The Lymphatic System- Introduction

The Lymphatic System performs two vital functions in the human body. First, it collects fluid left
behind from blood circulation throughout the body and returns it to the circulatory system for
redistribution. Second, it also manages the challenge of quickly recognizing and mounting a
counterattack against infectious agents. In order to accomplish each of these tasks the lymphatic
system spans most of the body and is constantly on the go.

The lymphatic system resembles parts of the circulatory system in some ways, especially the
veins. Lymph vessels begin at the capillary beds of the circulatory system, like the veins. However
unlike the circulatory system, in the lymphatic system there is nothing like arteries. As fluid leaves the
capillaries of the circulatory system to go to cells, and other fluid is picked up by the capillaries that
leads to veins, some fluid is left behind. This is where the lymph vessels come in and pick up the left over
fluid. When this fluid is inside the blood vessels it is called plasma. When it is around the tissue cells it is
called interstitial fluid, and when it gets picked up by the lymph vessels it is called lymph. The lymph
vessels are also like veins because they have valves to help with the flow of fluid towards the heart, and
they both lack pressure and require the skeletal muscles to help push the fluid along.

The lymph travels through the lymphatic vessels making stops along the way at lymph nodes
before finally being returned to the circulatory system near the heart. This delivery back to the
circulatory system happens through two main ducts; the left lymphatic duct or thoracic duct, and the
right lymphatic duct. The left lymphatic duct receives fluid from the left side of the head and chest, the
left arm, and the entire body below the ribs and eventually uses the left subclavian vein to put the fluid
back into the circulatory system. The right lymphatic duct only collects fluid from the right side of the
head and chest, and the right arm and eventually delivers the fluid to the circulatory system by way of
the right subclavian vein. Once in the subclavian veins the fluid is part of the blood steam and goes into
the superior vena cava and into the right atrium of the heart.

The lymphatic system’s second responsibility is to protect the body from harmful substances
such as pathogens (disease causing agents), allergens, toxins, and malignant (cancerous) cells. It
performs this task through building the body’s immunity and several defense mechanisms. These will be
discussed later.

Questions
1. The lymphatic system is similar to the ______circulatory___ system.
2. Before fluid is called lymph, it starts as ___lymph vessels___ in the blood and interstitial fluid
between tissue cells.
3. What are the two jobs of the lymphatic system? First, it collects fluid left behind from blood
circulation throughout the body and returns it to the circulatory system for redistribution.
Second, it also manages the challenge of quickly recognizing and mounting a counterattack
against infectious agents.
4. What structure do both lymph vessels and veins have? they push the fluid along and stop it from
going backwards.

Activity
1. 1. On the side that is hole-punched, write your name and class period.
2. Lightly color the area that deals with the right lymphatic duct gray and the area that involves
the left lymphatic (or thoracic) duct peach.
3. Label the right and left lymphatic ducts.
 The Lymphatic System- Structures
The structures that make up the lymphatic system include the lymph vessels, the lymph nodes, the
spleen, bone marrow, the thymus, and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) found in several locations.
Together these structures keep the body from being destroyed by pathogens. They each have a roll in either
carrying lymph, destroying infectious pathogens, or cleaning the lymph before returning it to the blood stream.

The lymph vessels have already been discussed, so let’s start with lymph nodes. The lymph nodes are
found along the lymph vessels all throughout the body. They differ in size from the size of a pin head to the size of
an almond. Each one is divided into sections. Different types of lymphocytes are found in nodules around the
outer area with the inner area producing lymphocytes. Between these areas are sinuses or spaces where
macrophages are found. As lymph enters the node the immune response is activated, which stimulates production
of lymphocytes to be releases into the lymph. Antibodies are then made to destroy the pathogens and the
macrophages remove the dead cells through phagocytosis.

The spleen is the largest lymphatic organ and is located inferior to the diaphragm in the left upper
quadrant posterior to the stomach. The spleen has two areas, one filled with white pulp and one filled with red
pulp. The white pulp is made up of high concentrations of lymphocytes and macrophages, similar to lymph nodes,
and has the same function, to destroy and remove pathogens. The red pulp contains lymphocytes and
macrophages as well but also has red blood cells, plasma cells and granulocytes, so it has more functions. This part
of the spleen removes ruptured, worn out, or defective blood cells and platelets, and stores healthy platelets and
red blood cells. The ability to store blood and platelets allows the body to release the stores when an increase is
needed right away, like during the fight or flight response. The spleen also has a special function during embryonic
development. It carries out hemopoiesis during development prior to bone marrow taking over the job.

Bone Marrows role in the lymphatic system can be explained simply, it produces blood cells including
lymphocytes. The two lymphocytes that are the main concern during production in bone marrow are the B cells
and T cells. Only the B cells mature in the bone marrow, the T cells are transported to the thymus where they
mature due to the influence of the hormone humogen that is produces there. This sounds like a small job
compared to some of the other lymphatic tissues, but without these B cells and T cells the other lymphatic
structures couldn’t do their jobs.

As mentioned above, T cells travel to the thymus to mature. The thymus has a cortex and a medulla. The
cortex is where immature T cells from the bone marrow mature. The medulla has more mature T cells that will
eventually leave the thymus via the blood stream to go to the spleen and lymph nodes to carry out immune
functions in those locations. Once the immune system is fully mature the thymus’ functions are not needed and it
begins to shrink. By adulthood the thymus is so small that it is hard to find.

Questions
1. What are the three things the spleen does that no other lymph organ can do? (one of the
jobs is taken over by another lymph tissue later on)
a. it carries out hemopoiesis during development prior to bone marrow taking over.
b. spleen removes ruptured, worn out, or defective blood cells and platelets
c. Stores healthy red blood cells and platelets.
2. Where are lymph nodes found? Along the lymph vessels across the body.
3. What are the parts of the thymus called? And what does each do?
a. Cortex – where immature T-cells from the bone marrow mature.
b. medulla – has more mature T-cells will then leave the thymus via the blood stream.
Activity
1. Color the spleen magenta, the bone marrow pink, the thymus blue, the lymph nodes orange,
and the lymph vessels green.
2. Label each of the above structures.
 The Lymphatic System- MALT

Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT) is exactly what it’s name suggests, it is lymph tissue
that is found in conjunction with mucus membranes throughout the body. Mucus membranes line body
cavities that have direct access to the outside environment. These areas include the respiratory,
gastrointestinal (digestive), urinary, and reproductive tracts. The MALT examples that will be discussed
here are the Tonsils, Peyer’s Patches, and the Appendix.

Tonsils are found in a ring around the back of the nose and mouth and are made up of lymphoid
tissue. There are three areas of the tonsils that make up the ring; the palatine tonsils are on the sides of
the soft palate, the adenoids or pharyngeal tonsils are in the upper part of the throat, and the lingual
tonsils are at the back of the tongue. Together the tonsils are the first line of defense as pathogens
enter the body through the mouth and nose. They work in a similar way to lymph nodes but are larger
and are attached to the mucus membrane. Tonsils are larger and more active in youth and get smaller as
a person ages.

Peyer’s Patches are found in the small intestines. They are small pouches of lymphoid tissue
spread throughout the small intestine. They resemble tonsils and produce macrophages that destroy
bacteria and prevent them from penetrating the walls of the small intestine. As food digests, bacteria
and pathogens are release, making it essential to have this type of protection along the entire route.

The appendix, found slightly inferior to where the small intestine empties into the large
intestine, functions similarly to peyer’s patches. It is filled with lymphoid tissues that help destroy and
remove pathogens from the digesting food. There is some belief that in early childhood development,
as the immune system is maturing, the appendix may be a site of B cell maturation as is the bone
marrow. Because of the shape and location of the appendix, it can become inflamed. If this becomes
problematic it may be removed without much negative long term effects for the person.

Questions
1. Why are peyer’s patches so important? They destroy bacteria and prevent them from
penetrating the walls of the small intestine.
2. Why does the appendix tend to get inflamed and need to be removed? Because of the shape
and location.

3. Name the three types of tonsils.

a. Palatine – side of the soft palate
b. Adenoids- upper part of the throat.
c. Lingual- back of tongue.

Activity
1. Color the tonsils yellow, the peyer’s patches purple, and the appendix sky blue.
2. Label each of the above structures, under their name write MALT.
3. Color the small intestine tan and the large intestine browm.
 The Lymphatic System- Defense Against Infectious Agents and Immunity
The lymphatic system is given credit for protecting the body against infectious agents, but it
does not do it alone, it gets help from other organs and tissues to continue the fight. The skin plays a
major role of helping keep invaders out of the body, and the mucus membranes that line the
respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts step in to trap invaders in their sticky mucus so
that underlying mucosa- associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) can quickly recognize and destroy the
pathogens. These are all examples of physical barriers used to stop infections.

When infectious agents get past the physical barriers the next line of defense steps up.
Immunoglobulins are specialized proteins that function as antibodies that look for invaders by
recognizing the antigens or markers on the surface of cells. The antigens that the immunoglobulins
recognize, come from another cell called a Macrophage. These cells ingest the invader cells and break
them up, and put part of the cell on the outside of themselves (kind of like a banner) to show what they
have done. The antibodies recognize the antigen and know that it needs to be destroyed. Together
these are referred to as nonspecific immune defense.

The body uses two other types of nonspecific immune defense; inflammation and fever.
Inflammation can be seen as redness, pain, heat, and swelling and is the body’s attempt to dispose of
microbes, toxins, and foreign material to prevent their spread and prepare the area for tissue repair.
Fever often goes along with infection and inflammation. The rise in body temperature, during a fever,
intensifies the effects of interferons (which stop viral reproduction and increase phagocytosis by the
macrophages), inhibits growth of some microbes, and speeds up body reactions that aid in repair.

Lymphocytes make up the specific immune defense. There are several specific types of
lymphocytes and they each have a job. B cells are found in lymph nodes, the spleen, and other
lymphoid tissues. The B cells make plasma cells and memory cells. The plasma cells produce antibodies
or immunoglobulins. Memory cells can be either B cells or T cells (which will be discussed shortly) and
function to remember pathogens for quick response to future invasion by the same pathogens. T cells
come in four forms, including the memory cells discussed above. The Helper T cells mature in the
thymus gland and produce Killer T cells and B cells to fight invading pathogens. Killer T cells destroy
virus- invaded cells and cancerous cells. Suppressor T cells slow down the B cells and T cells once the
infection is controlled. All these cells are constantly working to keep the body healthy.

Immunity is a complex mix of different things that are designed to keep the body free of certain
infections. Natural immunity is what we are born with and is permanent, such as unbroken skin, cellular
secretions, mucus, and tears. Phagocytes in the blood and local inflammation are also part of natural
immunity. When a baby is born it has temporary passive immunity from the mother’s antibodies and
can continue to get antibodies from the mother if the child is breast fed. This does not last long
however and the baby must develop or acquire their own immunity.

Acquired immunity is the title given to immunity that your body creates once it is exposed to a
specific invader. This can be done actively (active acquired immunity) which is the preferred way
because it lasts longer. Natural acquired immunity happens when someone exposed to an infection,
gets sick and then recovers. Antibodies have been made by the body and will be triggered if the body is
exposed to that invader again, so they will not even get sick the second time. Examples of this are
measles, and chicken pox. Artificial acquired immunity comes from vaccines and immunizations that
cause the body to make the antibodies by injecting the person with a mild form or dead form of a
disease. These vaccines and immunizations are not always long lasting and require booster shots
throughout life.

There are many Autoimmune Disorders that are caused by the immune system mistakenly
targeting normal body cells as invaders. While there are numerous autoimmune disorders, some
common ones include Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus, Lupus, Multiple Sclerosis (MS), Psoriasis, and
Rheumatoid Arthritis.

Metastasis is a term used to describe movement of a malignant tumor from one place in the
body to another. All cancerous (malignant) tumors eventually metastasize by traveling through the
blood stream or lymphatic system to establish a new tumor somewhere else. If it travels through the
lymphatic system the new tumor site will follow the path of lymph flow. For this reason oncologists will
test the lymph nodes closest to the cancer site and monitor whether cancer cells are found there. Once
cancer cells are found in the lymph nodes the prognoses for the patient is not as good.

Questions
1. What does a macrophage do in the immune response? Ingest the invader cells and break them
up and put part of the cell on the outside of themselves.
2. Explain how the lymphatic system is involved in the metastasis of cancerous cells. The canerous
tumors metastasize by traveling through the lymphatic system the new tumor site will follow
the path of lymph flow. So oncologists can track it and see whether the cancer cells are there.
3. Explain the basics of the following types of immunity:
a. Natural immunity- its what were born with and its permanent. as unbroken skin, cellular
secretions, mucus, and tears.
b. Passive immunity – its temporary immunity. The mother’s antibodies can continue to
get antibodies from the mother if the child is breast fed.
c. Natural acquired immunity -when someone exposed to an infection, gets sick and then
recovers.
d. Artificial acquired immunity – comes from a vaccine or immunization. Injecting a
sickness either deadly or mild into a person can help them make antibodies.
4. List the three types of B cells and the four types of T cells

a. Plasma B cells d. Suppressor T cells

b. Memory B cells e. Memory T cells
c. Killer b cells f. Helper T cells
g. Killer T cells

5. How does inflammation help in defense against disease? Immune defense.

6. How does a fever help stop disease? Intensifies the effects of interferons to help speed up the
bodies reaction that help it repair.