cell technology allowing 12-times reduction Workshop, Paris, p12, www.naturaledgeproject.net/
in silicon usage’, paper presented at 3rd World Documents/IEAENEFFICbackgroundpaperPearsFinal.
Conference of Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion, pdf, accessed 30 March 2008.
Osaka, Japan, p3, http://solar.anu.edu.au/docs/65 22 Pears, A. (2005) ‘Design for energy efficiency’,
micronthinmonosi.pdf, accessed 7 June 2007. presentation to Young Engineers Tasmania; private
12 Duffin, M. (2004) ‘The energy challenge 2004: Solar’, communication.
EnergyPulse, www.energypulse.net/centers/article/ 23 Pears, A. (2005) ‘Design for energy efficiency’,
article_display.cfm?a_id=864, accessed 7 June 2007. presentation to Young Engineers Tasmania; private
13 Deenapanray, P. N. K., Blakers, A. W., Weber, K. J. and communication.
Everett, V. (2004) Embodied Energy of Sliver Modules, 24 See CSIRO, ‘Revolutionary new mixer mixes the
19th European PV Solar Energy Conference, unmixable’ at www.cmit.csiro.au/brochures/serv/ram/,
http://solar.anu.edu.au/level_1/pubs/papers/2CV_3_35 accessed 7 June 2007.
.pdf, accessed 7 June 2007. 25 But if it is assumed that the household is not using
14 Deenapanray, P. N. K., Blakers, A. W., Weber, K. J. and efficient AAA shower heads and instead are using
Everett, V. (2004) Embodied Energy of Sliver Modules, inefficient shower heads, then 30 litres will not be enough.
19th European PV Solar Energy Conference, 26 Pears, A. (2003) Household Hot Water and Sustainability
http://solar.anu.edu.au/level_1/pubs/papers/2CV_3_35 – What’s Wrong with Existing Technologies and How to Fix
.pdf, accessed 7 June 2007. Them, RMIT, Australia.
15 Deenapanray, P. N. K., Blakers, A. W., Weber, K. J. and 27 See Meta-Efficient website at www.metaefficient.com,
Everett, V. (2004) Embodied Energy of Sliver Modules, accessed 7 June 2007.
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ELEMENTS OF APPLYING A WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH (ELEMENTS 6–10) 93

28 See Engadget website at www.engadget.com, accessed 7 40 Argonne National Lab (1998) ‘Green solvent process gets
June 2007. Presidential honor’, Argonne News, www.anl.gov/
29 Lovins, A. B., Datta, E. K., Bustnes, O. E., Koomey, J. G. Media_Center/Argonne_News/news98/an980629.html,
and Glasgow, N. J. (2004) Winning the Oil Endgame: accessed 28 August 2007; Argonne National Lab (1999)
Innovation for Profits, Jobs and Security, Technical Annex, ‘Green solvent process wins federal award’, Argonne
Rocky Mountain Institute, Snowmass, CO, www News, 1 March, www.anl.gov/Media_Center/Argonne_
.oilendgame.com/TechAnnex.html, accessed 29 July News/news99/an990301.html, accessed 28 August
2007. 2007.
30 Mills, E. (2000) Global Lighting Energy Use and 41 See ‘The Centre for Green Chemistry’ on the School of
Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Lawrence Berkley Chemistry at Monash University website at www.chem.
Laboratories, US. monash.edu.au/green-chem/, accessed 29 July 2007.
31 Mills, E. (2005) ‘The specter of fuel-based lighting’, 42 Smith, M., Hargroves, K., Desha, C. and Palousis, N.
Science, no 308, pp1263-1264, www.sciencemag.org/ (2007) Engineering Sustainable Solutions Program:
cgi/content/summary/308/5726/1263, accessed 29 July Critical Literacies Portfolio – Principles and Practices in
2007. Sustainable Development for the Engineering and Built
32 Craine, S. and Irvine-Halliday, D. (2001) ‘White LEDs Environment Professions, The Natural Edge Project
for lighting remote communities in developing (TNEP), Australia, Unit 3, Lectures 11 and 12,
countries’, in (eds) I. T. Ferguson, Y. S. Park, www.naturaledgeproject.net/ESSPCLP-Principles_and_
N. Narendran and S. P. DenBaars (eds) Solid State Practices_in_SD-Lecture11.aspx, accessed 29 July 2007.
Lighting and Displays, Proceedings of SPIE (Society of 43 Birkeland, J. (2002) ‘Unit notes’, University of
Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers), vol 4445, Canberra.
pp39–48. 44 Hargroves, K., Stasinopoulos, P., Desha, C. and Smith,
33 CSIRO (2007) New Membrane Materials: Biomimetics, M. (2007) E-Waste Education Courses, The Natural Edge
CSIRO, www.csiro.au/science/ps30k.html, accessed 28 Project, Australia, www.naturaledgeproject.net/EWaste
August 2007. Home.aspx, accessed 7 July 2007.
34 Smith, M., Hargroves, K., Desha, C. and Palousis, N. 45 Holmberg, J. and Robert, K. H. (2000) ‘Backcasting
(2007) Engineering Sustainable Solutions Program: from non-overlapping sustainability precepts: A
Critical Literacies Portfolio – Principles and Practices in framework for strategic planning’, International Journal
Sustainable Development for the Engineering and Built of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, no 7,
Environment Professions, The Natural Edge Project pp291–308.
(TNEP), Australia, Unit 3, Lectures 9 and 10, www 46 Holmberg, J. and Robert, K. H. (2000) ‘Backcasting
.naturaledgeproject.net/ESSPCLP-Principles_and_ from non-overlapping sustainability precepts: A
Practices_in_SD-Lecture9.aspx, accessed 29 July 2007. framework for strategic planning’, International Journal
35 Breslow, R. (1998) ‘Water as a solvent for chemical of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, no 7,
reactions’, in P. Anastas and T. Williamson (eds) Green pp291–308.
Chemistry, Frontiers in Design Chemical Synthesis and 47 Adapted from Lovins, A. B. (2002) FreedomCAR,
Processes, Oxford University Press; Li, C. (2000) ‘Water Hypercar and Hydrogen, Rocky Mountain Institute, CO,
as solvent for organic and material synthesis’, in www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T02-06_Freedom
P. Anastas, L. Heine, T. Williamson and L. Bartlett (eds) CAR.pdf, accessed 17 January 2007.
Green Engineering, American Chemical Society. 48 Adapted from Lovins, A. B. (2002) FreedomCAR,
36 Hancu, D., Powell, C. and Beckma, E. (2000) Hypercar and Hydrogen, Rocky Mountain Institute, CO,
‘Combined reaction-separation processes in CO2’, in www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T02-06_Freedom
P. Anastas, L. Heine, T. Williamson and L. Bartlett CAR.pdf, accessed 17 January 2007.
(2000) Green Engineering, American Chemical Society. 49 Amezquita, T., Hammond, R., Salazar, M. and Bras, B.
37 Szmant, H. (1989) Organic Building Blocks of the (1995) Characterising the Remanufacturability of
Chemical Industry, Wiley, New York, p4. Engineering Systems, proceedings 1995 ASME Advances
38 Weaver, P., Jansen, J., van Grootveld, G., van Spiegel, E. in Design Automation Conference, Boston, MA, vol 82,
and Vergragt, P. (2000) Sustainable Technology pp271–278, www.srl.gatech.edu/education/ME4171/
Development, Greenleaf Publishers, Sheffield, UK. DETC95_Amezquita.pdf, accessed 16 May 2007.
39 Okkerse, C. and Van Bekkum, H. (1996) ‘Renewable 50 See Product Life Institute website at www.product-
raw materials for the chemicals industry’, in life.org, accessed 26 November 2006.
Sustainability and Chemistry, Sustainable Technology 51 Stahel, W. R. (1982) The Product-Life Factor, The
Development, Delft, The Netherlands. Product-Life Institute, Geneva, www.product-life.org/
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94 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

milestone2.htm, accessed 30 July 2007. This was a services by leasing or renting goods rather than buying
Mitchell Prize-winning paper. them outright.
52 Stahel, W. and Gomvingen, E. (1993) Gemeinsam 54 Stahel, W. R. (1982) The Product-Life Factor, The
nutzen statt einsela verbrauchen, International Design Product-Life Institute, Geneva, www.product-life.org/
Forum/IFG, Giessen, Germany, Anabas Verlag. milestone2.htm, accessed 30 July 2007. This was a
53 Beginning in the mid-1980s, Swiss industry analyst Mitchell Prize-winning paper.
Walter Stahel and German chemist Michael Braungart 55 Stahel, W. R. and Reday, G. (1976) ‘The potential for
independently proposed a new industrial model that is substituting manpower for energy’, report to the
now gradually taking shape. Rather than an economy in European Commission, Brussels, published 1982 as Jobs
which goods are made and sold, these visionaries for Tomorrow – The Potential for Substituting Manpower
imagined a service economy wherein consumers obtain for Energy, Vantage Press, New York.
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6
Worked Example 1 – Industrial Pumping
Systems

Significance of pumping systems large enterprises. Thus it is likely that there are a lot more
small pumping systems than large pumping systems,
and design
especially since small enterprises almost exclusively use
Motors use 60 per cent of the world’s electricity, and of small pumping systems and large enterprises use both
this percentage, 20 per cent is used for pumping.1 Such small and large pumping systems. Large pumping
a large portion is no surprise, as most systems are systems, with power ratings in the order of kilowatts and
running in continuous operation for 18 hours per day megawatts, that are poorly designed and managed can
or more. attract very high and unnecessary costs. Consequently,
With such a large amount of energy devoted to large pumping system design is typically quite
moving liquid from one place to another (a lot of which disciplined, with more attention paid to factors such
is used to fight pipe friction and in many cases as minimum velocities, thermal expansion, pipe work
unnecessary changes in height and direction), improving and maintenance. Still, there are very few pumping
the efficiency of industrial pumping systems can make systems that wouldn’t benefit from Whole System
major strides in the reduction of industrial energy Design (WSD).
consumption and hence greenhouse emissions. The
benefits of improved pumping efficiency include Worked example overview
reduced reliance on both the electricity grid and
renewable energy supplies and improved operational Pumping systems are a subgroup of motor systems.
reliability. Furthermore, saving a single unit of pumping Other subgroups include ventilation systems (fans),
energy can actually save more than ten times that energy compressed air systems (compressors) and conveyor
in fuel. Due to the inefficiencies of a mostly centralized systems (gears, pulleys and belts). Further information
electricity transmission system, 100 units of fuel input at about the Whole System Design of motor systems is
the power station are required to achieve 9.5 units of available in The Natural Edge Project’s freely available
energy output at the pumping system.2 But the reverse is online textbook Energy Transformed: Sustainable Energy
also true: saving 9.5 units of energy output at the pump Solutions for Climate Change Mitigation, ‘Lecture 3.1:
could save 100 units of energy at the power station.3 Opportunities for improving the efficiency of motor
Generally, smaller pumping systems tend to be more systems’.4
inefficient than large ones. Small pumping systems The following worked example focuses on
typically make up only a small fraction of the total cost pumping systems. Specifically, it provides a worked
of an industrial operation and thus receive relatively little mathematical example similar to a well-known WSD
design attention. However, the significance of small case study, ‘Pipes and pumps’, which is briefly
pumping systems cannot be overlooked. There are many described in the following extract from Natural
more small and medium-sized enterprises than there are Capitalism:5
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96 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

In 1997, leading American carpet maker, Interface Inc, By laying out the pipes before placing the equipment that
was building a factory in Shanghai. One of its industrial the pipes connect, Schilham was able to make the pipes
processes required 14 pumps. In optimizing the design, short and straight rather than long and crooked. That
the top Western specialist firm sized those pumps to total enabled him to exploit their lower friction by making the
95 horsepower. But a fresh look by Interface/Holland’s pumps, motors, inverters and electricals even smaller and
engineer Jan Schilham, applying methods learned from cheaper.
Singaporean efficiency expert Eng Lock Lee, cut the
design’s pumping power to only 7 horsepower – a The fatter pipes and cleaner layout yielded not only 92 per
92 per cent or 12-fold energy saving – while reducing its cent lower pumping energy at a lower total capital cost, but
capital cost and improving its performance in every also simpler and faster construction, less use of floor space,
respect. more reliable operation, easier maintenance, and better
performance. As an added bonus, easier thermal insulation
The new specifications required two changes in design. of the straighter pipes saved an additional 70 kilowatts of
First, Schilham chose to deploy big pipes and small pumps heat loss, enough to avoid burning about a pound of coal
instead of the original design’s small pipes and big pumps. every two minutes, with a three-month payback.
Friction falls as nearly the fifth power of pipe diameter, so
making the pipes 50 per cent fatter reduces their friction Schilham marvelled at how he and his colleagues could
by 86 per cent. The system then needs less pumping have overlooked such simple opportunities for decades.
energy – and smaller pumps and motors to push against His redesign required, as inventor Edwin Land used to say,
the friction. If the solution is this easy, why weren’t the ‘not so much having a new idea as stopping having an old
pipes originally specified to be big enough? Because of a idea’. The old idea was to ‘optimize’ only part of the
small but important blind spot: traditional optimization system – the pipes – against only one parameter –
compares the cost of the fatter pipe only with the value of pumping energy. Schilham, in contrast, optimized the
the saved pumping energy. This comparison ignores the whole system for multiple benefits – pumping energy
size, and hence the capital cost, of the equipment – pump, expended plus capital cost saved. (He didn’t bother to
motor, motor-drive circuits and electrical supply value explicitly the indirect benefits mentioned, but he
components – needed to combat the pipe friction. could have.)
Schilham found he needn’t calculate how quickly the
savings could repay the extra up-front cost of the fatter Figure 6.1 shows the setting for the worked example, a
pipe, because capital cost would fall more for the pumping typical production plant scenario where a pumping
and drive equipment than it would rise for the pipe, system would be used. In Figure 6.1, a known fluid at
making the efficient system as a whole cheaper to temperature T must be moved from point 1 in reservoir
construct. A to point 2 at the tap with a target exit volumetric
flow rate of Q. Between the reservoir and tap is a
Second, Schilham laid out the pipes first and then window (fixed into the wall) and a machine press
installed the equipment, in reverse to how pumping (moveable).
systems are conventionally installed. Normally, equipment Recall the elements of applying a WSD approach
is put in some convenient and arbitrary spot, and the pipe discussed in Chapters 4 and 5:
fitter is then instructed to connect point A to point B. The
pipe often has to go through all sorts of twists and turns 1 Ask the right questions.
to hook up equipment that’s too far apart, turned the 2 Benchmark against the optimal system.
wrong way, mounted at the wrong height or separated by 3 Design and optimize the whole system.
other devices installed in between. The extra bends and 4 Account for all measurable impacts.
the extra length make friction in the system about three to 5 Design and optimize subsystems in the right
six times higher than it should be. The pipe fitters don’t sequence.
mind the extra work: they’re paid by the hour, they mark 6 Design and optimize subsystems to achieve
up the pipe and fittings, and they won’t have to pay the compounding resource savings.
pumps’ capital or operating costs. 7 Review the system for potential improvements.
Chapter 6.qxd 12/1/2008 6:26 PM Page 97

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 – INDUSTRIAL PUMPING SYSTEMS 97

(2) Elevation z2 = 10 m

Window

Q
Elevation z1 = 0 m

Machine
(1) Press

Source: Adapted from Munson, Young and Okiishi (1998), pp512 and 522

Figure 6.1 A typical production plant scenario

The following worked example will demonstrate how

Design challenge the elements can be applied to pumping systems using
two contrasting examples: a conventional pumping
Consider water at 20ºC flowing from versus a WSD pumping system. The application of an
reservoir A, through the system in Figure 6.1, element will be indicated with a shaded box.
to a tap with a target exit volumetric flow rate
of Q = 0.001m3/s. Select suitable pipes based
on pipe diameter, D, and a suitable pump General solution
based on pump power, P, and calculate the The calculations in this chapter use several variables, as
cost of the system. defined in Table 6.1.
Figure 6.2 shows a typical single-pump, single-pipe
Design process solution, which includes the following features:

The following sections of this chapter present: • The system accommodates the pre-existing floor
plan (window) and equipment (machine press) in
1 General solution: A solution for any single- the plant.
pump, single-pipe system with the given • Reservoir A exit is very well rounded.
constraints; • The diameter of every pipe is D.
2 Conventional design solution: Conventional • A globe valve, which acts as an emergency cut-off
system with limited application of the and stops the flow for maintenance purposes, is
elements of WSD; fully open during operation.
3 WSD solution: Improved system using the • The existing tap is replaced by a tap with an exit
elements of WSD; diameter of D.
4 Performance comparison: Comparison of the
economic and environmental costs and The Natural Edge Project provides a freely available
benefits. online ‘Appendix A’ document,6 containing equations,
figures and tables that are applied to the General,
Conventional and WSD solutions in the following
sections. The majority of these equations, figures and
8 Model the system. tables are taken from Munson, Young and Okiishi
9 Track technology innovation. (1998)7 and can also be applied to similar pipe and
10 Design to create future options. pump systems.
Chapter 6.qxd 12/1/2008 6:26 PM Page 98

98 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Table 6.1 Symbol nomenclature

Symbol Description Unit Symbol Description Unit

p Pressure Pa L Pipe length m

ρ Density kg/m3 D Pipe diameter m
g Acceleration due to gravity 9.81m/s2 Re Reynolds number
α Kinetic energy coefficient µ Dynamic viscosity Ns/m2
V Average velocity m/s ε Equivalent roughness mm
z Height m KL Loss coefficient
h Head loss m A Pipe cross sectional area m2
f Friction factor P Power W

KL = 2 base on
5m 5m pipe velocity
(8) (9)
(7) (2) Elevation z2 = 10 m

5m Wide open diameter D

globe value
(5)
Q
(6)
Elevation z1 = 0 m
5m g
D
Pump (3)
(1) (4)

9m 90° elbows
A

Figure 6.2 A typical single-pump, single-pipe configuration

p1 = p2 = 0 (atmospheric pressure)
Element 8: Model the system
V1 = 0

The energy balance between point 1 and point 2 in the z1 = 0

system is given by Bernoulli’s Equation:8
Since reservoir A exit is very well rounded, assume
p1/ρg + α1V12/2g + z1 + Σ Pi/ρgAiVi = p2/ρg + the corresponding component loss is negligible
α2V22/2g + z2 + Σ fi (Li/Di)(Vi2/2g) + Σ KLiVi2/2g
Since the diameter of every pipe is D (constant):9
Some simplifications and substitutions can be made
based on the configuration of the system: • The cross-sectional area of every pipe is A
Chapter 6.qxd 12/1/2008 6:26 PM Page 99

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 – INDUSTRIAL PUMPING SYSTEMS 99

• The average velocity of the fluid downstream of

the pump is constant and equal to V2 P = (8ρQ3/Π2D4) [α2 + f (L/D) + Σ KLi] + ρgQz2

The pipes are considered to be a single pipe of

length L The friction factor, f, is dependent on the Reynolds
number, Re:
Assume the pipe is completely full of water since
there is no downward flow10 Re = ρV2D/µ

Assume that pipes are available in the lengths Substituting for V2 gives:
indicated in Figure 6.2
Re = 4ρQ/ΠDµ
Assume that head losses through pump
connectors, tap connectors and reservoir Where µ is a known physical property of water. For a
A exit are negligible turbulent flow (Re > 4000), the equivalent roughness
of the interior of the pipe, ε, a known physical property
Thus, the energy balance reduces to: of the pipe, is required to determine f.
We now have the relationship between pump
P/pgAV2 = α2V22/2g + z2 + f (L/D)(V22/2g) + power, P, and pipe diameter, D, in terms of known
V22/2g (Σ KLi) variables for the system in Figure 6.2.

The design variables to be determined are: Conventional design solution

Pump power, P Select suitable pipes and pumps for
the system
Pipe diameter, D
For water at 20°C:11
The known variables are: ρ = 998.2kg/m3

ρ physical property of water µ = 1.002 × 10-3Ns/m2

z2 from system plan Calculating Reynolds number:

L from system plan Re = 4(998.2kg/m3)(0.001 m3/s)/

ΠD(1.002 × 10-3Ns/m2)
KLi function of pipe/reservoir interface geometry
and component geometry Re = 1268/D

The flow is turbulent (Re > 4000) for D < 0.317m. A

V2 can be eliminated from the energy balance equation
pipe of diameter D = 0.317m is much larger than what
by substituting for functions of Q and D using:
is suitable for the system12 in Figure 6.2; thus it is safe
to assume that the flow is turbulent. Since turbulent
V2 = Q/A
velocity profiles are nearly uniform across the pipes, we
assume α1 = α2 = 1.
and
For 90ºC threaded elbows:13
A = ΠD /4
2

KL4 = KL5 = KL6 = KL7 = 1.5

Substituting and making pump power, P, the subject of
the equation gives: For a fully open globe valve:14
Chapter 6.qxd 12/1/2008 6:26 PM Page 100

100 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

KLV = 10 We can select pump model:17

For the tap: Waterco Hydrostorm Plus 15018 at P =

1119 W (1.5 hp)
KLT = 2
We can select pipe:19
The energy balance equation becomes:
Hard drawn copper tube (6M length) T24937
P = [8(998.2kg/m3)(0.001m3/s)3/π2D4] at D = 15mm (5/8 in)
[1 + f (30/D) + (1.5 × 4 + 10 + 2)] +
(998.2kg/m3)(9.81 m/s2)(0.001 m3/s)(10m)
Calculate the cost of the system
P = (8.0911 × 10-7/D4)[f (30/D) + 19] + 97.923 Copper pipe T24937 costs AU$57.12 per 6m.20
Therefore the cost of 30m of copper pipe is:
Suppose drawn copper tubing of diameter D = 0.015m
was selected for the pipes. Substituting into the Pipe cost = (AU$57.12 per 6m)(30m)/6
Reynolds number equation gives: = AU$285.60

Re = 1268.411/(0.015m) = 84561 Standard radius 90º elbows of 15mm (5/8 in) diameter
J00231 cost of AU$2.34 each.21 Therefore the total
For drawn tubing:15 cost of the elbows is:

ε = 0.0015mm Elbow cost = (AU$2.34)(4) = AU$9.36

Thus: A globe valve of diameter 15mm (5/8 in):22

ε/D = 0.0015/15 = 0.0001 Estimated globe valve cost = AU$13 (US$10)
Using the Moody chart,16 Re = 84561 and ε/D = 0.0001
A tap of exit diameter 0.015m:23
give:
Tap cost = AU$6.70
f = 0.0195
Installation costs for 8hrs at AU$65/hr gives:
Substituting D = 0.015m and f = 0.0195 into the
equation for pump power gives:
Installation costs = (AU$65/hr)(8 hrs) = AU$520

The Waterco Hydrostorm Plus 150:24

P = (8.0911 × 10-7/(0.015m)4)[0.0195
(30/(0.015m)) + 19] + 97.923 = 1025 W Pump cost = AU$616

Thus, the total capital cost of the system is:

That is, for the system in Figure 6.2, if drawn copper
Capital cost = AU$285.60 + AU$9.36 +
tubing of diameter D = 0.015m is used for the pipes,
then a pump of power P = 1025 W is required to AU$13+ AU$6.70 + AU$520 + AU$546
generate an exit volumetric flow rate of Q = 0.001m3/s. = AU$1451
Chapter 6.qxd 12/1/2008 6:26 PM Page 101

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 – INDUSTRIAL PUMPING SYSTEMS 101

To calculate running costs for the selected electrically 1 The pipe configuration introduced head losses that
powered pump, the following values are used: could be avoided; and
2 The selection procedure for pipe diameter, D, and
Pump efficiency for an electrical pump: 47%25 pump power, P, did not address the whole system.

Cost of electricity: AU$0.1/kWh (2006 price for

Redesign the pipes and pump system
large energy users)
with less head loss
For the Waterco Hydrostorm Plus 150 pump running
at output power P = 1025 W, the monthly pump
Element 7: Review the system for potential
running costs for 12 hrs/day, 26 days/month are:
improvements
Running cost = (AU$0.1/kWh)(1.025kW)
(12 hrs/day)(26 day/mth)/(0.47) = AU$68/mth Items to consider:
1
WSD Solution • From Bernoulli’s equation, Power α ,
D4
so increasing diameter dramatically reduces power
Element 1: Ask the right questions required.
• Can the system be designed with less bends?
• Can the system be designed with more-shallow bends?
• Is it worthwhile moving the plant equipment
Is the conventional solution optimal for the whole (machine press)?
system? What are the factors of the whole system that • Is an alternative pipe material more suitable?
need to be considered? The conventional design • Is there a more suitable valve? Do we even need a
solution was suboptimal for two reasons: valve?

KL = 2 based on
pipe
velocity
10 m
(5)
(2) Elevation z2 = 10 m

45° elbows
D diameter D
m
14

Q
Elevation z1 = 0 m
g
Pump
(1)
(4)
(3)
Wide open
A gate valve

Figure 6.3 A WSD single-pump, single-pipe solution

Chapter 6.qxd 12/1/2008 6:26 PM Page 102

102 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Select suitable pipes and pumps for f = 0.0215

the system
Substituting D = 0.03m and f = 0.0215 into the
Since the conditions at point 1 and point 2 in Figure 6.3 equation for pump power gives:
are the same as in Figure 6.2, and a single pump and
single pipe are used, the energy balance equation for
the general solution is applicable:
P = (8.0911 × 10–7/(0.03m)4)[0.0215
(24/(0.03m)) + 3.95] + 97.923 = 119 W
P = (8pQ3/Π2D4) [α2 + f (L/D) + Σ KLi] + pgQz2

For 45º threaded elbows:26

That is, for the system in Figure 6.3, if drawn copper
KL4 = KL5 = 0.4 tubing of diameter D = 0.03m is used for the pipes,
then a pump of power P = 119 W is required to
For a fully open gate valve:27 generate an exit volumetric flow rate of Q = 0.001m3/s.

KLV = 0.15 We can select pump model:30

For the tap: Monarch ESPA Whisper 50031 at

P = 370 W (0.5 hp)
KLT = 2
We can select pipe:32
The energy balance equation becomes:
Hard drawn copper tube (6M length)
P = [8(998.2kg/m3)(0.001m3/s)3/Π2D4] T22039 at D = 31.75mm (1¼ in)
[1 + f (24/D) + (0.4 × 2 + 0.15 + 2)] +
(998.2kg/m3)(9.81m/s2)(0.001m3/s)(10m) Is this the optimal solution for the whole system?

P = (8.0911 × 10-7/D4)[f (24/D) + 3.95] Consider the effect of other pipe

+ 97.923 diameters and pump powers

Suppose, instead, a drawn copper pipe of diameter

Element 3: Design and optimize the whole system
D = 0.03m (double the diameter in the conventional
solution) was selected. Substituting into the Reynolds
number equation gives:
Other combinations of pipe diameter and pump
power33 that suit the system can be selected in a similar
Re = 1268.411/(0.03m) = 42280
way, as in Table 6.2:
For drawn tubing:28
Table 6.2 Pump power calculated for a spectrum of pipe
ε = 0.0015mm diameters

Thus: D (m) Re ε/D F P (W)

0.015 84561 0.0001 0.0195 660

ε/D = 0.0015/30 = 0.00005 0.02 63421 0.000075 0.0205 242
0.025 50736 0.00006 0.0210 148
0.03 42280 0.00005 0.0215 119
Using the Moody chart,29 Re = 42280 and ε/D = 0.04 31710 0.0000375 0.0230 104
0.00005 give:
Chapter 6.qxd 12/1/2008 6:26 PM Page 103

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 – INDUSTRIAL PUMPING SYSTEMS 103

Calculate the cost of the system Summary: performance

The capital and running costs for each pipe and pump comparisons
combination are shown in Table 6.3. The costs are
calculated in a similar way as for the conventional Pump power and cost
solution. The efficiency of the Monarch ESPA Whisper
A side-by-side comparison of the conventional design
1000 is approximated at 42 per cent34 and the efficiency
solution system and the WSD solution in Table 6.4
of the Monarch ESPA Whisper 500 is approximated at 40
highlights the substantially different results that each
per cent.35 The life-cycle economic cost of each solution is
approach achieves.
estimated as the net present value (NPV) calculated over a
The life-cycle cost of the WSD solution is about
life of 50 years and at a discount rate of 6 per cent.
five times smaller than for the conventional solution.
Table 6.3 shows that the solution with D = 0.015m
Since the capital costs of both solutions are similar, it is
has the lowest capital cost by a relatively small margin,
obvious that the cost savings for the WSD solution
but the highest life-cycle cost by a factor of 2–3. Given
arise from the lower required pumping power and
the estimation errors in our calculations, the life-cycle
hence running cost. This example demonstrates the
cost for the solution with D = 0.03m is about the same
dominance of running costs over capital costs – a
as that for a system with D = 0.04m. However, the
relationship that is common for many resource-
capital cost is about AU$200 less and would therefore
consuming systems. The power reduction was made
incur smaller economic stress up front.36 Hence, for the
possible by the inclusion of two additional steps in the
optimal pipe and pump combination for the system in
design and selection process:
Figure 6.3 we can select:

ESPA Whisper 500 pump at P = 370 W (0.5 hp) Step 1: Redesign the pipes and pump system with less
head loss; and
T22039 hard drawn copper pipe at Step 2: Consider the effect of other pipe diameters and
D = 31.75mm (1¼ in) pump powers.

Table 6.3 Summary of system costs for a range of pump types 37 and pipe diameters 38
D (m) Pipes and P (W) Pump Pump Total Running cost Life cycle
components selected cost capital cost
cost cost (–NPV39)

0.015 $602 660 Monarch ESPA Whisper 1000 $357 $959 $49/mth $10,821
0.02 $745 242 Monarch ESPA Whisper 500 $331 $1076 $19/mth $4873
0.025 $827 148 Monarch ESPA Whisper 500 $331 $1158 $12/mth $3480
0.03 $914 119 Monarch ESPA Whisper 500 $331 $1245 $9/mth $3112
0.04 $1126 104 Monarch ESPA Whisper 500 $331 $1457 $8/mth $3089

Table 6.4 Comparing the costs of the two solutions

Solution D (m) Pipes and P (W) Pump cost Total Running Life cycle
components capital cost cost
cost cost (–NPV)

Conventional 0.015 $835 1025 $616 $1451 $61/mth $15,129

WSD 0.03 $914 119 $331 $1245 $9/mth $3112
Chapter 6.qxd 12/1/2008 6:26 PM Page 104

104 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 6.4 Comparing the effects of Step 1 and Step 2

Chapter 6.qxd 12/1/2008 6:26 PM Page 105

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 – INDUSTRIAL PUMPING SYSTEMS 105

Step 1 optimized the system configuration and yielded Factors to consider for larger
system wide improvement, regardless of the pipe
systems
diameter selected. Even with the same pipe diameter as
the conventional solution (D = 0.015m), the WSD Extra considerations for larger pipes
solution has a 28 per cent lower pipes and components
cost, requires 36 per cent less power, has a 34 per cent The pipe sizes considered in this worked example can
lower capital cost, and comes in about 28 per cent be installed and mounted without restriction. However,
cheaper over its life, as shown in Figure 6.4. a few notes should be made about larger pipes:
Step 2 optimized the pipe diameter and pump
selection process. Notably, the larger diameter pipes • A structure design permit may be required before
reduced the total required pumping power of the mounting the pipe to an existing structure.
system. The second step resulted in a further 82 per Attaining the permit may incur a cost.
cent reduction in power and 71 per cent reduction in • Large pipes are heavier and thus may require
life-cycle cost, as shown in Figure 6.4. additional mounting support, which may incur a
In total, the WSD solution uses 88 per cent less cost.
power, costs 79 per cent less over its life, and is cheaper • Pipes larger than about 0.05m (2 in) in diameter
to purchase and install than the conventional solution. may require stress analysis to account for the effects
of thermal expansion. Tables that suggest when
stress analysis should be performed are available.
Multiple benefits The tables usually consider pipe diameter and fluid
temperature.
Element 4: Account for all measurable impacts • Long straight pipes experience more wall stress
than shorter, bent pipes. Systems with long straight
pipes can also result in higher forces and resulting
A number of other benefits arise from designing the moments on inertia on the fixed nozzles of
pumping system such that it is ‘short, fat and straight’ equipment, especially when the endpoints of the
rather than ‘long, thin and bent’: system are under pressure (say in a tank as opposed
to open air). In these cases, expansion joints and
• More floor space is available: Less piping covering bellowed nozzles can be incorporated to advantage,
the floors of industrial sites means more space is with the key consideration being to make bends as
available to work in, as well as improving the safety smooth as possible.
of the work environment.
• More reliable operation: Less bends and valves in
Site planning
piping reduces the likelihood of parts failing.
Reducing friction in the piping means that less In this worked example, it was assumed that reservoir A,
energy is lost to adding physical stress to the piping the pump and the tap were to remain where there were.
system, thereby increasing the life of the system. Sometimes, the location of such features is arbitrary, as
Since less power is required, the motor driving the in the ‘Pipes and pumps’ example in Natural
pump doesn’t need to work as hard. Capitalism,40 so their location can be governed by the
• Easier maintenance: With short and straight pipes, piping system. In other cases, however, other factors can
maintenance workers can get into the system with influence where these features as well as the pipes should
relative ease, as opposed to negotiating a maze of be located. For example, a pipe and pump system can
piping in the conventional solution. share many resources with other equipment and
• Better performance: A much greater percentage of systems. These resources include shelter, electrical cable
energy used in the system is converted into useful route, drainage systems and access ways for
work. A system that is more reliable and easy to maintenance. Accounting for these factors is an example
maintain provides consistently high performance of Element 3, ‘Design and optimize the whole system’,
relative to conventional systems. and Element 4, ‘Account for all measurable impacts’.
Chapter 6.qxd 12/1/2008 6:26 PM Page 106

106 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Larger cost reductions Cost of petrol: AU$1.30/litre (2006 price at

the pump)
In this worked example, the small amount of required
pumping power41 did not lend itself to a good The cost per unit energy for petrol is:
demonstration of pump capital cost savings. Table 6.3
shows that even though required pumping power fell Cost per unit energy = (AU$1.30/litre)/
by a factor of more than two between the solution
(34,000,000 J/litre) = 3.8235 × 10-8 AU$/J
where D = 0.02m and the solution where D = 0.04m,
the same pump was used for all solutions and hence the
Converting to units of AU$/kWh:
pump capital cost was the same. In a larger system, the
required pumping power falls over a larger range, for
Cost per unit energy = [(3.8235 × 10-8 AU$/J)/
which there is a variety of pumps that can be selected.
(1 s)](1000 W/kW)(3600 s/hr) = AU$0.14/kWh.

Systems powered by internal

combustion engines Notes
1 Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. (1999)
Some moderate sized systems use pumps powered by
Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial
internal combustion engines (ICEs). The size of ICE Revolution, Earthscan, London, p115.
pumps start at about 1.5kW output power. They are 2 Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. (1999)
usually cheaper to purchase but more expensive to run Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial
than the equivalent electric pump. Consequently, Revolution, Earthscan, London, p121.
moderate sized ICE pump systems have even greater 3 Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. (1999)
potential for cost savings. Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial
To demonstrate, consider a conventional, ICE- Revolution, Earthscan, London, p121.
powered system that requires 10kW of pumping power. 4 Smith, M., Hargroves, K., Stasinopoulos, P., Stephens,
We have shown that WSD can reduce the pumping R., Desha, C. and Hargroves, S. (2007) Energy
Transformed: Sustainable Energy Solutions for Climate
power of a conventional system by 88 per cent. The
Change Mitigation, The Natural Edge Project, Australia,
10kW conventional system can therefore be redesigned
‘Lecture 3.1: Opportunities for improving the efficiency
as a 1.2kW system, which means the 10kW ICE pump of motor systems’, www.naturaledgeproject.net/
costing about AU$12,70042 can be replaced with a Sustainable_Energy_Solutions_Portfolio.aspx, accessed
1.5kW electric pump costing AU$616.43 10 April 2008.
Now, since the required pumping power is reduced 5 Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. (1999)
by 88 per cent, the running costs are then reduced by Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial
88 per cent. Furthermore, an additional saving arises Revolution, Earthscan, London, p121.
since the electrical pump is at least twice as efficient as 6 Stasinopoulos, P., Smith, M., Hargroves, K. and Desha,
the ICE pump (20–26 per cent44), while the cost per C. (2007) Whole System Design – An Integrated Approach
unit energy is about the same for electricity to Sustainable Engineering, The Natural Edge Project,
Australia, ‘Unit 6: Worked Example 1 – Industrial
(AU$0.10/kWh for large energy users, AU$0.17 for
Pumping Systems’, Appendix A, www.naturaledg
domestic users) and petrol (AU$0.14/kWh at AU$1.30
eproject.net/Whole_System_Design.aspx, accessed 10
per litre). April 2008.
Effectively, the lower power consumption of the 7 Munson, B. R., Young, D. F. and Okiishi, T. H. (1998)
WSD solution makes solutions viable that bring with Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics (third edition), Wiley
them additional benefits and that are otherwise too and Sons, New York.
expensive. 8 This equation represents the four kinds of energy
To calculate the cost per unit energy of petrol, the changes associated with fluid flow through a pipe and
following values are used: pump system: 1) Pressure, kinetic energy and potential
energy changes, 2) Friction losses, 3) Component losses,
Energy value of petrol: 34 MJ/litre45 and 4) Pumping gains. Alternatively, see The Natural
Edge Project’s online Appendix A, www.naturaledge
Chapter 6.qxd 12/1/2008 6:26 PM Page 107

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 – INDUSTRIAL PUMPING SYSTEMS 107

project.net/Whole_System_Design.aspx, accessed 10 17 See PumpShop website at www.pumpshop.com.au/,

April 2008. accessed 11 August 2005.
9 A and V are dependent on D. 18 Waterco (2004) Hydrostorm Plus Pool and Spa Pumps,
10 This assumption aims to omit two possible situations Waterco, p2, www.waterco.com.au/CMS/uploads/
where air is present in the pipe. The first situation occurs brochures/HydroPumpsZZB1285.pdf, accessed 11
when the portion of the pipe nearest the tap contains air April 2008. Waterco shows that this pump provides near
because there isn’t enough water to fill the pipe. In maximum head at Q = 60l/min (0.001m3/s), so this
practice, this situation can be overcome by turning off pump will satisfy both head and flow rate requirements.
the tap before turning off the pump when shutting 19 Kirby (2004) Copper Tube and Fittings, Kirby, Australia,
down. The second situation occurs when water and air http://www.kirbyrefrig.com.au/pdf/200401/9coppert.
share space in the pump at the same point (but don’t pdf, accessed 10 August 2008.
mix). This configuration is often referred to as a ‘channel’ 20 Kirby (2004) Copper Tube and Fittings, Kirby, Australia,
configuration because of the resemblance to a channelled http://www.kirbyrefrig.com.au/pdf/200401/9coppert.
waterway such as a river (open channel) or a sewage pipe pdf, accessed 10 August 2008.
(closed channel). Since water is denser than air, water will 21 Kirby (2004) Copper Tube and Fittings, Kirby, Australia,
occupy the bottom side of the channel and air will http://www.kirbyrefrig.com.au/pdf/200401/9coppert.
occupy the top side; and since all flow is either horizontal pdf, accessed 10 August 2008.
or against gravity then, given enough water and an outlet 22 Interpolated from available ‘globe valve’ sizes supplied
for the air to escape (tap), the pipe will likely be filled by A. Y. McDonald MFG. Co. at www.aymcdonald.
with water. com, accessed 11 August 2005.
11 Munson, B. R., Young, D. F. and Okiishi, T. H. (1998) 23 ‘Tap brass (hose cock)’ supplied by Wet Earth at
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics (third edition), Wiley www.wetearth.com.au, accessed 11 August 2005.
and Sons, New York, p853. Alternatively, see The 24 See PumpShop website at www.pumpshop.com.au/,
Natural Edge Project’s online Appendix A, www. accessed 11 August 2005.
naturaledgeproject.net/Whole_System_Design.aspx, 25 ESPA (2000) ‘SILENT Series; TYPHOON Series:
accessed 10 April 2008. Swimming pool pumps: Instruction manual’, Monarch
12 The pipe diameter for the system in Figure 6.2 is likely Pool Systems, p2, www.monarchpoolsystems.com/
to be no less than D = 0.01m and no more than D = manuals/PDF/Espa-manual.pdf, accessed 11 July 2006.
0.05m. This value is an approximation based on the data given
13 Munson, B. R., Young, D. F. and Okiishi, T. H. (1998) by ESPA for the Silent 75M.
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics (third edition), Wiley 26 Munson, B. R., Young, D. F. and Okiishi, T. H. (1998)
and Sons, New York, p505. Alternatively, see The Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics (third edition), Wiley
Natural Edge Project’s online Appendix A, www. and Sons, New York, p505. Alternatively, see The
naturaledgeproject.net/Whole_System_Design.aspx, Natural Edge Project’s online Appendix A,
accessed 10 April 2008. www.naturaledgeproject.net/Whole_System_Design.
14 Munson, B. R., Young, D. F. and Okiishi, T. H. (1998) aspx, accessed 10 April 2008.
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics (third edition), Wiley 27 Munson, B. R., Young, D. F. and Okiishi, T. H. (1998)
and Sons, New York, p505. Alternatively, see The Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics (third edition), Wiley
Natural Edge Project’s online Appendix A, and Sons, New York, p505. Alternatively, see The
www.naturaledgeproject.net/Whole_System_Design. Natural Edge Project’s online Appendix A,
aspx, accessed 10 April 2008. www.naturaledgeproject.net/Whole_System_Design.
15 Munson, B. R., Young, D. F. and Okiishi, T. H. (1998) aspx, accessed 10 April 2008.
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics (third edition), Wiley 28 Munson, B. R., Young, D. F. and Okiishi, T. H. (1998)
and Sons, New York, p492. Alternatively, see The Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics (third edition), Wiley
Natural Edge Project’s online Appendix A, and Sons, New York, p492. Alternatively, see The
www.naturaledgeproject.net/Whole_System_Design. Natural Edge Project’s online Appendix A document.
aspx, accessed 10 April 2008. Pipes of diameter 0.01–0.04m are available in a few
16 Munson, B. R., Young, D. F. and Okiishi, T. H. (1998) different materials, including copper, steel and
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics (third edition), Wiley aluminium. Munson, Young and Okiishi suggest that
and Sons, New York, p493. Alternatively, see The drawn metal tubing, such as the copper pipes
Natural Edge Project’s online Appendix A, incorporated in the conventional solution, is the
www.naturaledgeproject.net/Whole_System_Design. smoothest of the suitable pipes for the Design Challenge.
aspx, accessed 10 April 2008. Although plastic pipes are the smoothest (ε ≈ 0), they are
Chapter 6.qxd 12/1/2008 6:26 PM Page 108

108 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

also generally larger than what is required, starting at by ESPA, which shows a trend of decreasing efficiency
diameters of about 0.05m (1 in). with decreasing power capacity.
29 Munson, B. R., Young, D. F. and Okiishi, T. H. (1998) Alternatively, the economic uncertainty associated with
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics (third edition), Wiley spreading the system cost over a 50-year period may be
and Sons, New York, p493. Alternatively, see The a greater stress than having to pay more upfront.
Natural Edge Project’s online Appendix A, Consequently, in this worked example, either solution is
www.naturaledgeproject.net/Whole_System_Design. as good as the other.
aspx, accessed 10 April 2008. 36 See PumpShop website at www.pumpshop.com.au/,
30 See PumpShop website at www.pumpshop.com.au/, accessed 11 August 2005.
accessed 11 August 2005. 37 Kirby (2004) Copper Tube and Fittings, Kirby, Australia,
31 Monarch Pool Systems (n.d.) ‘Whisper Series: http://www.kirbyrefrig.com.au/pdf/200401/9coppert.
Swimming pool pumps’, Monarch Pool Systems, p2, pdf, accessed 10 August 2008.
www.monarchpoolsystems.com/products/Low%20Res 38 Negative values for NPV are actually costs.
%20PDFs/Whisper.pdf, accessed 11 April 2008. 39 Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. (1999)
Monarch Pool Systems show that this pump provides Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial
near-maximum head at Q = 60l/min (0.001m3/s), so Revolution, Earthscan, London.
this pump will satisfy both head and flow rate 40 The optimized WSD solution required the same amount
requirements. of power (119 W) as a bright incandescent lamp.
32 Kirby (2004) Copper Tube and Fittings, Kirby, Australia, 41 ‘10kW (13 hp) Fire 02.5F13K2V pump’ supplied by A.
http://www.kirbyrefrig.com.au/pdf/200401/9coppert. Y. McDonald MFG. Co. at www.aymcdonald.com,
pdf, accessed 10 August 2008. accessed 11 August 2005.
33 Only systems with diameter up to D = 0.04m are 42 ‘1.5kW (2 hp) Waterco Hydrostorm Plus 200 pump’
shown. At higher diameters the power savings become supplied by PumpShop at www.pumpshop.com.au/,
small. For example D = 0.05m gives P = 102 W; and D accessed 11 August 2005.
= 0.06m gives 100 W. 43 Evans, R., Sneed, R. E. and Hunt, J. H. (1996)
34 ESPA (2000) ‘SILENT Series; TYPHOON Series: Pumping plant performance evaluation, North Carolina
Swimming pool pumps: Instruction manual’, Monarch Cooperative Extension Service, www.bae.ncsu.edu/
Pool Systems, p2, www.monarchpoolsystems.com/ programs/extension/evans/ag452-6.html, accessed 27
manuals/PDF/Espa-manual.pdf, accessed 11 July 2006. June 2006. This value is an overestimate. The data
This value is an approximation based on the data given are for an internal combustion engine only, and
by ESPA for the Silent 30M. do not include any mechanical losses associated with
35 ESPA (2000) ‘SILENT Series; TYPHOON Series: the coupling of the engine to the pump or the pump
Swimming pool pumps: Instruction manual’, Monarch itself.
Pool Systems, p2, www.monarchpoolsystems.com/ 44 Moorland School (n.d.) Petrol, Moorland School,
manuals/PDF/Espa-manual.pdf, accessed 11 July 2006. www.moorlandschool.co.uk/earth/petrol.htm, accessed
This value is an approximation based on the data given 27 June 2006.
Chapter 7.qxd 12/1/2008 6:29 PM Page 109

7
Worked Example 2 – Passenger Vehicles

Significance of the Automotive above 1990 emissions by 2010.2 Escalating petrol prices
Industry and Vehicle Design are further exacerbating the demand for technological
change in the industry to more fuel-efficient or fuel-
Few industries in the manufacturing sector are under alternative vehicles.
more pressure at present than the automotive industry. The reluctance for change from the automotive
Companies are not only having to remain competitive in industry is partly a result of adopting traditional
what many consider an over-mature market, but are also economic theory; assuming that a major improvement
pushed by government legislation and consumer demand in fuel efficiency or emissions reduction must be traded
for vehicles that pollute less and use fuel alternatives. off against cost, performance or safety – thereby
Australia’s appetite for petrol-fuelled, family-sized making it an unattractive option for both the
sedans is a large contributor to the nation’s greenhouse manufacturer and the consumer.
emissions. In 2002 the Australian transport sector was A number of technological innovations have
responsible for 79 million tons of greenhouse gas emerged over the last decade that fly in the face of the
emissions, comprising 13 per cent of Australia’s total environment vs. economy trade-off and have
emissions. Around 88 per cent of these emissions came challenged the conventional approach to automobile
from road transport vehicles such as cars, buses and design and manufacture. One of the most impressive
trucks.1 This figure is expected to increase by 42 per cent innovations is the Hypercar Revolution concept,
conceived by the team from the Rocky Mountain
Institute and its partners, led by Amory B. Lovins. The
Revolution vehicle uses existing technologies with
Question: Is it technically possible and Whole System Design (WSD) to show that:
economically advantageous to both the
manufacturer and the consumer to design • Very large improvements in fuel economy and
high-performance vehicles that produce less carbon emissions may be easier and cheaper than
toxic emissions, use clean or existing fuels small ones, and may not conflict with existing
more efficiently, and deliver more value? performance objectives;
Answer: Yes. A case in point is the • These improvements may bring about competitive
Toyota Prius. Since its launch in Australia in advantage to manufacturers by reducing costs and
October 2003, the hybrid has proved a hot requirements associated with capital, assembly,
item among private and business owners.With space, parts and product takeback;
fuel economy at 4.4l/100km and a suite of new • A business model based on value to the customer is
technologies, the Prius is a prime example of an advantage to manufacturers; and
the change that is needed – and is now • Vehicle production and use will become less
happening – in the automotive industry. susceptible to fuel price, government policy and
other variable pressures.
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110 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Worked example overview • Chassis;

• Electrical;
Cars are a subgroup of powered road vehicles. Other • Trim; and
subgroups include trucks, buses and motorcycles. • Fluids.
These vehicles may incorporate any of a number of
power plants, including combustion power plants of
petrol/gasoline, LPG, diesel or biofuels; hybrid-electric Design challenge
power plants; battery-electric power plants; and fuel
cell power plants. Further information about the Design a passenger vehicle. Make it better than
Whole System Design of cars and trucks with various the previous model.
power plants is available in The Natural Edge Project’s
freely available online textbook Energy Transformed:
Sustainable Energy Solutions for Climate Change Design process
Mitigation, ‘Lecture 8.2: Integrated approaches to
energy efficiency and alternative transport fuels – Both the conventional vehicle and WSD
passenger vehicles’ and ‘Lecture 8.3: Integrated Hypercar Revolution examples will consider
approaches to energy efficiency and alternative the following steps with respect to the
transport fuels – trucking’.3 The following worked development process, each of which is
example focuses on cars with fuel cell power plants. correlated with an element of WSD, first
Recall the ten elements of applying a WSD introduced by the Rocky Mountain Institute:
approach discussed in Chapters 4 and 5:
1 Design: Determining the general component
1 Ask the right questions; composition for each subsystem (Element 3);
2 Benchmark against the optimal system; 2 Optimization: Making the vehicle the best it
3 Design and optimize the whole system; can be based on the general component
4 Account for all measurable impacts; composition (Element 5); and
5 Design and optimize subsystems in the right 3 Cost analysis: Comparison of the economic
sequence; and environmental costs and benefits
6 Design and optimize subsystems to achieve (Element 4).
compounding resource savings;
7 Review the system for potential improvements;
8 Model the system;
9 Track technology innovation; and Vehicle design
10 Design to create future options.
Conventional vehicle design
The following worked example will demonstrate how
the ten elements can be applied to passenger vehicles The lack of variation in vehicle subsystems over the last
using two contrasting examples: a conventional 70 years is an indication that the conceptual design
passenger vehicle versus the Hypercar Revolution phase of producing passenger vehicles has involved
concept, developed by the Rocky Mountain Institute. little more than simply copying a previous design.
The main focus is on elements 3, 4 and 5. The The subsystems of almost every passenger vehicle
application of the other elements will be indicated with produced in the last 70 years have the following
a shaded box. characteristics and components:
Primarily, the following vehicle subsystems will be
considered: • Structure: Made from steel due to low cost and
high stiffness and durability; expensive to produce
• Structure; due to high tooling costs; components designed for
• Propulsion; manufacturability.
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WORKED EXAMPLE 2 – PASSENGER VEHICLES 111

• Propulsion: Components include internal ‘Design the system as a whole’ by considering the effect
combustion engine (ICE), starter motor, of each subsystem on every other subsystem in an
alternator, radiator, transmission, driveshaft, integrated manner, as in Figure 7.2.
differential, axles and fuel tank; mostly mechanical To explore the potential technological options, the
power transmission; no energy recovery; mostly Hypercar team started the design process with a clean
made from steel due to high strength and ductility; sheet.4 They removed almost all constraints (political
expensive to produce due to high tooling costs; and material) associated with conventional passenger
fuel source is usually petroleum, sometimes diesel vehicle design and focused on designing the Revolution
or LPG. as a whole system. This process – known as cleansheet
• Chassis: Components include suspension, braking, design – provides scope for emphasis on two key
wheels and steering systems; mechanical function; features of the conceptual design phase:
no energy recovery; sized to support structure and
propulsion systems. 1 Designing the future into the system using a
• Electrical: Components include heating, venting process known as backcasting, which makes the
and air conditioning (HVAC), lighting and audio benefits of the system more attractive with
systems; most components are linked with technological and political progress; and
designated point-to-point wiring. 2 Designing components to provide multiple services,
• Trim: Fabrics cover the entire structure in the hence introducing system synergies that help
passenger cabin; style based on ergonomics, overcome conventional compromises and lead to
fashion and safety. multiple, compounding benefits.
• Fluids: Components include a water system for the
HVAC and cooling the ICE; fuel in fuel lines;
transmission fluid; brake fluid; oil and grease for Backcasting
lubrication of mechanical moving parts.

The subsystems are integrated to produce a passenger Element 10: Design to create future options
vehicle only after the decisions are made as to their
general component composition, as in Figure 7.1.
Several features of the Revolution, including the use of
advanced composite materials, hydrogen fuel cells, the
Whole System Design FiberforgeTM manufacturing process, and extensive

Element 3: Design and optimize the whole system

In designing the vehicle, Element 3: ‘Design and

optimize the whole system’, can be interpreted as

Figure 7.1 The component optimization strategy of Figure 7.2 The system design strategy of Whole System
conventional vehicle design vehicle design
Chapter 7.qxd 12/1/2008 6:29 PM Page 112

112 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

electronic and software control, are a result of with the structure or by transferring some of their
backcasting, as in Figure 7.3. These features were functions and services to the structure. For example,
selected because they are currently viable steps on the the Revolution’s structure includes suspension system
path to a sustainable vehicle. mounts, cooling lines, electrical conduits and trim
The Revolution was designed to accommodate features,5 which lead to compounding benefits with the
technological and political progress. As a result, the corresponding subsystems:
backcast upgrades to the Revolution, unlike the
forecast upgrades to a conventional vehicle, are cheap • The cooling lines are part of a single-circuit
and easy, and are subject to expanding returns instead of cooling system that moderates the temperature of
diminishing returns. several components.6 In contrast, conventional
vehicles usually have dedicated cooling circuits for
each component, which are heavier, more complex
Designing for multiple services and more expensive.
Generally, conventional cars are either ‘small, light, • The electrical conduits are part of a network-based
clean and efficient’ or ‘large, powerful, comfortable and electronic control system that replaces conventional,
safe’ – anything else involves compromise. However, dedicated, point-to-point wiring and control. This
these compromises do not exist until they are designed all-in-one system reduces cost, complexity, failure
into the vehicle. The Hypercar team used clean-sheet modes and diagnostic problems.7
design and WSD to create a vehicle that is light, clean, • The structure’s trim features are exposed to some
efficient, spacious, well-performing, comfortable and parts of the passenger cabin, where they double as
safe. Many conventional compromises were avoided by: cosmetic trim.8 The trim features simplify and
reduce the cost of the remaining trim.
• Designing components for multiple purposes,
which results in compounding benefits throughout The front end of the structure is mostly made from
the Revolution; and aluminium and provides two services to reduce
• Employing several advanced technologies that are complexity, mass and cost. The first service is crash-
currently not cost-effective on their own but resistance through energy absorption. The second
become cost-effective when combined. service is as housing for the front end components of
the propulsion system, but without the complexity of
Every vehicle subsystem comes into direct physical conventional, add-on, mounting structures.9
contact with the structure subsystem. Thus there is an The rest of the Revolution’s structure is primarily
opportunity to eliminate some complexity in the other made from advanced composite materials. The
dynamic subsystems by simplifying their integration advantages of the composite materials, from which

Figure 7.3 Selecting vehicle components after backcasting from an ideal sustainable vehicle
Chapter 7.qxd 12/1/2008 6:29 PM Page 113

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 – PASSENGER VEHICLES 113

several compounding benefits are initiated, are that The advantages of the production method are a result
they are lightweight, stiff, have a low thermal mass and of multiple benefits and synergies between material
provide acoustic insulation:10 selection, subsystem design and a production process
called Fiberforge™:
• The low weight and high stiffness of the composite
structure make the hydrogen fuel cell-based • The composite materials produced for the
propulsion system, which is quiet, energy-efficient Revolution contain about 55–65 per cent fibre
and virtually emissions-free, cost-effective. Fuel material, compared with 20–30 per cent for
cells typically require a radiator about twice the size conventional composite materials.15 The fibre
of that of equivalent conventional internal material is responsible for most of the strength and
combustion engines when retrofitted into existing stiffness of the composite, which means that the
cars. However, the low mass of the Revolution’s Revolution’s composite can get the same
structure can lead to a reduction in required performance with less mass and cost than the
propulsion power by a factor of up to five, conventional composite. The Revolution’s composite
reducing the size of the fuel cell, which means that uses long discontinuous fibre (LDF) carbon, which,
overall the radiator is smaller than that of a compared to using continuous fibres, improves
conventional vehicle.11 stretchability, processability and formability with
• The fuel cell power is supplemented with battery very little loss in strength and stiffness.16
power, which is used to meet peak loads, such as • The Revolution’s structure subsystem consists of
during acceleration, towing and driving up an only 14 major parts – about 65 per cent fewer than
incline. The batteries are partly charged by the that of a conventional structure – and only 62 total
braking system, which captures braking energy. parts – about 77 per cent fewer than that of a
Since passenger vehicles usually brake as much as conventional structure,17 which simplifies assembly
they accelerate, the batteries rarely need charging. and reduces effort by about 80 to 90 per cent.18
• The low thermal mass of the structure also Although some parts have complex surface
provides a thermal insulation service, which, with geometry, all are shallow and few require sharp bends
the integrated cooling lines, helps simplify and or deep draws, which increases repeatability and
quieten the climate control system. The eliminates the need for additional clean-up steps.19
Revolution’s windows also assist with climate • FiberforgeTM is a flexible, software-intensive
control. The windows employ spectrally selective production process that incorporates relatively few
glazing, which reduces infrared (heat) gain in the steps and tailored blanks. Tailored blanks are
passenger cabin.12 composite sheets that are roughly the desired shape
• The quiet fuel cell/electric system and climate and have the correct fibre alignment, angle and
control system, coupled with acoustic insulation thickness for the final component. They eliminate
provided by the composite structure, make for a the need for additional assembly and processing
more comfortable ride. steps. The use of tailored blanks also results in
simpler assembly and only 15 per cent material
Only about 7.5 per cent of the mass of a conventional scrap,20 compared with about 30–40 per cent for
vehicle is from composite or plastic materials, most of conventional stamped steel processing,21 saving on
which are for non-structural components.13 The both material and clean-up costs.
conventional opinion is that producing composite
components involves high labour and hence high cost. The Revolution’s bare exterior panels also provide
However, the Hypercar team used clean-sheet design to multiple services. Aside from providing protection and
devise a method of cost-effectively producing the aerodynamic streamlining, they also provide aesthetic
Revolution’s extensive catalogue of composite parts. In appeal. Panel production for the Revolution includes
fact, the setup costs are a fraction of tooling costs for in-mould colouring, which eliminates the need for
conventional steel vehicles.14 extra preparation and painting steps.22
Chapter 7.qxd 12/1/2008 6:29 PM Page 114

114 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Vehicle optimization As a result of the above incremental improvements:

Conventional vehicle optimization 1 The vehicle is slightly faster, more powerful and
more attractive to forecasted market trends;
Conventional vehicle design uses incremental product 2 The vehicle mass is variant – slightly lighter,
refinement for each subsystem in isolation to improve heavier or negligibly different; and
component quality, introduce features and enhance 3 Vehicle fuel consumption is variant – slightly less,
manufacturing efficiency with current production more or negligibly different.
systems, as in Figure 7.4.
The following incremental improvements are
typically made to subsystems: WSD optimization

• Structure: Incremental improvements made to

Element 5: Design and optimize subsystems in the
structure without having to significantly modify
right sequence
tooling (changing the tooling is often too
expensive to justify change; hence the previous
model structure is used).
A WSD approach to optimization involves taking
• Propulsion: Minor adjustments such as valve
advantage of synergies between components and
timing, improving small components and
measuring modifications with respect to the whole
tolerances, adding components such as cams,
system.
improving power output from the engine (by 5–10
A primary performance factor of vehicle design is
per cent), and increasing fuel consumption
fuel consumption per unit of distance, Be, and can be
through power improvements or a bigger engine.
calculated using Equation 7.1 and Table 7.1.
• Chassis: Adjust the suspension to accommodate
larger engine mass; larger brakes to accommodate Consumption
Fuel consumption
faster speed and acceleration; steering and wheel (g/m)

systems are unaffected; use previous model steering Driveterian Running resistance
and wheel systems.
Acceleration resistance
• Electrical: Adjust electrical and electronic systems
Engine climbing resistance
corresponding to modifications made to other Rolling
resistance
Aerodynamic
drag Braking resistance
subsystems such as propulsion and chassis.
1 p
• Trim: Select a new colour scheme based on popular be.
nu
[ (m.Cr.g.cos α+ .Cd.A.v2)+m(α +g.sinα) +Br .v.dt.
2
[

Be. =
fashion trends. v.dt.
• Fluids: Larger water hoses to cool a more powerful
Distance
engine; larger fuel lines to feed a more powerful
engine; larger fuel tank for higher fuel Source: Robert Bosch GmbH (2004)23
consumption; larger brake fluid tank and lines for Equation 7.1 Fuel consumption per unit of distance
larger brakes. for road vehicles

Element 7: Review the system for potential

improvements

The above equation suggests that fuel consumption is

most influenced by engine efficiency (be) and drivetrain
efficiency (ηü). Hence the emphasis has been on
technologies such as fuel cells and hybrid drives as key to
Figure 7.4 The component optimization strategy of improving fuel-efficiency. While this relationship may be
conventional vehicle design true in the case of incremental product refinement, it
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WORKED EXAMPLE 2 – PASSENGER VEHICLES 115

Table 7.1 Symbol nomenclature power electronics and driver motor, the result may be a
net reduction in mass and cost. Irrespective of the net
Quantity Unit Quantity Unit
change, any powertrain will be smaller and more cost-
Be Consumption per g/m Cd Coefficient of – effective in a lighter vehicle platform than a heavier one.
unit of distance aerodynamic drag
ηü Transmission – A Frontal area m2
efficiency of drivetrain
m Vehicle mass kg v Vehicle speed m/s Element 8: Model the system
Cr Coefficient of – a Acceleration m/s2
rolling resistance
g Gravitational m/s2 Br Braking resistance N Figure 7.5 indicates the synergies between components
acceleration
in the Revolution with respect to mass. We can use the
α Angle of ascent o
t Time s
ρ Air density kg/m3 be Specific fuel g/kWh synergies to our advantage by applying Element 5:
consumption ‘Design and optimize subsystems at the right time and
in the right sequence’. From Figure 7.5 we can see that
Source: Robert Bosch GmbH (2004)24
the mass of the structure should be minimized first.
Doing so reduces the need for a large propulsion system
does not take into account the benefits of ‘mass and large amounts of trim. A lighter structure and
decompounding’ or other subsystem improvements. As smaller propulsion system means that the chassis can
the equation above suggests, there are a number of also be made lighter. Similarly, a smaller propulsion
additional factors to consider in improving fuel system and lighter chassis means that the electrical
economy: systems can be made lighter. Finally, a smaller
propulsion system requires a smaller volume of fluids.
• rolling resistance; This strategy for optimizing the Revolution will
• aerodynamic drag; maximize the mass reductions for the least amount of
• acceleration resistance; effort.
• climbing resistance; and
• breaking resistance. Structure

Mass decompounding – Reducing mass first

Element 9:Track technology innovation

Element 6: Design and optimize subsystems to

achieve compounding resource savings In order to make a component lighter, it makes sense to
investigate lighter materials. Designers are
conventionally encouraged to optimize component
Mass (m) is directly proportional to rolling resistance, functionality for minimum cost, and so steel is usually
acceleration resistance and climbing resistance, which
are all used to determine required peak power of
vehicles. Reducing platform mass means reducing fuel
cell size and cost. ‘Mass decompounding’ is the term
used to describe the snowballing of weight savings, or a
‘beneficial mass spiral’. A lighter vehicle body requires a
lighter chassis and smaller powertrain, which further
reduces mass. A number of mass reduction iterations
can lead to much lighter components, or even the
elimination of some components. For example,
installing a hybrid-electric system would remove the
need for a transmission, clutch, flywheel, starter motor
and alternator, among other components. Although the Figure 7.5 The flow of compounding mass reduction in
new system would require the installation of a battery, the system design strategy of Whole System vehicle design
Chapter 7.qxd 12/1/2008 6:29 PM Page 116

116 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

selected. However, a comparably priced automobile system has a mass of only 288kg, 38 per cent lower
structure can be created using advanced composite than a conventional propulsion system.31
materials (primarily carbon/epoxy) and lightweight Therefore, lower power output is required to move
metals such as aluminium and magnesium alloys:25 the lower mass.
2 The hydrogen fuel cell system is more fuel efficient
• The advanced composite has a much higher (29 per cent efficient) than the conventional
stiffness-to-density ratio than steel, so less mass is internal combustion engine (15–20 per cent
required for the same stiffness; efficient).32 Therefore more fuel is used to move
• The advanced composite can be processed and the vehicle and less is being lost through friction
assembled more easily, with low scrap (15 per cent and heat.
compared to 30–40 per cent for steel)26 and at a 3 The design of the structure and propulsion systems
fraction of the cost of steel;27 and result in 55 per cent lower aerodynamic drag.33
• The advanced composite and alloys can be recycled 4 The design of the propulsion and chassis systems
with negligible loss to integrity, and therefore have result in 65 per cent lower rolling resistance.34
a high salvage value.28
Chassis
Using mostly advanced composite materials and some
aluminium, the Revolution’s complete structure has a The lighter structure and propulsion systems reduce
mass of only 187kg (57 per cent less than that of a the suspension, braking and steering loads, which leads
conventional steel structure), and it also includes to reduced chassis mass. The chassis mass is reduced
features such as integrated suspension mounting, further through features integrated into the structure
cooling lines, electrical conduits and trim features, and electrical propulsion systems, and through
which result in compounding mass savings with the integrated software control, which eliminates the need
corresponding subsystems.29 The composite materials for several mechanical components:35
have a low thermal mass, which makes them good
insulators and reduces the need for additional • The suspension system in the Revolution is lighter
insulating materials. than that of a conventional vehicle since it does not
need to support as much mass;
Propulsion • The braking system in the Revolution is also
lighter than that of a conventional car since it does
By optimizing the structure first, the mass reductions not need to decelerate as much mass;
can be carried over to the propulsion system. The • The PAX run-flat tyre system was developed for
reduction would normally lead to a roughly 57 per cent the Revolution; this has a 15 per cent lower rolling
reduction in power required to move the structure. resistance than conventional tyre systems.36
Assuming that the conventional propulsion system
generates 180kW of output power, which is typical of a The steering mechanism in the Revolution is
modern 6-cylinder sedan, we would expect the electrically actuated and lighter than a conventional
Revolution to require a 75–80kW propulsion system. steering column.
The low power requirement makes some currently
expensive technologies viable. A particularly favourable Electrical
option is a hydrogen fuel cell. In fact, the fuel cell-
powered Revolution requires only 35kW for cruising The Revolution’s electrical and electronic control
and up to 70kW during peak loads,30 such as during system is a low-cost, network-based, shared-data
acceleration, towing and driving up an incline. system.37 The network structure eliminates the need for
The lower than expected power output is designated, point-to-point wiring as in a conventional
attributable to four factors: vehicle. As a result, the mass of the system is reduced.
The electrical accessories, including heating, venting
1 Not only is the structure lighter, but the and air-conditioning (HVAC), lighting, and audio
propulsion system is lighter too. The fuel cell systems, are four times more energy-efficient than the
Chapter 7.qxd 12/1/2008 6:29 PM Page 117

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 – PASSENGER VEHICLES 117

conventional systems,38 which means that they emit about 450km on 53kg, or 72l, of petrol. This difference
less heat and thus reduce the required load on the equates to a 95 per cent improvement in mass efficiency
HVAC system. in favour of the Revolution.

Trim Result
Since the trim features of the Revolution’s structure The total mass of the vehicle is only 857kg (52 per cent
double as interior surfaces for many parts of the less mass than a conventional vehicle of the same size)
passenger cabin, the need for conventional cosmetic and it is roughly the same size and price as a
trim is reduced.39 conventional vehicle (Figure 7.6 shows the subsystem
breakdown). Furthermore, the Revolution emits zero
Fluids emissions with equal or better performance than a
conventional vehicle.
The intensive electrical integration in the Revolution,
particularly in the propulsion system, eliminates the need
for many of the fluids that the conventional mechanical Cost analysis
system requires for cooling and lubrication. The
Conventional cost analysis
Revolution does not require transmission fluid, brake
fluid or oil for engine lubrication, and requires less water The price of a conventional business-class sedan is
for cooling and less grease for lubrication.40 In addition usually US$50,000–$70,000. This price does not
to the reduced fluids requirement, the Revolution also include the cost of regular servicing and replacement
needs to carry far less fuel than a conventional vehicle. parts, which can amount to US$500–$2000 per year
The Revolution has a range of 530km on 3.4kg of depending on the parts and level of service. In fact, some
hydrogen,41 whereas a conventional car has a range of vehicles are sold at an initial loss, with the expectation

Figure 7.6 Mass comparison between the conventional passenger vehicle and the WSD vehicle, by subsystem
Chapter 7.qxd 12/1/2008 6:29 PM Page 118

118 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Table 7.2 Average life of some serviceable components in Aside from owning a better vehicle, the customer
a conventional passenger vehicle also enjoys lower aftermarket costs:
Component Average Life Component Average Life • Fewer components require replacement during the
Transmission 30,000km Brake 5 years Revolution’s 300,000km or more service life.44
fluid components Extensive electronic control has eliminated the
Oil 6 months need for many mechanical components that
Oil filter 6 months Brake fluid 15,000km usually wear out. Even the components that are
Spark plugs 10,000km Tyres 50,000km
similar to that of a conventional vehicle, such as
Coolant 2 years Water 6 months
brake calipers and rotors,45 should last the life of
the Revolution. Fewer mechanical parts means less
and cleaner fluids, so fluid replacement and service
cost is reduced.
that a profit will be made through aftermarket servicing
• The Revolution has a fuel economy of about
and the sale of replacement parts, as in Table 7.2, over
156km/kg.46 At 2003 hydrogen prices of
the roughly 15-year, 300,000km life of the vehicle.
US$3.51/kg,47 fuel costs are about 2c/km. It is
However, not included in Table 7.2 are the unserviceable
likely that this figure will only fall, with the
components that usually fail before the end of the
development of hydrogen-extraction technologies.
vehicle’s life, such as the clutch, ball joints, muffler and
By applying Element 4, ‘Account for all measurable
gaskets. These components are generally more expensive
impacts’, the customer may also enjoy lower costs
than the serviceable components in Table 7.2.
for other services in the future:
A conventional business-class passenger vehicle has
• Governments may offer financial incentives for
a fuel economy of about 8km/litre. At 2005 petrol
purchasing a Revolution, such as a rebate on
prices of about US$1.30/litre at the pump, fuel costs
purchase cost or a built-in discount on other taxes
for such a vehicle are about 16c/km. It is likely that this
such as lower vehicle registration costs.
figure will climb with rising petrol prices.
• The Revolution may be cheaper than a
conventional vehicle to insure, as its panels are
WSD cost analysis resistant to minor dents and scratches,48 it is safer
so the likelihood of passenger harm is lower, and its
low mass will inflict less damage on another car
Element 4: Account for all measurable impacts during a collision.
• In a future hydrogen economy, a parked
Revolution can be used to generate electricity for
The total ongoing production cost of the Revolution is other purposes. Plug-in systems, similar but with
similar to that of a conventional vehicle. However, the opposite flow to those used to charge the batteries
cost of some technologies, such as fuel cell technology, of electric vehicles, can transfer electricity from the
is falling. Although upfront design effort for the Revolutions to local buildings to help meet energy
Revolution is greater, the overall capital investment is demands. Electricity can be sold to the grid,
several times smaller than that of a conventional generating income for the owner.49
vehicle, which is dominated by tooling costs.42 Tooling
for conventional vehicles usually involves designated The Revolution also boasts some impressive
dyes and moulds for each of many components, environmental benefits that are generally not counted
whereas the Revolution’s FiberforgeTM system requires by original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) or
relatively few tools to make all of its advanced customers:
composite components.43 Therefore the Revolution can
be sold at a similar price as the conventional vehicle, • The Revolution generates zero emissions.50 The
but at a profit. Furthermore, economic justification only by-product from the fuel cell is heat and pure
need not depend on aftermarket sales. water, which can be collected and put to use
Chapter 7.qxd 12/1/2008 6:29 PM Page 119

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 – PASSENGER VEHICLES 119

Table 7.3 Some environmental impacts of a conventional vehicle and the Hypercar Revolution
Waste Mass (kg) Waste fraction Material Direct waste Hidden abiotic Hidden water
(kg) waste (kg) waste (t)
Conventional vehicle

Structure scrap 430 35% Steel54 151 1279 11.3

Non-recycled 1800 25% Glass, plastic, rubber55 450 1800 127.8
Total 601 3079 139.1

Hypercar Revolution

Structure scrap 187 15% Carbon fibre56 28 1629 50.5

Non-recycled 857 0% n/a 0 0 0
Total 28 1629 50.3

elsewhere. Zero emissions also means cleaner air just the structure scrap, the Revolution performs worse
and buildings, reduced health risks for people, than the conventional vehicle. However, through careful
fewer regulatory restrictions, and simplified testing selection of the Revolution’s materials and processing
for OEMs. techniques, some of which are more expensive than
• The quiet operation of the fuel cell/electric those of the conventional vehicle, the Revolution is
propulsion system reduces noise pollution. almost fully recyclable. Many of the Revolution’s more
• Revolution also has a high salvage value since it is expensive options, like the use of carbon fibre for the
almost fully recyclable.51 Even the valuable carbon structure, resulted in increased recyclability and hence
fibre material, which conventionally would be sent overall smaller environmental impact when compared
to landfill, can be recovered profitably with to the conventional vehicle.
negligible degradation.

The true value of recovering materials emerges when we Notes

investigate their hidden costs. For example, the
production of 1kg of aluminium requires 19kg of other 1 See Australian Greenhouse Office, ‘Sustainable transport’,
at www.greenhouse.gov.au/transport/, accessed 14 April
abiotic materials and 539kg of water.52 Although
2006.
aluminium and the advanced composite (carbon fibre 2 See Australian Greenhouse Office, ‘Sustainable transport’,
and epoxy resin) of the Revolution have a greater at www.greenhouse.gov.au/transport/, accessed 14 April
environmental impact per unit mass than the steel of 2006.
the conventional vehicle, they are recovered and reused, 3 Smith, M., Hargroves, K., Stasinopoulos, P., Stephens,
so their environmental impact is compensated for by R., Desha, C. and Hargroves, S. (2007) Energy
their providing more services throughout their life. On Transformed: Sustainable Energy Solutions for Climate
the other hand, the roughly 25 per cent conventional Change Mitigation, The Natural Edge Project, Australia,
vehicle mass that is landfilled mainly consists of the ‘Lecture 8.2: Integrated approaches to energy efficiency
non-metallic components – glass, plastics (such as and alternative transport fuels – passenger vehicles’, and
nylon, polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride) and ‘Lecture 8.3: Integrated approaches to energy efficiency
and alternative transport fuels – trucking’, www.
rubber.53 The environmental impact from the loss of
naturaledgeproject.net/Sustainable_Energy_Solutions_
these single-use materials puts the Revolution at an even Portfolio.aspx, accessed 10 April 2008.
greater environmental advantage. Table 7.3 compares 4 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars,
the environmental impact of the scrap material hydrogen, and the automotive transition’, International
generated when building the vehicles’ structures, and Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, pp50285.
the impact of the non-recycled materials that are 5 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and
landfilled at the end of the vehicles’ lives. Comparing manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite
Chapter 7.qxd 12/1/2008 6:29 PM Page 120

120 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th 15 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and
International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite
Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/images/ automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th
other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf, accessed International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric
25 April 2007. Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/
6 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars, images/other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf,
hydrogen, and the automotive transition’, International accessed 14 January 2007.
Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, pp50–85, 16 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and
www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T04-01_Hypercar manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite
H2AutoTrans.pdf, accessed 25 August 2008. automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th
7 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars, International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric
hydrogen, and the automotive transition’, International Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/images/
Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, pp50–85, other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf, accessed
www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T04-01_Hypercar 14 January 2007.
H2AutoTrans.pdf, accessed 25 August 2008. 17 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars,
8 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and hydrogen, and the automotive transition’, International
manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, pp50–85,
automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T04-01_HypercarH2
International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric AutoTrans.pdf, accessed 25 August 2008.
Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/images/ 18 Lovins, Brylawski, Cramer and Moore (1996) cited in
other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf, accessed Fox, J. W. and Cramer, D. R. (1997) Hypercars: A
25 April 2007. Market-Oriented Approach to Meeting Lifecycle
9 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars, Environmental Goals, Rocky Mountain Institute,
hydrogen, and the automotive transition’, International Colorado, www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T97-05_
Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, pp50–85, MarketApproach.pdf, accessed 8 June 2005.
www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T04-01_Hypercar 19 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars,
H2AutoTrans.pdf, accessed 25 August 2008. hydrogen, and the automotive transition’,
10 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and International Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos
manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite 1–2, pp50–85, www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/
automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th T04-01_Hypercar H2AutoTrans.pdf, accessed 25
International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric August 2008.
Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/images/ 20 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and
other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf, accessed manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite
25 April 2007. automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th
11 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars, International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric
hydrogen, and the automotive transition’, International Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/images/
Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, pp50–85, other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf, accessed
www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T04-01_Hypercar 14 January 2007.
H2AutoTrans.pdf, accessed 25 August 2008. 21 Fox, J. W. and Cramer, D. R. (1997) Hypercars: A
12 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars, Market-Oriented Approach to Meeting Lifecycle
hydrogen, and the automotive transition’, International Environmental Goals, Rocky Mountain Institute,
Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, pp50–85, Colorado, www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T97-05_
www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T04-01_Hypercar MarketApproach.pdf, accessed 8 June 2005.
H2AutoTrans.pdf, accessed 25 August 2008. 22 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and
13 Ward Communications (1999) cited in Lovins, A. B. manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite
and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars, hydrogen, and automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th
the automotive transition’, International Journal of International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric
Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, pp50285, www.rmi.org/ Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/
images/other/Trans/T04-01_HypercarH2AutoTrans. images/other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf,
pdf, accessed 25 August 2008. accessed 14 January 2007.
14 Williams, B. D. et al (1997) Speeding the Transition: 23 Robert Bosch GmbH (2004) Automotive Handbook,
designing a fuel-cell Hypercar, Rocky Mountain Institute, Robert Bosch GmbH, Warrendale, PA, US, p417.
Colorado, www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T97-09_ 24 Robert Bosch GmbH (2004) Automotive Handbook,
SpeedingTrans.pdf, accessed 14 January 2005. Robert Bosch GmbH, Warrendale, PA, US, p417.
Chapter 7.qxd 12/1/2008 6:29 PM Page 121

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 – PASSENGER VEHICLES 121

25 Research is currently being undertaken by CSIRO on automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th
lightweight metals for cars (www.csiro.au/csiro/content/ International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric
standard/ps13x,,.html). Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/images/
26 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf, accessed
manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite 14 January 2007.
automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th 36 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars,
International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric hydrogen, and the automotive transition’, International
Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/images/ Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, pp50–85,
other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf, accessed www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T04-01_Hypercar
14 January 2007. H2AutoTrans.pdf, accessed 25 August 2008.
27 Williams, B. D. et al (1997) Speeding the Transition: 37 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars,
Designing a Fuel-Cell Hypercar, Rocky Mountain hydrogen, and the automotive transition’, International
Institute, Colorado, www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/ Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, pp50–85,
T97-09_SpeedingTrans.pdf, accessed 14 January 2005. www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T04-01_Hypercar
28 Fox, J. W. and Cramer, D. R. (1997) Hypercars: A H2AutoTrans.pdf, accessed 25 August 2008.
Market-Oriented Approach to Meeting Lifecycle 38 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and
Environmental Goals, Rocky Mountain Institute, manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite
Colorado, www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T97-05_ automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th
MarketApproach.pdf, accessed 8 June 2005. International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric
29 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/images/
manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf, accessed
automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th 14 January 2007.
International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric 39 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and
Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/images/ manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite
other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf, accessed automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th
14 January 2007. International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric
30 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars, Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/images/
hydrogen, and the automotive transition’, International other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf, accessed
Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, pp50–85, 14 January 2007.
www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T04-01_Hypercar 40 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and
H2AutoTrans.pdf, accessed 25 August 2008. manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite
31 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th
manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric
automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/images/
International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf, accessed
Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/images/ 14 January 2007.
other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf, accessed 41 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and
14 January 2007. manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite
32 Williams, B. D. et al (1997) Speeding the Transition: automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th
Designing a Fuel-Cell Hypercar, Rocky Mountain International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric
Institute, Colorado, www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/ Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/images/
T97-09_SpeedingTrans.pdf, accessed 14 January 2005. other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf, accessed
33 Fox, J. W. and Cramer, D. R. (1997) Hypercars: A 14 January 2007.
Market-Oriented Approach to Meeting Lifecycle 42 Williams, B. D. et al (1997) Speeding the Transition:
Environmental Goals, Rocky Mountain Institute, Designing a Fuel-Cell Hypercar, Rocky Mountain
Colorado, www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T97-05_ Institute, Colorado, www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/
MarketApproach.pdf, accessed 8 June 2005. T97-09_SpeedingTrans.pdf, accessed 14 January 2005.
34 Fox, J. W. and Cramer, D. R. (1997) Hypercars: A 43 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars,
Market-Oriented Approach to Meeting Lifecycle hydrogen, and the automotive transition’, International
Environmental Goals, Rocky Mountain Institute, Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, pp50–85,
Colorado, www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T97-05_ www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T04-01_Hypercar
MarketApproach.pdf, accessed 8 June 2005. H2AutoTrans.pdf, accessed 25 August 2008.
35 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and 44 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and
manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite
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122 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th Environmental Goals, Rocky Mountain Institute,
International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Colorado, www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T97-05_
Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/images/ MarketApproach.pdf, accessed 8 June 2005.
other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf, accessed 52 Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Energy and
14 January 2007. Environment (2003) Material Intensity of Materials,
45 Lovins, A. B. and Cramer, D. R. (2004) ‘Hypercars, Fuels, Transport (version 2), Wuppertal Institute,
hydrogen, and the automotive transition’, International Germany, www.wupperinst.org/uploads/tx_wibeitrag/
Journal of Vehicle Design, vol 35, nos 1–2, pp50–85, MIT_v2.pdf, accessed 7 May 2008.
www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T04-01_Hypercar 53 Lofti, A. (n.d.) ‘Automotive recycling’, The Green Pages,
H2AutoTrans.pdf, accessed 25 August 2008. www.lotfi.net/recycle/automotive.html, accessed 19
46 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and October 2005.
manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite 54 An estimate of hidden costs is given by taking typical
automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th values for steel: 8.5kg/kg abiotic material and 75kg/kg
International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric water. Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Energy and
Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/images/ Environment (2003) Material Intensity of Materials,
other/Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf, accessed Fuels, Transport (version 2), Wuppertal Institute,
14 January 2007. Germany, www.wupperinst.org/uploads/tx_wibeitrag/
47 Rose, R. (n.d.) ‘Questions and answers about MIT_v2.pdf, accessed 7 May 2008.
hydrogen and fuel cells’, www.fuelcells.org/info/library/ 55 An estimate of hidden costs is given by taking the mean
QuestionsandAnswers062404.pdf, accessed 19 Oct 2005. values for glass, plastic and rubber: 4 kg/kg abiotic
48 Fox, J. W. and Cramer, D. R. (1997) Hypercars: A material and 284kg/kg water. Wuppertal Institute for
Market-Oriented Approach to Meeting Lifecycle Climate, Energy and Environment (2003) Material
Environmental Goals, Rocky Mountain Institute, Intensity of Materials, Fuels, Transport (version 2),
Colorado, www.rmi.org/images/other/Trans/T97-05_ Wuppertal Institute, Germany, www.wupperinst.org/
MarketApproach.pdf, accessed 8 June 2005. uploads/tx_wibeitrag/MIT_v2.pdf, accessed 7 May
49 Hawken, P., Lovins, A. and Lovins, L. H. (1999) 2008.
Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial 56 The assumption of 100 per cent of the Revolution’s
Revolution, Earthscan, London, p35. structure being carbon yields an overestimate in total
50 Cramer, D. R. and Taggart, D. F. (2002) ‘Design and hidden costs since aluminium, the other material used,
manufacture of an affordable advanced-composite has lower hidden costs than carbon fibre. An estimate of
automotive body structure’, in Proceedings of the 19th hidden costs is given by taking the values for carbon
International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle fibre (PAN): 58kg/kg abiotic material and 1795kg/kg
Symposium and Exhibition, www.rmi.org/images/other/ water. Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Energy and
Trans/T02-10_DsnManuAdvComp.pdf, accessed 8 June Environment (2003) Material Intensity of Materials,
2005. Fuels, Transport (version 2), Wuppertal Institute,
51 Fox, J. W. and Cramer, D. R. (1997) Hypercars: A Germany, www.wupperinst.org/uploads/tx_wibeitrag/
Market-Oriented Approach to Meeting Lifecycle MIT_v2.pdf, accessed 7 May 2008.
Chapter 8.qxd 12/1/2008 6:30 PM Page 123

8
Worked Example 3 – Electronics and
Computer Systems

Significance of electronics and providers, multiple server systems are required. Often,
up to 42 servers are connected together in a ‘rack’ and
computer design
many racks may be required. Consequently, multiple
The world’s economy is highly dependent on fast, server systems or ‘data centres’, can occupy whole
reliable computers to provide a plethora of information rooms. Data centres attract overhead costs, including:
and communications services to governments, businesses
and the typical web-surfer. Large banks of computers are • technical staff salaries;
linked together and mounted in racks to provide the • maintenance costs;
computing power for companies, but this infrastructure • lighting capital and running costs; and
typically comes with large requirements on resources and • air-conditioning with ventilation capital and
energy, and produces substantial volumes of waste. Like running costs.
other engineering systems investigated in this book,
computer and electronics systems are traditionally The sensitive operational nature of data centres calls for
designed with incremental engineering improvement specialist air-conditioning systems that are required to
processes, and thus are equally likely to receive Factor maintain specific humidity and temperature conditions.
4–10 (75–90 per cent) gains in resource productivity Maintenance costs of specialist environmental control
through Whole System Design (WSD). (Note: This systems usually far outweigh the energy costs to run the
worked example will focus on the hardware design of a system itself, and the energy costs for a specialist air-
server, although some related factors of building conditioning system are higher than for a conventional
infrastructure are also briefly discussed.) system. The overhead costs plus the capital and running
costs of the racks and servers themselves make
establishing and running a data centre an expensive
Server systems overview operation.
Servers are software applications that carry out tasks on
behalf of other software applications called ‘clients’. On
Performance characteristics
a network, the server software is run on a computer and
acts as the gateway to sharing resources that the client The following server performance characteristics are
software – which is run on user computers – wants to critical and usually emphasized during server design, in
access (see Figure 8.1 for a simple description of the particular the first three:1
client–server model). Thus servers must be capable of
multitasking – handling interactions with multiple 1 Reliability: Reliable and robust service – server
client devices. dropouts, even for a short period, can cost a
In large capacity networks, such as ones servicing company dearly in lost revenue and potential
many clients or workstations or for internet service liability;
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124 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Source: University of South Florida (2005)2

Figure 8.1 Simple diagram of client–server system set-up

2 Availability: 24/7 service and traffic handling – The operational performance characteristics influence
with today’s e-business environment, all peripheral the running costs of the system, which can be a
devices must be available around the clock, not just substantial portion of the total life-cycle cost:
during business hours;
3 Serviceability: Regular routine servicing – • Space: Since multiple server systems occupy whole
uninterrupted operation is aided by a variety of rooms, they may incur significant rent costs.
diagnostic tools and replaceable components; Conversely, servers are prone to more local heating
4 Scalability: Achieved by 1) using more central if tightly packed. At the server level, managing the
processing units (CPUs) and more powerful wiring between servers and peripheral devices is
input/output (I/O) technology and/or 2) also a challenge that is exacerbated by large,
connecting multiple servers; complex servers.
5 Manageability: There are a variety of issues to be • Power: Servers are power-hungry. A server system
addressed – performance monitoring, capacity alone in a data centre can account for a substantial
expansion, system configurability, remote portion of a company’s power costs. Supplying a
management, automatic or manual load large source of uninterrupted power also requires,
balancing/distribution, and task scheduling; and at a minimum, a back-up power source.
6 Security: Includes features such as user access control • Thermal: Servers are usually run continuously and
to resources and subsystems, user authentication, thus generate and dissipate more heat than a
intrusion detection, and cryptographic technologies. typical high-speed, high-power desktop personal
computer. Most data centres are equipped with air-
There are also operational performance characteristics3 conditioners to help maintain mild room
that are not critical to the average customer but temperatures so that servers do not overheat and
important to the network technician, who is fail. The air-conditioners are relatively high
responsible for setting up the server(s) and providing powered and thus contribute substantially to a
the appropriate climate conditions in the data centre. company’s power costs.
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WORKED EXAMPLE 3 – ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTER SYSTEMS 125

Worked example overview two contrasting examples: a conventional server versus

the Hyperserver concept, developed by the Rocky
Servers incorporate both server software applications Mountain Institute. The application of an element will
and computer hardware. Servers are one of many be indicated with a shaded box.
subsystems that comprise a data centre. Other
subsystems include racks, electrical connections,
computer room air-conditioners (CRACs) and the Design challenge
room in the building. Data centres, themselves, are a
subsystem of an IT system, which also includes end- Design a server for a data centre comprising
user equipment such as computers, printers, faxes, 336 servers.
scanners and communications technology, as well as
the management of all these technological assets during
commissioning, operation, decommissioning and end Design process
of life. Further information about the Whole System
Design of IT systems is available in The Natural Edge The following sections of this chapter present:
Project’s freely available online textbook Energy
Transformed: Sustainable Energy Solutions for Climate 1 Conventional design solution: Conventional
Change Mitigation, ‘Lecture 5.3: Opportunities for system with limited application of the
energy efficiency in the IT industry and services elements of WSD;
sector’;4 and lecture series Sustainable IT: Reducing 2 WSD solution: Improved design using the
Carbon Footprint and Materials Waste in the IT elements of WSD; and
Environment.5 The following worked example focuses 3 Performance comparison: Comparison of the
on server hardware, although some related factors of economic and environmental costs and
building infrastructure are briefly discussed. benefits.
Note that, since the development of the following
worked example, IT technology has progressed from
the conventional solution towards the Whole System Conventional computer system
Design solution described in this chapter. While the design
technologies discussed may be outdated, the worked
example demonstrates the application of Whole System Select suitable components for the
Design effectively. system
Recall the elements of applying a WSD approach
Figure 8.2 shows a schematic of a conventional server
discussed in Chapters 4 and 5:
and indicates the power consumption of the major
1 Ask the right questions; components. Note that the CPU (70W) and power
2 Benchmark against the optimal system; supply (33W) are the biggest power consumers.
3 Design and optimize the whole system;
4 Account for all measurable impacts; CPU
5 Design and optimize subsystems in the right
sequence; Conventional servers are designed around high-power,
6 Design and optimize subsystems to achieve high-speed Central Processing Units (CPUs) that are
compounding resource savings; commonly found in desktop personal computers, such
7 Review the system for potential improvements; as Intel’s Pentium 4 processor, which consumes about
8 Model the system; 70–75W of power regardless of whether it is running at
9 Track technology innovation; and full capacity or at idle.6 These processors are selected for
10 Design to create future options. their high computational power despite the availability
of less power-hungry processors, such as those in
The following worked example will demonstrate how laptops and other mobile devices, whose computational
the elements can be applied to computer servers using power is only slightly less.
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126 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Source: Eubank et al (2003)7

Figure 8.2 Schematic of a conventional server, including power consumption

Power supply power supply usually runs at low load, the heat sink is
almost always oversized. Furthermore, power supplies
While power supplies are sized to handle the maximum rated greater than 50W, which are common since low
server load, the server spends most of the time running efficiency is so predominant, usually require fans for
at 30 to 50 per cent of this.8 Consequently, a single cooling.12 The fans themselves introduce more heat.
power supply powering the server would also run at 30 Power supplies are usually coupled with an
to 50 per cent of its maximum load. However, servers additional redundant power supply in order to provide
usually incorporate identical, coupled power supplies an uninterruptable source of power. Typically, the
for redundancy, which run at about 15–30 per cent of redundant power supplies are always on and operate at
their maximum loads.9 The problem is that power low load (20–25 per cent of nameplate) and with low
supplies are not designed to run at such low loads and efficiency.13
their efficiency drops off rapidly below about 40 per
cent load, as shown in Figure 8.3. Running at low load,
Calculate the cost of the system
coupled with other inefficiencies such as multiple
current conversions, sees the efficiency of a typical Only about half of the power going into a data centre is
server power supply drop to about 50 per cent or less.10 fed to the servers; the other half is used for overhead
This imbalance between maximum load efficiency energy services such as lighting, air-conditioning and
(which is only 70 to 75 per cent) and low load uninterruptable power supplies (UPS). Only about 10
efficiency arises from the power supply design process, per cent of the air-conditioning power is used to cool at
during which power loss is only ever considered at one the processor level, while about 50 per cent is used to
load – maximum load. This point in the design process cool at the data centre level.14 The higher cooling load
is when the heat sink is designed.11 However, since the at the data centre level is partly due to ‘coolth’ losses in
Chapter 8.qxd 12/1/2008 6:30 PM Page 127

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 – ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTER SYSTEMS 127

Source: Eubank et al (2003)15

Figure 8.3 Energy efficiencies over full load spectrum of various power supplies

cooling air when it interacts with hot outgoing air.16 Now consider a data centre with 336 servers (8 racks of
After incorporating these overhead energy services, the 42 servers):
total running cost of a server in a data centre is double
what is expected. The ratio of the total power demand • The capital cost of the servers is 336 × AU$6000 =
of the data centre to the total power demand of the AU$2.02 million;
servers is called the ‘delivery factor’.17 For a conventional • The running cost of the data centre over 3 years is
server data centre the delivery factor is 1.97.18 336 × AU$663 = AU$222,781;
Consider an average conventional server with a • The current draw for the servers is 336 × 0.8A =
three-year life operating in a data centre in Australia, 269A; and
where the cost of electrical power is AU$0.10/kWh • The mass of the servers is 336 × 12 = 4032kg.
(2006 price for large energy users) for a typical large
building. The total running cost per watt of power
delivered to a conventional server data centre is given
WSD computer system design
by multiplying the cost per kWh by the total running Determine a strategy for optimizing
time over the service life of a server by the delivery all performance characteristics
factor of the data centre:

Running cost/W (AU$0.10/kWh × 0.001kW/W) Element 3: Design and optimize the whole system
× (8766 hours/year × 3 years) × (1.97) = AU$5.18/W

For a typical AU$6000, 128W, 0.8A, 12kg server The Hyperserver concept19 was developed using a
(including external power supply) the total three year WSD methodology,20 and it demonstrates the 60–90
running cost is: per cent resource productivity improvements that can
be made when more emphasis is put on optimizing the
Total running cost 128W × AU$5.18/W whole system and factoring the following considerations
= AU$663 into design:21
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128 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Element 1: Ask the right questions Element 7: Review the system for potential
improvements

• High energy bills;

• High capital cost; The design strategy is twofold:23
• Grid dependence;
• Utility distribution charges and delays; 1 Reduce or eliminate heat sources:
• Risks for the owner/developer; • Remove as many energy-intensive components
• Community opposition; and as possible; and
• Uncaptured opportunities for product sales. 2 Improve heat management:
• Develop alternative chip-cooling strategies;
The strategy used to design the Hyperserver is based • Optimize heat sinks by choosing the appropriate
around reducing the full resource and economic cost of the cooling fin orientation, design and reference
data centre, not just one or two components of it. The values;
power delivered to the server is the key leverage point • Remove server box enclosures or minimize the
for reducing energy consumption and costs throughout enclosure area to increase airflow; and
the whole data centre because the rest of the • Put the most heat-intensive and heat-tolerant
components (racks, lighting, air-conditioning, systems at the top of the rack, where the heat
ventilation and technical staff ) are only there to support collects (since hot air rises).
the servers. Simpler power-conserving servers mean
fewer resources and lower costs for the other Select suitable components for the
components. In other words, reducing the power
system
delivered to the servers will lead to multiple benefits
throughout the whole system. Consequently, the Figure 8.4 shows a schematic of the Hyperserver and
strategy used to design the Hyperserver is based around indicates the power consumption of the major
reducing the full cost of each watt of power delivered to the components. Some components, such as the hard-disk
server, which means favouring reducing power used drive and power supply, are external and not shown
continuously over reducing power used intermittently.22 here. Note that not only is the power consumption of

Source: Eubank et al (2003)24

Figure 8.4 Schematic of the WSD server, including power consumption

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WORKED EXAMPLE 3 – ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTER SYSTEMS 129

the CPU (6W) and power supply (3W) about ten times power converter, which consumes only 2W of power.
smaller than in the conventional server, but the power The combined 5W power supply consumes 85 per cent
consumption of the other components is also smaller. less power than the conventional power supply. A
common DC voltage to several servers reduces the
Improving heat-intensive components first number of wires, and hence, makes the system easier to
handle. Although a common DC voltage configuration
can be relatively inefficient,34 it can be designed such
that the inefficiencies are small, as in Appendix 8A at
Element 5: Design and optimize subsystems in the the end of this chapter. The power converter in the
right sequence server can step up the DC voltage to a variety of
voltages such that the components are running at loads
that approximate those of peak efficiency.
Twenty per cent of the power consumption of servers is
due to the fans required to remove heat from heat-
intensive components such as the CPU.25 In the case of
Element 4: Account for all measurable impacts
the Hyperserver, the design is centred around an ultra-
efficient processor, like the Transmetta TM5600, which
consumes only 6W of power at load (91 per cent more
efficient) and less than 1W (99 per cent more efficient) The external power supply configuration has multiple
at idle.26 As a result, no heat sinks or dedicated fans are benefits:35
required for cooling,27 making the server much more
energy-efficient, smaller and lighter. • Higher efficiency in a direct bus approach;
• Able to supply power at the required capacity
rather than at the nameplate rating, which is
External housing of hardware typically higher;
Hard-disk drives • A more efficient power supply that can be custom-
designed, improved and optimized for life-cycle cost;
The hard-disk drives (HDDs) are housed externally in • Removal of a major heat source from the board;
an efficient-to-operate location where the heat • Cheaper equipment: able to use fewer and far more
generated can be easily removed.28 Without the space efficient power supplies, both main and
constraint of having to fit the HDD on the server redundant;36
motherboard, larger, shared drives can be used that are • More reliable equipment: moves power, fans and
more efficient and more reliable than smaller, heat off-board;
designated drives.29 Effectively, only 3W of power is • Quieter: fans removed;
consumed by the drive per server. The operating • Size reductions: moving components makes the
system, which is usually stored on the drive, is stored board smaller.
on local RAM (DRAM or Flash),30 and hence more
RAM is needed. Redundant power supplies do not need to be on all the
time. They can be off or in a low-power standby mode
Power supply until there is a main power failure.

Like the HDD, the power supply is also housed Server orientation and liquid cooling
externally in an efficient-to-operate location.31, 32 The
modularity of the external power supply configuration Instead of fans, a liquid-based,37 external cooling system
may favour using a common DC voltage between the is used, as in Figure 8.5, which shows the traditional
power supply and the server, so that all DC to DC method of laying the servers horizontally (‘Pizza Boxes’)
conversion can be done by a single 80 per cent efficient and the alternative – to stand the servers on edge (‘Blade
power converter that consumes only 3W of power.33 Section’). Another possible configuration is to orient the
The external power supply requires an AC to DC servers diagonally so as to promote natural air convection
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130 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Air-conditioning
While reducing power consumption in air-conditioning
is beyond the scope of this worked example, some low-
to-no cost opportunities are mentioned below. Further
information about the Whole System Design of air-
conditioning systems is available in The Natural Edge
Project’s freely available online textbook Energy
Transformed: Sustainable Energy Solutions for Climate
Change Mitigation, ‘Lecture 2.3: Opportunities for
improving the efficiency of HVAC systems’.43

• Modern server equipment is more tolerant of

temperature and humidity fluctuations than
equipment of the past. Consequently, a carefully
designed data centre’s air-conditioning system does
not need to incorporate an elaborate temperature
and humidity control. In fact, a conventional split
system may suffice. A simple and usually small
Source: Eubank et al (2003)38
conventional system saves on expensive
Figure 8.5 Server rack unit with liquid cooling system maintenance costs, capital costs and power
consumption costs.
• In most climates, outdoor air can often be used for
in a zigzag fashion from the bottom of the rack to the top. passive cooling, especially at night, substantially
Vertically and diagonally oriented servers allow air to cutting the daily air-conditioning power
escape vertically while providing come convective cooling consumption. Ambient air can also be used to pre-
on the way through, whereas horizontally laid servers trap cool both the air for the air-conditioner and the
(and stew in) their own hot air. Open- or grated-top racks cooling liquid for the WSD server’s liquid cooling
allow the air to escape from the rack completely. system.

Behaviour
Element 9:Track technology innovation
While reducing power consumption in data centres
through non-technological behavioural means is
The horizontal heat transfer plate is enlarged around beyond the scope of this worked example, some no-cost
the processor – the server’s largest single source of opportunities are mentioned below:
heat – and is connected to the fluid column. This
configuration has more potential for cooling than the • Often, all lights in a data centre are left on 24/7
conventional fan systems for two main reasons. Firstly, when, in fact, they only need to be on for
fluids such as water have a much higher thermal maintenance and upgrades. Turning lights off when
conductivity (0.611W/mK at 27°C)39 than air the data centre is unoccupied not only saves direct
(0.0281W/mK at 47°C),40 which is why cooling fans lighting power costs but also indirect air-
are not required, hence saving 20–30 per cent of the conditioning costs because the lights themselves also
power consumption.41 Secondly, the cooling system emit heat, which contributes to the cooling load.
only requires a small amount of power to circulate the • Elsewhere in the building, computers can lead to
fluid, regardless of how many servers it is cooling, unnecessary loads on servers even after the
saving a further 25 per cent of power.42 As a result, the building’s occupants retire from work for the
power consumption of a liquid cooling system is only evening. Computers left on when not in use still
1W per server. make requests to the servers – requests that yield
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WORKED EXAMPLE 3 – ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTER SYSTEMS 131

zero useful result, such as a request for data to run Now consider a data centre with 336 Hyperservers
a user’s personalized screen saver, which is stored (8 racks of 42 servers):
on the shared memory hardware in the building’s
data centre. Like lighting, computers also • The capital cost of the servers is 336 × AU$2500 =
contribute to direct and indirect power costs that AU$840,000;
can be easily avoided. • The running cost of the data centre over 3 years is
336 × AU$75 = AU$25,236;
• The current draw for the servers is 336 × 0.13A =
Calculate the cost of the system 44A; and
The data centre savings of a Hyperserver-based system • The mass of the servers is 336 × 2.4 = 806.4kg.
are greater than simply those from the lower power
consumption. The extra savings arise primarily in the
form of the reduced capital costs of overhead
Summary: performance
equipment such as air-conditioners. For example, comparisons
Hyperservers require proportionately less cooling
Server hardware only
assistance and smaller cooling equipment than
conventional servers, and the UPS can be incorporated The computing power of the Hyperserver (the speed
with the AC/DC converter rather than being housed with which the CPU processes instructions) is only
separately, making the UPS smaller and able to respond about half that of conventional servers. The lower
faster to a failure. As a result, the delivery factor for a computing power of the Hyperserver is a result of the
Hyperserver data centre is 1.36.44 smaller CPU, which was chosen for its potential to
Consider a Hyperserver with a three-year life deliver large energy reductions throughout the whole
operating in a data centre in Australia, where the cost system (conventional CPUs, in some cases twice as
of electrical power is AU$0.10/kWh (2006 price for powerful, consume 70–80 per cent more energy).
large energy users) for a typical large building. The total Therefore two Hyperservers are needed to match the
running cost per watt of power delivered to a computing power of a conventional server. Tables 8.1
Hyperserver data centre is given by multiplying the cost and 8.2 and Figure 8.6 compare the performance of a
per kWh by the total running time over the service life conventional server with a twin-Hyperserver system.
of a server by the delivery factor of the data centre:
Table 8.1 Power consumption by the major server
components
Running cost/W (AU$0.10/kWh × 0.001kW/W)
× (8766 hours/year × 3 years) × (1.36) Conventional Two
= AU$3.58/W server (W) Hyperservers (W)
CPU 70 12
For an AU$2500, 21W, 0.13A, 2.4kg Hyperserver45 Hard-disc drive 10 6
(including external power supply) the total three-year Power supply 33 12
running cost is: Cooling 5 2
Miscellaneous46 10 10
Total 128 42
Total running cost 21W × AU$3.58/W = AU$75

Table 8.2 Costs and operating performance comparisons between a conventional server and hyperservers
Conventional server Two Hyperservers Reduction

Capital Costs (AU$) 6000 5000 17%

Running costs (AU$) 663 150 77%
Power (W) 128 42 67%
Current (A) 0.8 0.26 68%
Mass (kg) 12 4.8 60%
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132 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Server hardware plus software • Does not require tools to install additional servers,
control so expansion of computing abilities is
straightforward; and
The performance of the twin-Hyperserver system can • Uses 12 times fewer ethernet cables per rack,
be improved further by implementing advanced making management substantially easier.
dynamic resource allocation (DRA). DRA is heavily
software-oriented and thus is not discussed in detail
here. Briefly, it involves features such as sharing Progress in industry: Hewlett-
resources and controlling the power feed to resources Packard
depending on demand. Advanced DRA can save a
further 30 per cent to 50 per cent of power HP Labs, Hewlett-Packard’s central research
consumption in a data centre,47 keeping the overall organization, is using a process consistent with WSD.
power consumption to 21–30W per twin-Hyperserver Their whole-system-style ‘chip core to cooling tower’
system. For a twin-Hyperserver DRA system with approach is used in the design of the ‘Smart Chip’,
power consumption of 28W, the running cost, ‘Smart System’ and ‘Smart Data Center’ – three projects
including data centre energy overhead, is $100 over focusing on three levels of computer system design.
three years, as indicated in Table 8.3 and Figure 8.6. Together, these three levels of focus form a
‘computational continuum’, because, as Chandrakant
Patel, Director of HP’s Sustainable IT Ecosystem Lab,48
Multiple benefits notes, ‘if one were to bound this continuum, then one
The Hyperserver outperforms the conventional server might say that the data centre is the computer’. As a
in every category given in Tables 8.2 and 8.3. And there result, many of the features of the three projects overlap.
are still more benefits to the Whole System server
design, as demonstrated by a commercially available Improving the whole system
server developed by RLX, which shares many of the
WSD features with the Hyperserver. The RLX server: HP Labs offer a number of suggestions for optimizing
a computer system at the chip,49 system50 and data
• Requires 1/8 of the space of a conventional server, centre levels:
so the 336 server system fits in a single rack as
opposed to 8 racks; • Cooling resources should be flexible and scalable at
• Has solid-state electrical connections (instead of all levels.51 If the cooling mechanism at any level
wires) and redundant power supplies are used, (especially the chip and system levels) is
making the overall system more reliable; momentarily inadequate, some components could

Table 8.3 Cost and operating performance comparisons between a conventional server and
hyperservers with DRA
Conventional server Two Hyperservers Reduction
with DRA

Capital Cost (AU$) 6000 5000 17%

Running cost (AU$) 663 100 85%
Power (W) 1000 28 84%
Current (A) 0.8 0.17 79%
Mass (kg) 12 4.8 60%
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WORKED EXAMPLE 3 – ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTER SYSTEMS 133

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 8.6 Comparing the three design solutions

Chapter 8.qxd 12/1/2008 6:30 PM Page 134

134 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

be shut down and the workload could be taken up Measuring performance

by another component in a different location.52
• Chip level:53 Cooling systems should dynamically HP Labs suggest that the cost of computing should:
adapt to the non-uniform heat distribution on the
chip. The current heat-sink-dependent configuration • Be measured by quantities that are applicable at the
relies on a large temperature difference at the chip, system and data centre levels;
interface between the chip and the heat sink. The • Be relevant globally; and
large temperature difference results in irreversibilities • Provide uniform evaluation.62
and destruction of exergy. An example of a more
They suggest measuring cost using MIPS (million
efficient chip-cooling technology involves putting a
instructions per second) per unit of exergy
coolant between the chip and a condenser plate. The
destroyed.63
right coolant54 can help dissipate air while
The earliest chips had an efficiency of about 6
minimizing irreversibilities and destruction of exergy.
MIPS/W and modern chips have an efficiency of about
• System level:55 Heat in a server or rack should be
100 MIPS/W.64 The MIPS capability of chips will
rejected to the surroundings efficiently. Fans should
continue to increase further, but will eventually be
be optimized for the nominal air flow rate and
limited by the high power and cooling requirements
pressure drop across the server or rack, and should be
that come with extremely high MIPS.65 At this limit,
variable-speed. An example of an efficient fan-cooled
MIPS per unit exergy is a valuable measurement when
system involves a single, centralized, variable-speed
comparing chips to determine which configuration
fan feeding air through many valves and then across
holds the most potential for progress.66
channels of components (similar to centralized
An equation has been developed for exergy
power supply used in the Hyperserver); each valve
destruction of a modern chip package consisting of all
controls the air across its own channel. When the
components, from circuit board to heat sink.67 The
components in a channel are at idle, the associated
equation sets exergy destruction equal to the sum of
valve should close and the centralized fan’s speed
three terms:68
should be adjusted.
• Data centre level: Hot exhaust air should not mix The first term represents the total exergy destroyed from
with cold inlet air.56 Local cooling at the rack the electricity supply to the sink base, and is mostly due
should be favoured over general space cooling.57 A to the rejection of high-quality electrical energy as low-
sensor-actuator control system that incorporates quality heat. The second term represents the exergy loss
(at a minimum) sensors at the inlet and outlet of due to temperature differences along the fins of the heat
the servers should be implemented.58 sink. The last term indicates the exergy lost due to
• Decision policies for sensor-actuator control fluid friction in the airflow. As might be expected,
systems should be in combinations of the reducing thermal resistance and fluid pressure drop are the
following strategies:59 two most straightforward ways of lowering exergy
• Thermal management-based: Optimize the consumption in the thermal infrastructure. It is not,
temperature; however, immediately clear what impact the power
• Energy efficiency-based: Maximize energy consumption of the processor may have on the package
efficiency; exergy loss.
• Irreversibility-based: Minimize thermo-
dynamic irreversibilities by minimizing An equation has also been developed for energy
mixing of hot and cold air flows;60 destruction in a data centre.69 Studies on exergy at the
• Exergy-based:61 Minimize the destruction of data centre level70 show that there is an optimal
exergy, including heat dissipated by computer room air-conditioning (CRAC) air flow rate
components; and for minimizing exergy destruction. Exergy destruction
• Performance-based: Optimized computa- increases sharply at flow rates lower or higher than the
tional performance. optimal rate.71
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WORKED EXAMPLE 3 – ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTER SYSTEMS 135

placing the isolated DC/DC converter near the AC/DC

Appendix 8A converter and thus minimizing the length of the high
voltage portion of the power supply system.
Hence the power conversion from mains power to
An issue preventing DC transmission in many server load can be performed with the following
applications is that power losses through heat equipment:
dissipation can be significant. To understand this issue
better, consider the following equation: • Mains AC to DC: A boost power-factor-corrected
converter73 operating at 240V AC input and 400V
Power (W) = Voltage (V) × Current (A) DC output can achieve 96 per cent conversion
efficiency.74
Heat dissipation is correlated with current. A solution • DC to isolated bus DC: A soft-switched half-bridge
is thus simply to transmit the power with high voltage converter can achieve above 93 per cent conversion
and low current. However, high voltage (or high efficiency.75
current) is a safety hazard, especially in the external • Isolated bus DC to non-isolated server load: A
power supply configuration where the power will be simple, hard-switching buck converter can step
transmitted via a wire. Furthermore, a simple non- down 12V to 5V or 3.3V at a conversion efficiency
isolated DC/DC converter cannot efficiently convert a of at least 92 per cent.
high voltage to a low voltage, such as is required for the
Hyperserver. Thus the total efficiency will be at least 0.96 × 0.93 ×
A solution is to incorporate an isolated DC/DC 0.92 = 82 per cent.
converter between the AC/DC converter and the server
power supply, as in Figure 8A.1. The isolated DC/DC Cost
converter can efficiently convert a high bus voltage to, say,
12V. Simple non-isolated DC/DC converters can then Compared to conventional power supply architecture,
efficiently convert that 12V to the few volts required for the architecture in Figure 8A.1 has slightly more power
each Hyperserver. Safety risks can be minimized by supplies (non-isolated DC/DC converters replace the

Source: Lu72

Figure 8A.1 Power supply architecture incorporating an intermediate DC–DC conversion

to achieve high conversion efficiency
Chapter 8.qxd 12/1/2008 6:30 PM Page 136

136 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

AC/DC converters, plus a few extra isolated DC/DC 10 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for
converters) but has all of the other benefits listed above High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain
in this worked example. The most significant benefit is Institute, Snowmass, CO, p41.
the overall reduced size and cost of the power supplies 11 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for
High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain
due to the high operating efficiency. Furthermore, the
Institute, Snowmass, CO, p42.
architecture in Figure 8A.1 incorporates a centralized
12 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for
AC/DC converter, rather than multiple distributed High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain
AC/DC converters. Although the centralized converter Institute, Snowmass, CO, p41.
needs to be larger in order to handle more power, the 13 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for
total number of controllers, sensors, heat sinks, and High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain
plastic and mechanical parts is reduced. Institute, Snowmass, CO, p39.
14 Shah, A. J. et al (2004) ‘An exergy-based control strategy
Notes for computer room air-conditioning units in data
centers’, in Proceeding of the 2004 ASME International
1 Haghighi, S. (2002) ‘Server computer architecture’, in Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, 13–19
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Alternative to Traditional Beowulfs, IEEE International Institute, Snowmass, CO, p41.
Conference on Cluster Computing (IEEE Cluster), 23 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for
September 2002, Chicago, IL, http://public.lanl.gov/ High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain
feng/Bladed-Beowulf.pdf, accessed 23 March 2008. Institute, Snowmass, CO, p37.
7 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for 24 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for
High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain
Institute, Snowmass, CO, p34. Institute, Snowmass, CO, p35.
8 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for 25 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for
High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain
Institute, Snowmass, CO, p41. Institute, Snowmass, CO, p49.
9 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for 26 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for
High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain
Institute, Snowmass, CO, p41. Institute, Snowmass, CO, p37.
Chapter 8.qxd 12/1/2008 6:30 PM Page 137

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 – ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTER SYSTEMS 137

27 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for International Symposium on Micro-Mechanical Engineering,

High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain 1–3 December. Patel suggests that liquid cooling is
Institute, Snowmass, CO, p37. inevitable for processor cooling due to the ineffectiveness of
28 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for heat sinks at dissipating the large amount of heat generated
High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain by increasingly denser chips. Processor cooling is discussed
Institute, Snowmass, CO, p38. in ‘Progress in industry: Hewlett-Packard’. Here we show
29 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for how liquid cooling can be applied at the rack level.
High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain 38 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for
Institute, Snowmass, CO, p38. High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain
30 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for Institute, Snowmass, CO, p49.
High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain 39 Mills, A. F. (1999) Heat Transfer (second edition),
Institute, Snowmass, CO, p38. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, p894.
31 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for 40 Mills, A. F. (1999) Heat Transfer (second edition),
High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, p888.
Institute, Snowmass, CO, p39. 41 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for
32 The issues associated with Electromagnetic Interference High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain
(EMI) may be magnified when using an externally Institute, Snowmass, CO, p50.
housed power supply. Any power supply must have at 42 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for
least one stage of EMI filter to comply with High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) regulations. For Institute, Snowmass, CO, p49.
an internally housed power supply, the radiated-EMI 43 Smith, M., Hargroves, K., Stasinopoulos, P., Stephens,
can be partially shielded by the server’s metal case. R., Desha, C. and Hargroves, S. (2007) Energy
However, for an externally housed power supply, a larger Transformed: Sustainable Energy Solutions for Climate
EMI filter and/or better shielding may be required. If Change Mitigation, The Natural Edge Project, Australia,
required, a larger EMI filter or better shielding will ‘Lecture 2.3: Opportunities for improving the efficiency
increase the cost of the power supply only slightly, of HVAC systems’, www.naturaledgeproject.net
especially compared to the overall savings that an /Sustainable_Energy_Solutions_Portfolio.aspx, accessed
externally housed power supply can generate. 10 April 2008.
33 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for 44 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for
High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain
Institute, Snowmass, CO, p39. Institute, Snowmass, CO, p11.
34 Unlike with AC transmission, power losses via DC 45 Based on RLX’s blade servers – among the few WSD
transmission can be significant. This is a reason why AC servers on the market before 2003, when the
transmission is common in conventional server design. Hyperserver was conceived.
Conventional thinking says that, at best, the amount of 46 Miscellaneous power consumed by components such as
power dissipated will govern the number of servers that network interface cards.
a single common DC voltage can supply, and hence the 47 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for
number of AC/DC converters required. Appendix 8A in High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain
this chapter presents an alternative configuration. Institute, Snowmass, CO, p34.
35 Eubank, H. et al (2003) Design Recommendations for 48 Patel, C. et al (2005) ‘Smart chip, system and data
High-Performance Data Centers, Rocky Mountain center enabled by advanced flexible cooling resources’,
Institute, Snowmass, CO, p39. 21st IEEE Semi-Therm Symposium, IEEE CPMT
36 Although the chance of having to engage the redundant Society, San José, CA, pp78–85.
power supply is reduced, there is still a need to 49 ‘Chip’ is an alternate terminology for microprocessor or
incorporate it to ensure continuous electricity supply to processor.
servers. However, since the common DC power supply 50 The system level refers to the server level or sometimes
feeds several servers (centralized power), the total the rack level.
number of main and redundant power supplies is 51 Patel, C. et al (2005) ‘Smart chip, system and data
reduced. Also, since the common DC power supply is center enabled by advanced flexible cooling resources’,
more efficient, the size and cost of both the main and 21st IEEE Semi-Therm Symposium, IEEE CPMT
the redundant power supply are reduced. Society, San José, CA, pp78–85.
37 Patel, C. (2003) ‘A vision for energy-aware computing – 52 Patel, C. (2003) ‘A vision for energy-aware computing –
From chips to data centers’, in Proceedings of the From chips to data centers’, in Proceedings of the
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138 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

International Symposium on Micro-Mechanical Engineering, 64 Shah, A. et al (2005) ‘Impact of chip power dissipation
Tsuchiura and Tsukuba, Japan, 1–3 December. on thermodynamic performance’, 21st IEEE Semi-
53 Patel, C. (2003) ‘A vision for energy-aware computing – Therm Symposium, IEEE CPMT Society, San José,
From chips to data centers’, in Proceedings of the CA, pp99–108.
International Symposium on Micro-Mechanical Engineering, 65 Shah, A. et al (2005) ‘Impact of chip power dissipation
Tsuchiura and Tsukuba, Japan, 1–3 December. on thermodynamic performance’, 21st IEEE Semi-
54 The ‘right’ coolant would be the type for which a phase Therm Symposium, IEEE CPMT Society, San José,
change is reversible. For example, water freezing to ice is CA, pp99–108.
a reversible process because the ice can be melted into 66 Shah, A. et al (2005) ‘Impact of chip power dissipation
water again. Boiling an egg, on the other hand, is an on thermodynamic performance’, 21st IEEE Semi-
irreversible process. Therm Symposium, IEEE CPMT Society, San José,
55 Patel, C. (2003) ‘A vision for energy-aware computing – CA, pp99–108.
From chips to data centers’, in Proceedings of the 67 Shah, A. et al (2005) ‘Impact of chip power dissipation
International Symposium on Micro-Mechanical on thermodynamic performance’, 21st IEEE Semi-
Engineering, 1–3 December. Therm Symposium, IEEE CPMT Society, San José,
56 Patel, C. (2003) ‘A vision for energy-aware computing – CA, pp99–108.
From chips to data centers’, in Proceedings of the 68 Shah, A. et al (2005) ‘Impact of chip power dissipation
International Symposium on Micro-Mechanical Engineering, on thermodynamic performance’, 21st IEEE Semi-
Tsuchiura and Tsukuba, Japan, 1–3 December. Therm Symposium, IEEE CPMT Society, San José,
57 Shah, A. J. et al (2004) ‘An exergy-based control strategy CA, pp99–108.
for computer room air-conditioning units in data 69 Shah, A. J. et al (2004) ‘An exergy-based control strategy
centers’, in Proceedings of the 2004 ASME International for computer room air-conditioning units in data
Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, 13–19 centers’, in Proceedings of the 2004 ASME International
November, Anaheim, CA. Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, 13–19
58 Patel, C. (2003) ‘A vision for energy-aware computing – November, Anaheim, CA.
From chips to data centers’, in Proceedings of the 70 Shah, A. J. et al (2004) ‘An exergy-based control strategy
International Symposium on Micro-Mechanical Engineering, for computer room air-conditioning units in data
Tsuchiura and Tsukuba, Japan, 1–3 December. centers’, in Proceedings of the 2004 ASME International
59 Patel, C. et al (2005) ‘Smart chip, system and data Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, 13–19
center enabled by advanced flexible cooling resources’, November, Anaheim, CA.
21st IEEE Semi-Therm Symposium, IEEE CPMT 71 Shah, A. J. et al (2004) ‘An exergy-based control strategy
Society, San José, CA, pp78–85. for computer room air-conditioning units in data
60 When hot and cold air streams mix, they create a mild centers’, in Proceedings of the 2004 ASME International
temperature air stream from which neither the heat or Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, 13–19
‘coolth’ can ever be recovered again without additional November, Anaheim, CA.
energy being applied; hence there is an ‘irreversible’ loss 72 Dylan Lu, University of Sydney, personal
of energy. communication in June 2006.
61 Exergy is the maximum theoretical work attainable 73 Regulation from IEC 6-1000-3-2 states that every
when multiple systems at different states interact to power supply that has input power greater than 75W
equilibrium. Exergy is dependant on the reference needs to limit the input current harmonics using a
environment in which the systems interact. Cited in power-factor-corrected AC/DC converter.
Moran, M. J. and Shapiro, H. N. (1999) Fundamentals 74 Spiazzi, G. et al (2003) ‘Performance evaluation of a
of Engineering Thermodynamics (fourth edition), John Schottky SiC power diode in a Boost PFC Application’,
Wiley and Sons. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol 18, no 6,
62 Patel, C. (2003) ‘A vision for energy-aware computing – pp1249–1253.
From chips to data centers’, in Proceedings of the 75 Korotkov, S. et al (1997) ‘Soft-switched asymmetrical
International Symposium on Micro-Mechanical Engineering, half-bridge DC/DC converter: Steady-state analysis. An
Tsuchiura and Tsukuba, Japan, 1–3 December. analysis of switching processes’, Telescon 97: The
63 Patel, C. (2003) ‘A vision for energy-aware computing – Second International Telecommunications Energy
From chips to data centers’, in Proceedings of the Special Conference, 22–24 April, pp177–184,
International Symposium on Micro-Mechanical Engineering, http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentCon.jsp?punumber
Tsuchiura and Tsukuba, Japan, 1–3 December. =5266, accessed 28 March 2007.
Chapter 9.qxd 12/1/2008 6:31 PM Page 139

9
Worked Example 4 – Temperature Control
of Buildings

Significance of low-energy homes the need to build new power plants and maintain
distribution infrastructure, the poles and cables. This
Today even the most expensive and luxurious homes phenomenon was discussed in detail in Chapter 4 of
and modern buildings can generate electricity on-site The Natural Edge Project’s The Natural Advantage of
through renewable energy technologies such as rooftop Nations publication. Hence, for many reasons
photovoltaic cells, solar thermal collectors and small- reducing the need for air-conditioning and making it
scale wind turbines. These technologies can reduce the less energy-intensive is a very important mechanism
building’s demand for electricity from the grid and for reducing demand for electricity.
hence save money. In some countries, any excess Minimizing heat transfer into or out of the home
electricity can be sold back to the grid, which is (heat loss in winter and heat gain in summer) can be
particularly profitable during peak load periods. done in a number of ways. The goal is to control the
However, before options for renewable power internal temperature of the home within a preferred
generation are considered, the amount of electricity temperature range. The temperature inside the home is
used by the home needs to be reduced. Many homes usually increased by people, electrical appliances and
are very inefficient users of electricity and there are lighting; however, the main need for temperature
many cost-effective options for reducing demand control in homes is driven by the outside conditions.
without reducing comfort or service.1 Making the In many cases the design of a home does not look
building a low-energy consumer will then reduce the holistically for ways to reduce the need for temperature
infrastructure needed to generate the electricity on-site, control but rather compensates with a reliance on
and allow more of the electricity produced to then be heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC)
sold back to the grid. systems. However, there are a range of strategies for
Lowering electricity consumption in a home can reducing the heat load and extremes of temperature.
be done in a number of ways, such as through the Firstly, high temperatures during summer can be
choice of energy-efficient appliances (in 2006 General reduced by blocking solar radiation with trees,
Electric launched its eco-efficient range of home generous overhangs, awnings and verandas, and
appliances as part of the Ecomagination programme) through situating water structures or planted trellises
and through energy-saving practices and behaviour; upwind of the home. Secondly, much can be done to
however, the need for providing a comfortable regulate the air temperature in a house through passive
temperature in the home is one of the largest solar design: orientation of the house, thermal mass,
electricity consumers. The demand for electricity for natural ventilation and insulation. There is a range of
air-conditioning in the summer and heating in the very cost-effective ways to improve insulation, such as
winter for homes and commercial buildings is driving topping up ceiling insulation, cavity wall insulation,
increased peak electricity demand, which then drives pelmets and appropriate curtains, double glazing
Chapter 9.qxd 12/1/2008 6:31 PM Page 140

140 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

windows, weather seals for doors, draught stoppers sufficient in demonstrating the effect of Whole System
under doors, roof vents, ensuring windows are sealed, Design (WSD) on building design.
and insulating around the hot water system. In the Australian building industry, software
Such investments can significantly reduce the need packages such as second generation NatHERS7
for regular use of ceiling fans or a HVAC system and programs (AccuRate, FirstRate58 and BERSPro9) and
allow a home to be adequately heated or cooled quickly other rating tools10 are often used. These software
with relatively small and cheap fans, air-conditioners packages streamline the modelling and calculation
and heaters.2 Placing manually adjustable windows to process, but care is required in ensuring that the
take advantage of prevailing winds and thermal published protocols for use are adhered to.
convection to ventilate living spaces can similarly The cooling load calculations in this worked
reduce the use and size of HVAC systems. example will be based on the ‘Cooling Load
HVAC systems themselves can be designed in Temperature Difference/Cooling Load Factor
different ways. The Australian Greenhouse Office has a (CLTD/CLF)’ method – a simplified, hand-calculation
training module on HVAC systems.3 The US method presented by the American Society of Heating,
Department of Energy provides an overview of the Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
wide range of ways to achieve temperature control in (ASHRAE) in their 1997 Handbook.11 The later
buildings.4 It is important also to consider when versions of this publication (2001 onwards – the book
designing such systems how energy-efficient other air- is updated usually every four years) present another
conditioning and heating systems are as well.5 method known as the ‘Radiant Time Series’ method,
This design worked example will look at the home which gives an exact solution, but requires computer-
as a system and consider a range of options and their aided numerical computation. In this worked example,
economic impacts. northern hemisphere data from the ASHRAE 1997
Handbook are used for southern hemisphere
calculations, under the assumption that asymmetries
Worked example overview between the two hemispheres are negligible.
HVAC systems are one of many subsystems that Recall the elements of applying a WSD approach
comprise a building’s temperature control system, as discussed in Chapters 4 and 5:
discussed above. Most of these subsystems are
applicable to the design of all types of buildings, 1 Ask the right questions;
including houses, commercial buildings and industrial 2 Benchmark against the optimal system;
workshops. Further information about the Whole 3 Design and optimize the whole system;
System Design of commercial buildings and HVAC 4 Account for all measurable impacts;
systems is available in The Natural Edge Project’s freely 5 Design and optimize subsystems in the right
available online textbook Energy Transformed: sequence;
Sustainable Energy Solutions for Climate Change 6 Design and optimize subsystems to achieve
Mitigation, ‘Lecture 2.2: Opportunities for energy compounding resource savings;
efficiency in commercial buildings’ and ‘Lecture 2.3: 7 Review the system for potential improvements;
Opportunities for improving the efficiency of HVAC 8 Model the system;
systems’.6 9 Track technology innovation; and
The following worked example focuses on cooling 10 Design to create future options.
systems in houses. Specifically, it focuses on working
through the cooling load calculations required for The following worked example will demonstrate how
sizing a residential HVAC system. These calculations the elements can be applied to temperature control in
can be quite complex and calculations for commercial domestic buildings using two contrasting examples: a
buildings are even more so. For this reason, this chapter conventional house versus a WSD house. The main
presents only the major components of the calculations focus is on Elements 2, 3, 4 and 5. The application of
required for a very simple house. The analysis is the other elements will be indicated with a shaded box.
Chapter 9.qxd 12/1/2008 6:31 PM Page 141

WORKED EXAMPLE 4 – TEMPERATURE CONTROL OF BUILDINGS 141

Since the dry bulb temperature in Canberra (32.5°C) is

Design challenge substantially greater than the design temperature
(24°C), a HVAC system will probably be required.
Design a north-facing, single-storey house for a
family of two parents and three children. The Assumptions
house is located in Canberra, Australia. Include
a HVAC system if necessary. The following assumptions are made for this worked
example:

Design process • The house is approximated as a single large room,

so heat gain from interior, unconditioned space,
The following sections of this chapter present: qP , is not applicable;
• Daylight penetration affects all areas of the
1 General solution: A solution for any single- building evenly;16
storey house in Canberra, Australia, • Average cloudiness and other weather conditions;
incorporating a set of assumptions; • Steady state heat transfer conditions;
2 Conventional design solution: Conventional • The effects of moisture are ignored;
system with limited application of the • The outside and interior temperatures are
elements of WSD; uniformly distributed;17
3 WSD solution: Improved system using the • There is no exterior artificial lighting;
elements of WSD; and • Thirty per cent of all lamps are on during times of
4 Performance comparison: Comparison of the maximum cooling load;
economic and environmental costs and • All lamps operate for 2000 hours per year;
benefits. • Ignore the cost of any structural resizing;
• Electrical appliances release an average of 25 per
cent of input power as heat;18
General Solution • Fifty per cent of all electrical appliances are on
during times of maximum cooling load;
The house is in a temperate climate where it is hot in • Electrical appliances consume power at an average
summer and cold in winter. Consequently, the house rate of 10 per cent of their input power at all times;
may require both cooling and heating equipment.12 ignore installation costs of components;
However, for the purposes of this worked example, only • The occupants of any solution behave similarly;19
the summer scenario will be considered. The winter and
scenario is covered in the ASHRAE Handbook.13 • The assumptions and conditions of any equations
and tables used in the references are relevant and
Climate accurate.

The aim of the worked example is to design a house

that can maintain the following interior climate Calculating cooling load
conditions:

• Design temperature: 24ºC; and Element 8: Model the system

• Design humidity ratio: 50 per cent

The house is located in Canberra, Australia (Latitude: The size of the HVAC system is determined by the
35.15ºS), where the summer climate has the following maximum cooling load, which is determined by the
characteristics:14 heat gain. Heat gain comes from two types of sources,
external and internal, each of which contributes various
• Dry bulb temperature (0.4 per cent15): 32.5ºC; cooling loads. The cooling load equations are given
• Daily range of dry bulb temperature: 13.3ºC; and below.20 Table 9.1 describes each symbol in the
• Humidity ratio (0.4 per cent): 13.7 per cent. equations.
Chapter 9.qxd 12/1/2008 6:31 PM Page 142

142 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

External Table 9.1 Symbol nomenclature for design cooling

load equations
Heat gain through opaque surfaces (walls, roof and
doors): Symbol Description Units
AD Area of door m2
qW = AW UW ( CLTD ) for each exterior wall AG Unshaded area of window or skylight m2
AGS Shaded area of window or skylight m2
AP Area of interior partition or wall m2
qR = ARU R ( CLTD ) AR Area of roof projected onto horizontal m2
(excluding skylights)
qD = ADU D ( CLTD ) for each door AW Area of exterior wall (excluding windows) m2
ACH Air exchange rate (air exchanges per hour) 1/hr
Heat gain through translucent surfaces (windows and CLFA Cooling load factor for electrical appliances
(time delay factor)
skylights): CLFL Cooling load factor for artificial lighting
(time delay factor)
qG = AG ( GLF ) + AGS ( GLF )S for each CLFO Cooling load factor for occupants (time
21 delay factor)
window and skylight CLTD Cooling load temperature difference for K or °C
each surface
Heat gain due to infiltration of outside air through eL Energy efficiency of lamp
leaks: FU Usage factor (fraction of time in use)
FA Allowance factor (for additional losses)
qIS = 1.2Q ∆t GLF Glass load factor for each unshaded W/m2
window or skylight
GLFS Glass load factor for each shaded window W/m2
qIL = 3Q ∆w , or skylight
HA Heat gain due to electrical appliances W
where: HOL Latent heat gain due to occupants W
HOS Sensible heat gain due to occupants W
1000( ARC )( RV ) LP Duct losses
Q= qA Cooling load for electrical appliances W
3600 qC Maximum cooling load W
qD Cooling load for doors W
qDES Design cooling load W
Internal qG Cooling load for windows and skylights W
qIL Latent cooling load for infiltration W
Heat gain due to occupants: qIS Sensible cooling load for infiltration W
qL Cooling load for artificial lighting W
qOS = HOS ( CLF )O for each occupant qOL Latent cooling load for occupants W
qOs Sensible cooling load for occupants W
qP Cooling load for interior, unconditioned W
qOL = HOL for each occupant space
qR Cooling load for roof W
Heat gain due to artificial lighting: qW Cooling load for walls W
RV Room volume (in this case, volume of house) m3
qL = PL FU FA ( CLF )L ( 1 − e L ) for each lamp22 ∆t Temperature differential between outside K or °C
and interior
∆tP Temperatures differential across K or °C
Heat gain due to electrical appliances: an interior partition or wall
UD Overall heat transfer coefficient of door W/m2K
qA = HA(CLF)A for each appliance23 UP Overall heat transfer coefficient of W/m2K
interior partition or wall
UR Overall heat transfer coefficient of roof W/m2K
Heat gain from interior, unconditioned space UW Overall heat transfer coefficient of wall W/m2K
(ignored): ∆w Humidity ratio differential between kg/kg
outside and interior
q p = APU P ∆t p for each interior partition or wall Source: ASHRAE (1997)24
Chapter 9.qxd 12/1/2008 6:31 PM Page 143

WORKED EXAMPLE 4 – TEMPERATURE CONTROL OF BUILDINGS 143

The maximum cooling load, qC , is simply the sum of • Child 2: playing (equivalent to light bench work);
all individual cooling loads. The design cooling load, and
qDES, accounts for duct losses. • Child 3: seated reading (equivalent to seated in a
theatre).
qDES = qC ( 1 + LD )
Calculate the design cooling load
Conventional design solution The values in Table 9.2 yield the results in Table 9.3,
which are compared graphically in Figure 9.1. Note
Design the building and determine that major sources of heat gain are external heat gains.
the occupancy characteristics
For simplicity, the house has a simple rectangular floor Calculate the cost of the system
plan. The north-facing frontage is narrow to allow Costs are presented for house components that differ
room for a double carport on the western side of the from the WSD solution.
house and a small walkway on the eastern side. The
conventional house has the following features:
HVAC
• Northern façade: 10m wide × 3m high; two The HVAC system needs to be rated at least qDES =
windows: 2m × 2m each; no shade; door: 1m × 8.5kW.
2m; Select Fujitsu ART30LUAK/AOT30LMBDL
• Eastern façade: 20m wide × 3m high; four (ducted):26
windows: 1.5m × 1m each; 40 per cent tree shade;
• Southern façade: 10m wide × 3m high; two Output power: 8.8kW
windows: 2m × 2m each; no shade (no direct sun);
door: 1m × 2m; Input power: 3.3 kW
• Western façade: 20m wide × 3m high; four
windows: 1.5m × 1m each; 40 per cent tree shade; Capital cost27 = AU$2500
• Roof/attic/ceiling: pitched; foil and fibre glass bat
insulation equivalent to R3.5; small overhang; In Canberra a residential air-conditioner runs for about
• Exterior walls: fibre glass bat insulation equivalent 150h/yr.28 With electricity costing about AU$0.18/
to R1.5; kWh (2006 price for residential supply), the running
• Windows: single glazing, 3.2mm glass, sliding, cost of the HVAC system in the conventional solution is:
wood frame, draperies;
• Doors: solid core flush door; Running cost = (3.3kW)(150h/yr)
• Loose construction (many gaps in the building (AU$0.18/kWh) = AU$89/yr.
envelope that enable air drafts);
• Interior electrical appliances: total input power of Windows
4kW;25 and
• Interior electrical lighting: 30 100W incandescent There is 28m2 of single glazing and 72m of wooden
lamps. window frame.

The occupants are expected to be performing the Single glazing: AU$400/m2

following activities during times of maximum cooling
load: Wooden window frames with seals:
AU$20/m of window perimeter
• Man: light work;
• Woman: moderately active office work; Capital cost = (28m2)($400/m2)
• Child 1: playing (equivalent to light bench work); + (72m)(AU$20/m) = AU$12,640
Chapter 9.qxd 12/1/2008 6:31 PM Page 144

144 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Table 9.2 Values used to calculate design cooling load, Q DES , for the house
Symbol Value Source
2
AD (2m)(1m) = 2m Given
AG north, south: (2m)(2m)(2) = 8m2 Given
east, west: (0.6)(1.5m)(1m)(4) = 3.6m2
roof: 0m2 (no skylight)
AGS north, south: 0m2 Given
east, west: (0.4)(1.5m)(1m)(4) = 2.4m2
roof: 0m2 (no skylight)
AP n/a
AR (20m)(10m) = 200m2 Given
AW north, south: (10m)(3m) – AG – AD = 20m2 Given
east, west: (20m)(3m) – AG – AD = 54m2
ACH 0.7 per hour ASHRAE Handbook, Table 8, p27.4
CLFA 1 HVAC not operating 24hr/day
CLFL 1 ASHRAE Handbook, p28.5229
CLFO 1 ASHRAE Handbook, p28.5230
CLTD north: 6K, south: 4K; east, west: 10K roof: 23K ASHRAE Handbook, Table 1, p27.2
eL 0.15 APS31
FU 0.3 Given
FA 1 ASHRAE Handbook, p28.832
GLF North:33 71.5W/m2, south: 60W/m2 ASHRAE Handbook, Table 3, p. 27.3
east, west: 145W/m2
GLFS north, east, south, west: 60W/m2 ASHRAE Handbook, p27.534
HA (0.25)(0.5)(4kW)(1000W/kW) = 500W Given
HOL 55W + (0.85)(55W) + (0.75)(140W) ASHRAE Handbook, Table 3, p28.8
+ (0.75)(140W) + (0.75)(30W) = 307.5W
HOS 75W + (0.85)(75W) + (0.75)(80) + (0.75)(80) ASHRAE Handbook, Table 3, p28.8
+ (0.75)(65W) = 334.25W
LD 0.08 ASHRAE Handbook, p27.635
RV (20m)(10m)(3m) = 600m3 Given
∆t 32.5°C-24°C = 8.5°C Outside t: ASHRAE Handbook,
Table 5, p26.27, dry bulb temp. for Canberra
∆tP n/a
UD 2.21W/m2K ASHRAE Handbook, Table 6, p24.13
UP n/a
UR 1/3.5 = 0.286W/m2K 36
R3.5 roof insulation: McGee (2005)37 for Canberra
UG 5.05W/m2K ASHRAE Handbook, Table 5, p29.8
UW 1/1.5 = 0.667W/m2K R1.5 wall insulation: McGee (2005)38 for Canberra
∆w 0.5–0.137 = 0.363 Interior w: ASHRAE Handbook, Table 5,
p26.27 for Canberra

Electrical appliances Running cost = (0.1)(4kW)(24hr/day)

(365days/yr)(AU$0.18/kWh) = AU$631/yr
The interior electrical appliances will change for the
WSD solution but their capital cost will be assumed to
Electrical lighting
be unchanged. The input power of all electrical
appliances totals 4kW and all appliances run 10 per All 30 100W lamps operate for 2000 hours per year.
cent of the time on average.
With electricity costing about AU$0.18/kWh 100W lamp: AU$1/lamp for 1000 hour life
(2006 price for residential supply), the running cost of
the electrical appliances in the conventional solution is: Capital cost = (30 lamps)(AU$1/lamp) = AU$30
Chapter 9.qxd 12/1/2008 6:31 PM Page 145

WORKED EXAMPLE 4 – TEMPERATURE CONTROL OF BUILDINGS 145

Table 9.3 Breakdown of design cooling load components WSD solution

for the conventional solution
Redesign the building with less heat
External
gain
qW = 853W
qR = 1314W
qD = 44W Element 7: Review the system for potential
qG = 2384W improvements
qIS = 1190W
qIL = 127W

Internal In Table 9.3, the design cooling load for the

qOs = 308W conventional design is dominated by the external heat
qOL = 334W gains, of which the three largest are:
qL = 765W
qA = 500W 1 qR : heat gain through the roof;
Totals 2 qG : heat gain through the windows; and
3 qIS : sensible heat gain due to infiltration of outside
qC = 7820W
qDES = 8445W
air through leaks.

Therefore reducing these heat gains offers the greatest

With electricity costing AU$0.18/kWh (2006 price for potential for reducing the overall design cooling load.
residential supply), the running cost of the electrical That is not to say that the other components should be
lighting in the conventional solution is: ignored. In fact, by designing the system as a whole
(rather than component-wise), the benefits of any
Running cost: (30 lamps)(0.1kW) design feature will impact on the operations of other
(2000h/yr)(AU$0.18/kWh) = AU$1080/yr components. A key consideration for maximizing
benefits is embodied in Element 5: ‘Design and
See Table 9.6 for a summary of costs. optimize subsystems in the right sequence’. Here, the

Figure 9.1 Design cooling load components for the conventional solution
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146 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

design and optimization activities that provide multiple Building envelope and daylighting
benefits are usually prioritized. Determining the right
sequence in which to implement the activities requires The house’s building envelope can potentially reduce
deeper consideration. the cooling loads due to the three dominant
components of heat gain, qR, qG and qIS. Reducing the
external dimensions of the whole house will reduce the
Element 5: Design and optimize subsystems in the cooling load substantially, since either area, A, or room
right sequence volume, RV, appears in the equation for every
component of external cooling load. However, for
comparability, the external dimensions of the house are
Passive technologies (like shading devices) reduce the maintained.
demand for active technologies (like air-conditioning Since the rectangular floor plan dimensions are
units) as they do not require energy and therefore maintained, the horizontal area of the roof, AR, is also
should be designed and sized first. Each passive maintained. Consequently, the first dominating
technology can both improve the effectiveness of other component of heat gain, qR, is unaffected by changes in
passive technologies and reduce the overall demand for building envelope. There are some changes that can
active technologies. Active technologies, on the other reduce qR by other means. For example, the roof’s (and
hand, require energy input, which comes at a cost. wall’s) colour can influence the cooling load temperature
Optimizing passive and active technologies in the difference (CLTD) for the roof. Lighter colours reduce
sequence indicated in Figure 9.2 will maximize their CLTD and hence heat gain through the roof, qR. The
effectiveness and the house’s overall performance. effect of colour on residential buildings is relatively small
The WSD solution for the design challenge of this and is thus ignored. However, the effect of colour on
house considers aspects of building envelope (including commercial buildings can be significant, potentially
orientation, window shading, window types, building reducing the equivalent outside roof temperature from
materials, landscaping and construction quality); up to 45°C above ambient to within 10°C.39
daylighting; artificial (electrical) lighting; electrical The second dominating component of heat gain,
appliance selection; and HVAC. Passive solar heating qG, can be reduced through the combination of four
and passive cooling/ventilation are not a focus in this changes:
chapter.
1 Rotate the house by 90 degrees. The double
carport is replaced with a single carport and the
side walkway is eliminated so that the north-facing
frontage can be made wider. The depth of the
façades house is correspondingly smaller.
2 Have larger windows on the northern and southern
façades (and smaller windows on the eastern and
western façades) to encourage milder daylighting
throughout the day, rather than more intense early
and late sun through eastern and western windows.
The house’s shallower depth improves the relative
penetration of natural daylight.
3 Increase the length of the roof overhang and
introduce trees on the northern side to provide
shade. Since the meridian altitude (‘elevation’) of
the sun is higher during summer than in
winter, the roof overhang can be designed such
Figure 9.2 Building feature design sequence for that the amount of direct solar contact on
minimizing energy consumption windows is reduced (increasing the shaded area
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WORKED EXAMPLE 4 – TEMPERATURE CONTROL OF BUILDINGS 147

of the window) in summer while still allowing • Windows: triple glazing, 12.7mm airspace, sliding,
sufficient passive heating in winter. In this wood frame, draperies;
solution shading is assumed to be 40 per cent. In • Doors: solid core flush door; and
practice, the actual amount of shade provided by • Medium to tight construction (many gaps in
an overhang during summer can be calculated building envelope that enable air drafts).
using Table 6 in ASHRAE.40 In a temperate
climate, deciduous trees are best since they
provide shade in summer and allow solar gain in Passive solar heating
winter (when it is needed). In this worked example, passive solar heating, which is
4 Use more efficient windows. In this worked a significant factor in winter heating load, is not a focus
example the use of triple glazing with air gaps is because only the summer scenario is being considered.
explored. The gas gap (usually air or argon) reduces Note that in temperate climates, where winter heating
the overall heat transfer coefficient through the is often required, determining heating load is critical
windows, UG, since the gas has a lower thermal for overall systems optimization, because heat load is
conductivity than the glass. An alternative or dependent on many of the same house components
addition to multiple glazed windows are spectrally (such as insulation) as is cooling load. For this reason,
selective windows and films, which block most some of the changes made for the WSD solution were
infrared (heat containing) and ultraviolet light, only modest, for example, specifying that the roof
while transmitting a good portion of visible light. overhang would contribute to a percentage of window
Two such commercially available technologies are shading, rather than specifying the actual length of the
available from Viracon41 and V-KOOL.42 overhang, which can also influence the amount of
passive heat gain in winter. Furthermore, some obvious
The third dominating component of heat gain, qIS, can changes were not made at all. These changes include
be reduced through ‘tighter’ construction, which upgrading the insulation to prevent more heat gain in
involves both more careful selection of seal-like summer,44 which would also prevent the desirable day-
components and more careful workmanship during time heat gain during winter, and reducing the window
construction. area on the southern façade to prevent undesirable heat
The WSD house has the following building loss during winter, which would also reduce the
envelope and construction features: penetration of daylight. In fact, it is likely that a
relatively small window area on the southern façade
• Northern façade: 20m wide × 3m high; four would be optimal since qG is several times greater than
windows: 2m × 1.5m; 40 per cent roof overhang qW. However, for comparability, the total window area
and tree shade; door: 1m × 2m; of the house is maintained at 28m2.
• Eastern façade: 10m wide × 3m high; four
windows: 1m × 0.5m; 40 per cent tree shade;
Passive cooling/ventilation
• Southern façade: 20m wide × 3m high; four
windows: 2m × 1.5m; no shade;43 door: 1m × 2m; In this worked example, passive cooling/ventilation is not
• Western façade: 10m wide × 3m high; four considered, because its effects are not significant during
windows: 1m × 0.5m; 40 per cent roof overhang the period of maximum cooling load. Since maximum
and tree shade; cooling load usually occurs around the hottest part of the
• Roof/attic/ceiling: pitched; foil and fibre glass bat day, the house is usually closed up to prevent hot air from
insulation equivalent to R3.5; large overhang leaking in and contributing to heat gain. Note, however,
contributing to greater window shading on that passive ventilation can play an important role in
northern façade; evening cooling on hot days. The ‘CLTD/CLF’ method
• Exterior walls: fibre glass bat insulation equivalent for residential homes used in this worked example does
to R1.5; not explicitly account for delay effects.
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148 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Electrical appliances Consequently, fewer than the assumed 30 per cent of all
lamps would be on during times of maximum cooling
load. However, for simplicity, this assumption is
Element 6: Design and optimize subsystems to maintained as per the conventional solution.
achieve compounding resource savings The WSD house has the following artificial
lighting equipment:

Often, the heat gain from electrical appliances can be Interior electrical lighting: 30 15W compact
reduced at no cost by simply ‘shopping around’ for the fluorescent lamps
right-sized appliance. Compared to oversized
appliances, which sometimes are selected because the
customer incorrectly perceives these appliances to be Occupants
better value for money, the right-sized appliances have For comparability, occupants are expected to be
several benefits. For example, they are often cheaper to performing the same activities as in the conventional
purchase, because they are a lower-capacity appliance; solution. That is:
they run near their design loads, which makes them
roughly twice as efficient as an appliance running at • Man: light work;
low load; they emit less heat; and they are generally • Woman: moderately active office work;
smaller, lighter and safer to handle. The WSD solution • Child 1: playing (equivalent to light bench work);
takes into account appliance right-sizing by • Child 2: playing (equivalent to light bench work);
conservatively assuming that all appliances are 10 per and
cent more efficient, on average. • Child 3: seated reading (equivalent to seated in a
The WSD house has the following total input theatre).
power from electrical appliances:

Interior electrical appliances: total input Element 3: Design and optimize the whole system
power of 3.6kW45

Artificial lighting This WSD solution is not the optimal available

solution, it is merely an improved solution. Optimizing
Artificial electrical lighting is through compact the solution requires comparing system performance
fluorescent lamps. Although fluorescent lamps are and costs resulting from incorporating all other
about nine times more expensive than incandescent reasonable combinations of the house components, and
lamps, they have several advantages that make them then selecting the best-fitting solution for the
better value for money. For example, fluorescent lamps occupant. Note that simply integrating the best
last about eight times longer than incandescent lamps; technologies for each component often does not yield
they expend only 30 per cent (as opposed to 85 per an optimal solution,47 so it is important to consider any
cent in the incandescent lamps) of their input energy as house component change against the performance of
heat; and they convert about 70 per cent (as opposed to the whole system, not just the component itself. The
15 per cent) of their input energy to light.46 To design challenge, even with its assumptions and
overcome the concerns about the quality of light from simplifications, allows for several house component
fluorescent lamps, a number of manufacturers are changes. Such a task is complex and repetitive and
developing a range of shades of bulb to deliver more- beyond the scope of this chapter.
natural coloured interior light.
Compared to the conventional solution, the window
Calculate the design cooling load
configuration of the WSD solution (larger windows on
northern and southern façades) allows more natural The values in Table 9.4 yield the results in Table 9.5,
daylight into the house, especially during the middle of which are compared graphically in Figure 9.3. Note that
the day when maximum cooling load occurs. the major sources of heat gain are still external heat gains.
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WORKED EXAMPLE 4 – TEMPERATURE CONTROL OF BUILDINGS 149

Table 9.4 Values used to calculate the design cooling load, QDES, for the house
Symbol Value Source
2
AD (2m)(1m) = 2m Given
AG north, south: (0.6)(2m)(1.5m)(4) = 7.2m2 Given
east, west: (0.6)(1m)(0.5m)(4) = 1.2m2 roof: 0m2 (no skylight)
AGS north, south: (0.3)(2m)(1.5m)(4) = 4.8m2 Given
east, west: (0.4)(1m)(0.5m)(4) = 0.8m2 roof: 0m2 (no skylight)
AP n/a
AR (20m)(10m) = 200m2 Given
AW north, south: (20m)(3m) – AG – AD = 46m2 Given
east, west: (10m)(3m) – AG – AD = 28m2
ACH 0.4 per hour ASHRAE Handbook, Table 8, p27.4
CLFA 1 HVAC not operating 24 hr/day
CLFL 1 ASHRAE Handbook, p28.5248
CLFO 1 ASHRAE Handbook, p28.5249
CLTD north: 6K, south: 4K; east, west: 10K roof: 23K ASHRAE Handbook, Table 1, p27.2
eL 0.7
FU 0.3 Given
FA 1.2 ASHRAE Handbook, p. 28.850
GLF North:51 62W/m2, south: 50W/m2 east, west: 123W/m2 ASHRAE Handbook, Table 3, p27.3
GLFS north, east, south, west: 50W/m2 ASHRAE Handbook, p27.552
HA (0.25)(0.5)(3.6kW)(1000W/kW) = 450W Given
HOL 55W + (0.85)(55W) + (0.75)(140W) + (0.75)(140W) ASHRAE Handbook, Table 3, p28.8
+ (0.75)(30W) = 307.5W
HOS 75W + (0.85)(75W) + (0.75)(80) + (0.75)(80) ASHRAE Handbook, Table 3, p28.8
+ (0.75)(65W) = 334.25W
LD 0.08 ASHRAE Handbook, p27.653
RV (20m)(10m)(3m) = 600m3 Given
∆t 32.5°C – 24°C = 8.5°C Outside t: ASHRAE Handbook,
Table 5, p26.27, dry bulb temp.
for Canberra
∆tP n/a
UD 2.21W/m2K ASHRAE Handbook, Table 6, p24.13
UP n/a
UR 1/3.5 = 0.286W/m2K 54
R3.5 roof insulation: McGee (2005)55
for Canberra
UG 2.19W/m2K ASHRAE Handbook, Table 5, p29.8
UW 1/1.5 = 0.667W/m2K R1.5 wall insulation: McGee (2005)56
for Canberra
∆w 0.5 – 0.137 = 0.363 Interior w: ASHRAE Handbook,
Table 5, p26.27 for Canberra

Calculate the cost of the system Output power: 6.3kW

Costs are presented for house components that differ Input power: 2.09kW
from the conventional solution.
Capital cost = 58AU$1780
HVAC
The HVAC system needs to be rated at least qDES = In Canberra, a residential air-conditioner runs for about
6.1kW. Select: 150h/yr.59 With electricity costing about AU$0.18/kWh
(2006 price for residential supply), the running cost of
Panasonic CS-F24DD1E5/CU-L24DBE557 the HVAC system in the WSD solution is:
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150 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Table 9.5 Breakdown of design cooling load components Triple glazing: AU$450/m2
for WSD solution
Wooden window frames with seals:
External
AU$20/m of window perimeter
qW = 680W
qR = 1314W
qD = 44W Capital cost = (28m2)(AU$450/m2)
qG = 1660W + (80m)(AU$20/m) = AU$14,200
qIS = 680W
qIL = 73W
Electrical appliances
Internal

qOs = 308W Appliances in the WSD solution are assumed to be 10

qOL = 334W per cent more energy efficient, on average, than those
qL = 41W in the conventional solution. It is assumed that the
qA = 450W efficient appliances were identified through ‘shopping
Totals around’ and thus their total capital costs are the same as
for the less efficient appliances.
qC = 5583W
qDES = 6030W
The input power of all electrical appliances totals
3.6kW, and all appliances run 10 per cent of the time,
on average.
Running cost = (2.09kW)(150h/yr) With electricity costing about AU$0.18/kWh
(AU$0.18/kWh) = AU$56/yr (2006 price for residential supply), the running cost of
the electrical appliances in the WSD solution is:
Windows
Running cost: (0.1)(3.6kW)(24hr/day)
There is 28m2 of triple glazing and 80m of wooden (365 days/yr)(AU$0.18/kWh)
window frame. = AU$568/yr

Figure 9.3 Design cooling load components for the WSD solution
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WORKED EXAMPLE 4 – TEMPERATURE CONTROL OF BUILDINGS 151

Electrical lighting Summary: performance

Compared to the conventional solution, the window comparisons
configuration of the WSD solution (larger windows on A comparison of system performance and costs helps to
northern and southern façades) allows more natural highlight the efficacy of WSD for residential housing
daylight into the house throughout the day. and the building industry in general.
Consequently, all lamps are likely to be on for less than
2000 hours per year. However, for simplicity, the
assumption is maintained that all 30 15W lamps Cooling load
operate for 2000 hours per year. The costs of the Table 9.6 and Figure 9.4 compare the cooling loads of
ballasts for fluorescent lamps can be avoided by the two solutions.
selecting the compact variety, which are directly The design cooling load, qDES, for the WSD
interchangeable with incandescent lamps. solution is 29 per cent lower than that of the
conventional solution. The majority of the
15W lamp: AU$9/lamp for 8000 hour life
performance improvements are from external sources –
Capital cost = (30 lamps)(AU$9/lamp) = AU$270 20 per cent lower qW, 30 per cent lower qG and 42 per
cent lower qIL. The internal cooling loads were similar
With electricity costing AU$0.18/kWh (2006 price for or the same, because those loads are usually occupant-
residential supply), the running cost of the electrical dependent. The only exception is the artificial lighting,
lighting in the WSD solution is: for which the use of fluorescent lamps reduced the
associated cooling load by 95 per cent.
Running cost = (30 lamps)(0.015kW)
(2000hr/yr)(AU$0.18/kWh) = AU$162/yr Cost
Table 9.7 compares the costs of the two solutions.
Additional costs The total capital costs for both solutions are
The WSD solution incorporates some components dominated by the costs of the windows. However, the
that do not appear in the conventional solution. results in Table 9.7 only indicate the costs of those
house components that differ between the two
Trees: 4 trees for shading the northern façade solutions. The capital costs for the rest of the house
at a cost of AU$100 each (worth hundreds of thousands of dollars) would dwarf
the capital costs in Table 9.7. Thus a meaningful
Capital cost = (4 trees)(AU$100/tree) = AU$400 comparison considers the absolute difference (not
percentage difference) in total capital cost. By the same
Roof overhang: larger roof overhang to argument, a meaningful comparison of running cost
provide shading at a cost of AU$10/m considers the absolute difference in running cost.
of house perimeter With the exception of the fluorescent lamps, it is
unlikely that the more expensive components of the
Capital cost = 60(20m + 10m + 20m
WSD solution would be cost-effective on their own.
+ 10m)(AU$10/m) = AU$600
However, when combined, the more expensive house
Construction: Extra seal components for components offset some of the total capital cost by
windows, doors, joints and other locations making suitable a smaller and cheaper HVAC system.
of potential air leak at a cost of AU$5/m That is, from an economic perspective, the system of
of house perimeter components is more valuable than the simple sum of
individual components.
Capital cost = (20m + 10m + 20m The main economic advantage of the WSD solution
+ 10m)(AU$5/m) = AU$300 arises in its lower running costs. Table 9.7 shows that for
a roughly AU$3000 higher capital cost, the WSD
See Table 9.6 for a summary of costs. solution saves about AU$1000 per year, which gives a
Chapter 9.qxd 12/1/2008 6:31 PM Page 152

152 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Table 9.6 Comparing breakdown of the cooling loads for Multiple benefits
the two solutions
Cooling Load Conventional WSD Solution Element 4: Account for all measurable impacts
Component Solution

External

qW 853W 680W
WSD/low-energy buildings not only have lower running
qR 1314W 1314W
qD 44 W 44 W and long term costs than their conventional equivalents,
qG 2384W 1660W they also have several other benefits.
qIS 1190W 680W
qIL 127W 73W • Lower greenhouse gas emissions, since the electricity
Internal saved usually comes from electricity producers, of
which the largest portion are coal-fired.
qOs 308W 308W
• Lower energy consumption, which makes viable
qOL 334W 334W
qL 765W 41W renewable energy technologies that currently cost
qA 500W 450W more per unit of power generated than purchasing
grid electricity. The capital cost savings of a WSD
Totals
solution can offset the capital cost of the renewable
qC 7820W 5583W energy technology, which will thereafter save on
qDES 8445W 6030W electricity costs and eventually pay itself off. On-
site renewable energy technologies also improve
power service reliability both locally and to the
payback period of about three years. More importantly, wider community.
the savings in running cost equate to about $11,000 • ‘Sell or lease faster, and retain tenants better, because
over 15 years or $15,000 over 30 years (assuming that they combine superior amenity and comfort with
the cost of electricity remains constant). lower operating costs and more competitive terms.

Figure 9.4 Comparing the cooling loads for the two solutions
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WORKED EXAMPLE 4 – TEMPERATURE CONTROL OF BUILDINGS 153

Table 9.7 Comparing the costs of the two solutions An overview of the most energy-efficient approaches to
buildings and appliances is available at www.gotoreviews.
House Conventional WSD Solution com/archives/metaefficient/, accessed 14 April 2007.
Component Solution 2 See Alternative Technology Association at http://ata.org.
Capital Cost au/more-info?page_id=58, accessed 14 April 2007.
HVAC AU$2500 AU$1780 3 Australian Greenhouse Office, ‘HVAC Training
Electrical lighting AU$30 AU$270 Module’ at www.greenhouse.gov.au/lgmodules/wep/
Windows AU$12,080 AU$14,200 hvac/index.html, accessed 14 April 2007.
Trees AU$400 4 US Department of Energy, ‘HVAC links’ at www.
Roof overhang AU$600 b4ubuild.com/links/hvac.shtml, accessed 14 April 2007.
Construction AU$300 5 MetaEfficient provides an overview of efficient
Total AU$14,610 AU$17,550 appliances and devices at www.metaefficient.com,
Annual Running Cost accessed 14 April 2007.
6 Smith, M., Hargroves, K., Stasinopoulos, P., Stephens,
HVAC AU$89 AU$56
R., Desha, C. and Hargroves, S. (2007) Energy
Electrical lighting AU$1080 AU$162
Electrical appliances AU$631 AU$568 Transformed: Sustainable Energy Solutions for Climate
Total AU$1800 AU$786 Change Mitigation, The Natural Edge Project, Australia,
‘Lecture 2.2: Opportunities for energy efficiency in
Life-Cycle Running Cost61 commercial buildings’, and ‘Lecture 2.3: Opportunities
15 years AU$19,282 AU$8420 for improving the efficiency of HVAC systems’,
30 years AU$26,577 AU$11,605 www.naturaledgeproject.net/Sustainable_Energy_Soluti
ons_Portfolio.aspx, accessed 10 April 2008.
7 See NatHERS (Nationwide House Energy Rating
Scheme) website at www.nathers.gov.au/, accessed 7 May
2008.
The resulting gains in occupancies, rents and 8 See Sustainability Victoria, ‘FirstRate’ at www.
residuals all enhance financial returns.’62 sustainability.vic.gov.au/www/html/1491-energy-
• Provide ‘greater visual, thermal and acoustic comfort, rating-with-firstrate.asp, accessed 7 May 2008.
[which] creates a low-stress, high-performance 9 See Solar Logic, ‘BERS Pro’ at www.solarlogic.com.
environment that yields valuable gains in labour au/bers-pro, accessed 7 May 2008.
productivity, retail sales, and manufacturing quality 10 See Australian Government, ‘Your home: Design for
and output. These improvements in turn create a key lifestyle and the future’ at www.yourhome.gov.au/,
competitive advantage, and hence further improve accessed 7 May 2008.
11 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
real estate value and market performance’.63 In many
Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE) (1997)
organizations, labour costs are several times greater
ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, ASHRAE, Atlanta.
than energy costs. This leverage point turns small 12 According to the Sustainable Energy Development
labour productivity improvements into large Office, in Canberra the average annual operating hours
economic savings. for HVAC systems is 150hr/ yr for cooling and 500hr/yr
• Require fewer materials to build and operate, for heating.
because active technologies are smaller or 13 ASHRAE (1997) ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals,
sometimes even eliminated. Reducing active ASHRAE, Atlanta.
technologies reduces the required structural 14 ASHRAE (1997) ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals,
integrity, noise insulation and heat insulation of ASHRAE, Atlanta, pp26–27.
the building. 15 Indicates that the temperature reported is exceeded
about 0.4 per cent of the time.
16 This assumption is included for simplicity. The depth to
Notes which daylight penetrates a building has a bearing on
the demand for interior artificial lighting, in this case
1 For further information, refer to pages such as Australian electrical lamps. Daylight also introduces heat into a
Government, ‘Your home: Design for lifestyle and the building, so the parts of the building that are daylit are
future’ at www.yourhome.gov.au/, accessed 7 May 2008, also warmer.
or ACT Home Energy, ‘Advisory team fact sheets’ at 17 This assumption is included for simplicity; however,
www.heat.net.au/topics.html, accessed 14 April 2007. uniform interior temperatures are not common for several
Chapter 9.qxd 12/1/2008 6:31 PM Page 154

154 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

reasons: 1) building features such as interior walls impede to the conditioned space.’ ASHRAE (1997) ASHRAE
heat transfer; 2) solar heat gain though fenestrations such Handbook: Fundamentals, ASHRAE, Atlanta, p28.8.
as windows, doors and skylights results in higher local 33 Corrected as per note (b) in ASHRAE (1997) ASHRAE
temperatures; and 3) active (and sometimes passive) Handbook: Fundamentals, ASHRAE, Atlanta, p27.3.
temperature control is not usually available in non-main 34 ‘Glass shaded by overhangs is treated as north glass.’
rooms such as the bathroom or the laundry. ASHRAE (1997) ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals,
18 Actual heat gains for specific appliances are given in ASHRAE, Atlanta, p27.5. In this chapter’s southern
ASHRAE (1997) ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, hemisphere worked example, shaded glass is treated as
ASHRAE, Atlanta, Tables 4, 6, 7, 8, 9A and 9B, pp28. south glass.
10–28.14. 35 ‘If all ducts are in the attic space, a duct loss of 10 per
19 Occupant behaviour plays a large role in building cent space sensible cooling load is reasonable.’ ASHRAE
consumption. Energy-aware occupants take more care (1997) ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, ASHRAE,
in turning off electrical appliances and lights when not Atlanta, p27.6. LP is a loss factor over both sensible and
in use, thus reducing their electricity requirement and latent cooling loads. To compensate for inaccuracies
running costs while extending the life of the appliances from including latent cooling load, LP is reduced from
and lights. Energy-aware occupants may also tolerate 0.1 to 0.08.
less comfortable interior conditions (in summer, higher 36 U=1/R.
temperature and humidity), thus further reducing their 37 McGee, C., Mosher, M. and Clarke, D. (2005)
electricity requirements and running costs while ‘Insulation: Overview’, in Technical Manual: Design for
extending the life of the HVAC system. Lifestyle and the Future (third edition), Commonwealth
20 ASHRAE (1997) ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, of Australia, http://greenhouse.gov.au/yourhome/
ASHRAE, Atlanta, pp27.5, 27.6, 27.13, 28.40. technical/fs16a.htm, accessed 21 July 2006.
21 Modified to explicitly incorporate shading effects. 38 McGee, C., Mosher, M. and Clarke, D. (2005)
22 Modified to incorporate energy efficiency. ‘Insulation: Overview’, in Technical Manual: Design for
23 Simplified. Lifestyle and the Future (third edition), Commonwealth
24 ASHRAE (1997) ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, of Australia, http://greenhouse.gov.au/yourhome/
ASHRAE, Atlanta. technical/fs16a.htm, accessed 21 July 2006.
25 Estimate, since the actual appliances used are dependent 39 Merritt, F. S. and Ricketts, J. T. (2001) Building Design
on the occupants. and Construction Handbook (sixth edition), McGraw-
26 See Energy Rating at http://search.energyrating.gov.au/ Hill, p13.38.
air_srch.asp, accessed 21 July 2006. 40 ASHRAE (1997) ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals,
27 Estimate, since prices for residential HVAC vary ASHRAE, Atlanta, Table 6, p27.4.
substantially. 41 Viracon (www.viracon.com) have developed
28 Sustainable Energy Development Office (n.d.) Your SuperwindowTM technology that can reject up to 98
Guide to Energy-Smart Air-Conditioners, SEDO, per cent of infrared light.
Australia, www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/uploads/Air- 42 V-KOOL (www.v-kool.com) have developed polyester
Conditioners_65.pdf, accessed 7 February 2006. films that can reject up to 94 per cent of infrared light.
29 ‘If the cooling system operates only during occupied 43 The southern façade does not receive direct sunlight, so
hours, the CLFL should be considered 1.0...’ ASHRAE shading devices do not have an effect on the calculations
(1997) ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, ASHRAE, (GLF and GLFS for the southern façade are the same).
Atlanta, p28.52. However, installing trees may cool the local air – a factor
30 ‘If the space temperature is not maintained constant not accounted for by the calculations.
during the 24h period, a CLF of 1.0 should be used.’ 44 High R insulation can also prevent desirable heat transfer
ASHRAE (1997) ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, from the interior to the exterior during summer nights.
ASHRAE, Atlanta, p28.52. 45 Equal to 10 per cent less than the total input power for
31 ‘About 15 per cent of the energy [incandescent lamps] electrical appliance in the conventional solution.
use comes out as light – the rest becomes heat.’ APS 46 Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and
(n.d.) ‘Different types of lighting’, APS, US, p1, the Arts (2008) Phase-Out of Inefficient Light Bulbs,
www.aps.com/main/services/business/WaysToSave/Bus Commonwealth of Australia, www.greenhouse.gov.
WaystoSave_9.html, accessed 2 February 2006. au/energy/cfls/index.html, accessed 15 February 2008;
32 ‘For fluorescent fixtures and/or fixtures that are either Energy Star (n.d.) Compact Fluorescent Light Bulbs, US
ventilated or installed so that only part of their heat goes Environmental Protection Agency and US Department
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WORKED EXAMPLE 4 – TEMPERATURE CONTROL OF BUILDINGS 155

of Energy, www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=cfls.pr_cfls, 54 U=1/R.

accessed 15 February 2008. 55 McGee, C., Mosher, M. and Clarke, D. (2005)
47 Hawken, P, Lovins, A. and Lovins, H. (1999) Natural ‘Insulation: Overview’, in Technical Manual: Design for
Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution, Lifestyle and the Future (third edition), Commonwealth
Earthscan, London, p117. of Australia, http://greenhouse.gov.au/yourhome/
48 ‘If the cooling system operates only during occupied technical/fs16a.htm, accessed 21 July 2006.
hours, the CLFL should be considered 1.0.’ ASHRAE 56 McGee, C., Mosher, M. and Clarke, D. (2005)
(1997) ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, ASHRAE, ‘Insulation: Overview’, in Technical Manual: Design for
Atlanta, p28.52. Lifestyle and the Future (third edition), Commonwealth
49 ‘If the space temperature is not maintained constant of Australia, http://greenhouse.gov.au/yourhome/
during the 24h period, a CLF of 1.0 should be used.’ technical/fs16a.htm, accessed 21 July 2006.
ASHRAE (1997) ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, 57 See Energy Rating at http://search.energyrating.gov.au/
ASHRAE, Atlanta, p28.52. air_srch.asp, accessed 21 July 2006.
50 ‘Recommended value of 1.20 for general applications.’ 58 Calculated as the fraction of the conventional solution’s
ASHRAE (1997) ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, HVAC capital cost that corresponds to the decrease in
ASHRAE, Atlanta, p28.8. design cooling load, qDES.
51 Corrected as per note (b) in ASHRAE (1997) 59 Sustainable Energy Development Office (n.d) Your
ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, ASHRAE, Atlanta, Guide to Energy-Smart Air-Conditioners, SEDO,
p27.3. Australia, www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/uploads/Air-
52 ‘Glass shaded by overhangs is treated as north glass.’ Conditioners_65.pdf, accessed 8 February 2006.
ASHRAE (1997) ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, 60 The large overhang modification is applied to the whole
ASHRAE, Atlanta, p27.5. In this chapter’s southern perimeter but only affects the windows on the northern,
hemisphere worked example, shaded glass is treated as eastern and western façades.
south glass. 61 Calculated using present values with an interest rate of
53 ‘If all ducts are in the attic space, a duct loss of 10 per 6 per cent, compounded annually.
cent space sensible cooling load is reasonable.’ ASHRAE 62 Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. (1999)
(1997) ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, ASHRAE, Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial
Atlanta, p27.6. LP is a loss factor over both sensible and Revolution, Earthscan, London, pp87–88.
latent cooling loads. To compensate for inaccuracies 63 Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B. and Lovins, L. H. (1999)
from including latent cooling load, LP is reduced from Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial
0.1 to 0.08. Revolution, Earthscan, London, pp87–88.
Chapter 9.qxd 12/1/2008 6:31 PM Page 156
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10
Worked Example 5 – Domestic Water
Systems
Significance of domestic water feasibility of household wastewater being cost-
effectively treated and reused on-site in place of
systems
distributed water. It will also demonstrate how to
Fresh water has been described as ‘the most precious’ optimize the whole domestic water system for multiple
natural resource in the world,1 partly because it is vital benefits, including cost savings.
for all living organisms and partly because less water is
available for human use than most people realize. In
fact, only about 0.3 per cent of all the free water on
Worked example overview
Earth is usable by humans,2 as shown in Figure 10.1. The on-site domestic water system is comprised of
Many nations face water challenges in both urban three categories of components.
and rural areas. The freshwater sources that supply
many households are critically depleted due to a
combination of non-sustainable extraction and drought.
1 Water-consuming appliances
In response, stricter regulations, including regulations Water-consuming appliances in a typical household are
on household water consumption, are now being toilets, showers, baths, wash basins, sinks, dishwashers and
introduced to protect some of the remaining freshwater washing machines. Once used, water becomes wastewater,
sources. In the long term, water consumers can expect which can be categorized as either greywater or
the cost of freshwater to increase because of scarcity or blackwater. Typically, greywater is all domestic wastewater
because it is supplied from non-local sources. except for toilet wastewater, which is blackwater. The
In 2004–2005, total water consumption in majority of domestic wastewater is greywater. Additional
Australia was 18,767GL – down 14 per cent from water consumption is from swimming pools, spas, and
2000–2001 due mainly to drought.3 Figure 10.2 shows watering gardens and lawns. For the purpose of this
the division of water consumption within the worked example, swimming pools and spas are not
Australian economy in 2004–2005. considered and all irrigation requirements are assumed to
The quantity of water consumed in Australian be met by reusing the wastewater.
households is second only to the agricultural sector. In
2004–2005, water consumption in Australian
2 Wastewater treatment system
households was 2,108GL (282 litres/person/day),4
down 8 per cent from 2000–2001.5 Figure 10.3 shows There are several types of wastewater treatment
the quantity of water consumed from various sources. systems. They can be categorized by two characteristics:
The high consumption of distributed water and low
consumption of reused water suggests there may be 1 The treatment stage (primary, secondary or tertiary);
opportunities to reuse distributed water in households. and
The following worked example focuses cooling 2 The treatment action (mechanical, chemical or
systems in houses. Specifically, it will explore the biological).
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158 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Source: Adapted from Trewin (2006), p1039

6
Source: US Geological Survey (2006)
Figure 10.3 Australian household water consumption
Figure 10.1 Distribution of Earth’s water in 2004–20058

reused outdoors for irrigation or, in some cases, indoors

as toilet water. The admissible dispersal and reuse
systems vary with the wastewater treatment stage and
local regulations. In this worked example wastewater is
used for irrigation via a subsurface drip irrigation
system.
Recall the elements of applying a Whole System
Design (WSD) approach discussed in Chapters 4 and 5:

1 Ask the right questions;

2 Benchmark against the optimal system;
Source: Adapted from Trewin (2006), p87 3 Design and optimize the whole system;
Note: Water Supply item includes sewerage and drainage services and 4 Account for all measurable impacts;
losses. 5 Design and optimize subsystems in the right sequence;
6 Design and optimize subsystems to achieve
Figure 10.2 Australian water consumption in compounding resource savings;
2004–2005 7 Review the system for potential improvements;
8 Model the system;
Table 10.1 indicates the treatment action generally 9 Track technology innovation; and
used at each treatment stage. Primary and secondary 10 Design to create future options.
wastewater treatment systems are considered in this
worked example. The following worked example will demonstrate how
the elements can be applied to domestic on-site water
3 Discharge or reuse system systems using two contrasting examples: a conventional
domestic water system versus a WSD domestic water
Treated wastewater can be discharged to on-site system. The application of an element will be indicated
dispersal trenches or to nearby waterways. It can also be with a shaded box.
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WORKED EXAMPLE 5 – DOMESTIC WATER SYSTEMS 159

Table 10.1 Wastewater treatment actions for each treatment stage

Treatment stage Treatment action Description

Primary Mechanical Suspended solids are removed from the wastewater by settlement filtration.
Secondary Biological Organic materials are degraded by micro-organisms.
Tertiary Mechanical Targeted inorganic nutrients and organic materials are removed by
Biological combinations of settlement, filtration, chemicals and micro-organisms,
Chemical usually in a multistage process.

• Standard 9/4.5 litre dual flush toilets consume an

Design challenge average of 5.4L of water per flush10 and cost about
AU$300.
Design a domestic water system with on-site • Standard showerheads can consume 15–20L of
secondary wastewater treatment and water per minute11 and cost about AU$50.12
wastewater reuse systems for a four bedroom • Standard taps discharge 15–18L of water per
house of five residents.Wastewater is from toilet, minute13 and cost about AU$80.14 Assume there
bathroom, kitchen and laundry appliances. The are ten taps in the household.
house is located in Adelaide, South Australia. • Average (Water Star Rating = 1.5) dishwashers
consume about 19L of water per load15 and cost
Design process about AU$700.16
• Average (Water Star Rating = 2) 8kg washing
The following sections of this chapter present: machines consume about 150L of water per load17
and cost about AU$800.18
1 Conventional design solution: Conventional
on-site system design with limited
application of the elements of WSD; Cost
2 WSD solution: Improved system using the The standard water-consuming appliances’ capital cost
elements of WSD; and is:
3 Performance comparison: Comparison of the
economic and environmental costs and Capital cost = AU$300 + AU$50 + (AU$80)(10)
benefits. + AU$700 + AU$800 = AU$2650

The installation costs of standard appliances and

water-efficient appliances (in the WSD solution) are
Conventional design solution comparable, so these costs are not considered.
The conventional solution incorporates: Table 10.2 summarizes the water consumption of a
household with standard appliances.
• Standard water-consuming household appliances; The standard appliances’ water consumption in a
• An on-site wastewater treatment system: septic household of five people is:
system and slow sand filter, as in Figure 10.4; and
• A water reuse system: subsurface drip irrigation Water consumption = (150L/person/day)(5
system. people)(91 days/quarter) = 68,250L/quarter

Standard water-consuming This consumption is below the quarterly water

household appliances consumption threshold set by the state water utility,
and therefore not subject to excess-water-consumption
Several appliances contribute to household water rates. The regular rate in Australia is assumed to be
consumption and wastewater generation: AU$0.47/kL.
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160 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

septic
tank pump
tank
sand
filter pump
tank distribution
system

Source: Gustafson, Anderson and Heger Christopherson (2002)19

Figure 10.4 Components of a conventional on-site wastewater treatment and reuse system

Thus the total water cost is: a slow sand filter for secondary treatment before either
being dispersed or used for irrigation.
Water supply = (AU$0.47/kL)(68,250L/quarter) Septic systems can process blackwater and
(0.001L/kL)(4 quarters/year) = AU$129/year greywater. However, their biological action can be
impaired by household chemicals, gasoline, oil,
Standard water-consuming appliances can last for at pesticides, antifreeze and paint, which kill the bacteria
least 20 years if operated correctly. that decompose the solids.23 The system’s flow can also
be impaired by kitchen and bathroom items such as
food wastes, toilet paper and sanitary items. The
On-site water treatment system: systems are not designed to process inorganic solids
Septic system for primary treatment such as plastics and metals.

Background Table 10.2 Daily water consumption for standard

Septic systems are used for primary wastewater treatment domestic appliances
and are available as both above-ground and below-ground Waste source Allowance
systems. In a septic system, wastewater enters a tank, (L/person/day)
where it is treated and then it is discharged.
Toilet 50
Figure 10.5 shows a typical septic tank. Wastewater
Bath and shower 50
enters the tank by active pumping or the action of Hand basin tap 10
gravity. The wastewater then settles and separates into Kitchen 10
three main zones. Materials such as grease, fats and oils Tap 7
that float to the top are called scum. Materials that Dishwasher 3
settle to the bottom zone are called sludge. Between the Laundry 30
scum and sludge is relatively clear water, although still Tap 5
containing bacteria and dissolved chemicals. The solids Washing machine 25
are anaerobically decomposed by bacteria in the tank. Total 150 20
The primary-treated water exits the tank by active Sources: NSW Health Department (2001), p12;21 Ecological Homes
pumping or the action of gravity and is then routed to (2002)22
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WORKED EXAMPLE 5 – DOMESTIC WATER SYSTEMS 161

Source: SepticTankInfo24

Figure 10.5 Cross-section of a single-compartment septic tank

Septic systems function well at relatively steady example, the NSW Health Department26 requires that
loading, but their function can be impaired by heavy the septic tank capacity is at least:
and shock loading. For example, the systems can
handle one to two clothes washing loads, seven days per Tank capacity = sludge allowance + (daily water
week, but cannot handle four or more in a single day. consumption)(number of people),27
Excessive volumes of wastewater cause the grease, scum where sludge allowance = 1550L, and ‘daily water
and sludge to mix with the water and escape. For this consumption’ is as in Table 10.2 above. Hence:
reason, septic systems are usually unable to process
wastewater from high volume appliances such as hot Tank capacity = 1550L + (50 + 50 + 10 + 10 +
tubs. 30L/person/day)(5 people) = 2300L

Cost The system’s capital cost depends on the components

selected. The average cost for a septic system of suitable
In Australia, there are standards and guidelines for capacity, including a pump, is:
septic systems at the federal, state and local levels of
government. The system’s capacity requirements vary Capital cost = AU$400028
from region to region. In South Australia, the South
Australian Health Commission25 requires that the The capital cost could vary by about AU$1000.
septic tank capacity is at least: There are several extra costs involved in preparing
septic systems for use, including delivery, excavation,
Tank capacity = 3000L for up to 6 people installation, establishing electrical connections, quality
+ 1000L for each additional 2 people checks, council approval and commissioning. These
extra costs amount to:
Hence for this worked example:
Extra capital costs = AU$2500
Tank capacity = 3000L
These extra capital costs could vary by about AU$500.
Some Australian states require that the tank capacity is The system’s running costs depend on the components
determined by the expected flow of wastewater. For selected and the loading volume and type:
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162 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

• The power cost is approximately AU$25 per year, On-site water-treatment system:
and could vary by about AU$5.29 Slow sand filter system for
• As with most other standards and guidelines, the
secondary treatment
South Australian Health Commission30 suggests
that septic systems that support five people need to Background
be de-sludged approximately every four years. The
actual need for de-sludging depends on the volume Slow sand filter systems are used for secondary wastewater
of solids in the tank, and so is subject to inspection. treatment. In a slow sand filter system, wastewater enters,
De-sludging costs approximately AU$300 per is filtered and then dispersed. Figure 10.6 shows a typical
service and could vary by about AU$100.31 slow sand filter. Septic tank effluent enters the tank by
• Inspections are usually performed by trained active pumping or the action of gravity.
personnel at a cost of approximately AU$70. The sand layer treats the effluent through physical
Inspections are performed twice a year. and biological processes. The sand prevents suspended
• Some components, such as the baffle, lid and solids from passing through to the outlet. The sand also
pumps, may need to be replaced; this will incur becomes coated by a thin biofilm,36 which contains
costs. Wastewater can be highly corrosive and can micro-organisms that decompose the organic matter
damage internal components such as baffles.32 and nutrients.37 The biofilm usually develops in several
Replacement parts costs are not considered here days and is most prevalent in and above the top few
due to uncertainty. centimetres of sand,38 although it is present in about
the top 40cm.39 High-surface-area mediums other than
Thus, the system’s total running cost is: sand are also used.
The gravel layer prevents sand moving to the
Running cost = AU$25/year + AU$300/4years outlet.40 The gravel layer can be replaced by a geotextile
+ (AU$70/service)(2 services/year) = AU$240/year layer, which is thinner and hence reduces the system’s
total height. The secondary-treated water exits the sump
Septic systems can last for at least 20 years if built and by active pumping or the action of gravity and is either
operated correctly.33 However, in practice, the systems dispersed or routed to an irrigation or reuse system.
usually last just a few years. More than 70 per cent of Slow sand filter systems are best at processing
septic systems fail within eight years.34 Thus the life of suspended solids and bacteria in relatively clear
the septic system is estimated at ten years. wastewater. They cannot process heavy metals, chemicals

Grey water from coarse filter

Sand

Gravel

To disinfection or sub surface irrigation

Fane and Reardon (2005)35

Figure 10.6 Cross-section of a slow sand filter

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WORKED EXAMPLE 5 – DOMESTIC WATER SYSTEMS 163

or other pollutants in excess.41 Slow sand filter systems Extra capital costs = AU$500
function well at relatively steady loading, but their slow
action results in impaired function at heavy and shock The system’s running costs depend on the components
loading. Consequently, slow sand filter systems may selected and the loading volume and type. The running
require an input control system, such as a timed pump. costs are comprised of:

Cost • Power cost for the pump,

• Maintenance and cleaning cost for the filter–the
In Australia, there are standards and guidelines for sand filter’s effectiveness depends on a good wastewater
filter systems at the federal, state and local levels of flow rate. However, organic matter and silt can
government. The system’s top surface area requirements accumulate in the top layer of sand and restrict
vary from region to region. In this worked example the flow.44 Consequently, the top layer of sand
South Australian Health Commission42 requires that requires replacement about every six months and
the slow sand filter top surface area is at least: all of the sand requires replacement about every
ten years;45
Top surface area = the greater of: • Repair and replacement costs for the system’s
components.
1 Water consumption, = 1m2/50 L daily water
consumption, Thus, the system’s total running cost is:
where ‘daily water consumption’ is as in Table 10.2
Running cost = AU$400/year 46
above, or
This running cost could vary by about AU$150/year.
2 Organic load, = 1m2/25g BOD5 daily organic load,
Slow sand filter systems can last for at least 20 years if
where ‘daily organic load’ is 50g BOD5/person/day.43 built and operated correctly.
Hence,

Top surface area = the greater of:

Subsurface drip irrigation system
The capital cost of a subsurface drip irrigation system has
1 Daily water consumption: = (5 people) been determined using Biolytix’s online questionnaire.47
(150L/person/day)/(50L) = 15m2 or The questionnaire results indicate that, for a system with
standard appliances,48 the ‘Safe T Drip 400 Normal
2 Daily organic loading: = (5 people)(50g Flow’ system49 is suitable for the conventional solution.
BOD5/person/day)/(25g BOD5) = 10m2 The system’s capacity is determined by the wastewater
volume.
Therefore,

Top surface area = 15m2 Cost

The average cost for a slow sand filter system of suitable The system’s capital cost is:
capacity, including a pump, is:
Capital cost = AU$1336.2050
Capital cost = AU$1000
The system’s installation cost is:
There are several extra costs involved in preparing slow
sand filter systems for use, including delivery, Installation cost = AU$1500
installation, quality checks, council approval and
commissioning. These extra costs can amount to: The system’s running costs are comprised of:
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164 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

• Pumping power costs, which are absorbed into the • Low-flow and aerating taps can discharge as little
running costs of the slow sand filter system; and as 2L per minute56 and cost about AU$100.57
• Inspection and maintenance costs, which are Assume there are 10 taps in the household.
relatively high, particularly for labour.51 Inspection • The most water-efficient (Water Star Rating = 4)
for domestic systems is usually performed by the dishwashers consume about 13L of water per
residents for no cost, thus inspection costs are not load58 and cost about AU$1000.59
considered. Maintenance costs arise mainly from • The most water-efficient (Water Star Rating = 5)
damage to the irrigation hosing by external events, 8kg washing machines consume about 60L of
such as piercing by shovels, and are rare. Hosing water per load60 and cost about AU$1000.61
outlets are resistant to constriction by roots, so
maintenance costs are not considered. Cost
Subsurface drip irrigation systems can last for at least The water-efficient appliances’ capital cost is:
20 years if operated correctly.
Capital cost = AU$300 + AU$80 + (AU$100)(10)
+ AU$1000 + AU$1000 = AU$3380
Whole system design solution
The installation costs of standard appliances (in the
conventional solution) and water-efficient appliances
Element 7: Review the system for potential are comparable, so these costs are not considered.
improvements Table 10.3 summarizes the water consumption of a
household with water-efficient appliances.
The water-efficient appliances’ water consumption
The WSD solution incorporates: in a home of five people is:

• Water-efficient household appliances; Water consumption = (5 people)(91 days/quarter)

• An on-site wastewater treatment system: Biolytix (64L/person/day) = 29,120L/quarter
system; and
• A water reuse system: subsurface drip irrigation This consumption is below the quarterly water
system. consumption threshold set by the South Australian
State water utility, so is not subject to excess-water-
consumption rates. The regular rate in Australia is
Water-efficient appliances
assumed to be AU$0.47/kL.
Thus, the annual water cost is:
Element 6: Design and optimize subsystems to
achieve compounding resource savings Table 10.3 Daily water consumption for water-efficient
domestic appliances
Waste source Allowance
There are water-efficient models of every common
(L/person/day)
household water-consuming appliance. The water-efficient
appliances are usually more energy-efficient as well: Toilet 33
Bath and shower 19
Hand basin tap 1
• Newer 6/3 litre toilets consume 3.6L per flush52
Kitchen 3
and cost about AU$300. Tap 1
• Water-efficient showerheads consume 6–7L per Dishwasher 2
minute53 and cost about AU$80.54 Not only do Laundry 11
efficient showerheads consume less water, they also Tap 1
Washing machine 10
reduce energy costs by 47 per cent due to the lower
Total 64
water heating demand.55
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WORKED EXAMPLE 5 – DOMESTIC WATER SYSTEMS 165

Water supply = (AU$0.47/kL)(29,120L/quarter) system also accepts solid materials such as food wastes
(0.001L/kL)(4 quarters/year) = AU$55/year and sanitary items.
The drainage layer houses a wet soil ecosystem
Water-efficient appliances can last for at least 20 years consisting of organisms such as worms, beetles and
if operated correctly. micro-organisms. The organisms maintain the layer’s
porosity for good air circulation and drainage. They
On-site water treatment system: also decompose the wastewater and waste materials into
humus, while the water and any remaining organic
Biolytix system for primary and materials drain through to the humus layer. The humus
secondary treatment layer also houses a soil ecosystem. The organisms
reprocess the humus and organic materials into a fine,
Background
sponge-like matrix. The matrix, which is 90 per cent
water by mass, has a high cation and anion exchange
Element 9: Track technology innovation capacity, so it attracts and holds dissolved pollutants
while the organisms decompose them. The water and
any untreated solids drain through to the geotextile.
Biolytix have filter systems for both primary and The geotextile filters out solids larger than 90
secondary wastewater treatment; these are available as microns and is kept clean through biological action.
both above-ground and below-ground systems. In a The water drains through to the sump, where any
Biolytix system, wastewater enters the filter, where it is remaining solids settle. The secondary-treated water
treated and then it is dispersed. exits the sump by active pumping or gravity feed and is
Figure 10.7 shows the filter for a Biolytix Deluxe then routed to an irrigation or reuse system. The
system,62 a secondary treatment system. Wastewater Biolytix Rugged system, a primary treatment system,
enters the tank by active pumping or gravity feed. The works by similar biological action. Like in the septic

Source: Biolytix (2006f)63

Figure 10.7 Cross-section of the Biolytix Deluxe system

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166 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

system, the primary-treated water can be dispersed or The system’s running costs are:
treated for irrigation.
• The power cost is approximately AU$15 per year,
and could vary by about AU$5;70 and
Element 10: Create options for future generations • Biolytix systems have an optional 20-year warranty
that guarantees performance and component
integrity.71 The warranty covers the costs of all
The Biolytix system can also be used to convert a septic services, including removing excess humus once
system to a secondary wastewater treatment system.64 per year,72 inspections, call-outs and component
Biolytix systems can process blackwater, greywater, and replacements.73 The warranty cost for a Biolytix
kitchen and bathroom items such as food wastes, sanitary Pumped system is AU$352 per year.74
items, paper, cardboard and household chemicals.65 The
systems are not designed to process inorganic solids such Thus, the system’s total running cost is:
as plastics and metals. Biolytix systems function reliably
at steady, heavy and shock loading. Running cost = AU$352/year + AU$15/year
= AU$367/year
Cost
Subsurface drip irrigation system
Biolytix use an online questionnaire66 to determine the
suitable model and its cost. The questionnaire results The capital cost of a subsurface drip irrigation system
indicate that a Biolytix Deluxe system (a secondary has been determined using Biolytix’s online
treatment system) incorporating the ‘Pumped questionnaire.75 The questionnaire results indicate that,
Audiovisual BF6_3000PAV’ filter67 is suitable for the for a system with water-efficient appliances,76 the ‘Safe
WSD solution. The system includes an audio-visual T Drip 200 Normal Flow’ system77 is suitable. The
alarm system that alerts Biolytix to disturbances and system’s capacity is determined by the wastewater
failures. volume.
The system, which has the capacity to process the
wastewater from ten people, or 1200L/day,68 is the
smallest capacity system currently available. However,
Cost
for the design challenge, the system will be processing The system’s capital cost is:
a sub-capacity volume of effluent:
Capital cost = AU$872.1078
Effluent volume = (64L/day/person)(5 people)
= 320L/day The system’s installation cost is:

The system’s capital cost is: Installation cost = AU$1000

Capital cost = AU$6329.1069 The system’s running costs are comprised of:

There are several extra costs involved in preparing • Pumping power costs, which are absorbed into the
Biolytix systems for use, including delivery, excavation, running costs of the Biolytix system; and
installation, establishing electrical connections, quality • Inspection and maintenance costs, which are
checks, council approval and commissioning. These relatively high, particularly for labour.79 Inspection
extra costs amount to: for domestic systems is usually performed by the
residents at no cost, so inspection costs are not
Extra capital costs = AU$2500 considered. Maintenance costs arise mainly from
damage to the irrigation hosing by external events,
These extra capital costs could vary by about AU$500. such as piercing by shovels, and are rare. Hosing
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WORKED EXAMPLE 5 – DOMESTIC WATER SYSTEMS 167

outlets are resistant to constriction by roots, so example, the water-efficient appliances consume
maintenance costs are not considered. 57 per cent less water than standard appliances.

Subsurface drip irrigation systems can last for at least

20 years if operated correctly. The water treatment and reuse system
The capital costs of the conventional and WSD water
Summary: performance treatment and reuse systems are about equal. There is,
however, a telling difference in the composition of the
comparisons costs. The capital cost of the septic and slow sand filter
A performance comparison reveals that while the systems together is AU$829 less than the Biolytix
capital costs of the conventional and WSD solutions system, but this difference is roughly compensated for
are about equal, the long-term cost of the WSD by the AU$964 lower cost for the lower capacity
solution is substantially lower. subsurface drip irrigation system in the WSD solution.
The capacity of the subsurface drip irrigation system in
the WSD solution is lower, because the water-efficient
Water-consuming appliances appliances reduce the wastewater volume. Furthermore,
In this worked example, the capital cost of water- the life of a Biolytix system is, statistically, more than
efficient appliances is 28 per cent greater than that of two times longer than a typical septic system.
standard appliances. However, water-efficient appliances Consequently, there is an additional large investment of
consume less water and can thus reduce running costs if about AU$363080 for the conventional solution at ten
water is purchased, which is usually the case in Australia. years. The running costs of the WSD solution are
In some rural or remote homes, water is not purchased, lower, predominantly because there is only one pump
but collected during rainfall or pumped from not two, there are fewer moving parts that can fail, and
underground. These alternative water sources can be removing humus is easier and cheaper than de-sludging
limited, especially in the many parts of Australia where or replacing sand. The running costs are actually likely
rainfall is infrequent. For these homes, low water to be even more in favour of the WSD solution,
consumption is not a cost saving but a necessity. Table because replacement part costs for the septic system are
10.4 compares the capital costs, the water consumption not considered due to uncertainty. Table 10.5 compares
and the running cost of the standard and water-efficient the capital and running cost of the conventional and
appliances. The results indicate that, in this worked WSD water treatment and reuse systems.

Table 10.4 Comparing the costs and water consumption of standard and water-efficient appliances
Water-consuming Capital costs Water Running costs
appliances (not installed) consumption (water only)

Standard appliances AU$2650 273kL/year AU$129/year

Toilet AU$300
Shower head AU$50
Taps AU$800
Dishwasher AU$700
Washing machine AU$800
Water-efficient appliances AU$3380 116kL/year AU$55/year
Toilet AU$300
Shower head AU$80
Taps AU$1000
Dishwasher AU$1000
Washing machine AU$1000
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168 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

Table 10.5 Comparing the capital and running costs of the water treatment and reuse systems
Water treatment and reuse system Capital costs (installed) Running costs

Conventional solution AU$10,836 AU$640/year

Septic system AU$6500 AU$240/year
Slow sand filter system AU$1500 AU$400/year
Subsurface drip irrigation system AU$2836
WSD solution AU$10,701 AU$367/year
Biolytix system AU$8829 AU$367/year
Subsurface drip irrigation system AU$1872

Figures 10.8 and 10.9 summarize the component costs Mutliple benefits
of the conventional and WSD solutions.
Table 10.6 and Figure 10.10 compare the total cost
Element 4: Account for all measurable impacts
of the conventional and WSD solutions. The
comparison is over a 20-year period with an interest
rate of 6 per cent. The comparison assumes that the The WSD solution has several other benefits over the
septic system is replaced after ten years and that water conventional solution:
and electricity costs remain constant.81 The 20-year
cost of the WSD solution is 29 per cent less than that • Water-efficient appliances that use hot water can also
of the conventional solution. Figure 10.10 suggests that save on energy costs, since less hot water is heated.83
the WSD solution would still cost less if the septic • Water-efficient appliances may have a longer useful
system didn’t need replacing at ten years. Table 10.6 life than standard water consuming appliances, due
also compares water consumption over 20 years. The to less wear on components.
WSD solution uses 57 per cent, or 3140kL, less than • The Biolytix system is substantially more compact
the conventional solution.82 than either the septic or slow sand filter systems84

Figure 10.8 Comparing the capital costs of components

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WORKED EXAMPLE 5 – DOMESTIC WATER SYSTEMS 169

Figure 10.9 Comparing the running costs of components

Table 10.6 Comparing the total cost of conventional and WSD systems over 20 years
Solution Capital costs Running costs 20-year cost 20-year water
consumption

Conventional AU$13,486 + AU$769/year AU$25,741 5460kL

AU$3630 @ 10 years
WSD AU$14,081 AU$422/year AU$18,311 2320kL

Figure 10.10 Comparing the total cost of conventional and WSD systems over 20 years
Chapter 10.qxd 12/1/2008 6:32 PM Page 170

170 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

and, unlike the septic system, is not installed p8, www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/DetailsPage/4610

subsurface. .02004-05?OpenDocument, accessed 13 March 2007.
• There is no odour from the Biolytix system, even 8 Distributed sources are mains sources. Self-extracted
at high loading.85 sources include rainwater tanks and direct extraction
from surface or groundwater.
• The Biolytix system can treat household chemicals
9 Trewin, D. (2006) ‘4610.0 Water account Australia
and sanitary items, and handle heavy and shock
2004–2005’, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australia,
loads, whereas the septic system can fail.86 p103, www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/DetailsPage/
• The Biolytix system does not produce greenhouse 4610.02004-05?OpenDocument, accessed 13 March 2007.
gases, whereas the septic system produces methane 10 Water Efficiency Labels and Standards Schemes (2007c)
and hydrogen sulphide.87 ‘WELs products’, Commonwealth of Australia, Australia,
• The Biolytix system requires one service per year,88 www.waterrating.gov.au/products/index.html, accessed
whereas the septic and slow sand filter systems89 28 November 2006.
require two inspections each. 11 Water Efficiency Labels and Standards Schemes (2007c)
• The subsurface drip irrigation system in the WSD ‘WELs products’, Commonwealth of Australia, Australia,
solution requires less time for residents to inspect, www.waterrating.gov.au/products/index.html, accessed
28 November 2006.
because it is smaller.
12 ninemsn Shopping (2007) ‘Taps at ninemsn Shopping’,
• The subsurface drip irrigation system in the WSD
ninemsn Shopping, Australia, http://shopping.ninemsn
solution is less likely to be damaged, because its .com.au/results/shp/?bCatId=2952, accessed 9 March
surface coverage is smaller. 2007.
13 Water Efficiency Labels and Standards Schemes (2007c)
‘WELs products’, Commonwealth of Australia,
Notes Australia, www.waterrating.gov.au/products/index.html,
1 Carson, R. (1962) Silent Spring, Houghton Mifflin, accessed 28 November 2006.
Boston, MA. 14 ninemsn Shopping (2007) ‘Taps at ninemsn Shopping’,
2 US Geological Survey (2006) Where is Earth’s Water ninemsn Shopping, Australia, http://shopping.ninemsn
Located?, US Department of the Interior, http://ga.water .com.au/results/shp/?bCatId=2952, accessed 9 March 2007.
.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html, accessed 15 March 15 Water Efficiency Labels and Products Schemes (2007b)
2007. This graph is derived from data in Gleick, P. H. ‘Dishwashers’, Commonwealth of Australia, Australia,
(1996) ‘Water resources’, in S. H. Scheider (ed) http://search.waterrating.com.au/dwashers_srch.asp,
Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather, Oxford University accessed 4 December 2006.
Press, New York, vol 2, pp817–823. 16 My Shopping (n.d.) ‘Dishwashers’, Comparison
3 Trewin, D. (2006) ‘4610.0 Water account Australia Shopping Australia, Australia, www.myshopping.com
2004–2005’, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australia, .au/PT--280_Dishwashers, accessed 9 March 2007;
p2, www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/DetailsPage/ Shopping.com (2007) ‘Dishwashers’, Shopping.com
4610.02004-05?OpenDocument, accessed 13 March Australia, Australia, http://au.shopping.com/xFA-
2007. dishwashers~FD-1894, accessed 9 March 2007.
4 Calculated from 103kL per person. 17 Water Efficiency Labels and Products Schemes (2007a)
5 Trewin, D. (2006) ‘4610.0 Water account Australia ‘Clothes washers’, Commonwealth of Australia,
2004–2005’, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australia, Australia, http://search.waterrating.com.au/cwashers_srch
pp100-103, www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/Details .asp, accessed 11 January 2007.
Page/4610.02004-05?OpenDocument, accessed 13 18 My Shopping (n.d.) ‘Washing machines’, Comparison
March 2007. Shopping Australia, Australia, www.myshopping.com
6 US Geological Survey (2006) Where is Earth’s Water .au/PT--281_Washing_Machines, accessed 9 March
Located?, US Department of the Interior, http://ga.water 2007; Shopping.com (2007) ‘Washing machines’,
.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html, accessed 15 March Shopping.com Australia, Australia, http://au.shopping
2007. This graph is derived from data in Gleick, P. H. .com/xFA-washing_machines~FD-1897, accessed 9
(1996) ‘Water resources’, in S. H. Scheider (ed) March 2007.
Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather, Oxford University 19 Gustafson, D. M., Anderson, J. L. and Heger
Press, New York, vol 2, pp817–823. Christopherson, S. (2002) ‘Innovative onsite sewerage
7 Trewin, D. (2006) ‘4610.0 Water account Australia treatment systems: Single-pass sand filters’, Regents of
2004–2005’, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australia, the University of Minnesota Extension, US,
Chapter 10.qxd 12/1/2008 6:32 PM Page 171

WORKED EXAMPLE 5 – DOMESTIC WATER SYSTEMS 171

www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalresources/ Australia, p13, www.dh.sa.gov.au/pehs/publications/

DD7672.html, accessed 8 February 2007. Septic-tank-book.pdf, accessed 28 November 2006.
20 This figure is substantially lower than the average 31 Hankinson, M. (2005) ‘Bodalla sewerage: Community
Australian household water consumption of 282L/ Newsletter No 2’, Eurobodalla Shire Council Newsletter,
person/day. Australia, p3, www.esc.nsw.gov.au/IWCMP/newsletters/
21 NSW Health Department (2001) ‘Septic tank and BodallaNewsletter_No2.pdf, accessed 12 November
collection well accreditation guideline’, New South 2006; Biolytix, personal communication on 13 February
Wales State Government, Australia, www.health.nsw 2007.
.gov.au/public-health/ehb/general/wastewater/ 32 Ward, R. C. and Englehardt, J. D. (1993) Management
septic_guideline.pdf, accessed 28 November 2006. of Decentralized, On-Site Systems for Treatment of
22 Ecological Homes (2002) ‘Wastewater systems’, Domestic Wastes, Purdue Research Foundation, US,
Ecological Homes, Australia, www.ecologicalhomes.com www.purdue.edu/dp/envirosoft/decent/src/title.htm,
.au/wastewater_systems.htm, accessed 28 November 2006. accessed 28 November 2006.
23 US Office of Water (2005) A Homeowner’s Guide to 33 The Laundry Alternative Inc. (2005) ‘Septic system
Septic Systems, US Environmental Protection Agency, price’, The Laundry Alternative Inc., US, www.laundry-
p8, www.epa.gov/owm/septic/pubs/homeowner_guide_long alternative.com/septic_system_price.htm, accessed 28
.pdf, accessed 30 November 2006. November 2006.
24 See SepticTankInfo - ‘Septic tanks and septic systems’ at 34 Biolytix website – ‘Competitor comparison’, Biolytix,
http://septictankinfo.com/septic_tank_basics.shtml, Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=76, accessed
accessed 29 November 2006. 28 November 2006.
25 Public and Environmental Health Service (1995) ‘Waste 35 Fane, S. and Reardon, C. (2005) ‘2.3 Wastewater reuse’,
control systems: Standard for the construction, in Your Home Technical Manual (third edition),
installation and operation of septic tank systems in Commonwealth of Australia, www.yourhome.gov.au/
South Australia’, South Australian Health Commission, technical/fs23.htm, accessed 25 March 2008.
Australia, p12, www.dh.sa.gov.au/pehs/publications/ 36 Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and
Septic-tank-book.pdf, accessed 28 November 2006. Treatment (2006) A Consumer’s Guide to Drinking
26 NSW Health Department (2001) ‘Septic tank and Water, CRC for Water Quality, Australia, p26,
collection well accreditation guideline’, New South www.waterquality.crc.org.au/consumers/consumer.pdf,
Wales State Government, Australia, p12, www.health accessed 11 February 2007.
.nsw.gov.au/public-health/ehb/general/wastewater/ 37 Gustafson, D. M., Anderson, J. L. and Heger
septic_guideline.pdf, accessed 28 November 2006. Christopherson, S. (2002) ‘Innovative onsite sewerage
27 Number of people must be between five and ten. treatment systems: Single-pass sand filters’, Regents of
28 Mark Quan, Icon Septec, personal communication on the University of Minnesota Extension, US, www
13 February 2007; Steve Little, Steve Little Plumbing, .extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalresources/DD7
personal communication on 13 February 2007; Palmer 672.html, accessed 8 February 2007.
et al (2001) cited in Coombes, P. (2002) ‘Water Smart 38 Oasis Design for AWWA Research Foundation (1999)
Practice Note 9: Wastewater reuse’, Lower Hunter and Slow Sand Filtration, Oasis Design for AWWA Research
Central Coast Regional Environment Management Foundation, US, www.oasisdesign.net/water/treatment/
Strategy, Australia, p4, www.portstephens.nsw.gov.au/ slowsandfilter.htm, accessed 7 February 2007.
files/51064/File/9_Wastewater.pdf, accessed 28 November 39 Fox, R. (1995) ‘Slow sand filtration’, Practical
2006; Septreat, personal communication on 15 February Hydroponics and Greenhouses, no 24, Casper
2007. Publications, Australia, www.hydroponics.com.au/
29 Waterpac Plumbing (2002) ‘Getting started...’, back_issues/issue24.html, accessed 7 February 2007.
Waterpac Plumbing, Australia, www.waterpacaustralia 40 Oasis Design for AWWA Research Foundation (1999)
.com/getting_started_.htm, accessed 28 November Slow Sand Filtration, Oasis Design for AWWA Research
2006; Hankinson, M. (2005) ‘Bodalla sewerage: Foundation, US, www.oasisdesign.net/water/treatment/
Community Newsletter No 2’, Eurobodalla Shire slowsandfilter.htm, accessed 7 February 2007.
Council Newsletter, Australia, p3, www.esc.nsw.gov.au/ 41 Oasis Design for AWWA Research Foundation (1999)
IWCMP/newsletters/BodallaNewsletter_No2.pdf, Slow Sand Filtration, Oasis Design for AWWA Research
accessed 17 November 2006. Foundation, US, www.oasisdesign.net/water/treatment/
30 Public and Environmental Health Service (1995) ‘Waste slowsandfilter.htm, accessed 7 February 2007.
control systems: Standard for the construction, 42 Public and Environmental Health Service (1998) ‘Waste
installation and operation of septic tank systems in control systems: Standard for the construction,
South Australia’, South Australian Health Commission, installation and operation of septic tank systems in
Chapter 10.qxd 12/1/2008 6:32 PM Page 172

172 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

South Australia: Supplement A – Aerobic sand filters’, 56 Water Efficiency Labels and Standards Schemes (2007c)
South Australian Health Commission, Australia, p1, ‘WELs products’, Commonwealth of Australia, Australia,
www.dh.sa.gov.au/pehs/publications/Supplement- www.waterrating.gov.au/products/index.html, accessed
A.pdf, accessed 28 November 2006. 28 November 2006.
43 BOD5 = the five-day Biological Oxygen Demand. 57 ninemsn Shopping (2007) ‘Taps at ninemsn Shopping’,
44 Oasis Design for AWWA Research Foundation (1999) ninemsn Shopping, Australia, http://shopping.ninemsn
Slow Sand Filtration, Oasis Design for AWWA Research .com.au/results/shp/?bCatId=2952, accessed 9 March 2007.
Foundation, US, www.oasisdesign.net/water/treatment/ 58 Water Efficiency Labels and Products Schemes (2007b)
slowsandfilter.htm, accessed 7 February 2007. ‘Dishwashers’, Commonwealth of Australia, Australia,
45 Gustafson, D. M., Anderson, J. L. and Heger http://search.waterrating.com.au/dwashers_srch.asp,
Christopherson, S. (2002) ‘Innovative onsite sewerage accessed 4 December 2006.
treatment systems: Single-pass sand filters’, Regents 59 My Shopping (n.d.a) ‘Dishwashers’, Comparison
of the University of Minnesota Extension, US, Shopping Australia, Australia, www.myshopping
www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalresources/ .com.au/PT--280_Dishwashers, accessed 9 March 2007;
DD7672.html, accessed 8 February 2007. Shopping.com (2007) ‘Dishwashers’, Shopping.com
46 Gustafson, D. M., Anderson, J. L. and Heger Australia, Australia, http://au.shopping.com/xFA-dish
Christopherson, S. (2002) ‘Innovative onsite sewerage washers~FD-1894, accessed 9 March 2007.
treatment systems: Single-pass sand filters’, Regents of 60 Water Efficiency Labels and Products Schemes (2007a)
the University of Minnesota Extension, US, ‘Clothes washers’, Commonwealth of Australia, Australia,
www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalresources/ http://search.waterrating.com.au/cwashers_srch.asp,
DD7672.html, accessed 8 February 2007. accessed 11 January 2007.
47 Biolytix website – ‘Welcome to the Biolytix product 61 My Shopping (n.d.b) ‘Washing machines’, Comparison
selection wizard’, Biolytix, Australia, www.biolytix.com/ Shopping Australia, Australia, www.myshopping.com
php/productSelection, accessed 28 November 2006. .au/PT--281_Washing_Machines, accessed 9 March 2007;
48 Approximated as ‘Standard plumbing fixtures’ in the Shopping.com (2007) ‘Washing machines’, Shopping.com
Biolytix online questionnaire. Australia, Australia, http://au.shopping.com/xFA-washing
49 Biolytix website – ‘Drip irrigation kits’, Biolytix, _machines~FD-1897, accessed 9 March 2007.
Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=90, accessed 62 Biolytix website – ‘How Biolytix works’, Biolytix,
12 February 2007. Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=69, accessed
50 Biolytix website – ‘Drip irrigation kits’, Biolytix, 28 November 2006.
Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=90, accessed 63 Biolytix website – ‘How Biolytix works’, Biolytix,
12 February 2007. Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=69, accessed
51 Qassim, A. (2003) Subsurface Irrigation: A Situation 28 November 2006.
Analysis, Department of Primary Industries, Victorian 64 Biolytix website – ‘Competitor comparison’, Biolytix,
State Government, Australia, www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/ Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=76, accessed
nrenfa.nsf/93a98744f6ec41bd4a256c8e00013aa9/3d39 28 November 2006.
15fb8fe0af31ca256eb4001e5bf1/$FILE/Subsurface% 65 Biolytix website – ‘Competitor comparison’, Biolytix,
20Irrigation.pdf, accessed 12 February 2007. Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=76, accessed
52 Water Efficiency Labels and Standards Schemes (2007c) 28 November 2006.
‘WELs products’, Commonwealth of Australia, 66 Biolytix website – ‘Welcome to the Biolytix product
Australia, www.waterrating.gov.au/products/index.html, selection wizard’, Biolytix, Australia, www.biolytix
accessed 28 November 2006. .com/php/productSelection, accessed 28 November 2006.
53 Water Efficiency Labels and Standards Schemes (2007c) 67 Biolytix website – ‘Biolytix Filter Deluxe products
‘WELs products’, Commonwealth of Australia, (secondary treatment)’, Biolytix, Australia, www.biolytix
Australia, www.waterrating.gov.au/products/index.html, .com/detail.php?ID=27, accessed 10 February 2007.
accessed 28 November 2006. 68 Biolytix website – ‘Info Kit’, Biolytix, Australia, p10,
54 ninemsn Shopping (2007) ‘Taps at ninemsn Shopping’, www.biolytix.com/docs/Biolytixinfokit.pdf, accessed 4
ninemsn Shopping, Australia, http://shopping.ninemsn. December 2006.
com.au/results/shp/?bCatId=2952, accessed 9 March 2007. 69 Biolytix website – ‘Biolytix Filter Deluxe products
55 Water Efficiency Labels and Standards Schemes (2007c) (secondary treatment)’, Biolytix, Australia, www.biolytix
‘WELs products’, Commonwealth of Australia, Australia, .com/detail.php?ID=27, accessed 10 February 2007.
www.waterrating.gov.au/products/index.html, accessed 70 Biolytix website – Household product range, Biolytix,
28 November 2006. Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=11, accessed
Chapter 10.qxd 12/1/2008 6:32 PM Page 173

WORKED EXAMPLE 5 – DOMESTIC WATER SYSTEMS 173

28 November 2006; Biolytix, personal communication 81 Assuming that water and energy costs remain constant
on 13 February 2007. over 20 years is unlikely. Water and energy costs are
71 Biolytix website – ‘Biolytix delivers the best service’, likely to increase and hence the total cost becomes more
Biolytix, Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=57, favourable for the WSD solution.
accessed 28 November 2006. 82 The actual water consumption over 20 years is likely to
72 Biolytix website – ‘Competitor comparison’, Biolytix, be higher for both the conventional and WSD solutions,
Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=76, accessed because the performance of the appliances is likely to
28 November 2006. decrease.
73 Biolytix website – ‘Biolytix delivers the best service’, 83 Water Efficiency Labels and Standards Schemes (2007c)
Biolytix, Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=57, ‘WELs products’, Commonwealth of Australia,
accessed 28 November 2006. Australia, www.waterrating.gov.au/products/index.html,
74 Biolytix, personal communication on 13 February accessed 28 November 2006.
2007. 84 Biolytix website – ‘Competitor comparison’, Biolytix,
75 Biolytix website – ‘Welcome to the Biolytix product Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=76, accessed
selection wizard’, Biolytix, Australia, www.biolytix 28 November 2006.
.com/ php/productSelection, accessed 28 November 85 Biolytix website – ‘Competitor comparison’, Biolytix,
2006. Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=76, accessed
76 Approximated as ‘Full water conservation fixtures’ in the 28 November 2006.
Biolytix online questionnaire. 86 Biolytix website – ‘Competitor comparison’, Biolytix,
77 Biolytix website – ‘Drip irrigation kits’, Biolytix, Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=76, accessed
Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=90, accessed 28 November 2006.
12 February 2007. 87 Biolytix website – ‘Competitor comparison’, Biolytix,
78 Biolytix website – ‘Drip irrigation kits’, Biolytix, Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=76, accessed
Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=90, accessed 28 November 2006.
12 February 2007. 88 Biolytix website – ‘Competitor comparison’, Biolytix,
79 Qassim, A. (2003) Subsurface Irrigation: A Situation Australia, www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=76, accessed
Analysis, Department of Primary Industries, Victorian 28 November 2006.
State Government, Australia, www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/ 89 Gustafson, D. M., Anderson, J. L. and Heger
nrenfa.nsf/93a98744f6ec41bd4a256c8e00013aa9/3d39 Christopherson, S. (2002) ‘Innovative onsite sewerage
15fb8fe0af31ca256eb4001e5bf1/$FILE/Subsurface% treatment systems: Single-pass sand filters’, Regents of
20Irrigation.pdf, accessed 12 February 2007. the University of Minnesota Extension, US,
80 This value represents the net present value of an AU$6500 www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalresources/
investment in 10 years at an interest rate of 6 per cent. DD7672.html, accessed 8 February 2007.
Chapter 10.qxd 12/1/2008 6:32 PM Page 174
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Index
AccuRate 140 bakeries 4, 12
AC/DC converter 135 Barefoot Power 84
acid rain 32 Batterham, Robin 14
aerospace/aeronautical systems 24 benchmarking 46, 56–57, 64–66, 79
air-conditioning systems 25, 63 practical constraints 64–66
computer room (CRACs) 125, 131 theoretical targets 64–65
and electricity demand 139 benign solvent systems 85
air-handling equipment 4–5, 79 benzene 32
air quality 7 BEP (Big Energy Projects) scheme 11
algae blooms 25, 31 BERSPro software 140
aluminium recycling 66 Bertalanffy, Ludwig von 37
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Best Practice People and Processes modules see BPPP
Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 140 Big Energy Projects scheme see BEP
anarchy, disciplined 25 bio-accumulative waste 3, 7
Anastas, Paul 3, 84–86 biodiversity 3, 7
arbitrary constraints 66 biofuels 84
architects 22 biogeochemical cycles 3
Argonne National Lab 86 biological nutrient 7
Arrhenius, Svante 15–16 Biolytix wastewater system see WSD under wastewater
asbestos 32 treatment
ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and biomimetic design 52–53, 84
Air-Conditioning Engineers) 140 Biomimicry 84
ASHRAE Handbook (ASHRAE 1997) 140–141, 147 biota 7
Australia biphasic systems 86
built environment in 8, 140–141, 143 Birkeland, Janis 7, 22, 55
computer systems in 127, 131 blackwater see wastewater treatment
decoupling in 13 Blanchard, Benjamin S. 22–25, 27–28, 40, 46, 78
DfE in 2 boiler systems 12
Environment and Heritage, Dept of (now the Dept of the Borneo 26
Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts) 2 Boulding, Kenneth 37, 38
green chemistry in 86 BPPP (Best Practice People and Processes) modules 11
greenhouse gas emissions in 2, 14, 109 brick manufacture 65–66, 65
Industry, Tourism and Resources Dept see DITR Britain (UK) 13
metal processing in 8 Browne, Phil 12
transport sector in 109 building design
water consumption in 157, 158 and electronics/computer systems 123, 125, 131
Australian Greenhouse Office 140 energy-saving in 2, 8
Australian Parliament House 2 and greenhouse gas emissions 152
automotive industry 109 and subsystem synergies 70–71
see also passenger vehicle design; truck fleets temperature control see temperature control
up-front/life-cycle costs 1–2
backcasting 52, 88–90, 88, 89, 111–112, 112 Bush, George W. 13–14
elastic band analogy 88, 89 business benefits of WSD
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176 WHOLE SYSTEM DESIGN

competitive advantage 2, 3, 8–10, 9 computer room air-conditioners see CRACs

decision-making/problem-solving 12 computers 9
productivity 10–11 laptop 8, 14
processor/blade server design 68–69
Canada 31 see also electronics/computer systems
capital cost 2, 9, 12, 61 Conceptual Design phase 46, 47, 50, 52–53
carbon dioxide emissions see CO2 emissions optimizing for impacts in 67
carbon emissions 34, 58, 86, 109 consumer society 39–40
see also greenhouse gas emissions control engineering 37
carbon, LDF (long discontinuous fibre) 113 conveyor systems 95
car design see passenger vehicle design Cooling Load Temperature Difference/Cooling Load Factor
catalysts 85 (CLTD/CLF) method 147
Cat Drop, Operation 26 coral reefs 36, 40
causality see feedback cost-effectiveness 4
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) 25, 78 costs
chemical-risk databases 78 capital/inputs 2, 9, 12, 61
chillers see refrigeration in design/development phases 1, 20–21, 21, 47, 48
China 29, 58, 84, 86–87 and DfE 2, 3
cigarettes 32 energy see energy costs
cities life-cycle 1, 20–21, 20
expansion of 29 reduction, and competitive advantage 9–10
transportation design in 14–15 reduction, and productivity 10
clean-rooms 4 in system development phases 21, 21
cleansheet design 66–67, 111–112 transportation 2, 14, 67
climate change 12, 13–14, 36 see also under specific WSD applications
commitments 10, 14 CRACs (computer room air-conditioners) 125, 134
systems analysis of 33–35, 36 cross-disciplinary design see multidisciplinary design
see also greenhouse gas emissions CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Climate Change, Intergovernmental Panel on see IPCC Organisation) 57, 82
climate control systems 71, 113 cybernetics 37
Climatex Lifecycle fabric 7–8, 63
closed-loop processes 9, 62–63 DCD/AC converter 135
CLTD/CLF (Cooling Load Temperature Difference/Cooling DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) 26
Load Factor) method 147 decoupling 12–13, 13
CO2 (carbon dioxide) emissions 58, 86 delay 30
Columbia Lighting 79 Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources see DITR
comfort 61, 112, 139, 152–153 Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism see DITR
Commoner, Barry 25 design charrettes 6
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Design for Environment see DfE
Organisation see CSIRO Design for X 46
communications systems 24 Design, definition 49
competitive advantage 2, 3, 8–10, 9 design, importance of 1–3
The Competitive Advantage of Nations (Porter 1990) 2 ‘design for sustainability’ strategy 1
complexity 6, 22, 27, 28–29 Design Tex 7
and modelling 81–82 Detail Design phase 46, 47, 50, 54–55
reduction 112 optimizing for impacts in 67
and science 35–36 sequencing subsystems in 70–71
composite materials 67, 83, 112–113, 116 whole system optimizing in 66–67
compressed air systems 79, 95 DfE (Design for Environment) approach 1, 2
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and competitive advantage 3 innovation in 130–131

Diamond, Jared 30 liquid cooling for 129–130
dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane see DDT performance characteristics 123–124, 134
Dieter, George E. 47–48 performance comparisons 132, 133
disassembly 90 power challenges in 124, 126–127
dishwashers 80–81, 81, 168 power conversion solution in 129, 135–136
disposal/disposability 46–47, 47–48 power supply for 126, 126–127
DITR (Dept of Industry, Tourism and Resources, now Dept server systems overview 123, 124, 126
of Resources, Energy and Tourism), energy efficiency waste from (e-waste) 69–70, 87, 123
programme (EEBP) 4–5, 10, 11, 12, 79 elements of WSD approach 55–96, 110, 140, 159
domestic energy consumption asking right questions 56, 62–64, 62, 63, 64, 101, 128
hot-water systems 63–64, 82, 83 benchmarking see benchmarking
smart metering 37 designing/optimizing whole system 56, 66–67, 102, 105,
see also temperature control in buildings 111, 127–128, 148
domestic water systems 88, 157–174 accounting for impacts 56, 67–70, 68, 105, 118–119,
appliances 157, 160–161, 161, 165 129–130, 152–153, 169
costs 160 design/optimizing sequence for subsystems 55–57,
discharge/reuse 159 67–71, 75–78, 114–115, 115, 129, 146–147
hot 63–64, 82, 83 downstream to upstream sequencing of subsystems 57,
overview 157–159 75–78, 76–78, 115, 148, 164–165
significance of 157, 158 reviewing for improvements 57, 78–80, 80, 101, 115,
wastewater treatment see wastewater treatment 128–129, 145–146, 164
domino effect 26 modelling system 57, 80–83, 81, 83, 98–99, 115,
Dow Chemicals 62–63 141–143
downstream to upstream impacts 75–78 tracking technology innovation 57–58, 83–86, 85,
DRA (dynamic resource allocation) 132 115–117, 130–131, 165–166
drivepower systems 4 designing for future options 58, 87–91, 87, 88, 89, 91,
dyes 7, 63 111–112, 166
end-of-life design 46–48, 69–70, 90
ecological impacts, hidden 69–70 ‘end-of-pipe’ pollution control 7, 9
ecological indicators 70 end-user engineered systems 75–78
‘Ecomagination’ 8, 139 energy costs/consumption 2–3, 10, 131
economic growth, and environmental pressure 1, 12–13 reductions in 10, 11, 11, 12
ecosystems 3, 6–7 in sustainable design 47, 48
EEBP (Energy Efficiency Best Practice) programme 4–5 Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme see EEBP
eFlex 87 Energy Research Company see ERCo
electricity generation 24, 86, 118, 139 Energy Transformed (The Natural Edge Project 2007) 95,
electronics/computer systems 24, 123–138 110, 125, 131, 140
benefits of WSD to 132 engine design and system boundaries 28
and building infrastructure 123, 125, 131 engineering 5–6
costs in 123–124, 131, 132, 135–136 and complexity/specialization 5–6, 22, 62
CPUs (central processing units) 125, 126, 128, 132, 132 green 84–86
design challenge of 125 integration in see sub-optimal/optimized design; Systems
design of, conventional 123, 125–127, 126 Engineering
design of, WSD approach 9, 87, 123, 127–134 EnviroGLAS 69
energy efficiencies of 126, 127 environmental surprise 32
global significance of 123 environmental systems 6–7, 30–35
heat dissipation in 124–130, 130, 133–134 and delay 30–33, 31
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and economic growth 1, 12–13 General Motors (GM) 87

resilience of 30–33 General Systems Theory 37, 38–39
and Systems Engineering 22–23, 25–26, 28, 40 Genesis Auto 81
see also climate change; ecosystems; natural resources genuine targets specification 63
Eppinger, Steven D. 47 globalization 39–40
ERCo (Energy Research Company) 66 Gore, Al 35, 40
ergonomics 51 government benefits of WSD 12–15, 78–79
e-waste 69–70, 87, 123 decoupling 12–13
exergy 134 greenhouse gas emissions 13–14
extended product responsibility 90 oil dependency 14–15, 15
Great Ocean Conveyor 33–34, 35
fabric design 7–8, 63 Green and Competitive (Porter/van der Linde 1995) 1–2
Fabrycky, Walter J . 22–25, 27–28, 40, 46 Green Chemistry, Centre for 86
on life-cycle analysis 78 green chemistry/engineering 84–86
feasability studies 46, 47, 50 US President’s Award for 86
feedback 29–35 Green on the Grand building 71
balancing loops 29–30 greenhouse gas emissions 2, 10, 33–35
and climate change 33–35 benefits of reducing 13–14, 152, 170
and cybernetics 37 and consumer society 39–40
and delay 30–33, 31 from road transport 109
and overshoot 30–35 and WSD 35, 79
reinforcing loops 29, 34 Green Lights programme 12
in Systems Engineering design 47, 49, 50 greywater see wastewater treatment
fertilizers 25
Fiberforge 67, 88, 111, 113 Hargroves, Karlson ‘Charlie’ 32
The Fifth Discipline (Senge/Kleiner/Roberts/Ross/Smith Hawken, Paul 3, 78–79
1994) 37 hazardous waste 3, 7–8
filtration systems 5, 80 health issues 6–7, 24
FirstRate5 software 140 of end-of-life stage 69–70
fish stocks 31, 31–32 heat-exchange 4
fixed energy overheads 79–80, 80 heating, ventilation and air-conditioning see HVAC systems
fluid dynamics 57, 82 Hensen, James 34
see also pipe systems Hewlett-Packard/HP Labs 132–134
forecasting 88, 88, 89 hidden impacts 69–70
forests 15, 33 Hill, Robert 2, 13
fossil fuels 25 Hirsh, Robert 14
dependence on 1, 14–15, 86 Hitchins’ Tenets 25
Front End Loading 21–22, 22, 24–25 holistic solutions 1
fuel efficiency 10, 14–15, 87, 109, 117–118, 118 hot-water systems 63–64, 82, 83
fuel prices 109 human resources, and Front End Loading 21
Fukasaku, Yukiko 12–13 HVAC systems 75, 116–117, 131, 139
future generations 7, 15–16, 58, 86–90 hybrid cars 14–15, 23, 87, 109
and end-of-life design 46–48, 69–70, 90 see also Hypercar Revolution
see also under elements of WSD approach hydroelectric systems 24, 84
future system 52, 88 hydrogen fuel cell 88–89, 89, 110–111, 116, 118
hydrological cycles 3
gearing systems 6 Hypercar Revolution concept vehicle 66–67, 87, 109–122
General Electric (GE) 8 aesthetic appeal of 113
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backcasting in 111–112, 112 information processing systems 24

batteries in 113 infrastructure design 14–15, 75
challenge met by 109 innovation 83–86
climate control in 113 in appropriate technology 83–84, 115–117
composite materials in 112–113, 116 and competitive advantage 9–10
cost analysis of 118–119 increase in rate of 83
economic benefits of 109 inspired by nature 52–53, 84–86
electronics/software in 111–112, 116–117 material science 8, 83
environmental benefits of 118–119, 119 and productivity 10
Fiberforge process in 88, 111, 113, 118 and sustainable design 57–58, 83–86, 85, 115–117,
fuel consumption of 114–118, 118 130–131, 165–166
hydrogen fuel cell in 88, 110, 113, 116, 118 inputs 2, 3
mass reduction in 115–117, 115, 117 insecticides 26
multiple services design in 112–113, 116 insulation 4, 8, 12, 57–58, 83
subsystem synergies in 66–67, 68, 111–112, 114 Interface Inc. 79, 96
vehicle optimization in 114–117 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change see IPCC
WSD elements in 111–112, 111, 114–116, 118–119 internal combustion engine see ICE
Hyperserver 125, 127–132, 128 International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE)
benefits of 132 19, 45, 61, 75
cost analysis of 131, 132 internet 39
CPU (central processing unit) of 128, 129, 132, 132 ionic water 85
DRA (dynamic resource allocation) in 132 IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) 14,
HDD (hard-disk drive) of 129, 132 33, 34
heat management in 128–130, 130, 132 irrigation see subsurface drip irrigation
liquid cooling in 129–130, 130 IT services/industry see electronics/computer systems
in performance comparison 132, 133
power supply for 129, 132, 135–136 Jordan’s Principles 38
hysterisis 31–32 ‘just in time’ management 3

ice cap/ice-sheets 33, 33 Kasnet, Archie 38

ICE (internal combustion engine) 106
IDEX kiln 66 Land, Edwin 96
impacts, measurable 67–71 landfills 69–70
in building design 70–71 landscape design 22
compound 75–76 land use 6
ecological 69–70 laptop computers 8, 14
hidden 69–70 Lauckner, Jon 87
social 69–70 LCD (liquid crystal display) monitors 70
through synergies 67–69 LDF (long discontinuous fibre) carbon 113
transportation 69 leaded petrol 25, 78
improved atom economy 85 lead as hazardous waste 69–70
INCOSE (International Council on Systems Engineering) leasing 62–63, 90
19, 45, 61, 75 LEDs (light emitting diodes) 84, 85
incremental product refinement 3–4 Lee, Eng Lock 4, 96
industrial pressurized filtration 5, 80 life-cycle 3, 46–47, 47
industrial pumping systems see pumping systems analysis 78–79
industrial revolution 6, 34 costs 1, 20–21
Next 7 light emitting diodes see LEDs
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lighting natural systems see environmental systems

innovation in 83–84, 85 Need Definition phase 46, 47, 48–52, 50
subsystems 4, 71 benchmark targets in 64
Lighting Up the World 84 questions to be asked in 62–64
liquid crystal display monitors see LCD Netherlands 13, 13
load management strategies 12 Netherlands Sustainable Technology project 86
long discontinuous fibre carbon see LDF Newcomen steam engine 6
Lovins, Amory B. 1, 3–4, 10, 22, 45, 55, 78–79 Newfoundland cod fishery 31, 31
and Hypercar Revolution vehicle 109 Next Industrial Revolution 7
Lovins, L. Hunter 3, 22, 55, 78–79 nicotine 32
nitrogen oxides see NOx
McDonough, Bill 3, 7, 22, 55 NOx (nitrogen oxides) 34
mail sorting 70
malaria 26, 84 occupational health and safety (OH&S) 78
marginal efficiency 80 office environment 8, 70–71
Marsh, George Perkins 30–31 metering/monitoring 81
materials science innovations 8, 83 OH&S (occupational health and safety) 78
material substitution 9 oil dependency 14–15, 15
metal processing 8 petroleum products 86
metering 37, 81 operating conditions specification 63–64, 79
microhydro systems 84 Optimize, definition 49
micro-organisms 7, 161–162 optimized design 4–6, 19–20, 25, 66–67
Midgley, Thomas 25 benchmarking against see benchmarking
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) 13, 30–31 for common performance requirements 51, 63–64, 79,
Mills, Evan 84 82, 83
mixing machinery 81–82 and feedback 49, 50
modelling 57, 80–83, 81, 83, 98–99, 115, 140 and life-cycle approach 22
monitoring/measurement 57, 79, 81 and measurable impacts 67–69
motorbikes, hybrid 15 modelling for see modelling
motors 5, 14 of services 63
end uses of 5, 75–76 of subsystems 55–57, 67–71, 75–78, 114–115, 115,
global importance of 4, 76, 95 129, 146–147
mulch 7–8 whole system 56, 66–67, 102, 105, 111, 127–128, 148
multidisciplinary design 5–6, 22, 66
passenger vehicle design 9, 14, 109–122
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) conventional 110–111, 111, 114, 117–118
29, 33–34 cost analysis of 117–118
NatHERS software 140 DfE in 2
National Aeronautics and Space Administration see NASA for future options 87–89, 89
The Natural Advantage of Nations (Hargroves/Smith 2005) hybrid 14–15, 23, 87, 109
32, 139 power plant/fuel choice in 110
Natural Capitalism (Lovins/Lovins/Hawken 1999) 1, 4, 10, and system boundaries 28
49, 61, 78–79 WSD in see Hypercar Revolution
pipes and pumps in 95–96, 105 Patel, Chandrakant 133
The Natural Edge Project 84, 86–87, 139 Patterson, Scott 79
see also Energy Transformed PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) 32
natural resources/capital 3, 6–7, 39 PCBs (printed circuit boards) 69
maximum sustainable yield of 32 Pears, Alan 22, 55, 80, 82
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permafrost 33–35, 34 design solution, WSD 96–97, 101–105, 101

PET (polyethylene terephthalate) 7 electric/ICE 106
petroleum products 86 performance comparisons 103–105, 104
phase-out 46, 47 pipe diameter/layout in 96, 101–105
pipe fitters 96 resource sharing for 105
‘Pipes and pumps’ (WSD case study) 95–96 site planning for 105
pipe systems 5, 9, 14, 57 small/large 95, 105–106
designing future options in 87 push/pull factors 62–63
diameter/layout in 4, 96, 101–105 PV (photovoltaic) systems see solar cells
domestic, duel 88
friction in 4, 57, 82, 95–96 RAM (rotated arc mixer) 57, 82
straight/bent 96, 101, 105 raw materials costs 2, 3
see also pumping systems recycled materials 7–8, 119, 119
pollutability 47, 48 reductionist analysis 6
pollution 3 Reed, Bill 49
and causality 32 refrigeration 4–5, 8, 25, 57–58, 83
prevention/reduction 7, 9, 61, 119 remanufacturability 87, 90
as resource inefficiency 9 renewable resources 7, 83–84
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 32 biomass feedstocks 86
polyethylene terephthalate see PET research 8, 46, 52–55
population, global 39 resource productivity/efficiency 9–10, 61, 63
Porter, Michael 2, 9 restorability 47, 48, 63, 63
post office design 70 restorative perspective 7
poverty reduction 83–84 retirement stage of design 46–47, 48, 50
Powell, Grant 12 Revolution see Hypercar Revolution
power generation 24, 86, 118, 139 right-sizing 51, 63–64, 79, 82, 83, 148
Preliminary Design phase 46, 47, 50, 53–54 RLX blade server 68–69
benchmark targets in 65 Robert, Karl-Henrik 3
optimizing for impacts in 67 Rocky Mountain Institute 4, 20, 45, 56–57, 109
sequencing subsystems in 70–71 Hyperserver project 125
printed circuit boards 69 Romm, Joseph 1
product design/development, costs in 20–21, 21 rotated arc mixer (RAM) 57, 82
product differentiation 3
product improvements 8, 9 SafeChem 62–63
Product Innovation: The Green Advantage (Dept of the safety 61
Environment & Heritage 2001) 2 St. Barbe Baker, Richard 30
productivity 10–11 Schilham, Jan 4, 79, 96
and hidden impacts 70 Schmidt-Bleek, Friedrich 3
resource 9 science and systems 35–38, 38
Product Life Institute 90 cybernetics 37
product recovery 86 self-replenishing system 90, 91
profitability 3 Senge, Peter 37
pumping systems 4–6, 5, 9, 14 septic tanks 161–162, 161, 170
benefits of improved efficiency in 95, 96, 105 servers see electronics/computer systems
costs 96, 100–101, 103, 103 services perspective 25, 62–63
design challenge for 97, 97 Short, Dennis 79
design solution, conventional 99–101 Sierra Club 29
design solution, general 97–99, 98 60L Green Building 8
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Sliver cells 77–78 archetypes/typologies 38–39

slow sand filter systems 161–164, 163, 170 components, attributes, relationships, 23
smelting technology 8 defined/described 23–24, 23, 27–28
Smith, Michael 32 inter-relationships in 25–27, 27
social sustainability 63 theory, general 37, 38–39
soil 7, 8, 33 systems analysis 28–38
solar cells 15, 56–57, 76–78, 77–78, 84, 139 feedback in see feedback
solvents 86 and science 35–38, 38
sono-chemistry 86 variable, link 29
soot particulate emissions 34 Systems Engineering 6, 19–59
SOx (sulphur oxides) 34 application areas for 24
specialization 5, 21–22, 25, 62 boundaries in 28
Stahel, Walter 90 defined/described 23–26, 46
steam engines 6 and design/development costs 20–21, 21
The Stern Review 34 feedback in 47, 49, 50
stirred-tank mixers 82 and front end design 21–22, 22, 24–25
stretch goals 8 Hitchins’ tenets of 25
suboptimal solutions 4–6, 19–20, 25, 101 origins of 22
subsurface drip irrigation systems 159, 161, 164, 167, 170 process, modifications to 46–48
subsystem synergies 66–71, 68, 112 process, phases of 45–46, 47–48
and building design 70 sustainability in see sustainability and Systems Engineering
compound impacts of 75–76 Systems Engineering, International Council on 48, 56
sulphur oxides see SOx systems, natural see environmental systems
sun-and-planet gears 6 Szmant, Harry H. 86
supercritical fluids 85
sustainability and Systems Engineering 19–23, 25–28, 37, technological metabolism 90
40, 45–58 technology
absent from literature 47–48, 61 researching available 62, 62
in Conceptual Design phase 50, 52–53 tracking innovation in 57–58, 83–86, 85, 115–117,
in Detail Design phase 50, 54–55 130–131, 165–166
end-of-life considerations 46–48, 69–70 temperature control of buildings 9, 14, 56–57, 71, 88,
feedback in 47, 49, 50 139–155
genuine targets specification 50, 51–52 building envelope/daylighting 146–147
in Need Definition phase 49–52, 50 cooling load calculations 142–143, 142, 144–145, 148,
operating conditions specification 50, 51, 79 149, 152
optimized design 49, 50, 51, 55–57 costs 143, 149–153
in Preliminary Design phase 50, 53–54 design challenge for 141
resource use 47 electrical appliances in 144, 150
service specification 49–51, 50 heat gain reductions 145–148
WSD approach to see elements of WSD approach heat transfer overview 139–140
sustainable design see Whole System Design HVAC (heating, ventilation and air-conditioning) systems
Sustainable Design 3 75, 116–117, 131, 139–143, 149–150
sustainable development 1, 6–7 insulation 8, 57–58, 83, 139–140
Sweden 13 lighting 139, 141–145, 146, 148, 151
synergies, subsystem see subsystem synergies low energy homes, significance of 139–140, 152–153
system boundaries 28 occupancy characteristics 142–145, 148
system development phases 20–21, 21 passive heating/cooling in 139, 146, 147
and system requirements 24–25 performance comparisons 151–153
systems 26–30 rating tools 140, 147
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solution, conventional 141, 143–145 Wal-Mart 10, 15, 67

solution, WSD 145–151 waste 2–3, 3, 7, 15–16
ventilation 139–140, 146, 147 designing out 8–9, 62–63
windows 140, 143, 147, 150 reduction 85
WSD benefits 152–153 wastewater treatment 157–174
Test, definition 49 conventional 159–164, 159, 160, 168, 170, 170
testing 49, 50, 52–55 costs 162–164, 165, 167, 168, 169–170, 170
textile industry 7–8 design challenge for 159
thermal bridging 12 performance comparisons 167–170, 168,
33/50 programme 12 169–170, 170
tipping points 31–32 septic/primary 161–162, 161, 170
Todd, John 22, 55 slow sand filter/secondary 161, 163–164, 163, 170
tooling/toolmaking 118 subsurface drip irrigation 159, 161, 164, 167, 170
‘total quality movement’ 2 two characteristics of 157
toxic waste see hazardous waste WSD (Biolytix system) 164–166, 166, 168, 169–170,
traffic congestion 29, 29 169–170, 170
Transmeta processor 69 water costs 2, 3
transportation water efficiency 8, 9
costs 2, 14, 67 water quality 7–8
design 10, 14–15, 67 water systems, domestic see domestic water systems
impacts 69 water systems, office 71
truck fleets 10, 15, 67 Watt, James 6
Weizsäcker, Ernst von 22, 55
Ulrich, Karl T . 47 Whole System Design see WSD
United States (US) WHO (World Health Organization) 26
business community in 12 Whole System Design see WSD
Energy Dept 140 Whole System Integration Process 49
oil dependency of 14 Wiener, Norbert 37
UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) 13, 30–31 wind power 15, 84
unsaleable production see waste wineries 4, 12
urban/civil systems 24 win win opportunities 2
urban design 22 working backwards 62
and transportation 14–15 World Economic Forum 13
World Health Organization see WHO
Van der Linde, Claas 2, 9 WSD (Whole System Design)
Van der Ryn, Sim 3 business benefits of 1, 8–12
ventilation systems 95 need for 6–8
Victorian engineering 6, 22 savings/improvements quantified 2, 4–5, 9
ten elements of see elements of WSD approach
Wabash Alloys 66 use of terms 1, 3