REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Primary sex cells- directly involved

Gametes- sex cells (the egg & sperm cells)
Not involved- somatic cells
Primary function- to reproduce, to avoid extinction

Male Reproductive System

Testes- produces sperms
Scrotum- the one that holds the testes (the sac of skin)
Penis- delivers/deposits sperm cells
Vas deferens (the tube)- carries sperm from testes to urethra

PART FUNCTION

Urethra Carries sperm & urine out of the body

Glands: Provides liquid where sperm cells can swim

seminal vesicle Produces a liquid that makes up most of the

components od semen

prostate gland Produces a slightly milky alkaline fluid that

is discharged as part of the semen (a fluid
that is a combination of different glands)

bulbourethral gland Produces a thick and clear mucus that

lubricates and neutralizes any trace of
acidic urine in the urethra.

Main male sex hormone- testosterone (develops secondary sex cells characteristics during
puberty)

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

PART FUNCTION

Ovary Produces egg cells

Oviduct Serves as passageway of eggs from the

ovary to the uterus; site of egg fertilization

Uterus Site of egg implantation where fertilized egg

 develops

Primary: vagina Receives the penis of male during mating

Ectopic pregnancy- develops in fallopian tube

Fimbriae- holds the ovary
Arms- fallopian tube
Cervix- 8-10 diameters

BREASTS
- The breasts are mammary glands, varying in size according to age, heredity, and the
amount of fatty tissue present. Each breast has 15-20 glandular lobes separated by
connective tissue. After childbirth, the pituitary gland stimulates these lobules with the
hormone prolactin… and they produce milk.

- Pituitary gland- also called as master gland

- The dark-colored circle at the tip of the breast is called the areola
- It contains sebaceous glands to keep the skin conditioned. In the center is the
nipple, where ducts from the lobules open.
- The first secretion from the breast is not a true milk, but a thin yellowish substance
called colostrum

THE MENSTRUATION CYCLE

The onset of the menstrual cycle, or menarche, begins at puberty and ceases at
menopause. The cycle has 3 phases:
•Follicular: before release of the egg
•Ovulatory: egg release
•Luteal: after egg release

- The follicular phase is characterized by menstruation, when the thickened lining of

the endometrium is shed because no egg was fertilized or implanted. Just prior to
this phase is a premenstrual period characterized by hormonal and physical
changes.
- The ovulatory phase comes next. Estrogen is the hormone produced by the ovaries,
which stimulates the maturation of a follicle and thickens the endometrium.
- The luteal phase follows ovulation, and is characterized by the development of the
corpus luteum, the secretion of progesterone, the preparation of the endometrium for
implantation of a fertilized egg, and the formation of a thick mucous to block the
cervix once the egg passes out of the fallopian tube.

28 days menstrual cycle

Lasts 3-8 days
Pituitary gland produces LH (progesterone) & FSH (estrogen)
14th day- ovulation egg will be released
follicle - dominant follicle ‘graafian follicle’ * holds the egg
Follicle then turns into corpus luteum * produces progesterone

Pituitary gland is controlled by hypothalamus

Hormones- messenger signals (can send signals to stop LH & FSH, stop production/
negative feedback)

To continue- positive feedback

Releasing * ovulation
LH & FSH

Cause of irregular menstruation- low hormone level, stress can cause delay

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- The endocrine system contains a group of glands that release hormones into the
body. The following table lists all the major glands in the body, with their functions,
locations, and the hormones they release.

GLAND HORMONE TARGET ORGAN FUNCTION

Pineal gland Melatonin Many Biological clock

Pituitary gland fsh/lh Ovaries Menstrual cycle

Adh Kidneys Osmoregulation
Growth hormone Many Growth & division
Oxytocin Uterus Birth contractions
Prolactin Breast tissue Milk production

Thyroid gland Thyroxin Liver Metabolic rate

Adrenal glands Adrenaline Many Fight or flight

Cortisol Many Anti stress

Pancreas insulin/glucagon Liver Blood sugar levels

Ovaries estrogen/progestero uterus Menstrual cycle

ne

Testes Testosterone Many Male characteristics

NERVOUS SYSTEM
It has two (2) main divisions:
- Central Nervous System (CNS) – serves as the main “processing center” for the
entire nervous system. It has two main parts – the brain and the spinal cord.

- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – contains all nerves that extend outside the
brain and spinal cord. It has two main divisions – the Somatic Nervous System and
the Autonomic Nervous System.
Homeostasis is the state reached when each part of the body functions in equilibrium with
other parts.
This is attained through the regulation of the bodily functions by the nervous system and
endocrine system by secreting hormones that regulate these activities.

Most body systems maintain homeostasis which involves a process, a signal or a

mechanism that tends to accelerate or to slow down a process called feedback.
Two types of feedback:
A.positive feedback- is when a response to an event increases the likelihood of the event
to continue.
●
B. negative feedback – is a response to a stimulus that keeps a variable close to a
set value. Essentially, it "shuts off" or "turns on" a system.

DNA
- Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) are two types of
nucleic acids.
- DNA is found mainly in the nucleus of the cell, while RNA is found mainly in the
cytoplasm of the cell although it is usually synthesized in the nucleus.
- DNA contains the genetic codes to make RNA and the RNA in turn then contains the
codes for the primary sequence of amino acids to make proteins.

MUTATION
- A mutation is a change in the base sequence of DNA.
- Mutations may affect only one gene, or they may affect the whole
chromosome.
- Mutations can occur in two different types of cells: reproductive cells and body
cells. Only mutations in sex cells are passed onto offspring.
- Mutations affect the reproductive cells of an organism by changing the
sequence of nucleotides within a gene in a sperm or an egg cell. If these cells
are fertilized, then the mutated gene becomes a part of the genetic makeup of
the offspring.

There are many ways that DNA can be changed, resulting in different types of
mutations
- SUBSTITUTION
- INSERTION
- DELETION
- FRAMESHIFT

- A substitution is a mutation that exchanges one base for another (i.e., a change
in a single "chemical letter" such as switching an A to a G).
- Insertions are mutations in which extra base pairs are inserted into the DNA.
- Deletions are mutations in which a section of DNA is lost or deleted.
 - Since protein-coding DNA is divided into codons three bases long, insertions and
deletions can alter a gene, so its message is no longer correctly parsed. These
changes are called frame shifts.
- It is said that the gain and loss of chromosome material can lead to a variety of
genetic disorders
- Every normal human cell, except for sperm and egg cells, has 23 pairs of
chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes.
Females typically have two X chromosomes (XX)
Males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).

Karyotype of a human with 46 chromosomes

Chromosome abnormalities can affect any chromosome, including the sex

chromosomes.
Chromosome abnormalities affect the following:
• Number of chromosomes
• Structure of chromosomes

EVOLUTION

- Evolution is a process by which the physical characteristics of types of

creatures change over time, new types of creatures develop, and others
disappear.
- Organisms have changed over time, their structures, traits, and abilities
allowed them to adapt and survive in their environment.
- Different evidences of evolution:
● Fossil record
● Comparative anatomy
● Embryonic development
● Genetic information

Fossil records are traces of organisms that lived in the past and were preserved by
natural process or catastrophic events.
Fossils document the existence of no-extinct past species that are related to
present-day species.

Comparative anatomy

Study of the similarities and differences in the structures of different species.

Types of structures:

- Homologous Structures
 body parts of organisms that may perform different functions but are of the

same origin.

Common ancestor (related) adapt different traits

- Analogous Structures

body parts of organisms that may perform the same functions but are of

different origins.

- qVestigial Structures

body parts that are useless or left over from a previous ancestor in which they

were useful.

- ●Embryonic Development is another type of evidence for evolution. An embryo is

an early stage of development in organisms.

- Genetic information is found on DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) which is present in

the cells of plants and animals.
●This the last evidence for evolution. The DNA and the genetic code reflect the shared
ancestry of life. DNA comparisons can show how related species are.

NATURAL SELECTION
●The theory of natural selection is the process where organisms with favorable traits
are more likely to reproduce. In doing so, they pass on these traits to the next
generation. Over time this process allows organisms to adapt to their environment.

Darwin’s concept of natural selection can be summed up into five (5) major ideas:
1. ●Organisms struggle to survive to avoid extinction.
2. Organisms vary in their physical, functional, and behavioral characteristics.
3. 3.Organisms which can best adapt to their environment would survive and
produce better offspring (Adaptation)
4. There is a higher probability of the next generation of organisms to survive if
they acquired the adaptive characteristics.
5. Environmental conditions can affect the survival of organisms.

- Biodiversity refers to a variety of life on Earth today that consist of many

millions ofdistinct biological species, the diversity of genes in the species
 together with the places where they are found, such as deserts, forests and
coral reefs.

- Species Diversity is the number of species in a site or habitat.

- Organisms in the ecosystem interact with each other and each perform unique
function.
High biodiversity = Stable Ecosystem
Low Biodiversity = Unstable Ecosystem

A population is a group of organisms of the same species – plant, animals, and other
organisms – that live in a certain area at the same time.

•A population stops growing when it reaches the maximum number of organisms that
can be supported or “carried” by the environment. This number is known as the
population’s carrying capacity in a particular environment.

Any population, whether it will be that of humans, animals, the mold growing on
bread, or the bacteria living in your intestines, will grow if more organisms are
being developed (Genetically modified organisms), or born, than are dying.