PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES OF MATTER

CHANGE?
- the act of altering a substance.
- An event, NOT a trait. Before condition 🡆 After condition.
- Can be PHYSICAL or CHEMICAL.

PHYSICAL CHANGE
- Does not alter the chemical composition or identity of the substance, only the form.
- EXAMPLES: Melting ice (change in state or phase)
- Freezing Kool-aid
- Tearing paper
- Boiling water (change in state or phase)
- Stretching silly putty
- Making a mixture (ex. Sugar water)
- Unmixing a mixture (ex. sorting)

CHEMICAL CHANGES
- Does alter the chemical composition or identity of a substance and makes new substances.
- EXAMPLES: Burning paper
- Digesting food
- Rotting
- Iron reacting with oxygen gas
- A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction.
EXOTHERMIC CHANGE - heat moves out
- the system into the surroundings The surroundings get hotter.

ENDOTHERMIC CHANGE
- Heat moves into the system from the surroundings, so the surroundings gets colder!
Law of Conservation of Mass (1789)
- The matter is never created or destroyed in chemical reactions.

- Mass of reactants = Mass of products

- Why??? Because atoms are simply rearranged in new ways in chemical reactions. (LEGO analogy)

Parts of a Chemical Reaction

Reactants 🡆 Products

- Reactants: Substances that are broken down by the chemical change.

- Products: Substances created by the chemical change.
- 🡆 This means “Yields”

Evidence for Chemical Reaction

1. Evolution of light.
2. Temperature Change.
3. Formation of a new Gas/Bubbles.
4. Color Changes.
5. Formation of a solid precipitate.
States of Matter
- The 3 main states of matter: solid, liquid, gas
- Changes in state are physical changes (no change in composition).
- Temperature is caused by the vibrational (kinetic) energy of atoms or molecules.
- As temperature increases, 1) solids turn to liquids, and 2) liquids turn to gases.

Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter

- A theory that describes the differences between the states of matter in terms of particle behavior
1. all matter is made of tiny particles (atoms, molecules)
2. particles in matter are constantly moving (vibrating) , except at absolute zero
3. The volume that matter occupies is mainly due to the space between particles rather than the particles
themselves; the particles are very small
4. In a solid, attractive forces hold the particles close together, although they still vibrate in positions.
5. In a liquid, the particles may move past one another, particles motions are slightly more random, and
particles are spread out slightly more than in the solid. Attractions between particles are still important.
6. In a gas, particles are very spread out. They move in straight line, random paths until they collid elastically
with each other or the walls of the container. Attractive forces between particles are negligible.
Rates of Reaction
- The rate of a chemical reaction is the speed at which the reaction occurs (i.e. speed at which the reactants are
used or products are produced).
- Rate can be measured by the:
1. change in mass of reactants or products.
2. change in pH
3. change in conductivity (ion production)
4. change in colour (intensity of colour)
5. change in temperature
6. production of a gas

Collision Theory
- The KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY may be used to explain how the various factors will affect the rate of a
chemical reaction.
- As the particles in the reactants move around, they collide with each other.
- Most collisions do not result in anything but a few will cause the bonds in the existing molecules to break apart and
new bonds will form to make new molecules.
- Collisions that result in the formation of products are called EFFECTIVE COLLISIONS.
- The idea of effective collisions is called the COLLISION MODEL and states that the rate of a reaction is affected by
the number of effective collisions between reactant molecules.
- According to the Collision Model, the rate of a reaction may be increased by increasing the number of total
collisions or by increasing the number of effective collisions by decreasing thE activation energy.

The Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction and the Collision Theory

1. Concentration (Pressure of Gases)
- The greater the number of particles the greater the number of total collisions. Since the total number of
collisions has increased the number of effective will also increase therefore the rate of the reaction will
increase. NOTE: As a reaction proceeds, it tends to slow down.
2. Surface Area (Size of Solid Particles)
- If the size of a solid particle is decreased, there will be more surface area available for collisions to occur.

3. Temperature of Reactants
- The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles. The higher the
temperature, the faster the particles are moving which will increase the chance for collisions.

4. State or Phase of the Reactants

- Reactions where all reactants are in the same state (homogeneous reactions) will occur at a faster rate
than reactions where reactants are in different states (heterogeneous). This is because the reactants will
have a greater opportunity of colliding. The state of the reactants will also affect the rate. The relative rates
are:
- Gases → fastest
- Liquids/ Solutions → fast
- Solids → slow
- Note: Stirring increases the rate of reaction

5. Nature of Reactants
- The type of reactants will determine the activation energy needed to break bonds and form the
intermediate state called the ACTIVATED COMPLEX. The higher the activation energy, the slower the rate
of reaction. Endothermic reactions are much slower than exothermic reactions because they tend to have
higher activation energies.

6. Presence of a Catalys
- A catalyst works by providing an alternative pathway for the reaction which has a lower activation energy.
Lowering the activation energy will only increase the number of effective collisions. The number of total
collisions will not be affected.
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
- A CHEMICAL CHANGE HAPPENS WHEN ONE CHEMICAL SUBSTANCE IS TRANSFORMED INTO ONE OR
MORE DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES, SUCH AS WHEN IRON BECOMES RUST. CHEMICAL CHANGES OCCUR
THROUGH THE PROCESS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS, AND THE RESULTING SUBSTANCES HAVE
DIFFERENT PROPERTIES BECAUSE THEIR ATOMS AND MOLECULES ARE ARRANGED DIFFERENTLY.

- CHEMICAL REACTIONS ARE REPRESENTED BY CHEMICAL EQUATIONS.

- USING SYMBOLS AND FORMULAS, CHEMICAL EQUATIONS SHOW WHAT HAPPENS DURING A
REACTION.
- THE EQUATIONS PRESENT THE IDENTITIES AND RELATIVE AMOUNTS OF THE REACTANTS AND
PRODUCTS IN A CHEMICAL REACTION. FOR EXAMPLE:

DEFINITION OF TERMS:

- COEFFICIENTS: THE BIG NUMBERS PRECEDING THE CHEMICAL FORMULAS. IT GIVES AN IDEA ON THE
NUMBER OF MOLECULES PARTICIPATING IN THE REACTION.
- SUBSCRIPTS: THE SMALL NUMBERS PRECEDING THE CHEMICAL FORMULAS. IT TELLS US HOW MANY
ATOMS ARE PRESENT IN A COMPOUND.
- * NOTE THAT THE ABSENCE OF COEFFICIENTS OR SUBSCRIPTS MEANS THAT THE NUMBER IS EQUAL
TO “1”
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
SYNTHESIS: A COMPOUND IS MADE FROM SIMPLER CHEMICALS A + B ---> AB
- Reactants – beginning substance Products- Ending Substance
COMBUSTION
- A compound burns in oxygen gas.
- This compound must be a hydrocarbon- made of Hydrogen and Carbon.
- Oxygen will always be a reactant.
- H20 and CO2 will always be a product

BALANCING EQUATIONS
- ACCORDING TO THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS, MATTER CAN NEITHER BE CREATE NOR
DESTROYED. THUS, MASS OF EACH ELEMENT PRESENT IN THE PRODUCTS OF A CHEMICAL REACTION
MUST BE EQUAL TO ITS MASS PRESENT IN THE REACTANTS. IN OTHER WORDS, THE NUMBER OF
ATOMS OF EACH ELEMENT REMAINS THE SAME BEFORE AND AFTER A CHEMICAL REACTION. IN A
BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATION NUMBER OF ATOMS OF A PARTICULAR ELEMENT PRESENT IN THE
REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS MUST BE EQUAL.

SYNTHESIS REACTION
- A synthesis reaction is a chemical reaction where two or more reactants combine to form a compound.
 - This is also known as a combination reaction. The reactants are either elements or compounds.
- Many synthesis reactions are exothermic, which end up releasin heat to the surroundings.
- The general formula of a synthesis reaction is as follows: A + B TO AB
- A synthesis reaction may involve two elements. An example of a synthesis reaction is the formation of rust
in metals.

EXAMPLES OF SYNTHESIS REACTION

- Metals and Oxygen
- Nonmetals and Oxygen
- Metals and Nonmetals
- Combination of Nonmetals
- Metals Oxides and Water
- Nonmetal Oxides and Water
- Metal chlorides and Oxygen

DECOMPOSITION
- Decomposition reactions will usually break down compounds into their constituent elements, into simpler
compounds, or into both elements and simpler compounds.
- The general formula of decomposition reactions resembles the opposite of synthesis reactions: AB TO
A+B
- Decomposition reactions are usually endothermic, and require an external energy source in order for the
reaction to take place.
- Some examples of external energy sources that can trigge decomposition reactions include electricity and
heat, thermal decomposition reactions, electrolytic decomposition reactions, photodecomposition
reactions
- The delta (∆) with the arrow denotes that the reaction is triggered by application of heat.
SINGLE REPLACEMENT
- A single replacement reaction, also known as a single displacement reaction, involves the replacement of
one element of a compound with another element.
- As the name implies, only one element is replaced by one reactant element.
- When a replacement reaction happens, the products are a different pure element and a new aqueous
compound.
- REACTIVITY SERIES
- Not all combinations of pure elements and aqueous solutions will result in a reaction.
- Single replacement reactions will only happen when a more reactiv element replaces the less reactive
element in a compound.
- Elements at the top of the series are very reactive and can displace elements found below them. These
elements are referred to as active elements
- Elements found at the bottom of the series are very unreactive. These elements are referred to as noble
elements.

photosynthesis classified as a single replacement reaction

DOUBLE REPLACEMENT
- A double replacement reaction is also known as a double displacement reaction.
- It occurs when two ionic compounds exchange ions, forming two new compounds.
- The general formula of a double replacement reaction is
- Not all ionic compounds mixed together will undergo double replacement reaction.
- For a double replacement reaction to occur, it should result with any of the three products: a solid ionic
compound, a molecular compound, or gases.
- A double replacement reaction will occur if one of the products is an insoluble or a partially soluble solid.
- This solid product is called precipitate.
- A double replacement reaction that forms precipitate is also called precipitation reaction.
 - There is a set of solubility rules that will allow the prediction of what
precipitates will be formed.

- Group I elements that comprise salts will generally make the salt more soluble.

- Salts that contain most sulfates, ammonium and nitrites are also soluble.

- Salts that contain silver or transition metal sulfides are usually insoluble.

- Chromates, carbonates, phosphates and fluorides are usually insoluble.

- The other two products of a double replacement reaction are either gases, or a covalent compound like
water.

Fundamental Laws of Chemical Reactions

Law of Definite Composition
Joseph Louis Proust, a French chemist, first put forth the law of definite composition.
- The law of definite composition, also known as the law of constant composition, states that the elemental
composition of a purecompound is always the same.
- As long as it is a pure compound, a teaspoon of this compound will have the same elemental percentage
composition as a kilogram of each compound.

Law of Multiple Proportions

- The law of multiple proportions was put forth by English scientist John Dalton.
- This law states that there are compounds which are made up of the same elements but of varying whole
number ratios.
- Carbon and oxygen can combine in a 1:1 ratio to form carbon monoxide or 1:2 ratio to form carbon
dioxide.
 - In the same manner, hydrogen and oxygen can combine in 2:1 ratio to form water or 2:2 ratio to form
hydrogen peroxide.
- The ratio depends on the initial reactants present in the surroundings as well as environmental conditions.
- For instance, carbon dioxide is produced if carbon is made to react with excess oxygen gas. When oxygen
gas is limited, carbon monoxide is produced.

Law of Reciprocal Proportions

- The law of reciprocal proportions was put forth by Jeremias Richter.
- This relates the proportions of elements that have the ability to combine to different elements.
- By knowing the proportions of elements present in two compounds that have a “common element”, the
proportion of the “variable elements” with respect to one another can easily be calculated.
- This law gives birth to more complex yet systematic calculations found in stoichiometry.
- Putting everything in symbols, consider compounds AB and BC, where A and C are the variable elements
while B is the common element.
- The law states that if you calculate the mass ratio for compound AB and BC you will be able to calculate
for the mass ratio A:C in the compound AC by simple stoichiometry.
Law of Conservation of Mass
- The law of conservation of mass was put forth by Antoine Lavoisier, also known as the father of modern
chemistry.
- The law of conservation of mass states that the there is no observable change in the quantity of matter
undergoing a physical or chemical change.

Law of Reciprocal Proportions

- The law of conservation of mass states that the there is no observable change in the quantity of matter
undergoing a physical or chemical change.
- This means that for a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants will be equal to the total mass of the
products.