Grade 11 History Unit One-1-4

Negele Ifa Boru Special Boarding School History short Note
For Grade Eleven social Students
UNIT ONE(1)
HISTORY, HISTORIOGRAPHY, AND HUMAN

EVOLUTION
1.1. History and Historiography
1.1.1. History as an Academic Discipline
 History is a branch of knowledge that deals with all things (including

thoughts, sayings and deeds) that have been done by people who
lived in the past
 The term history itself comes from the Greek word ―istoria (historia)
which means inquiry or knowledge acquired by investigation.
 In another sense, history is an organized and critical study of the past

based on interpretation of evidences
 The study of history covers the period called pre-history as well.
 As an academic discipline, history refers to the study of past events,

present situation and prediction of the future relating to social,
economic, technological and political developments.
 In studying the human past historians usually attempt to answer

questions such as
 What happened?
 When did it happen?
 How did it happen?
 Why did it happen?
 And what consequences did it have

Compiled by Beniyam K, Oct 2023 NIBSBSSPage 1
The uses of history

 Learn about what people did in the past.
 Not to repeat the mistakes of the past.
 enables us to understand the past society,
 To increase our understanding of the present society and may
forecast the future society.
 Identify identity of families, social groups, institutions, and

countries.
 Provides skills that are essential for our intellectual growth.

 Enables students to analyse and solve problems.
 To understand the crucial issues (problems) confronting human
society, and to give an informed, reasoned, and intelligent
response to these
However, However, just as it is useful to humanity, history can also be

abused when Selection is made from the past to justify the present.
Judging the past from the perspectives (values) of the present is a
serious problem in many countries including Ethiopia.
History and other science
Difference and similarities
 Natural sciences study the phenomena of the physical world,

 History studies human beings and human societies in the past.
 History does not conduct controlled experiments
 historians commonly make value judgments or put their personal
views

Similarities
 Both scientist and historians are concerned with discovery,
shading light on new knowledge, and solving current problems of
society.
 Both of them used systematic methods using evidence, and

drawing conclusions.
Therefore, history is a science because it must be proved by the use of

reliable sources
Historiography it is the study of historical writing. It is also a discipline

that deals with method of writing history, techniques of historical
research and documentation
The beginning of western historical writing or historiography associated

with Greek historian called Herodotus (484-425) who was called the
father of History and wrote Greek and Persian war. And his successor
Thucydides (431- 408 BC) wrote the Athens and Sparta war called
Peloponnesian war,
In the 1800 historiography become a field of study in schools by the

effort of the German historian Leopold Von Ranke also known as the
father of modern historiography.
What are the Key Elements in the Study of History?
1. Sources No one can write history without sources. In history every

statement must be supported by evidence. This evidence
(historical information) is obtained from sources of history.
2. Interpretation of historical evidences. Before we start writing

history, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of the
originality and meaning of our evidences. Otherwise, there is the
possibility of misrepresentation or wrong interpretation of
historical evidences.
3. Presentation of the facts on paper or writing history. The quality

of historical writing is highly affected by the manner of

presentation.
4. Objectivity or writing unbiased or undistorted history. The lessons

of the past are valued only if they are based on truth; that is,
accurate history. Objectivity also presenting what all the facts say
without any bias for or against.
The major steps in writing history include
 collection of historical information (evidence),
 source criticism,
 interpretation and
 writing objectively
Ethiopian Historiography Ethiopia is one of the countries in the world

that have indigenous tradition of historical writing since the 14th century,
to the early 20th.
 Chroniclers wrote exclusively about the achievements of Ethiopian

emperors.
 Hagiographers also made their own contributions to the development

of the recorded history of the country.
 In Europe, Ethiopian studies were founded in the last quarter of the

17th century by a German historian named Job Ludolf (1624-1704).
 Ludolf also wrote the first modern history of Ethiopia, which was
published in 1684.

 Until the early 1960s, Ethiopian studies focused mainly on the

northern part of the country however, was the establishment of the
Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) in 1963 changed this pattern.
 Ethiopian studies focused only on the north because the northern

part of the country had the following advantages over the south:
 The north had a written language that served to keep

records.
 Ancient Greek, Roman and Arab writers had left important

information about the region.
 Several sources on the Christian kingdom are also available

in the Egyptian Coptic church archives.
 The north provided archaeological sources for the study of

the history of the region.
Whereas in the south,
 The south had no written language and so had not kept records of
its past.
 lack of sources of history except oral sources
The problem of Ethiopian studies include
 The imbalance of sources
 Lack of comprehensiveness
 Studies focused on the political history of the country not in

social cultural history
 The lack of objectivity in the sources (made favour or bias to

their attachments
Sources of History
Historians use two main types of sources in their research.
 Primary sources: - Primary sources have direct relation to the

event they describe. Because they come directly from the period
under study, they are nearer in time and place to the event under
investigation.
 Example of primary sources are monuments, inscriptions, coins,

letters, diaries, memoirs, chronicles, documents of contracts and
agreements, photographs, films and eyewitness accounts.
Secondary sources do not have direct relation or nearness to the

event they describe. Most of them are historical reconstructions.
 Examples of secondary sources of history. History book
 Oral sources could be taken as either primary or secondary

sources. For instance, eyewitness information is a primary source.
But the information recounted by informants who obtained
information from other sources (hearsay) is secondary source.
Periodization in History
 Periodization in history means the division of the entire human past

into chronologically arranged shorter periods. Past events could be
understood properly if they are presented in a time frame.
 Periodization means dividing the past into smaller periods for the
purpose of systematically managing the study of the past
The division of the past into shorter periods
 simplifies the work of historians,
 Limited study of a certain period of time and good to present the

results of their studies
There are different approaches that divide the entire history of

humankind into different periods
 Based on human behaviour,

 Based on process of tool making, and
 Based on Economic life.

No Approaches Stage of Dates
development
1 The human behaviour approach Savagery 2.5M-8000BP
Barbarous 8000-5000BP
Civilizations 5000BP- Present
2 The human tool making Stone age 2.5 M-5000BP
approach
Bronze age 5000-4000BP
3 Iron age 4000-BP -PRE
The human economic life Hunting and UP TO 8000BP
approach gathering
Farming and animal 8000BP-1750 AD
husbandry
Age of industry 1750AD -PRES
The history of humankind is also generally divided into two major
periods, called pre-history and history.
All events that took place before that art of writing (4000 BC) are studied
under prehistory.
Those events after 4000 BC are also studied under history.
 The prehistoric period overlapped with a period of the Stone Age,

which lasted from 2.5 million BP - up to 5000 BP (before present).
During this period humankind used stone tools as instruments of
labour.
 The Stone Age is divided into three ages
 The Old Stone Age (2.5 million-8000 B.P),
 Middle Stone Age (transitional) and
 The New Stone Age (8,000-5000 B.P).
Since the technique of writing emerged at different times in different

parts of the world, the distinction between pre-history and history varies
from country to country, region or continent.

The period of history is divided into three minor periods called
 Ancient, History 1, 250 B.C and lasted up to 476 AD
 Medieval History (476- 1500 AD)
 Modern; History (1500 AD- present)
Periodization in African history
 Is unique from the rest of the world as a result of European

colonization. Periodization in African history is expressed in terms of
 Pre-colonial African history, (1500-1870)
 colonial African history (1870-1960s)
 Post-colonial periods. African history (1960 –present)
The periodization of Ethiopian history is different from the periodization

of the rest of Africa because Ethiopia is the only African state that
averted European colonialism
 The Ancient Ethiopian history (1000 B.C and 1270 A.D.)
 The medieval Ethiopian history (1270 up to 1855 A.D.)
 The modern Ethiopian history.( since 1855 to present )
1.2. Origin of Human Beings
1.2.1. Theories of Origin
1. Creationist View
 The term Creationism ‘refers to the religious belief that the

universe, Earth, life, and humans originated with supernatural acts
of divine creation. Accordingly, Creationists believe that the earth
and life on it including human beings with all complete physical

shape and structure was created by a supernatural force.
2. Scientific View
The scientific view about human origin is also called the theory of
evolution. Evolution is the idea that the universe and life on earth
were created by a process of evolution through natural and slow
process of change. (millions or billions of years). Those who believe
in this view are called evolutionists. The theory of evolution was first
described by Charles Darwin in mid of 19th He was also wrote a book
entitled with the Origin of Species by Natural Selection in 1859. This
theory explains that human beings developed from lower being
through a gradual and natural process of change.
1.2.2. Stages of Human Evolution
Hominids
Hominid is a general biological term referring to members of the

scientific family consisting of human beings and extinct human like
creatures such as apes, gorillas and chimpanzees.
The two African apes, gorillas and chimpanzees, are the closest
living relatives of humans. These species are classified as members
of a separate zoological family called pongidae. Anthropologists
believe that human beings, gorillas and chimpanzees all developed
from a common ancestor that lived between 8 and 5 million years ago.
Scientists have calculated that the split between hominids and the
line leading to chimpanzees and gorillas occurred about millions of
years ago. Biochemical studies of fossil evidence have also told us a
great deal about the relationship between humans and apelike
creatures.
Australopithecines: The First Humans
The name Australopithecine translates as the southern ape in

reference to South Africa, because it was first discovered in South
Africa. These earliest human species are believed to have evolved in
Africa around 6 million years ago.

Two traits distinguished them from apes:
 small canine teeth and
 Bipedalism - that is, walking on two legs as the primary form of

locomotion.
Character that made them ancestor of ape
 They had a brain size of 390 -550 cc (cubic centimetre) in the

range of an ape‘s brain.
 Their body weight ranged from 27 to 49 kg, and they stood 1.1-1.5
m. Their weight and height compare closely to those of
chimpanzees.
Table 1.2 The seven species of Australopithecines
No Name of species Place of discovery Age (Estimated Year of

time) Discovery
1 Australopithecus Kenya 4.2 - 3.9 1994
anamensi million years
ago
2 Australopithecus Ethiopia 3.9 - 2.9 1974
afrensisi Hadar million years
ago
3 Australopithecus Central Africa 3.5 – 3 million 1995
bahrelghazali (around Lake years ago
Chad)
4 Australopithecus Lake Turkana 2.9 – 2.6 1985
aethiopicus region in Kenya million years
ago
5 Australopithecus Southern Africa 3 – 2.5 million 1924
africanus years
6 Australopithecus East Africa 2.5 - 1.5 1959
boisei million years
7 Australopithecus Southern Africa 2.5 – 1.5 1938
robustus million years

Genus Homo and Appearance of Modern Humans Homo

originated about 2.5 million years ago.
 Compared to the species of Australopithecus, members of Homo

had larger brains and smaller jaws.
Homo habilis (handy human) – were the first and oldest of the
genus Homo, lived in eastern and southern Africa about 2 million
years ago. Homo habilis made the first stone tools called the
Oldwan (named after the Olduavai gorege in Tanz. named after the
Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania where they were first discovered.
Archaeological site of the Homo Habilis include Lower omo

basin (Ethiopia,Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, Sterk fontein in South
Africa and Lake Turkana area in northern Kenya
Homo erectus (upright human)
 Homo erectus (upright human) originated in Africa and became

the earliest or the first hominid to move out of Africa into Asia and
Europe. Homo erectus had smaller brain and larger teeth than the
modern human beings. The species lasted 1.5 m and walked
upright on two legs.
 Homo erectus was the first hominid to make little and precise
stone tools with precise shape to the hand axe. These tools are
referred to as Acheulian tools (named after town in North France
Saint-Acheul, where one of them was first discovered.
 Homo erectus was the first hominid to master the use of fire
around 1.5 million years ago.
 Archaeological site of the Homo Erectus

unearthed at several sites in Ethiopia including
 Lower Omo Basin, Melka-Kunture, Konso-Gardula, Middle Awash

(central Afar) and Gedeb (Gedeo zone).
Out of Africa its fossils were also found in Indonesia, Germany and
China. Homo sapiens- are classified into ―archaic‖ and ―modern‖
Homo sapiens. The first
Homo sapiens- are classified
 Archaic Homo Sapiens
 Evolved from Homo erectus between 300,000 and 600,000 years ago,
and occupied Africa and Europe. It fossils were discovered at Bodo in
Middle Awash Ethiopia and in Eurasia and its micro lithic stone tools
 Modern Homo sapiens.
 Modern Homo sapiens include all living humans plus fossil

populations from about at least 100,000 years.
 Archaeological site Africa, Near East (western Asia), Middle East as

well as Europe. Fossil discovered at Kibish in the Lower Omo Basin. A
lower jaw also uncovered at Pork Epic near Dire Dawa.
 Modern human beings lived across Africa, Eurasia and Australia

some 35,000 years ago. Much later, they also spread into the
Americas. They led hunting and gathering way of life.
Early Cultural Development
Based on the types of tools and tool making techniques, archaeologists

commonly divide the Stone Age into three stages.
Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), 2.5 M – 8000BP
Mesolithic (Middle Stone Ag) and (No exact demarcating time)
Neolithic (New Stone Age). (800BP – 5000)

During the Old Stone Age,
 Human being discovered fire,
 learned to live in caves and
 Make clothing of skins, and painted pictures on the walls of

caves.
Palaeolithic period subdivided into three stages:
Lower Paleolithic (2.5 million-200,000 B.P), (olduwan and Achulean

tool)
Middle Paleolithic (200,000 - 30,000 B.P) and
Upper Paleolithic (40, 000- 10,000 B.P).
Old wan stone tools were made by a technique called direct

percussion (flaking). Used to break bones and slicing meat or
vegetation; and smaller flakes that could scrape hides and sharpen
wooden sticks.
Oldowan Sites
Country Site Age
Ethiopia Gona,Afar Omo 2.5My years, 2.3 M
Kenya Lokalaei Koobi 2.3 M years 1.9-1.4 M
Tanzania Olduvai 1.9-1.2 M
Algeria Ain Hanech 1.7 M
South Africa Sterkfomtien 2-1.5 M
Acheulean stone tools refer to the hand axe technology that

developed in Africa, the Near East, Europe and Asia dating from 1.5
million – 200,000 B.P. Acheulean tools are known as bifaces
(flaked on both side), Acheulean sites in Ethiopia include Konso-
Gardula, Gedeb and Melka –Kunture. Oldowan tools are generally
identified with Homo habilis, while Achu lean tools with that of

Homo erectus.
Middle Paleolithic
During the Middle Palaeolithic period Homo erectus evolved into Homo
sapiens. Studies on Middle Paleolithic populations help us understand
the anatomy, behaviour, adaptation and cultural development of modern
man. Archaeological sites Middle Palaeolithic found in the deposits of
caves and rock shelters, Hominids began to make a wide variety of
smaller tools based on flake technology such as spear point and knives.
Archaeological site Gademotta ( central Ethiopian Rift Valley,) dated to

200, 000 years ago,. Melka-Kunture, Porc Epic and Kone in Ethiopia; and
Midhishi and Gud Gud in Somalia
The Upper Paleolithic (Later Old Stone Age)
 Lasted from about 40,000 _ 10,000 years ago Standardized blade

technology appeared and became more widespread during this time.
(small, geometric-shaped blade segments) became increasingly
common in many areas
Neolithic Revolution
 Is the replacement of hunting and gathering by food production

through the domestication of plants and animals. It was started
11,000 years ago and is considered as the turning point in the history
of mankind.
Because
Human adopted food production as their primary means of

subsistence.
People began to organize themselves around a base camp to

which they returned regularly.
Settlement or sedentary life started

Artefacts become more advanced.
 Agriculture was first started is the Middle East

particularly the Fertile Crescent, which covers what is
now Lebanon, part of Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Syria and
Turkey.
Sedentary life resulted
The emergencies of families and communities
Communities built stone houses which transformed into villages&

small towns.
The emergence of organized societies who were divided into

classes of priests, chieftains, merchants, craftsmen, shepherds, etc.
Neolithic humans invented the hatchet and millstone to grind cereals.
They also made pottery for food cooking and storage.
Sacred places and traditional religions emerged during this period.
Finally, the first conflicts started among human beings during the
Neolithic period. When a village lost its crop, its herds and population
increased, they attempted to take the resources of nearby communities
which led to conflict.
The Neolithic Revolution in the Ethiopian Region
Archaeologists have uncovered Neolithic type of cultural remains at

different sites of northern and southern Ethiopia parts and the Horn.
Archaeological site of NR in Ethiopia
Fragment of Camel dental at Gobedra 2,500 BC near Axum
Remains of chick peas and vegetables dated to 500 B.C at

Lalibela cave Lake Besaka

Grinding stones and polished at Akordat and Barentu in Eritrea,

axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures, etc.,
It is assumed that agricultural tradition in northern Ethiopia was

already in existence between 3, 000 and 2000 B.C
Some of the cultivated plants were enset and crops such as teff,
noog, finger millet, and coffee. Today, enset and these crops are
staple foods in different parts of Ethiopia.
The Emergence of State
The Theories of the Emergence of State
Religious theory was one of the important factors for the emergence
of states in because it gave some feeling of security in the ancient
world and priest believed to secure fertility to crops animals and
women and pray god to bring peace, t also prayed during famine,
war, diseases, and natural disasters. So that they assumed both
religious power with political functions, and became kings. Thus, this
theory is called the Divine Right Theory‖.
War leadership was another factor in the emergence of kingship in

ancient times. With the frequent existence of fierce and bloody wars,
a permanent war leader would be emerged as a king.
Trade, it is served as a factor for the emergence of states. Chiefs of

localities could collect tolls or tax on goods to give protection to
merchants and trade routes So that such taxes become regular

tribute that would increase the wealth of a chief which helped them
to have followers to make their power permanent as a king.
Oriental despotism theory this theory regarding the origin of oriental

states, particularly ancient Egypt, whose civilization depended on the
Nile River and that of Mesopotamia, which was located in the valleys
of the Tigris and Euphrates. In such civilizations where agriculture
depended on large scale irrigation, a strong state power emerged
because despotic state power was needed to organize labour for
great irrigation and flood control works.
Main Features of the Early States
Came into existence primarily as a result of the development of

agriculture. States in antiquity had populations with divisions into
classes, and with specialized skills such as craftsmen, soldiers,
officials, etc.
Ancient states were different in size, power and level of civilization.
The term civilization comes from the Latin words for citizen and city. In
this context, civilized states were states with cities where there were
literacy, technology wealth to create great monumental architecture, like
in ancient Egypt and Aksum, developed religion or secular philosophy
(china Confucius)
Ancient empire states were seen as divinely created institutions, and

their emperors were regarded as representatives of gods (later God) on
earth.
The position of the individual in the social hierarchy was determined on

the basis of birth, and was believed to be god-given and thus immutable.
The kings and emperors and their male descendants in the ancient world
considered themselves elected by God to rule over the rest of society.
END

Unit Two
Major Spots of Ancient World Civilizations up to c.500 A.D
2.1. Ancient Civilizations of Africa
2.1.1. Ancient Egypt
 The ancient Greek historian Herodotus (about 484- 425 B.C)

described Egypt as The Gift of the Nile, to point out to importance
that the river had for ancient Egyptians.
The importance of Nile River to Egypt

 Without the Nile Egypt would be the infertile desperate desert.
 The political unity of Egypt made possible by the Nile River.
 Used the Nile as a highway linking north and south.
 The river also served as a trade route.
Ancient Egypt had two distinct regions,
 Upper Egypt in the south and
 Lower Egypt in the north that covered the delta region.
About 3,100 B.C., Menes, the king of Upper Egypt, united the two regions
and He founded Egypt‘s first capital at Memphis located in the delta.
Scholars divide the history of ancient Egypt into three main periods:
 The Old Kingdom (c. 2,686 B.C.-2,181 B.C.),
 The Middle Kingdom (c. 2040- 1730 B.C.), and
 The New Kingdom (c. 1550- 1080 B.C).
There were a total of 31 dynasties of indigenous rulers in Egypt however

after the New Kingdom; the indigenous rule was ended in Egypt because
of
 Persian conquest of Egypt in 343B.C.
 Alexander the Great conquered Egypt from the Persians in 332B.C.
 Macedonia-Greek rule of Egypt continued until Egypt became part of

the Roman Empire in 30 B.C.
Egyptian kings (pharaoh) played key roles in government and religion

He held absolute power and were seen as human as well as divine.
Ancient Egyptians believed in life after death. Accordingly, kings
would continue their function of keeping the land and the people safe
even after they passed away

Since the period of the New Kingdom (about 1550-1080 B.C), the king of
Egypt was called Pharaoh. (Great house)
During the Old Kingdom, the kings who made their capital at Memphis
organized a strong, centralized state and made a bureaucracy- a system
of government and the Pharaoh was also depended on the Vizier or chief
minister to supervise the business of government and they are also
responsible to looked after tax collections, farming and irrigation.
During the Middle and the New Kingdoms, the capital was moved to
Thebes, (south Egypt). Ancient Egypt was divided into 42 provinces
called nomes that ruled by official called nomarch
Top social class

Pharaoh, gov’t officials, religious leader priests
Middle social classes
Merchants, scribes artisans (served the

rich)
Bottom social classes
Peasant’s farmers slaves (served for

free)
The peoples of ancient Egypt were divided into a hierarchy of social

classes.
Top social class Pharaoh, government officials and religious

leaders the high priests and priestesses.
Middle social class merchants, scribes, and artisans formed the

next hierarchy. They provided service for the rich and the powerful.
Bottom social class peasants who made up the majority of

Egyptian society. They were farmers who worked the land. Of
these, slaves formed the majority. They provided free labour
services of various kinds and were the backbone of the economy.
Egyptian women enjoyed a higher status and greater

independence than women elsewhere in the ancient world.
Women could inherit property, enter business deals, buy and sell
goods, go to court, and obtain a divorce.
They manufactured perfumes and textiles, served as doctors.
Women could also enter the priesthood, goddesses.
Religion is a major force that significantly shaped life in ancient Egypt.

The people worshipped many gods and goddesses and Pharaohs, who
were considered gods as well as monarchs
Amon-Re, Osiris, and Isis were the gods and goddesses that they
worshipped. Osris was significant to the Egyptians since he was the god
of the Nile, who controlled the annual flood that fertilized the land.
During the Old Kingdom, Egyptian pharaohs built pyramids near

Memphis that registered in UNESCO as world heritage sites. The largest
one, built for the pharaoh Khufu, is the Great Pyramid erected at Giza
and it reached its climax during the New Kingdom period
The New Kingdom
saw powerful pharaohs that ruled and expanded the territory
First female ruler, Queen Hatshepsut (circa 1473-1458 B.C.),

assumed power so that she encouraged trade with the eastern
Mediterranean lands and along the Red Sea coast of Africa.
Thutmose III (1479-1425 B.C.),
 was great military general expanded the territory
 He conquered Palestine and Syria in the north and

Kush and Nubia in the south.

Ancient Egyptians contribution or achievement
Architecture, writing system (hieroglyphic), medicine, mathematics,

calendar, and irrigation agriculture.
After 1100 B.C., the power of Egypt gradually declined. Invaders, such as
the Assyrians and the Persians conquered the Nile region. In 332 B.C.,
the last Egyptian dynasty ended as the Greeks took control. In 30 B.C.,
Egypt had become a Roman.
2.1.2. Kush-Meroe
Nubia is the name of a geographic region of Africa that extended from

the southern boundary of Egypt the present-day Sudan.
Like Egypt, Nubia was divided into upper and lower areas and lived along
the Nile.
Cultural and technological relationships between Egypt and Kush.
 Egypt influenced the art and architecture of the Nubian region.
 The Nubians (Kush) also worshiped some of the gods of

Egyptians.
 They also adopted the customs and clothing styles of the

Egyptians.
 Rituals and a hieroglyphic writing system to Kush. However, the

language has not yet been translated.
 They also adopted Egyptian pyramids.
 In Nubia, women played an important role as Queens.
Kush rose to power in the 700s B.C. under its capital first in Napata and
later on Meroe. The Nubian kingdom of Kush conquered all upper and
lower Egypt. In 751 B.C., Piankhi, a Kushite king, attacked the Egyptian
city of Memphis.
Nubia was rich in goods such as

 Ivory, animal skins, timber, and minerals. This led to a trade along
the Nile with Egypt
 In about 590 B.C, Meroe took the place of Napata as capital.

Meroe was located on the Nile and on trade routes leading from
the Red Sea to the interior of Africa. It had access to gold and iron.
 In the 8th c Kush was defeated by the Assyrians (8th century B.C)
so that they taught the need produce iron weapons.
Their achievement
 Iron smelting technology. Meroe was an ideal location for producing

iron as it was located close to iron ore deposits.
 The prosperity of Meroe largely depended on trade.
The main export items included ivory, slaves, skins, ostrich feathers,
ebony and gold. The power of Meroe reached its climax from the
middle of the 3rd century B.C to the 1st century A.D.
 In the middle of the 4th century A.D, the Askumite king called Ezana
invaded Meroe, brought the ancient kingdom of Kush to its end.
2.2. Civilizations in Asia
2.2.1. Mesopotamia
Asia was home to several civilizations of the ancient world. Many of

these earliest civilizations were based on city states.
Sumerians
By about 2900 B.C, civilization flourished in Sumerian (in present day

Southern Iraq) located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
 The name Mesopotamia comes from a Greek word meaning between

rivers, a pointer to the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers that encircle
Mesopotamia.

 The rulers of Sumerian city-states were absolute kings called lugals

ruled as the representative of the city-state's chief god. He was
responsible for seeing that the worship of the god was properly
carried out.
 Sumerians believed that the prosperity and security of the state was
ensured by the proper worship of the god.
Inhabitants of the city-states
 Lived within the walls of the cities priests, officials, soldiers,

craftsmen and traders.
 Unlike Egypt, there were no great monuments built for the kings and
numerous gods in Mesopotamia. This was because stone and good
timbers were not available for construction.
The achievement of Sumerians
 The plough was first used in Sumeria
 experts in metal working and their bronze artifacts
 Sumerians developed skills in astronomy and mathematics like

(Egypt) which they used for the preparation of a calendar, land
measurement and administration.
 We got 60 minutes in an hour and 360° in a circle from the
Sumerians.
 Developed writing system called Cuneiform (3200-2900 BC,)
 The system used word pictures, developed from a system of

wedge-shaped characters called cuneiform.
 Made remarkable contributions to law, arts, and science. The

Mesopotamians made careful study of the celestial bodies.
 They recognized the difference between planets and fixed stars.

This laid the foundation for the study of modern astronomy

Babylon
 Was a great city in the ancient world located on the banks of the
Euphrates River near the present day city of al-Hillah,Iraq. It was the
capital of the kingdom of Babylonia. The city was both an important
trading and religious centre.
 The word Babylon means gate of the god. Records first mention
Babylon in about 2200 B.C.
 King Sumuabum, the first ruler of Babylonian, founded a dynasty in

1894 B.C. However the best known king of that dynasty was
Hammurabi (1792 to 1750 B.C) and was famous for developing a
fair code of law.
The Hammurabi code of law include:-
The economic laws show buying, selling, lending at interests and

The existence of private property.
The criminal laws were harsh and discriminatory across social
classes and gender.
Punishments for ordinary people were more severe and physical.

Hammurabi‘s code of laws became a model for later codes.
In the struggle for power and empire by conquest, the Assyrians

emerged on top and established the largest empire in the Middle East
The Assyrians
 Have been called the Romans of Asia because, they were great
conquerors like Romans and their victories were in the Roman
way, with excellent organization, weapons, and equipment.
 The Assyrians were Semitic speakers and their homeland was in

what is now northern Iraq. Their capital was at first Ashur,

named after the chief god, and later Nineveh both cities on the
Tigris River.
The king of Assyria had absolute power and ruled as the representative
of the chief Assyrian god, Ashur.
The Assyrian army, which consisted of cavalry, chariots and infantry,

was efficient and well-organized. The Assyrians used well-developed
siege techniques. The army was using iron weapons rather than bronze.
Assyrian society consisted
Nobles, free small scale land owners, private traders, hired people and
a few slaves.
Factors of its decline
External factors
 The Medians and the Babylonians attacked Assyria. In 612 B.C., Ashur
and Nineveh were captured and destroyed.
Internal factors
 The internal struggle for succession weakened the Assyrian empire.

 The Assyrian Empire was replaced by the New Babylonian Empire,
which, however, did not last long.
The New Babylonian Empire
Began in 626 B.C, when the Babylonian military leader Nabopolassar

became king of Babylon.
Under Nabopolassar, 612-605 BC
 Controlled much of the Middle East.
 Babylon achieved its greatest glory under the New Babylonian

Empire.

 Nabopolassar and his son Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilt the city on a

grand scale.
Under Nebuchadnezzar (605 to 562 B.C),
 Workers built walls almost 26 meters thick.
 Nebuchadnezzar's main palace and fortress stood along the

Euphrates River.
 The famous Hanging Gardens is one of the Seven Wonders of the

Ancient World. In addition, the area included the ziggurat, a
monument that was known in later times as the Tower of Babel.
 In 539 B.C, Persian invaders captured Babylon and overthrew the

New Babylonian Empire.
Persia Was a land that included the present Iran and Afghanis tan. The
Persians called the region as the land of the Aryans, from which the
name Iran their language Aryan comes from.
 The founder of the Persian Empire was Cyrus the Great (557-530
B.C.). The Persian Emperor was an absolute ruler, and ruled as
representative of the Persian god, called Ahura Mazda.
 The empire was divided into provinces called satrapies, and governed
an official called a satrap. The early Persians were farmers and
traders.
 The Persian peasants used irrigation to grow wheat, barley, oats and
vegetables and Caravans Merchants traded with
 A gold currency called darics was used all over the empire. The
Persian darics were named after the emperor Darius I (5th century
B.C.) who first issued them.
Religion
Prophet Zoroaster or Zarathustra who lived in the sixth century B.C.

introduced the religion of Zoroastrianism. He preached that there were
two opposing principles, good and evil.

 The good was represented by the supreme god called Ahura

Mazda, and
 The evil by represented by Ahriman.
Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire in 331 B.C., and the
region became part of Alexander's empire.
2.2.2. India
The first Indian civilization began in the Indus Valley at about 2500 BC,
and reached its height at about 1500 B.C. and was started by the
Dravidians people who were indigenous to northern India.
There were two major cities of the Indus Valley civilization:
 Mohenjo-Daro and
 Harappa.
 The cities had well planned street and
 Good water supply and drainage systems.
 The buildings were constructed of bricks that were baked

in furnaces.
Factors for destruction of the Indus Valley civilization.
 Environmental degradation caused by deforestation, epidemic

disease like malaria, changes in the course of the Indus River and
climatic changes.
 Invasions the Indo Aryan and Persians

These people conquered the Dravidians and drove them out of northern
India and established the civilized states of ancient and medieval India.
Southern India remained largely Dravidian.
Religion
Hinduism developed from the beliefs of the early Indo-Aryans one of

its basic common idea is that mankind is condemned to a cycle of
rebirths.
A person can be reborn as someone spiritually higher and better or as

someone (or even an animal) and Salvation can be attained by giving up
the pleasures of the material world and seeking spiritual enlightenment
under the guidance of a guru (holy man).
Buddhism emerged from Hinduism as a form movement it was

founded by Siddhartha Gautama (c.563 - 483 B.C.). Buddhism taught
the "middle way" to salvation by avoiding extremes of asceticism on
one side or materialism on the other side. It spread outside India to
South East Asia, China, and Japan.
Indian achievement
 Science and mathematics.
 Made progress in surgery and use of herbs to cure diseases.
 In the field of chemistry, Hindu scientists made it possible for

craftsmen to tan leather dye cloth, and
 Produce soap, cement, glass, and finely hardened steel. Indian

scientists made their greatest contributions to mathematics.
 What we call Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.) were first used in India,
later taken over and developed by the Arabs.
 introduced the decimal system and the symbol for zero
2.2.3. China
The first dynasty in China was called the Shang dynasty (c.1700 –
1122 B.C.). The Shang kingdom was centred in the Huang-He valley.
The dynasty‘s accomplishments included
 The creation of magnificent bronze vessels,
 The development of horse drawn war chariots and
 The establishment of a system of writing (Pictographic)

(earliest) they were drawings or pictures of the objects they
represented.
As the Chinese script developed, characters became more simplified

and less pictographic. The language consists of about 50,000 characters.
The Chinese writing system is logographic.
About 1122 B.C, the Zhou (Chou) people of western China overthrew the
Shang and established their own dynasty and ruled China until 256 B.C.
The last period of the Zhou was a period of intensive wars between the
rulers of rival Chinese sates. In fact it is called the "warring states
period" (403-221 B.C.).
Chinese philosopher
Confucius (551-479 BC)
Was the most influential and respected philosopher in Chinese

history.
His real name was Kong Qiu or K‘ung Fu-Tzu (Great Master Kong).
Confucianism,
 Stress the need to develop moral character and responsibility.
 His conversations and sayings were recorded in a book called the

Analects.
 Confucianism became the official and dominant ideology of China
from
 His teaching was developed by Mencius, 372 - 289 B.C.,
 Confucianism was basically a secular philosophy not a religion.

Confucius accepted the existence of "Heaven" but based his ideas
on human reason.
He taught that society and states would be happy and prosperous if

each individual kept to his or her proper place.
There are five cardinal human relationships:

ruler to subject;
father to son;
husband to wife;
elder brother to younger brother, and
Friend to friend.
Confucianism put great emphasis on personal ethics; summarizing

ethics as
"Do not do to others what you do not want done to you".
Mencius
Believed people were born good and stressed the need to pressure the
natural compassion of the heart" that makes people human.
In 221 B.C., the Qin (Chin) state defeated all its rivals and established
China's first empire under the First Emperor, Qin Shi Huang. The ruler
believed in a philosophy called Legalism. Legalism emphasized the
importance of authority, efficient administration and strict laws. A
combination of legalistic administrative practices and Confucian moral
values helped the Chinese empires endure for more than 2000 years.
The Chinese achievement
 The use of coal was first started by the Chinese.
 The first to produce porcelain or Chinaware.
 The wheelbarrow was also a Chinese invention.
 The varnish used to give a hard, glossy finish to wood, leather, and
other surfaces originated in China.
 Silk made from the cocoons of silkworms.
 Started the silk industry and trade. Even more valuable was the
manufacture of paper from cotton, a process invented about 150 A.D.
 The develop the technology of printing

 was gun powder, which was used in China as early as 600 A.D
2.3. Civilizations in Europe
2.3.1. Ancient Greek
The ancient Greek developed the earliest civilization in Europe around

2500 B.C. Unlike many of the ancient civilizations that emerged long
river valleys, civilization in Greek flourished independent city-states.
A citystate is a small, independent country consisting of a single city

where the government exercised sovereignty over territories within its
borders. Athens and Sparta were the well-known city-states of ancient
Greek.
The Greek term for city-states is polis and their of government was
oligarchy (rule by a few powerful people). During the 5th C B.C, some city-
states began to exercise democracy. They granted citizens, except
women and slaves, the right to vote on government policies, hold
political office.
Athens
 Was the largest of the Greek city-states in size and population

(25,000 to 40,000? Athens was known for her strong navy.
 Introduced the principle of direct democracy where all adult citizens,

except women and slaves, took part in decision making processes.
 Citizens could attend, speak and vote in the general meeting of the
citizens called the Assembly. The Assembly passed laws and
determined government policies. It also elected Athenian generals.
 Athens became the center of Greek culture.
The achievement of Greek
 Philosophy Socrates, (470-399B.C), Plato (427-347B.C), and

Aristotle (384-322B.C).
 Medicine, physics, biology and mathematics.

 Architects, sculptors and painters contributed to the arts.

 The leading Greek architects and sculptors built the Parthenon
(temple) on the Acropolis.
 Dramatists, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides,

 The Greek historians, Herodotus (484-425 B.C) called (Father of
History) and Thucydides, (460-400B.C) established proper
historiography.
 Greek doctor, Hippocrates (460- 357B.C). "Hippocratic Oath" on

graduation,
 The glorious days of Athens ended with the outbreak of the

Peloponnesian War (431- 404B.C), between Athens and Sparta in
which Athens was defeated by Sparta these wars, weakened the
power of Greek paved the for external attack (Macedonia,)
 In 353 B.C, Philip II, king of Macedonia conquered Greek and ended
independence of Greek city-states in 338 B.C,
 Alexander the Great Son and Successor of Philip II) (336 – 323B.C),
led a Greek and Macedonian army and conquered the entire Persian
Empire.
 His conquest furthered the spread of Greek ideas and language in

Egypt and the Near East. Following his death in 323 B.C., the empire
was divided among his generals.
Hellenistic Age
 The period of Greek history from the death of Alexander the

Great to the Roman conquest of Greek in 30 B.C.
 Greeks came in contact with outside people and their Hellenic,

classic culture blended with cultures from Asia and Africa
2.3.2. Ancient Rome
Beginning from the 7th century B.C, the Etruscans who had lived north of
the Palatine hills controlled Rome.
The Etruscans
 Best remembered for constructed roads, temples, and public

buildings in Rome.
 Promoted trade and introduced the idea of the citizen assembly.
 Under Etruscan rule, Rome grew from a village into a prosperous

city.
In 509 B.C the Roman republic was established after the Etruscans rule
was overthrew
The Senate
 Was the most powerful government body of the Roman Republic
 It conducted foreign policy, passed decrees, and handled the

treasury of the republic.
Roman social structure Citizens were divided into three classes:
The patricians (nobles),
 members of Rome's oldest and richest families
 held all the important political positions
 All senators were patricians.
The Equites,
 the richest of the non-nobles

 Owned land and business men as well.
The plebeians (common people)
 Ordinary citizens, farmers craftsmen, shopkeepers, and

labourer slave
 Cultivated the latifundia (a large landed estate) of the upper

classes
Slaves
Skilled slaves, (Greeks,) employed as managers, clerks, accountants and

teachers.
Slaves under the Roman republic were often harshly treated and Slave
revolts were rare because the result was harsh punishment and so
violent.
One of such unsuccessful slave revolt was the one led by Spartacus (73-
71 B.C) slaves who participated in the revolt were punished by
crucifixion.
Manumission(enfranchisement). Setting slaves free for economic than

humanitarian as it was given quite often to skilled slaves so as to
encourage good work.
 By 270 B.C, Rome controlled most of Italy and Colonial expansion

made Rome a mighty empire during the second and the first centuries
B.C.
The Punic war (204 to 146 B.C)
 Was fought between Rome and carthage to be master over the

Mediterranean sea
 The war lasted from 204 to 146 B.C
 Rome controlled the Mediterranean coasts of Spain and Africa.
 Rome also conquered the Hellenistic monarchies, and Egypt. By

the end of the first century B.C, Rome controlled the whole of the
lands around the Mediterranean Sea
Finally, general, Julius Caesar (100 B.C – 44 B.C), became sole ruler of
the Roman world however in 44 B.C, a group of senators assassinated
Caesar because they feared his growing power then the power was
divided among
1. Octavian (Julius Caesar‘s adopted son) and
2. Mark Antony (Julius Caesar‘s friend).
They also fought each other for control of Rome. Antony sought the
support of Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt (47 - 30 B.C) however in 31 B.C,
Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra and made Egypt a Roman
province.
In 27 B.C, Octavian became the first Roman emperor and took the title
Augustus; He avoided the title of emperor so that He preferred to be
called princeps, meaning first citizen.
The reign of Augustus
 Marked a long period of stability, which became known as the Pax

Romana (Roman peace) lasted 200 years.
 Established strong defense along the frontiers of the Roman Empire

and
 trade flourished, art and literature.
 Identified as a period of golden age (200 years) prosperous stability,

hegemonies power and expansion. The Romans did not attain the
cultural and intellectual advancements that the people of ancient
Greek registered.
The achievement of Roman
Developed Latin literature in poetry and prose.
Excelled in war, the arts of government, and law.

Roman law became the base of many legal systems in Western

Europe and Latin America.
Remembered for the fine civil and military roads, aqueducts

built to carry water to towns and cities.
Some of the most famous Roman architecture includes the

Roman Forum, the Temple of Venus and Rome, and the Roman
Colossem.
Modern Latin alphabet to the Romans who themselves adapted

it from the Etruscans and the Greeks.
 In 395 A.D, the Roman Empire was split into the West Roman Empire
centred at Rome and the East Roman Empire or the Byzantine
Empire centred at Constantinople (now Istanbul).
After this time on, the West Roman Empire witnessed decline and shrink.
Such Roman provinces as Spain, Gaul (now France), and North Africa
were controlled by such Germanic peoples as the Vandals and Visigoths.
In 410 A.D, the Visigoths looted Rome.
In 476 A.D, the West Roman empire formally collapsed. Following this,
Germanic chiefs established independent kingdoms. However, the East
Roman Empire survived until 1453, the time when the Ottoman Turks
captured Constantinople.
Civilizations in Latin America
The Americas include two continents, North America and South

America but Mesoamerica,(Mexico and Central America,) a major
area where culture and civilization of America was first begun in
12000 - 10000 years ago
 In Mesoamerica, Neolithic (8500 B.C. and 2000 B.C.) people

cultivated crops like beans, sweet potatoes, pepper, tomatoes, and
maize (corn).
The Maya

 Were the earliest people to build large cities by 300 B.C in the present
Guatemala and reached their golden age (Classic period) in 250 A.D.
 The Maya cities that developed before and during the Classic Period
never formed an empire. There were many city-states (Greek) of
which the most powerful were Tikal and Calakmul. Conflicts and
wars were common among the different city-states.
City-states Maintained regular contact through trade, which generated a

great deal of wealth to the growth of city states
Items of trade included
Honey, salt, and cotton and feathers, precious stones, and jaguar hides,
The social class (hierarchy) of Maya
 Top class Ruler and nobles
 Nobles gave services such as military leadership,

management of public works, collection of taxes, and
enforce laws.
 Scribes, painters, and sculptors were also highly respected.
 Middle class
Merchants (rich)
 Bottom class
Farmers and slaves
Economically
They were based on agricultural products such as maize,

beans, and squash, fruit trees, cotton and flowers.
The achievement of Maya
 Impressive advances in learning and the arts.

 Developed a complex polytheistic religion.
 Known for their towering temples and palaces built from stone.
Temples rested on pyramid shaped platforms were the edifices
where priests performed rites and sacrifices. Some temples also
serve as burial places for rulers, nobles and priests.
 The Maya also developed a hieroglyphic writing system, which

scholars did not interpret until recent decades.
 Expert mathematicians and astronomers.
 Developed an accurate 365 day solar calendar.
 Invented a numbering system that included the concept of zero.
About 900 A.D., the Maya stopped building cities, and their civilization
began to decline. However, no one knows why the power of Maya
declined.
Some suggest that over population, disease, or drought disrupted Maya

life. Others think that peasants revolted against the priests and nobles.
By the time the Spanish arrived in the 1500s, the Maya mostly lived in
farming villages
2.4.2. The Aztecs
In the 13th c the Aztec become the dominant group in the valley of
Mexico, the Aztec referred themselves as the people of Mexican and
the land they inhabited later become known as Mexico
The Aztec power reached its height in the 15th and early 16th during
the reign of Montezuma II
They established their capital at Tenochtitlan in1325 and 1500 the city
become the centre of the large of empire they had also built temple and
school of for the son of wealthy Aztec parent.
 The Aztec history was written strips of paper called the codex
which was an important subject in school

The Aztec achievement
 Like the Romans, they built network of roads to link capital
 Engineering built walkways,
 Construction of drainage canals
 built pyramid temple and the emperor‘s palace in Tenochtitlan.
 Like the Romans, the Aztec adopted ideas from the people they
conquered.
 Used the knowledge of astronomy and mathematics.
 Like the Maya, they developed a 365-day solar calendar.
 Aztec priests used herbs and other medicines to treat fevers and
wounds.
 Made different object from gold silver copper lead and bronze
Later the empire was under Montezuma II was conquered the Spanish
conquerors in1519 led by Fernando Cortes
The Incas
In about 1450 A.D., the Inca founded the last great empire that covered
the present Ecuador Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina.
In order to govern this vast area the emperor divided the empire into
provinces and appointed nobles to govern and the centre of the Empire
was called Cuzco
Religion
 Worshipped many gods (polytheist)
 believed that the emperor was the son of the sun god,
Inti,
 The chief god of the land.
 Call themselves the children of the sun.

 priests and priestesses performed outdoor ceremonies

in the Great Sun Temple.
The Inca achievement
 Mining for gold, to made fine ornaments.
 Invented a system of measurement.
 Medical knowledge to perform successful brain surgery.
 Learned to treat victims of malaria with quinine..
 Build magnificent temples and palaces.
 Built roads that linked distant provinces to Cuzco.
 Farmers built terraces,
 The Inca had no system of writing. (Except oral Sources)
In the early 1500s, the Inca Empire reached its greatest size. When the
Spanish soldiers arrived in the coast of Peru in 1532, internal power
rivalry significantly weakened the empire, which paved the way for easy
conquest.
2.5. The Rise and Spread of Christianity
Is the monotheistic religion based the teaching of Jesus who was born
in Bethlehem in 1st c AD.
Information about the life of Jesus comes from the four books of the
New Testament of the Christian Bible,
 St. Matthew,
 St. Mark, St.
 Luke, and
 St. John.
According to Jesus, a person‘s major duties were to love the Lord your
God with all your heart and to love your neighbour as yourself and the

importance of forgiveness.
 Some Jews welcomed Jesus to Jerusalem.
 Others regarded Him as a dangerous troublemaker.
 To the Roman authorities, He was seen as a revolutionary who

might lead the Jews in a rebellion against Roman rule.
At about 30 A.D., He was arrested and then condemned to death by

crucifixion
The first Christians were Jews in Palestine and Syria. Soon, many
gentiles (non-Jews) were converted to Christianity. The number of
gentile Christians gradually exceeded that of the Jewish Christians.
 Bishop had spiritual authority over clergy and Laity of the large
area
 Archbishop had spiritual authority over the bishops, other

clergy and laity of a large area
 Patriarch A patriarch had spiritual authority over the

archbishops, bishops, clergy and laity of very large regions
called patriarchates.
The head of each local Christian community was the bishop. There were
five patriarchates:
Rome, (pope)
Alexandria,
Antioch,
Constantinople and
Jerusalem.
From 250th AD onwards, monasteries where monks and nuns lived in

separate communities were established. Those monks who lived
together had a leader called abbot and those monks who lived alone
were called hermits.
Doctrines which were rejected and condemned by the Church were

called heresies and the followers were called heretics. The Church's
doctrines were approved by Church councils, which were meetings of
the patriarchs, archbishops and bishops of the Church.
The Council of Nicaea (325 A.D.)
 Established the doctrine of the Holy Trinity and
 Confirmed by the Council of Constantinople in 385 A.D.
The doctrine of the Holy Trinity: - says that one God exists in three
persons:
 God the Father,
 God the Son (Jesus) and
 God the Holy Spirit and that all these persons are equal.
The council condemned Arianism, a belief that rejected the divine nature
of Jesus.
The early Christians faced serious persecution from the Roman rulers
because Christians would not make sacrifices in honour of the emperor.
So that the Romans considered as political disloyalty by the Roman
government.
However, the number of Christians and the Christian churches increased

from time to time in the midst of severe persecution.
 However with the conversion of Constantine (the Roman) to

Christianity, the persecution of Christians came to an end in 313A.D.
he issued the Edict of Milan, which guaranteed freedom of worship to
all Roman Empire inhabitants.
 Later, the Emperor Theodosius I (r. 379-395) declared Christianity the

official religion of the Roman Empire and repressed the practice of
other faiths.
 Christianity had a Western and an Eastern Church since 395 A.D. The
center of the Western Church was in Rome under the leadership of

the Pope, and the Eastern centre was in Constantinople under the
Patriarch.
 In 1054 A.D, Christianity was spilt into the Catholic West and the
Orthodox East
End
UNIT THREE
PEOPLES AND STATES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END

OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
3.1. Languages, Religions and Peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn
3.1.1. Languages Families
The peoples of Africa in general speak languages that belong to four

super-families or proto-languages namely
 Afro-Asiatic,
 Nilo-Saharan,
 Niger-Congo and
 Khoisan.
Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan are spoken in the Ethiopian region and the
Horn of Africa however Afro-Asiatic is the most important in terms of
geographical distribution. It is spoken in northern, central, northeaster
and the Horn of Africa
This super-family has six families. They are
Cushitic,
Omotic,
Semitic,
Berber,
Chadic, and
Ancient Egyptian.
Of these, the first three are spoken in Ethiopia and the Horn, while the
remaining three are spoken in North East Africa.
The majority of the peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn are speakers of the
Cushitic family, which is subdivided into four branches.
North Cushitic, (Beja people of north-western Eritrea and Sudan)
Central Cushitic, (Bilen (in Bogos), Agaw, Hamtang, Qimant and

Awign.)
Southern Cushitic. (spoken outside the Horn of Africa in Tanzania)
East Cushitic.

Among the Cushitic branches, the most diversified and the largest in the
region is the East Cushitic.
This branch divided into two sub-branches named
Highland East Cushitic. (speakers live in the south central

highlands) include Hadiya, Kambata, Sidama, Gedeo, Alaba,
Burji and Libido.
Lowland East Cushitic includes the Oromo, Afar, Somali,

Konso, Gidole, Erbore, Dassanach, and Saho.
The Omotic family is spoken mainly by the peoples living in the Omo
valley in Southern and South western Ethiopia. But Shinasha in
Benishangul-Gumuz Regional state and the South Ma‘o in South-western
Wallaga are spoken away from the Omo basin.
The main speakers of this family are Walayita, Gamu, Gofa, Dawro, Konta,
Dizi, Kafa, Maji, Ari, Sheko, Dorze and Yam. This language family is
spoken only in Ethiopia.
The Semitic languages of Ethiopia and the Horn are generally known as
Ethio- Semitic. This is mainly to distinguish the Semitic languages of the
region from the Semitic languages spoken in other parts of the world,
particularly in the Middle East, such as Arabic and Hebrew.
The Ethio-Semitic languages are subdivided into two:
 North Ethio- Semitic (Tigre (in Eritrea), Tigrigna and Ge‘ez.
 South Ethio-Semitic.(Gafat dead), (extinct), the Gurage,

Amhara, Argoba, Harari, and Silti people.
Nilo-Saharan super-family are also spoken in Ethiopia. The majority of

the speakers of these languages live in the present Regional States of
Beni-Shangul Gumuz and Gambella. The main speakers of this super-
family in Ethiopia are Anuak, Nuer, Majang, Mien, Berta, Gumuz, Komo,
and Ma‘o. Kunama However, the great majority of the speakers of this
language super family live outside Ethiopia in the Eastern Sahara, the

upper Nile valley, areas around Lake Victoria in east and central Africa,
and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
3.1.2. Major Religions of Ethiopia
Religious practices can be divided into two categories:
Indigenous and those introduced from other regions of the world.
Indigenous Religions
Waqefanna is one of the indigenous religions in Ethiopia practiced by

the Oromo people. Among the Oromo, the Qallu (the male) and Qallities
(the female) priests hold places of honor and served as a high priest.
Abba Muda, the spiritual leader whose blessings took special place
among the Oromos. The Oromo religion focuses on one god known as
Waqa
 Waqa is the source of all life and is the Creator.
 Waqa is infinite and omnipresent.
 Waqa is designer and guardian. Waqa is not the only spiritual being
recognized by the Oromo religion. There are numerous divinities
called
Ayyana,
 manifestations of Waqa’s spirit are not additional gods,
 Part of the divine essence of Waqa.
The Qallus/Qallities maintain a line of communication between the

Ayyana and the Oromo community in which they serve. The institution of
the Qallu/Qalliti and its connection to Waqa are the central aspects of
Oromo religion.
Pilgrimage to the Abba Muda is an important aspect of Oromo

indigenous religion. The representatives of Oromo confederacies made
pilgrimage to the Abba Muda to receive his blessing and anointments in
the ceremonial practice of Jila.

Jila was considered the link between the spiritual father and the nation.
Abba Muda anointed the Jila and commanded them to be righteous, not
to recognize any leader who tried to get absolute power and not to fight
each other.
The Hadya Waqa known as Waa,
 He is believed to be the first being and creator of the universe.
 The sun and the moon are as the eyes of the Waa.
 The Hadiya known by the name Worqimene, are believed to have

the power to send rain in droughts.
Fandanano (singular, Fandancho) practice is believed to be introduced

by spiritual leaders, Itto and Albaja, or Boyamo, father of five Hadiya
clans.
The Kambata, Guraghe, Walayta, Kafa, the Nuer, and Konso also
practiced a much similar indigenous religion to the Oromo and Hadya.
Judaism
Judaism entered Ethiopia as early as the 8th century B.C. Eager to see
the wisdom of King Solomon, the legend goes on to say, the Queen
made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. On having seen her, the king felt in love
with her. Then She bore King Menelik I from Solomon. In his second
sojourn to Israel that Menelik I made to visit his father, he came back to
Ethiopia escorted by Jewish priests and soldiers.
Christianity
Was introduced into Ethiopia in the 4th century A.D from the eastern
Mediterranean region.(Syria) The young king, Ezana (Abreha after
baptism), himself became the first convert with help of bishop
Fremnantos
Christianity was introduced first into the royal court, and from there
gradually penetrated among the common people. Likewise, in the
Roman Empire, the Apostles and later the Church fathers were actively
engaged in the evangelization of the people; in Ethiopia, Christianity was

voluntarily adopted
It was, however, after the coming of the Nine Saints that Christianity was
spread Their names were (Abba Aregawi or Ze Mikael, Abba Penţelewon,
Abba Gerima (Issac, or Yeshaq), Abba Aftse, Abba Guba, Abba Alef,
Abba Yem‘ata, and Abba Liqanos, and Abba Sehma)d among a large
section of the population. They were received by the Emperor at the end
of the 5th c A,D
The contribution of the nine saints
 Translated the bible in geez
 contributed greatly to the development of the Ge'ez liturgy and

literature.
 Music and art flourished.(yared music the disciple of the nine

saints)
 The ruins of basilicas found Aksum, Adulis and Hawlti
 Debre Damo (monasteries)
In 1959, Abba Basilios was ordained as the first Ethiopian patriarch.
Islam
 Islam is the third monotheistic religion after Judaism and

Christianity, which the Prophet Mohammed preached in7th
century A.D. This is a religion based on the worship of one God,
whom they call Allah, and Mohammed, His messenger.
As the persecution became worse, in 615 A.D., the prophet decided to

send some of his followers, including one of his daughters, Fatuma, to
the kingdom of Aksum under the leadership of Jafar (prophet cousin)
They were warmly welcomed by the Axumite, and Jafar and his friends
stayed in Ethiopia peacefully under the king‘s protection until the
Prophet Mohammed entered Mecca triumphantly in 634 A.D.
As a result of this, the prophet Mohammed gave orders to his followers

that they should not attack and convert the Ethiopians by force in the

future.
Unlike in other parts of the world, Islam entered to Ethiopia peacefully.
Islam enter Ethiopia and the Horn on a larger scale through two
directions:
 Dahlak Isalnd
 The port of Zeila on the Gulf of Aden. By the beginning of the 8th
century A.D., Islam was firmly established in the Dahlak Islands.
The Dahalak trade route, however, played a minor role in the introduction
of Islam to the interior. Because, Christianity was deeply seated in the
northern part of Ethiopia, long before the introduction of Islam.
However, the introduction of Islam into the interior parts of Ethiopia

through the port of Zeila was significant.
Pre-Axumite States and their Geographical Setting
Punt: -
Punt was the earliest historically known state in the Horn of Africa and
Information about punt comes from Egyptian sources that tell us about
a series of naval expeditions of Egyptian Pharaohs sent to the land of
Punt. It was, therefore, a trading partner of ancient Egypt.
Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent an expedition to collect myrrh,

ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy).
Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.),
 The best described and illustration expeditions whose

expedition is documented at her tomb in Dier El Bahri.
 welcomed by the royal family and by the king‘s followers.
 The expedition return collecting frank incense, cinnamon,

sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn,
leopard and leopard skins ostrich feathers and eggs, live
monkeys, and giraffes. Iron, bronze, asses, foxes; cattle,

animal‘s fur, dying and medicinal plants were also exported
from Punt to Egypt.
In return, axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets,

necklaces, and beads were imported from Egypt to the land of Punt.
No one knows the territorial limits of the land of Punt. The varieties of
incense and myrrh mentioned in the writings suggest
 Northern or north-eastern Somalia(varieties of incense and myrrh)
 Northern Ethiopia because of the reference to gold, ebony and

monkeys.)
 The latter assumption seems more plausible because Egyptian

sailboats might not have been strong enough to pass through the
Strait of Bab-el Mandeb into the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean.
An alternative assumption makes the location from Swakim or
Massawa to Babel Mandeb
Da’amat: -
Da‘amat (980 B.C.-400 B.C.) was the first historically known state in
Ethiopia located a little to the south of Aksum with its capital at Yeha,
located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the oldest of these
centers. It probably emerged around 1,000 B.C. as a small commercial
center, evolved into a capital where South Arabian merchants and their
agents bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros horn and other commodities
coming from the interior. It seems that the period of its prosperity was
from about 750 to 500 B.C. Remains of walls of some of its buildings
and stone masonry as well as the still standing temple and inscriptions
indicate Yeha‘s glory.
The Kingdom of Da‘amat was very important because it made iron tools,
weapons, and grew millet and traded gold, silver, slaves, ivory and
tortoise shells with South Arabian merchant since Yeha had good
access to both the Red Sea and to Yemen in the East.
Other cities that played a role in the Kingdom of Da‘amat include Qohaito

and Matara. In fact both these cities thrived as a stop on the trade route
between Adulis and Aksum during the Empire of Aksum (100 B.C-940
A.D.).
The Axumite Kingdom
The nucleus of the Axumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C.
Initially, its power was limited the town of Aksum and its environs.
Gradually, however, it,
Its territorial limit extended
 The Red Sea coast in the East to the
 Western edge of the Ethiopian plateau (West)
 Corner of Eritrea (North) south as
 Northern parts of Shewa. (South)
The Periplus of Erithrean Sea,
 Adulis (on the western coast of the Red Sea) was the major port of
Aksum.
 The long distance trade routes from Adulis on the Red Sea coast
passed through centers such as Kaskasse, Coloe, Maţara and even
further west across the Tekeze River.
 The document also mentioned the ports of Aden (Eudaemon),

Avalites (Zeila), and Malao (Berbera), and the Indian Ocean Benadir
Coasts like Serapion (Mogadishu), Nicon (Brava), and Merca.
Export items Axum natural products such as ivory, myrrh, emerald,

frankincense and some spices (like ginger, cassia and cinnamon),
gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells, and apes.
Import items (mainly from Egpyt india Roman Empire Persia )

garments and textiles glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other
places; metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine
from the Roman Empire and Syria were imported.

Zoscales (c.76-89A.D.), the then king of Aksum, is said to have had a

good knowledge of the Greek language, which at that time was the most
widely spoken language in the Greco-Roman world.
Aksum also had relations with Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and Laodicea or
Asia Minor (now Turkey).
The Christian Topography
 Describes the commercial activities of the Red Sea areas.
 Mentions the internal long distance trade between Aksum and

Sasu, Beni Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile.
 Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world

notably with the South Arabian region, leading to exchange of
ideas, material and spiritual culture.
Sometimes such contacts involved conflicts between the two regions.

One of such known recorded conflict between areas on both sides of the
Red Sea took place around 200 A.D.
Accordingly, peoples in Southern Arabian Peninsula, in present day

Yemen, had difficulties in defending themselves against the army of the
Aksumite king, Gadarat.
From the 3rd to 7th centuries
 Axumite kings minted and issued different kinds of coins made of

gold, silver and bronze for both overseas and local transactions.
 Aksum becomes the fourth great powers of the world next to Rome,
Persia, and China.
 Axum built a major naval and trading power
 Aksum developed shipbuilding technology at Adulis.
 It had a large fleet of ships, which was used not only for trade but
also for war purpose across the Red Sea.
King Kaleb (r. 500-535 A.D.)

 Expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond Himyar and Saba,
 Kaleb defeated Dhu-Nuwas and appointed Abreha as governor that

continued until 570 A. D. (but the local prince Dhu-Nuwas was converted to
Judaism, marched to Zafar and Nagran, and killed many Christians. With the
help of Byzatine fleet sent by Justinian (r. 527-565), Kaleb defeated Dhu-Nuwas
and appointed Abreha as governor that continued until 570 A. D.)
 Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gebre Mesqel (535-548) who built
the church of Zur Amba Aregawin Gayint.
 It was during Gebre Mesqel that Yared developed the Ethiopian

Orthodox Church liturgical songs and hymns.
Factor for the fall and decline of Axum
The Aksumite state had begun to decline since the late 7th century
because of
Internal challenge
 Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity
 Plague infestation started to weaken it.
External challenges
 The destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702,
 Aksumite international trade came under the control of the rising

and expanding Arab Muslims and
 The Aksumite state was isolated from its commercial and

diplomatic partners.
 The Aksumite state declined economically.
This naturally led to the decline of its political and military power on the
Red Sea coast and in its interior provinces. The recurring rebellions of
the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed
the collapse of the Aksumite state. However, as a civilization, Aksum
had a profound impact upon the peoples of the Horn of Africa and
beyond.

The achievement of the Axumite kingdom
 The Aksumite had developed the technology of coin mintage.

 Remembered for its fine architectural achievement.
The Axumite steles
The structure is grouped under three types
 well-made and decorated,
 half completed, and
 Megaliths. (stone prepared for stele)
The longest one of these stele measures 33meters. It is highly

decorated in all of its four sides. It represents a 14 storied building
with many false windows and a door at the bottom. It also bears
pre-Christian symbols
As local tradition says, the steles were engraved at Gobodara and were
transported and erected in Aksum.
 The art of writing.

The Sabean language
 Had an alphabet with reversed letters written from left to right or

right to left alternatively on hard surface like papyrus
 The earliest inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the 9th B.C.
 Sabean inscriptions has no of vowels.
 For instance, Da‘mat was described as D‘mt.
 After 7th and 6th, evolved to the Geʽez script. (seen most writing
/drawings on rocks and caves).
 By the 1st century A.D., the Geʽez alphabet was develpoed, 26

consonant letters, written left-to-right with letters identical to the
first-order forms of modern vocalized alphabet.
 Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has made an

immense contribution to the development of literature, art and the
writing of history.
 The invention of a calendar having 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6

(is added every 4 years).
 A gap of 7–8 years exists between the Ethiopic and the Gregorian
calendars.
 Thus, the first day of the year, first Meskerem (Enquţaţash), is usually
September 11 (Gregorian). The Ethiopic solar calendar has evolved to
become the official calendar of the country.
 Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of the

fourth century A.D. Geʽez uses a numeral system comparable to the
Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals. Numbers are over and
underlined in proper typesetting showing separate bars above and
below each character.
Sultanate of Shewa
 Was one of the earliest Muslim Sultanates of the Ethiopian region

and its location was extended from the present north-eastern Shewa
to northern Haraghe. The first rulers of the Sultanate, Khalid ibn al-
Walid, came to power around 896 A.D.
 The ruling dynasty of this sultanate was called Makhzumite because

they claimed descent from the Makzumi clan of South Arabia. The
capital of the Sultanate was Walele located in northern Hararghe.
 In the 13th century, Damot extended its power over the Sultanate of
Shewa. And the neighbouring sultanate of Ifat wanted to extend their
rule over the sultanate of Shewa. Because of this, they led constant
campaigns against Shewa.

 In 1285 A.D, the Makhzumite dynasty of Shewa was overthrown by

the Walasma dynasty of Ifat.
In the 13th century, Shewa was attacked by
 Damot 13th c )
 Ifat (1285)
In 1285 A.D, the Makhzumite dynasty of Shewa was overthrown by the
Walasma dynasty of Ifat. This marked the end of the Sultanate of Shewa.
The Zagwe Dynasty
The Zagwe dynasty was founded around the mid-12th century by Mera
Tekle Haymanot who was born in the province of Lasta, and served as
general of Dil Naod (last king of Axum) and married to the daughter of
king Dil Naod Mosobe work).
Later, Mera Tekle Haymanot overthrew his father-in-law and founded a

new ruling family, the Zagwe dynasty (r. 1050-1270).
The Zagwe Dynasty made its center at a place called Adafa near Roha
(Lalibela).
Its territorial limits include
 highland provinces of the Aksumite kingdom (north )
 northern Shewa in the south the

 Lake Tana region and the northern part (Gojjam) in the west.
The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost intact.
 The Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with the
eastern Mediterranean region.(export items were slaves, ivory, and
spices while cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, and newly
minted coins were imported.
The achievement the Zagwe

 Witnessed a golden age in Ethiopia's
 paintings and
 the translation of some religious book and works from Arabic into
Ge'ez
 Best known for the construction of cave, semi-hewn, and monolithic

churches.
 Example , Bete Giyorgis, built in the shape of a perfect

cross,
 Itwitnessed the extraordinary architectural skill of the

period.
 Lalibela churches are registered as a UNESCO world heritage site in

1978.
These churches were built with prime motive of establishing the

second Jerusalem in Ethiopia since the pilgrimage of Ethiopian
Christian to Jerusalem was impossible by the Muslim Arabs around
the red sea
. Factors for the fall and decline
 Internal problems a problem of succession to the throne among

zagwe rulers
 External problems opposition from groups who believed they were

decedent rulers of Aksum.
 The Zagwe kings were considered as illegitimate rulers based on the

legend of King Solomon of Israel and the Queen of Sheba.

Yekuno-Amlak (r.1270-1285),
 claimed descent from the last Aksumite king, Dilna‘od,

 organized his forces assisted by some influential church men like
Abune Teklehaymanot of Debre Asbo (later Debre Libanos),
 Fought and killed last king of the Zagwe dynasty, Yetbarek(1260-68)

in Gayint
 Yekuno-Amlak assumed power in 1270. That marked the end of the

Zagwe period, and the restoration of the Solomonic dynasty.
3.6. The Kingdom of Damot
The Kingdom of Damot was a medieval kingdom located south of the

Abay (Blue Nile) River. It was a powerful state that forced the Sultanate
of Shewa to pay tribute.
It also annihilated the armies of the Zagwe dynasty that were sent to
subdue its territory.
Damot conquered several Muslim and Christian territories. The Muslim

state of Shewa and the new Christian state under Yekuno Amlak formed
an alliance to counter the influence of Damot in the region. However,
Damot's history as an independent entity ended after King Amda Tsiyon
subdued it in the 14th century and remained under the influence of the
Solomonic dynasty.
Under the pressure of Oromo attacks, some section of the people of

Damot were forced to move north of the Abay and settled in southern

Gojjam during the last quarter of the 16th and early years of the 17th
centuries.
3.7. The Bete-Israel (Ethiopian Jews)
The Bete-Israel were one of the occupational castes in Ethiopia.

Occupational castes are people ostracized because of their occupation,
which the larger community considers it lowly.
The relationship between the Christian Kingdom and the Bete-Israel was
not peaceful. The conflicts of the early phase were inconclusive, but
after King Yishaq(1413-1430) the Bete-Israel were conquered and their
land expropriated. Despite their defeat, they attempted to maintain a
degree of societal integrity by developing new economic bases through
the adoption of handicrafts.
The Bete-Israel (Ethiopian Jews), known in Ethiopian tradition as the

Felasha, were one of the early inhabitants of Ethiopia. They follow a
religion similar to Judaism with some elements of Christian and pagan
practices. The Bete-Israel used to live in the former Simien and
Begemdir province located between Ras Dejen and the historic city of
Gondar as independent people.
Since the reign of King Yishaq, their independence faced challenges

from the Christian Highland kingdom until they were finally incorporated
by king Susenyos in the 17th century. The Bete-Israel took central place
in the political-economy of the Christian Highland kingdom owing to the
skills that they possessed in the making of agricultural, household, and
military implements and equipment.
It is also repeatedly reported that the Bete-Israel took part in the

construction of the several splendid palaces, castles, and churches
located in the city of Gondar and its surrounding
King Yishaq(1413-30)
 He led the army and conquered them in Wegera.
 they were forced to convert or lose their land.
 Yishaq proclaimed that: "He who is baptized in the Christian

religion inherit the land of his father; otherwise let him be a Felasi"
("exile") from which the name Felasha might be derived.
 To Christianize the area, Yishaq built many churches in Wegera

and Dembiya, the most famous of which was Yishaq Debir at
Kosoge in Wegera.
 Despite the coercion, the Beta-Israel generally refused to convert

and, were deprived of their rights to inheritable land. In order to
survive, the BeteIsrael developed handicrafts.
 They probably received an additional incentive to become

blacksmiths from Yishaq's desire to improve the weaponry of the
Christian army.
The "Hebraic-Jewish influences on Ethiopian Orthodoxy include the

Saturday Sabbath, circumcision, dietary rules, and the physical structure
of the churches-developed over a long period of time
From the reign of Zar‘a Ya‘eqob(1434-1468) to king Suseneyos,
 They made repeated efforts to maintain their independence.
 They aided the rebellious governors of Simen, Ţellemt, and Dembiya

during the reigns of Zera Ya'eqob and Be'ide Maryam (r. 1468-1478),
 During the wars of Imam Ahmad, they first aided the Muslims in the
1530s and then turned to the Portuguese in the early 1540s.
 Finally, during the reign of Susenyos (1607-1632), they aided rebel

pretenders to the throne at first and then supported the forces of
Orthodoxy against the Catholic Emperor.
They were gradually crushed by king Suseneyos and lost all political
independence, even in the Simen, as a result of these wars.
Economically, after 1540, (minas) 1559-63) slaves raids on Bete Israel)
 They broadened their range of crafts from blacksmiths to builders

during the reigns of Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559) and Sertse Dingil (r.
1563-1597).

 Incorporated into Ethiopian society as an artisan group.
During Gelawdewos
Well remembered in Bete-Israel traditions because he liked them very

much.
Sertse Dingil built the first stone castle in the Gonder region at Guzara,
by the help of Bete-Israel masons.
Suseneyos and the Portuguese built several churches and castles at

Gorgora and Azezo by Bete-Israel workers.
Thus, by the early 17the century the Bete-Israel had been subjugated,
but were beginning to develop a new economic base which was to be
even more significant during the Gondar era.
They had also maintained a high degree of religious integrity and

social self-isolation owing to their ceremony of ritual ablution.
END
UNIT FOUR
THE MIDDLE AGES AND EARLY MODERN WORLD, C. 500 AD-1789
4.1. The European Middle Age
4.1.1. The Fall of the Western Roman Empire and the Dawn of the
Middle Age
Factors for the fall of the Western Roman Empire
Internal problems
 The separation of the Western Empire from the wealthier Eastern

part (395 ) since its covers large areas
 Internal division and decay
External problems
 Invasions from Germanic people (tribes) who were originally came

from Scandinavia in northern Europe and moved to central Europe
in earlier times.
The Germany tribes
 By the 3rd century A.D, they occupied the northern and north eastern
frontiers of the Roman Empire and adopted the civilization of their
Roman neighbours.
 They also traded with Roman merchants, learned to farm the land,
and accepted Christianity as their religion. But most Germans were
organized into tribal lines, each being governed by a chief.
 The Romans called them barbarians.
 In the 5th century A.D, Germanic tribes began invading Roman

territory itself. By then, the Roman Empire had lost much of its great
power, and its armies could not defend the longer frontier.
 The Visigoths invaded Spain in about 416 A.D.
 Angels, Jutes and Saxons began to settle in Britain in about 450 A.D.
 Franks established a kingdom in Gaul (now France) in the 480s A.D.
 Ostrogoths invaded Italy.
In 476 A.D, Rome fell into the hands of the Germanic tribes.

As a result of the invasion
 The huge Roman Empire was divided into many Germanic feudal
kingdoms.
 The strong local governments of the empire disappeared.
 Destroyed the trade that the Romans had established.
 Peoples of town went to the country side and became peasants.
 Towns were completely abandoned and disappeared.
 Ancient literature, architecture, painting and sculpture have

declined.
Important contribution of the Roman Empire to Europe
 The Latin language and literature and Roman law.
 The Roman Christian church was the only surviving institution that
provided leadership for the people and saved Western Europe from
complete ignorance.
 The popes, bishops, and other church leaders took over many
functions of government after the Roman emperors lost power.
 The church collected taxes and maintained law and order.
 Church buildings served as hospitals for the sick, and as inns for
travelers.
The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire
In 330 A.D, the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great moved his
capital from Rome to Byzantium (Constantinople named after him)
The Roman Empire was practically divided into the West Roman Empire
and the East Roman Empire in 395 A.D. The Eastern Roman Empire was
called Byzantine after the previous name of Constantinople.
The Western Roman Empire finally collapsed in 476 A.D, while the East
continued to survive for another one thousand years.

This was because
 The East Roman Empire was not geographically open to attacks by

German tribes, except in the Balkans.
 Was richer and had more population and more towns and
 Cities with defensive walls than the west.
Politically
 The emperor was the absolute ruler and sole law maker.
 Empress Theodora (497-548), (Justinian`s wife) contributed to the

greatness of the empire.
 The people paid heavy taxes to support the government.
Byzantine Empire under Justinian I (r. 527-565A.D).
 Reached its greatest size under Justinian I (r. 527-565A.D).
 conquered Italy, part of Spain, and the old Roman province of Africa
(now Tunisia)
 Incorporated Asia Minor (now Turkey), the Balkan Peninsula, Egypt,

Palestine and Syria.
 Organized a collection of ancient roman laws called the Justinian

Code,that has been the basis of the legal systems of many countries.
 built the church of Hagia Sophia (St. Sophia), from 532 to 537 A.D,
(Constantinople) which was the empire`s largest and most splendid
Christian church in Constantinople. Most of
The people of the Byzantine Empire
 Most of were poor farmers who raised grapes, olives and wheat or
herded sheep.
 Merchants and craft workers practiced their trade in the towns and
large cities. The empire imported silk, spices, and luxury goods

from China.
The Byzantine culture
Preserved ancient Greek literature and philosophy as well as Roman

governmental and legal traditions.
Orthodox Christianity, Greek culture, and Roman customs flourished

in the empire, which thus, served as a link between ancient and
modern European civilizations.
Christianity became the official state religion that had a strong

influence on Byzantine art, music and architecture.
Byzantine missionaries spread Christianity throughout the empire,

and converted the Russians and other Slavic peoples to Orthodox
Christianity.
They also translated church services and the Bible from Greek into
the old Slavonic language,
Invented an alphabet (later called Cyrillic) used in Russia and the

Balkans today.
The split of Christina church (1054)
In the 11th century the Medieval Christian church split into two branches,
namely
the Western Catholic and (Rome led by Pope)
The Eastern (Greek and Russian) Orthodox churches. (const,

led by Patriarch)
Reasons for this division
 Was the dispute over the authority of the church.
 The Eastern Orthodox Church (EOC) did not accept that the
pope of Rome had jurisdiction over the East as well as the

West and the right to decide by himself on matters of
Christian doctrine.
After Justinian`s death in 565 A.D, Germanic tribes attacked the

Byzantine empire on all fronts. The empire was also highly threatened by
Persian invasions. However, Heraclius (r. 610-642 A.D) ended the
Persian threat by defeating them in the bloody, ravaging and exhausting
war he waged on them between 624 and 626 A.D.
Attack against the Byzantine Empire
 Arabs in the 7th century A.D. thus the empire lost much
territory to the Arabs
 The Byzantine Empire began to collapse in the 11th century.
 By 1071, the Noirmans (Vikings or Norsemen) from the

kingdom of Frank had taken southern Italy.
 In the same year, the Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantine

army at the Battle of Manzikert.
 Decline of Byzantine control over Asia Minor. In addition, the

Turks invaded the Holy Land.
The crusade (1095)
In 1095, Emperor Alexius I Comnenus (r. 1081- 1118) asked the

Christians of Western Europe to help defend the empire against the
Turks. The successive military expeditions of Christians against the
invaders of the Holy Land became known as the Crusaders.
During the first crusade (1096- 1099), crusaders regained the coastal
regions of the Holy Land. In the long run, however, they could not save
the Byzantine Empire.
By the late 14thcentury, only Constantinople and parts of Greece were all
that remained of the empire. Finally, the Byzantine Empire collapsed in
1453, when the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople. The last
Byzantine Emperor, Constantine XI, died while defending the city.
4.1.1.2 Western Europe during the “Middle Ages”
As time went on, Germanic tribes who had conquered the former
provinces of the West Roman Empire, established small kingdoms,
including
 the kingdoms of Ostrogoth in Italy,
 Visigoths in Spain,
 Franks in Gaul,
 Burundians in western Germany, and
 The Saxons in England.
King Charles Martel, kingdom of the Franks which flourished Gaul (now
France) founded the Carolingian dynasty and consolidated its power in
the 8th century and He was converted to Christianity and gained the
support of his subjects and Frankish warriors in Gaul and defeated
Arabs from Spain at the Battle of Tours in 732 A.D.
Frankish king, Charlemagne (r. 768-814 A.D),(grandson of Charles M
 Much of the former Western Roman Empire was reunited
 He built an empire that included what is now France, Germany and

part of Italy.
 He established a strong and efficient government by copying the

Roman system of central administration.
 Charlemagne,( Charles the Great), spent much of his reign fighting

Muslims in Spain, Saxons in the north, Avars and Slavs in the east and
Lombards in Italy.
 In 800 A.D Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as emperor of the

Romans. Charlemagne also revived Latin learning as a means to unify
his empire and created local schools. Together with the church,
Charlemagne spread medieval Christian civilization into northern
Europe
4.2. Main Features of the middle Ages
Medieval Europe was feudal in its rural economy. Feudalism was a

loosely organized system of rule in which powerful local lords divided
their land among lesser lords. In exchange, the lesser lords or vassals
became loyal and gave service to the greater lord.
The time when feudalism developed varied from place to place and
its practice showed change over time. For instance,
 Roman empire developed as early as the 4th century
 Central and eastern Europe, serfdom started later than in

Western Europe,
 In Russia serfdom existed until 1861, when it was abolished.
Under the medieval rural feudal economy, a lord had a manor (lord’s
estate) or several manors. The manor was at the centre of medieval
European economy.
Manors covered most of Europe during the middle Ages. Peasants

lived and worked on the manor as serfs
The serfs or peasant of the middle age
 Belonged to the lord and they could not leave the manor without the
lord permission.
 The lord kept part of the manor under his own direct control. This
land was called demesne.
 Peasants also paid feudal dues, in kinds like cheese, eggs, cloth,
honey, etc. or in cash, to the lord also repaired fences, roads and
bridges.
 A lord also had legal authority (jurisdiction) over his serfs related with
crime and punishment.
 In return for their labour allowed to cultivate the land of the manor to
support themselves and their families and given protection from
raids/war
The feudal society in medieval Europe was sharply divided into two
classes:
The privileged upper class consisting of kings, nobles, higher clergy

and knights; and
The unprivileged lower class composed of the great mass of

peasants or serfs. Hierarchical positions in feudal society were
determined by birth.
The king took the top level below the king the powerful lords who
pledged allegiance and military service in return for the fiefs (plots of
land) granted to them by him. This relationship was called Vassalage.
Local lords (nobles)
 Assumed the functions of government within their territory.
 They made laws, levied taxes, dispensed justice and waged war.
 They governed people by their personal whim or desire.
 The great lords granted lands to the lesser lords, who were their
vassals but more numerous than them, in exchange for allegiance
and military service.
 The process could be repeated several times so that the lesser lords
could grant their fief to other nobles.
The lowest and most numerous groups of nobles constituted the bulk
of the feudal armies.
The Knight (cavalry)
 Men fighting on horseback, wearing armour, and carrying a shield,

lance (spear) and sword.
 These men were called knights (mounted warriors).
 In return for their military service, kings and great lords gave land

to knights.
 In the Late Middle Ages (1350-1500 A.D) knights adopted a code

of conduct (elaborate rules) called chivalry which required knights
to be brave, loyal and true to their word, and disciplined
 Warriors also had to treat a captured knight well or even release

him if he promised to pay his ransom.(money demanding to
release prisoner)
Noble women also
 Played active roles in the medieval period warrior society with

their husband
 She supervised vassals, managed the household, and

performed agricultural and medical tasks and go to war
 A few medieval noble women were actively involved in politics

particularly during the high (1000-1350) and late (1350-1500)
middle Ages.
 Women`s rights to inheritance were restricted under the feudal

system. Land was usually passed to the eldest son in a family.
Sometimes women did inherit fiefs, but a woman frequently
received land as part of her dowry.
The peasants, or serfs,
 Were the largest group of people,
 Serfdom and corvee labour were imposed on them.
 Little opportunity for recreation and education.
 Vassalage was hereditary during the middle Ages and serfs were
deprived of social mobility.
 The peasants or serfs depended on the lord for protection from

enemies, for justice.
The church (clergy) (“Middle Ages”)

 The influence of the church was so strong in most parts of Europe

and provided government services during the 11th century, and
church fully interfered in state affairs.
 In 1059, the College of Cardinals was created and its job was to
elect successor of pope based on the choice of the church not of
king or mob
 Pope Innocent III (1198-1216) claimed that his authority was above
any other ruler and that the word of the church was final.
 Thus, the Roman Christian (later Catholic) church was also the
largest land holder in Western Europe during the middle Ages.
 Rulers and many lords gave fiefs to the church in return for services
performed by the clergy.
 Most bishops and other high-ranking clergymen were noblemen who

devoted their lives to the church.
 They ruled large fiefs and lived much like other noblemen.
The manorial system began to decline when trade and towns revived.
Trade and urban business brought back an economic system based on
money. Manorialism ended first in Western Europe. But it continued as
late as the 19th century in some parts of central and Eastern Europe.
Revival of Trade and Towns
As the demand for goods increased, trade began to revive during the
11th century towns developed near castle, church or monastery, and
location of natural resources was factor for the growth of towns.
Many people moved to towns in search of jobs, Peasants left the

manors to seek a new life. As cities grew in size, Weavers, shoemakers,
bakers, butchers, carpenters, trailers, and other craftsmen begun to
emerged.
 craftsmen produced goods for merchants to sell to the town‘s

people.
 peasants farmed the land supplied the town`s people with food.
 Medieval towns, which arose mainly because of the growth of

trade, encouraged craftsmanship and trading activities.
By 1000 AD, merchants, traders and artisans formed a new social class
called the middle class, ranked between nobles and peasants. In
medieval towns and cities,
The guild system (association of artisans and merchants)
made rules to protect their economic interests and the quality of

their goods,
Regulate working hours, and set prices.
Women engaged in crafts and trade, and might inherit the workshop
of their husband or father if he died.
They dominated some trades and even had their own guilds. For
instance, in Paris, women far outnumbered men in the profitable silk
and wool guilds.
Medieval Culture: Art, Architecture and Education
Town life encouraged a greater interest in art and learning.
The two most important achievements of the period were the building of
cathedrals and the growth universities
Until the 12th century, most cathedrals erected in Western Europe

followed the church architecture style called Romanesque and Gothic.
(New style)
 Romanesque style had massive walls, strong columns and

rounded arches.
 Gothic style had high towers and walls, pointed arches and
leaning arches called flying butt recess.
Most cathedrals that stand to this day are 500 or more years old.
The formal education during European medieval period
 Church played an important part in shaping it.
 Controlled by religious authorities.
 Students studied subjects like church music, theology, and Latin

(official language of the western church).
 They were also taught subjects similar to those taught in ancient

Greece and Rome collectively known as the seven liberal arts,
consisting of grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry,
astronomy and harmonics.
 Most European languages, like Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French

and Rumanian developed from Latin except Greek and most Slavic.
Many words of Latin origin are also found in the English language.
The growth of universities first modern universities developed in Europe

in the 1100s not as institutions with collections of buildings, instead, as
collections of scholars organized into corporations (guilds or
associations) with certain privileges and responsibilities.
The University of Paris, the 13th century, served as a model for the
majority of northern European universities (largest and famous
university)
Medieval universities used Latin as a teaching language. Most of the

universities in northern Europe developed from teachers` guilds at
cathedral schools. The teachers` guilds charged a fee to train
students and to grant degrees.
The Crusades (1096-1270)
The Crusades were the successive expeditions organized by the

Christians of Western Europe to recapture Palestine (the Holy Land)
because Holy Land was important to Christians since it was the

region where Jesus Christ lived.
The Turks crushed the Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikert in

Asia Minor in 1071 they made it difficult for Christian pilgrims to
reach the Holy Land.
Therefore, in 1095, the Byzantine emperor Alexius I urgently asked

Pope Urban II for Christian knights to help him fight the Muslim Turks.
The Pope agreed, and at the Council of Clermont (1095), gave

sermon urging European Christians to stop fighting among
themselves and recapture the Holy Land from Muslims and promised
the crusader spiritual and material reward
By 1096, thousands of knights , ordinary men, women and children on

their way to save the holy land. The term crusade comes from the Latin
word crux, meaning cross.
The crusaders, who came from Western Europe and were assisted by
those from Byzantine, organized eight major expeditions from 1096 and
1270.
They were fought in the years 1096-1099; 1147-1149; 1189-1192; 1202-

1204; 1217-1221; 1228-1229; 1248-54; and 1270, respectively.
The crusaders had two stated goals:
to gain permanent control of the Holy Land and
To protect the Byzantine Empire.
In addition (not only religious factors)
The French knights wanted more wealth and land.
Italian merchants intended to involve, and then, if possible, to

control the trade of Middle Eastern ports.
The pope wanted to increase his power, reduce the East-West

division of the church and hoped that knights would fight
Muslims instead of one another.

Many priests and monks wanted valuable religious relics. A

large number of poor people joined the expeditions simply to
escape the hardships of their lives.
However The Crusaders failed to accomplish their main goals.
The Christian knights in the first crusade recaptured Jerusalem in 1099,

but could not establish lasting control over the area.
In 1187 Jerusalem fell on the hands of the Muslims led by leader named
Salah al-Din (known to the Europeans as Saladin).
In the third crusade led by the German Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa),

King Richard I (the Lion Hearted) of England and King Philip II (Augustus)
of France, Christians failed to retake Jerusalem.
After negotiation, however, Salah al-Din did reopen the holy city to
Christian pilgrims. During the fourth crusade the crusaders fought other
Christians instead of the Muslims. The crusaders helped the Venetian
(northern Italy) merchants defeat their Byzantine rivals in 1204, and then
captured and looted Constantinople.
The Impacts of the Crusades
 Trade increased and expanded between cities that bordered the

Mediterranean Sea.
 West Europeans learnt how to make better ships later on carry goods
like sugar, cotton and rice with the Middle East.
 The crusades facilitated money economy so that nobles and knights

collected taxes from peasants in cash which increased the revenues
and prestige of monarchs and the power of the pope.
 This practice helped to undermine serfdom in Europe. .
 West Europeans made more accurate maps and began to use

magnetic compasses to give directions.
 Increased the curiosity of West Europeans to new places in the east.
In 1271 a young Venetian named Marco Polo, travelled to China and

stayed there for many years then he wrote a book about the wonders
of Chinese civilization.
 The Crusades and the travels of Marco Polo and others resulted in
the revival of European contacts with the wider world.
 These achievements contributed to the expansion of early capitalist

relations in the early modern world.
The middle Ages in Asia
The Rise and Expansion of Islam
Islam is a religion preached in Arabia by Muhammad in the 7th century

A.D. He was born in Mecca about 570 A.D. Muhammad preached that
there is only one God; that is, Allah, and He, was His messenger. Islam is
an Arabic word for submission to the will of Allah, and Muslims are
those who believe in this preaching.
Muslims believe that the Quran, the holy scriptures of Islam, is the word
of Allah as revealed to Muhammed the Prophet. Muhammed began his
preaching in Mecca around 610 A.D, got followers.
Soon, the Quraysh Arabs and wealthy merchants in Mecca considered

his teachings as a threat to their privileges. Because they fear that
Mecca might lose its importance as the center of traditional religion
because of the new preaching.
The annual pilgrimage to the Kaàba (holy shrine in Mecca) by Arabs

from all over Arabia has been a source of considerable income for the
merchants of Mecca.
Thus, Muhammed and his followers faced persecution, and several

attempts were made to kill him. Because of this, in 622 A.D Muhammed
and his followers retreated into the town of Yatrib, later renamed as
Madinat al-Nabi (city of the Prophet) or Medina.
The inhabitants of Medina came to be known as the Ansars (Helpers),

and those who undertook the Hijira were known as Muhajirun

(Emigrants). These two groups formed the Sahaba (the companions of

the Prophet). They formed the Umma (community of Muslims).
In 630 A.D, after fighting battles with the Quraysh and their allies,
Muhammed victoriously entered Mecca he rededicated the Kaàba to
Allah and it became the holy place in Islam.
In the next two years, Muhammed control over much of Arabia through
both diplomacy and war. and died in 632 A.D,
The prophet`s immediate successors were called caliphs.
 Abu Bakr (632-34 A.D),
 Umar (634-44 A.D),
 Uthman (644-56 A.D) and (killed by group of muslim who offended by

his policies )
 Ali (656-61 A.D), (husband of Fatima) Ali was elected caliph (Imam) of
Medina his election was not accepted the companions, called
Muawya, governor of Syria.
This resulted in a civil war between the followers of Ali and those of
Muawiya. So that Ali agreed to form an arbitration committee of two
members, one representing him and the other Muawiya.
But many of Ali`s followers rejected the idea of arbitration they came to
be known as Kharijites (those who withdrew) and revolted against
Muawiya. and Ali was murdered in 661 A.D by the followers of Muawiya.
Before his death, the Prophet indicated that governing community

should be based on Shura (mutual consultation).
One group of Muslims felt that Muhammed had designated his son- in-
law, Ali (husband of Fatima), as his successor. They were known as
Shi‘at
Ali (the party of Ali) or Shiìtes
 rejected the consensus of the community and replaced it with
 Infallible Imam to whom alone Allah entrusted the guidance of

humankind.
 They preferred the term Imamate to caliphate and Imam to caliph.

The first Imam was Ali.
 Most Shiìte live in Iran, Lebanon, Iraq and Yemen.
Sunnis
 pious male Muslim from Muhammed`s tribe could lead the

community since there could be no prophet after Muhammed
 This successor, called a caliph, was without any divine (prophetic)

functions
 Followed the Sunna, that is, the way of the prophet.
 From the struggle among Muslims the Sunnis emerged

victorious.
 Sunnis or Sunnites comprise 90% of the world`s total Muslim

population.
The major doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shiìte Islam
 The sources of Sunnite law
 the Quran,
 the Hadith,
 the consensus of the community and
 Analogy.
Sunni Islam accepts the belief in the coming of the Mahdi (the rightly
guided one) who restores justice.
 The four bases of the Shiìte law are
 the Quran,
 the Hadith of the Prophet and of the Imams,
 the consensus of the Imams, and

 Reason.
The Kharijites
 Developed into a religious sect and revolted against the caliphs and
central governments of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties in Iraq,
Arabia and Iran in the course of the 7th and 8th centuries.
 They insisted even a black slave, could be elected as the head of the
community if he had the necessary qualifications: piety, integrity and
religious knowledge.
 Anyone guilty of a serious sin was an unbeliever and an apostate, and

should therefore be put to death.
 Kharijites were not supported by the majority of Muslims because of

their religious intolerance towards other Muslims.
 Remained minorities in the eastern lands of the caliphate.
 In the Maghrib (northwest Africa), the Kharijites had considerable

followers among the Berbers who were dissatisfied with the
oppressive Umayyad regime.
In the course of the 8th and 9th c different interpretations of what Islamic
law should be were reflected in the emergence of different fiqh (schools
of thought) or ways of studying and practicing Islam.
Sunni
 Hanafi,( Turkey, Syria, Iraq, central Asia and northern India/Pakistan.)
 Maliki, (North Africa, Muslim Spain and western and central Sudan)
 Shafi(Indian Ocean from South Arabia and East Africa to Indonesia.)
 Hanbali (Syria and Iraq, but now only to Saudi Arabia.)
 Ethiopia, ( Shafi and Hanafi)
Shi’te
 The Zaydi and Ja`fari

The Rise of Islamic Empire
Muslim Arabs expanded outside Arabia under the first four caliphs
motivated by economic and political objectives, particularly on the
Byzantine and Persian armies.
 Crushed Syria and Palestine, including Jerusalem in 634 to 636 A.D.
 Occupied Byzantine Egypt between 639 and 642 A.D.
 Lowlands of Iraq to at the battle of Qadisiya in 637.
 Penetrated the Iranian highlands.
 The last great battle at Nihawand (642) ended the Persian Empire.
 By 650 A.D, they reached the borders of India, northern Iraq and
Armenia (central Asia).
Reason for the rapid success
 Mutual exhaustion of the Byzantine and Persian empires as a result

of long wars.
 Byzantines were hated by their subjects because of their harsh

taxation.
 Christian hated the Persian ruling class because of religious

differences.
 Persian Empire weakened by dynastic wars.
After the murder of Ali in 661 A.D, Muawiya founded a new caliphate
called Umayyad (661- 750 A.D).
The Umayyad dynasty
Transferred the capital from Medina to of Damascus in Syria.
Fought Turkish tribes in central Asia, sent an expedition into Sindh in

India and reached the borders of China.
Captured Sicily and North Africa.

Invaded Spain in 711 A.D.
Within one hundred years since the death of the Prophet, Muslim
Arabs established an empire that included enormous territory. They
brought many non-Arab peoples under their rule.
Downfall because of contradiction between the politically and

economically privileged minority and the unprivileged majority (750)
The Abbasid dynasty (caliphate)
The leader of the Abbasid revolution was Abu al-Abbas, who had
descent from the Prophet.
he captured Damascus in 750 A.D. supported Shiìtes and non-Arab

Muslims,
Abu al-Abbas then established the Abbasid dynasty centred in

Baghdad, which lasted until 1258.
Arabs upper privileged class lost privilege discrimination against non-

Arab Muslims ended,
The caliphate reached its greatest wealth and power and Muslim
civilization flourished.
Arabic continued to be the language of the state, literature and

science.
In 920 A.D, the power of the caliph had already diminished. There
were internal and external factors
Factors for the gradual decline and collapse.
Internal factor
 Over taxation and exploitation of the conquered people which led

rebellions and civil wars among clans and followers of different
religious sects. So that Abbasid lost control In Egypt, Persia, Tunisia,
the Maghreb and Spain independent dynasties emerged.
External factor,

 Invasions from the Seljuk Turks from central Asia expanded and
established a vast empire. They became Muslims and controlled
Baghdad making the Caliph the figure head of the Seljuk Sultan.
The threat the Seljuk posed to the Byzantine Empire also led to the
Crusades. In February 1258 Mongol troops led by Hulagu (grandson of
Genghis Khan) burned and looted Baghdad to the ground, killing the last
Abbasid caliph and his officials. The fall of Baghdad marked the end of
the caliphate
Legacy of Muslim Civilization
 Reached its golden age‖ between 800 and 1200 A.D.
 Medieval Islamic civilization borrowed from the Greeks, Persians and

Hindus. Arabs, Jews, Persians, Turks, Egyptians, Berbers and
Spaniards But it was at the same time creative and original.
 Arabic grammar, law and theology are some aspects of civilization

with a typically Muslim character.
 Between 750 and 1350, Muslim merchants built trading network
 Served as agents for the spread of products, technologies, knowledge

and culture.
 They expanded money economy.
 Muslim Arabs interested in agriculture organizing massive irrigation

projects.
 Improving the soil and promoting the growth of trees, vegetables and
fruits sugar cane, cotton, medical herbs and flowers, wool, hides and
pack animals from pastoral nomads.
 Great advances in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, botany,

chemistry, medicine, history and geography in the Islamic world.
 Schools of religious instruction and Islamic law offered higher level

learning. Baghdad, Cairo, Cordoba and Timbuktu were among the
renowned centers of higher level scholarly learning in various fields.

 Inspired by their works, Muslim scholars translated the works of

Greek philosophers, as well as Hindu and Budhist texts.
 Hellenstic philosophy also flourished in several Middle Eastern

schools including the Academy of Alexandria in Egypt and the great
medical school of Jundi-Shapur in Iran.
 Philosopher Ibn Rushd (known in Europe as Averroes) put all

knowledge, except the Quran, to the test of reason.
 Important advances in algebra, plane and apherical trigonometry, and

the geometry of planes, spheres, cones and cylinders.
 Arabic numerals were of Hindu invention, but Arabs introduced them

to Europe.
 Muslim scholars introduced the decimal fraction. They applied their

mathematical knowledge to business accounting (banks Baghdad)
 Land survey, astronomical calculations and mechanical devices.
 In medicine and public health, Muslims built on the works of ancient

Greeks.
 Hunayn ibn Ishaq (d. 873) developed the science of optics.
 Physicians studied botany and chemistry in order to discover curative

drugs and remedying various poisons.
 set up hospitals where injured and sick people could get treatment.
 Muhammad al-Razi (865-925), a leading Persian physician at

Baghdad`s chief hospital, who wrote many books on medicine
including his inventive study on smallpox from measles.
 Persian physician, Ibn Sina, (Dr) known in Europe as Avecina, (d. 1037)
was a doctor to the Persian nobility. His scientific writing was the
Canon on Medicine which was a medical encyclopedia translated into
Latin and remained a standard text book for European medical
students until the 17th century.
 Muslim scientists also used astrolabes (devices for measuring the

height of stars) and built primitive versions of the telescope.
 They observed the movements of stars and the earth. Muslim

scientists knew that the earth was round and that it revolved around
the sun, long before Copernicus or Galileo.
 Descriptive geography and history were favourable subjects. Muslims

historians also liked to read the accounts of the early caliphs and
their conquests for instruction as well as amusement.
 Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406), philosopher and historiographer from

Tunisia, set the rules for the scientific study of history. He
emphasized economic and social factors as causes of historical
events.
 Ibn Khaldun also wrote about the common mistakes of historians in

writing history, such as bias, exaggeration, and overconfidence in the
accuracy of sources.
 He advised historians to thoroughly examine sources before using

them to write history.
 Architecture, the domed mosque with arches and high minarates

became symbolic of Muslim architecture.. Muslim architects showed
their talents in the construction of palaces, schools and other
buildings.
 Early Muslim artists illustrated manuscripts with abstract designs.

Islamic artists also developed a highly stylized calligraphy that was
used for decorating the walls of public buildings as well as
manuscripts.

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Negele Ifa Boru Special Boarding School History short Note

For Grade Eleven social Students

HISTORY, HISTORIOGRAPHY, AND HUMAN

 History is a branch of knowledge that deals with all things (including

 In another sense, history is an organized and critical study of the past

 The study of history covers the period called pre-history as well.

 As an academic discipline, history refers to the study of past events,

 In studying the human past historians usually attempt to answer

 When did it happen?

 How did it happen?

 Why did it happen?

 And what consequences did it have

The uses of history

 Identify identity of families, social groups, institutions, and

 Provides skills that are essential for our intellectual growth.

However, However, just as it is useful to humanity, history can also be

History and other science

Difference and similarities

 Natural sciences study the phenomena of the physical world,

Compiled by Beniyam K, Oct 2023 NIBSBSSPage 2

 Both of them used systematic methods using evidence, and

Therefore, history is a science because it must be proved by the use of

Historiography it is the study of historical writing. It is also a discipline

The beginning of western historical writing or historiography associated

In the 1800 historiography become a field of study in schools by the

What are the Key Elements in the Study of History?

1. Sources No one can write history without sources. In history every

2. Interpretation of historical evidences. Before we start writing

3. Presentation of the facts on paper or writing history. The quality

Compiled by Beniyam K, Oct 2023 NIBSBSSPage 3

4. Objectivity or writing unbiased or undistorted history. The lessons

The major steps in writing history include

 collection of historical information (evidence),

Ethiopian Historiography Ethiopia is one of the countries in the world

 Chroniclers wrote exclusively about the achievements of Ethiopian

 Hagiographers also made their own contributions to the development

 In Europe, Ethiopian studies were founded in the last quarter of the

Compiled by Beniyam K, Oct 2023 NIBSBSSPage 4

 Until the early 1960s, Ethiopian studies focused mainly on the

 Ethiopian studies focused only on the north because the northern

 The north had a written language that served to keep

 Ancient Greek, Roman and Arab writers had left important

 Several sources on the Christian kingdom are also available

 The north provided archaeological sources for the study of

Whereas in the south,

 lack of sources of history except oral sources

The problem of Ethiopian studies include

 The imbalance of sources

 Studies focused on the political history of the country not in

 The lack of objectivity in the sources (made favour or bias to

Historians use two main types of sources in their research.

 Primary sources: - Primary sources have direct relation to the

 Example of primary sources are monuments, inscriptions, coins,

Secondary sources do not have direct relation or nearness to the

 Examples of secondary sources of history. History book

 Oral sources could be taken as either primary or secondary

 Periodization in history means the division of the entire human past

The division of the past into shorter periods

 simplifies the work of historians,

 Limited study of a certain period of time and good to present the