Research in Science Education 32: 281–302, 2002.

© 2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

Beginning Elementary Science Teachers: Developing Professional Knowledge

During a Limited Mentoring Experience1

Brenda Gustafson, Sandra Guilbert and Dougal MacDonald

University of Alberta
Abstract

The professional development project reported on in this paper, the Beginning Elementary Science
Teachers’ (BEST) project, was based on the premise that the first years of elementary science teach-
ing can be very important in the development of long-term quality science teaching. Specifically,
we report on project experiences that allowed 13 beginning teachers to interact with experienced
teachers in a university seminar and during school visits. Results show that these limited mentoring
experiences can support the development of professional knowledge and discussion centers on factors
that facilitate knowledge growth. Conclusions are presented that compare benefits of these limited
mentoring experiences to those reported to be achieved in long-term mentoring programs.

Key Words: elementary science teaching, professional development

Many beginning elementary science teachers encounter challenges during the first
years of teaching that can affect the development of their science teaching practice
(Appleton & Kindt, 1999; Biddulph, 1990; Mulholland & Wallace, 2000; Rowell
& Gustafson, 1993). These include lack of support and materials for science at
the school and district level, community and parental expectations for an empha-
sis on subject areas other than science, the time involved in establishing effective
management routines, and limited in-service opportunities to develop professional
knowledge about elementary science teaching (Rowell & Gustafson, 1993).
Discussions about a perceived gap between university preparation and profes-
sional practice has led to identifying beginning teachers’ needs. This, in turn, has
resulted in efforts to provide professional development opportunities, usually in the
form of teacher induction programs, to help beginning teachers think about the pro-
fessional, personal and intellectual dimensions of teaching (Carter & Richardson,
1989; Elliot & Calderhead, 1993; Feiman-Nemser, 1983; Huling-Austin, 1992;
Loughran, 1994; McIntyre & Hagger, 1993; Peterson & Comeaux, 1987; Portner,
1998; Roth & Tobin, 2001; Schaffer, Stringfield, & Wolfe, 1992).
Although some beginning teacher support programs have been aimed at elemen-
tary science teachers, many more describe support for teachers without identifying
links to a particular subject area (Loucks-Horsley, Hewson, Love, & Stiles, 1998;
Odell, 1990). Other studies have focussed specifically on secondary rather than el-
ementary science. For example, Roth and Tobin (2001) advocate co-teaching, or
“working at the elbows of someone else, as a potential model for preparation of
secondary science teachers” (p. 741).
282 B. GUSTAFSON, S. GUILBERT AND D. MACDONALD

Researchers who have focussed on the nature of support needed by beginning

elementary science teachers speculate these teachers likely require a combination of
personal and professional support directed at the development of professional knowl-
edge and reflective practice (Appleton & Kindt, 1999). Questions remain, however,
about good designs for beginning elementary science teachers’ support programs
and the activities and experiences that are important in helping them develop their
science teaching practice.
A professional development experience which appears to hold some promise for
supporting the development of beginning teachers’ science teaching practice involves
interactions with experienced teachers (Elliot & Calderhead, 1993; McIntyre & Hag-
ger, 1993; Tickle, 1993). Frequently the scope and nature of these interactions with
experienced teachers are designed to occur within an extended mentoring program
that commences during the first years of teaching. Mentoring programs are based on
the assumption that through developing a relationship with an experienced teacher,
the beginning teacher can better cope with difficulties associated with the first years
of teaching, learn about the craft of teaching, and enhance their ability to address
their professional problems (Bey, 1990; Odell, 1990; Portner, 1998). Mentors are
seen to possess expertise that can be articulated and shared with beginning teachers
who may adapt this information to their particular classroom context. Mentoring
programs tend to share characteristics of lengthy time, comprehensive effort, and
some degree of intensity. They typically occur over an entire teaching year, focus
on interactions between personal, intellectual, and spiritual development and work,
and include minimal to more developed mentoring strategies (Clawson, 1980; Kay,
1990; McIntyre & Hagger, 1993; Odell, 1990).
Mentors can assume any number of roles including sponsor, guide, coach, trainer,
confidante, or counselor but, generally, the role has three dimensions – structural,
supportive, and professional (Odell, 1990; Sampson & Yeomans, 1994a, b). In the
structural dimension the mentor is enabling as he or she plans, organizes and negoti-
ates the mentoring experience. The supportive dimension includes the interpersonal
component critical to the success of the experience. In the professional dimension
the mentor takes on an analytic and pedagogic role (Sampson & Yeomans, 1994a, b).
Clearly, working with experienced teachers in mentoring programs has the potential
to provide beginning teachers with the time and support to reflect on their teaching
practice, develop professional knowledge, and become empowered.
Other researchers argue that complex teaching activities are not captured by tra-
ditional, rationalist teaching models that are based on the assumption that teacher
knowledge can be articulated and learned through observing experienced teachers
(Roth, Masciotra, & Boyd, 1999; Roth & Tobin, 2001; Van Manen, 1995). Instead,
“knowledge is something enacted and can therefore, be observed only by participat-
ing in action” (Roth & Tobin, 2001, p. 745). Furthermore, some teacher knowledge
cannot be articulated and these tactic dimensions of teaching have to be enacted
in lived experience (Donnelly, 1999; Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986; Roth, Masciotra, &
Boyd, 1999; Roth & Tobin, 2001). Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986) characterise teaching
as an unstructured problem area wherein a “high level of skill seem to . . . require
considerable concrete experience with real situations” (p. 20). Recognition of teacher
 BEGINNING ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHERS 283

knowledge that defies explanation, or knowledge that is intuitive rather than declar-
ative, has led to alternative teaching preparation models that emphasise co-teaching
and the view of teaching as being-with (Roth, Masciotra, & Boyd, 1999; Roth &
Tobin, 2001). Questions remain, however, about the viability of a co-teaching model
for teacher preparation of teacher in-service, the nature of teachers’ intuitive decision
making currently defying explanation, and whether the “tremendous teacher learn-
ing” (Roth, Masciotra, & Boyd, 1999, p. 783) currently attributed to co-teaching
models can be accomplished through alternative approaches.
In the professional development project to be described in this paper, we designed
a variety of experiences intended to help beginning elementary science teachers
develop their science teaching. Some of these experiences allowed beginning teach-
ers to interact with experienced teachers in what we describe as a limited men-
toring experience. In this limited mentoring experience beginning teachers inter-
acted with experienced teachers, encountered these teachers in two different contexts
(a school classroom and a university seminar), had a limited amount of time with the
teachers, and focused primarily on the professional dimension of teaching science.
Our departure from typical descriptions of mentoring programs led to the following
questions:
1. What professional knowledge can be developed by beginning elementary science
teachers during a limited mentoring experience?
2. What factors facilitate the development of beginning elementary science teach-
ers’ professional knowledge during a limited mentoring experience?
3. Can a limited mentoring experience help beginning elementary science teachers
achieve benefits comparable to a long-term mentoring program?

The Present Study

The professional development project reported on in this paper, the Beginning

Elementary Science Teachers’ (BEST) Project – Year One, is based on the premise
that the first years of elementary science teaching can be very important in the devel-
opment of long-term quality science practice. Recognising that beginning elementary
science teachers face many challenges in their classrooms, we worked with three
local school districts to design a project to help beginning teachers develop their
science teaching practice.
The project was framed by three strands of professional development that have
received particular attention in research literature. The first strand involved devel-
oping beginning teachers’ professional knowledge. As deigned in this study, profes-
sional knowledge incorporated elements of content knowledge, curriculum knowl-
edge, knowledge of learners, general pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical con-
tent knowledge (Darling-Hammond, 1998; Shulman, 1986, 1987, 1998). A second
strand involved activities designed to help beginning teachers develop reflective prac-
tice (Clarke, 1994; Dana, Campbell, & Lunetta, 1997; Lytle & Cochran-Smith, 1992;
Strickland, 1988; Tabachnick & Zeichner, 1999). The third strand involved the de-
284 B. GUSTAFSON, S. GUILBERT AND D. MACDONALD

velopment of professional community (Dana, Campbell, & Lunetta, 1997; Darling-

Hammond, 1998; Loucks-Horsley, Hewson, Love, & Stiles, 1998).
Activities chosen to help beginning teachers enhance their professional knowl-
edge, reflective practice, and sense of professional community included six half-day
university seminars, two half-day visits to experienced elementary science teachers’
classrooms, a visit by university-based project personnel, and the design and comple-
tion of a mini action research project in beginning teachers’ classrooms. Beginning
teachers were also given $300 to assist in the purchase of science teaching resources.
In this paper, we focus on the first of these strands – the development of pro-
fessional knowledge – while acknowledging the difficulty of separating the three
strands. Specifically, we report on beginning teachers’ perceptions of the develop-
ment of their professional knowledge through project activities that included visits
to experienced teachers’ classrooms and conversations with an experienced teacher at
one of the university seminars. We chose to focus on interactions with experienced
teachers because many beginning teachers identified these activities as having the
greatest impact on their practice. We also report on factors that appeared to facilitate
the development of professional knowledge during these interactions and conclude
with a discussion of the benefits of limited mentoring experiences.

Study Context

Interactions between beginning and experienced teachers occurred at a half-day

university seminar on planning and during the beginning teachers’ visits to expe-
rienced teachers’ classrooms. At the university seminar, beginning teachers sat in
groups organised by grade levels; each group worked with an experienced teacher
to discuss their own planning concerns and issues. Some experienced teachers dis-
tributed helpful teacher resources while others showed examples of their own ap-
proaches to planning.
Beginning teachers were also encouraged to make two half-day visits to experi-
enced teachers’ classrooms to observe a science lesson and talk to the experienced
teacher. In anticipation of these visits, experienced teachers participated in a half-
day seminar in which they shared ideas about challenges to teaching elementary
school science, identified their perceived science teaching strengths, and reflected on
how beginning teachers could be supported in their development of quality science
programs. The experienced teachers also generated a list of advice for beginning
teachers who might visit their classrooms. Key to visiting classrooms was beginning
teacher preparation and participation. The experienced teachers advised beginning
teachers to talk with them about the lesson and their expectations for the lesson
prior to the visit, to familiarise themselves with the concept being taught, and to
be prepared to participate in the lesson. Clearly, the experienced teachers wanted
the beginning teachers to go beyond passive lesson observation and to be ready to
engage in productive post-lesson de-briefing.
The university facilitators used several data sources to pair beginning and ex-
perienced teachers. Experienced teachers’ self-identified science teaching strengths
 BEGINNING ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHERS 285

along with criteria such as grade level, gender, and proximity of participants’ schools
were considered. Also, at the second university seminar, beginning teachers pro-
vided written descriptions of the kind of classroom they judged most worthwhile to
visit. These descriptions were helpful in pairing participants and featured requests
for classrooms in which they could view the teaching of certain science concept
areas (e.g., Light and Shadows, Electricity), the use of a variety of general peda-
gogical strategies (e.g., questioning strategies, managing group work), and how to
“bring science concepts to the level of the students in the class” (BT 10 – Beginning
Teacher 10). Each beginning teacher made at least one classroom visit during the
course of the project with the exception of BT 13.

Design and Methods

Study Participants

Participants in BEST Project activities included groups of experienced and begin-

ning Canadian elementary teachers from three local school districts. The beginning
teachers were selected by school district personnel responsible for providing profes-
sional development. Each of the thirteen beginning teachers (9 female, 4 male) had
at least one year of teaching experience. A variety of educational and work expe-
riences and previous teaching assignments were represented in the group. Thirteen
experienced teachers (8 female, 5 male) were also identified by school district per-
sonnel who judged these teachers to be exemplary science teachers. The experienced
teachers selected for the project indicated that they would be willing to participate
and were committed to supporting the beginning teachers.

Data Collection

Data reported on were gathered through interviews (one hour/interview) with the
beginning teachers at the end of the project and through the collection of ongoing
written, reflective journal entries. During the final interviews, teachers were asked
to expand upon and clarify journal entries as a way of validating our preliminary
interpretations of and questions about those written documents. Teachers were also
asked about what they had learned during their visits to the experienced teachers’
classrooms and how the visits might have affected their teaching practice. They were
asked similar questions about the planning session they had completed with the ex-
perienced teachers. As well, beginning teachers often referred to these interactions
when answering the interview question, “When you think back on the university
seminars, what did you find most useful to you?” Interviews were transcribed and
each beginning teacher received a copy of his or her transcript. Beginning teachers
were asked to read their transcripts and contact the university facilitators should they
wish to amend or clarify the meaning of their verbal comments.
286 B. GUSTAFSON, S. GUILBERT AND D. MACDONALD

Data Analysis

Data from interviews and written work were evaluated by the two university facil-
itators using the interactive data analysis system described by Huberman and Miles
(1994). Through multiple readings of the data, university facilitators identified re-
ported shifts in science teaching practice and evidence of knowledge development
about teaching and learning science. Reported changes in professional knowledge
and practice were analysed further to determine the role played by activities with
experienced teachers in initiating and supporting teacher change and the contexts
under which professional knowledge development occurred. A framework for analy-
sis based on Shulman’s (1986, 1987, 1998) characterisation of teachers’ professional
knowledge was used to group beginning teachers’ written and verbal comments.
In order to test for factual and interpretive accuracy and provide evidence of
credibility, a member check was performed by an experienced science education
researcher uninvolved with the BEST project (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; Janesick,
2000; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The researcher reviewed the interview transcripts,
journal entries, data analysis and study interpretations. The researcher was asked
to attest whether the study results reported in this paper reflected adequately what
was shared with the university facilitators, had overall credibility, and whether in-
terpretations and conclusions were an adequate reflection of the data (Lincoln &
Guba, 1985). Suggestions from the researcher were subsequently incorporated into
this paper.

Findings

Development of Professional Knowledge

Visits to and conversations with experienced teachers appear to have contributed

predominantly to the enhancement of the beginning teachers’ general pedagogical
knowledge; secondarily, to curriculum knowledge; and, to a lesser extent, to ped-
agogical content knowledge, knowledge of learners, and content knowledge (Shul-
man, 1986, 1987, 1998). In the following sections we illustrate the development of
these knowledge bases, and their influence on classroom teaching practice using data
collected during interviews and from written journal entries.

General Pedagogical Knowledge

Characterised by one beginning teacher as “good tricks and management things,”

teachers reported being introduced to a number of ways to prepare and use science
notebooks, to teach science vocabulary, and to present study notes. Being able to
watch a confident teacher teaching science in his or her classroom had been a worth-
while experience according to many of the teachers, and had given them new ideas
 BEGINNING ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHERS 287

for organising the teaching of science, assessing children’s science knowledge and
skills, integrating science with other subjects, and questioning children.

New ways of organising the teaching of science

Opportunities to interact with experienced teachers had suggested new ways to

organise resources, student groups, children’s work, their own time, parents, and the
learning environment. Some beginning teachers were able to view resource rooms
used for storing science materials while others were impressed by how experienced
teachers organised the physical space of the classroom. One teacher who had ex-
pressed the need for help with organising students commented he was particularly
impressed with:

how [the experienced teacher] organised kids for certain experiments. There are roles for each student
in the group. That was awesome. Some kids were the retrievers, some kids had different roles and they
all understood the roles. . . . [The experienced teacher] was an observer and yet she knew where to push,
when to step in, when to step back and let the kids handle themselves. . . . I tried to pull in some of that.
I’m a great copycat. I like to take what’s good and utilise it that way. (BT 3 Int. – Beginning Teacher 3
Interview)

Another beginning teacher noticed the deliberate way in which an experienced

teacher helped children organise their science notebooks.

He had like a journal, science notebooks for the kids. He used to photocopy pages out of [a resource book]
and put them out and then give them to the kids. They would write their notes in there. They were real nice
visual type things. They were cool because they were all laid out, notes were right there and you could
just paste it into the journal. . . . I’m going to do that one day here. (BT 1 Int.)

A third beginning teacher commented on how an experienced teacher had organ-

ised parent volunteers to assist with monitoring group work and how this helped the
teacher manage hands-on science lessons.
Beginning teacher Krista found that using a technique she had observed in an
experienced teacher’s classroom helped her own students connect learning from one
lesson to another.

From [the experienced teacher at the seminar] I got the ideas about getting students’ questions and putting
them on chart paper, like referring back to the charts, referring back to the questions. So I tried that and
I was really impressed with how it got the students to remember. The students remembered much more I
think. (BT 4 Int.)

Assessment practices

Learning more about assessment strategies, the purposes of assessment, and man-
ageable assessment were all mentioned. The beginning teachers valued advice about
how to assess the range of program expectations using science logbooks and anec-
dotal records. Several beginning teachers were impressed with the checklists used to
288 B. GUSTAFSON, S. GUILBERT AND D. MACDONALD

provide information about the children’s skill and attitude development and another
speculated that these records would “make the job easier later on” when writing
report cards. Another beginning teacher commented on how a particular assessment
strategy she observed reflected the experienced teacher’s beliefs about science and
children.

It was just really neat the way that she assessed and the way that she had something to keep. She had
them kind of go through different trials to get to their answer. It was okay if they didn’t get it right the
first time and they could see that they didn’t, so they had a second chance. And even then they had a third
chance. . . . I think that’s really important for kids. Especially for assessment. I mean if you don’t get it
right the first time, it doesn’t mean that you don’t know it. You just might need a little something to jog
your memory. (BT 5 Int.)

Subject integration

Although beginning teachers did not initially identify subject integration as a topic
that they would like addressed during the project, many commented that their con-
versations with the experienced teachers led them to consider how science could
be integrated with other subject areas. These conversations allowed them to see
opportunities for connecting science to other areas of the curriculum.

[The experienced teacher] did some graphing in class which kind of clicked in my head. I have to do some
more graphing. He showed me the resource which I then bought. (BT 1 Int.)

One beginning teacher talked about how subject integration allowed the experi-
enced teacher to set science signposts in other subject areas.

The science lesson I was there for was the sun rising, and all that stuff about the earth. And she turned
that into, they had to write a story for it, like why does the sun rise, why does the sun set and let’s hear
some ideas why. So they were coming up with basically myths. I think they were doing Greece [in social
studies] as well so they tied it to Greek myth. What a great way to integrate. Writing the story was a good
landmark or a good flag for them to come back to. Remember when you wrote those stories? (BT 10 Int.)

In all, four beginning teachers stated that, their visits to observe a science lesson
had opened the door to an unanticipated opportunity for seeing science integrated
into other subject areas.

Questioning strategies

Questioning strategies was another area of general pedagogical knowledge ob-

served by beginning teachers. Kathy had initially identified this skill as one she
wanted to work on and she noticed:

the questioning strategies [the teacher used] to bring forth the students’ understanding and knowledge.
She used many open ended questions and would record their recollections as the conversation progressed.
The visual clues helped others in the class to see the concept being reviewed rather than to just hear it
being discussed. (BT 5 Journal)
 BEGINNING ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHERS 289

Mathew did not have an initial focus on developing his questioning strategies but
this issue had arisen when one of the university personnel visited his classroom.
When visiting an experienced teacher’s classroom he had then listened closely to the
teacher. He reported that this teacher had used “some higher levels of questioning
which I am starting to use.”
Another beginning teacher commented on how a teacher had been able to focus
and refocus students on their science projects through the use of questions.

Curriculum Knowledge

Margaret stated a common beginning teacher sentiment when commenting,

“I always find that actual resources are the most useful.” More than half of the
teachers mentioned enhancing their curriculum knowledge of teaching resources,
activities, and materials for hands-on science activities. They specifically mentioned
getting new ideas about field trips, print resources, activities, purchasing science
supplies, and collecting science materials. Jane spoke of the generosity of a teacher
she visited who gave her “a box of resources. She said ‘You take this. I’m done
teaching those, photocopy whatever you need and bring them back in the summer.”’
(BT 11 Journal)
Carmen’s teacher gave her “some props, some electricity things that she had built
and I actually physically brought that back to my classroom. I was able to use it with
my students and they were really excited about it” (BT 6 Journal).
Janelle also commented on the importance of including time during the classroom
visit for sustained conversation.

Both times, I think I sat for an hour afterwards. I talked about what was happening to me and they gave
some suggestions. They gave me lots of ideas, even for my next units coming up. They were just giving
me everything they possibly could. Running off things. Things that worked for them. That was really
good. (BT 2 Int.)

Knowledge of Learners

Observing lesson pacing and children’s levels of competency helped some teach-
ers further develop their knowledge of learners. Beginning teachers talked about
children’s capabilities, ways to accommodate different ability levels, and teaching
strategies for promoting children’s understanding of science that they had observed
in the experienced teachers’ classrooms.
Natasha mentioned that her visit had given her a different perspective on what
to expect of her students. “My expectations for the grade fours had been too high.”
Having just taught grade six, a grade in which all students take provincial achieve-
ment tests, she discovered that she “had become used to cramming information into
students.” This practice she planned to change.
290 B. GUSTAFSON, S. GUILBERT AND D. MACDONALD

Carmen commented on how an experienced teacher structured science lessons to

accommodate the range of learners in her classroom.

[The experienced teacher] accommodates learners of various abilities by offering different challenge
assignments according to ability. Her lessons usually require students to meet a basic challenge. Once
students meet this challenge, they are free to explore and ‘take it to their own level.’ This gives an
opportunity for the more able students to work ahead and explore, while weaker students can also be
successful by meeting the basic challenge through their own exploration. I am looking forward to trying
this out in my own classroom. (BT 6 Journal)

Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Other beginning teachers reported that they had learned more about how to engage
students in open-ended science investigations or how to differentiate important or
difficult science concepts from the more minor specific learner expectations listed
in the science curriculum document – examples of pedagogical content knowledge.
Margaret commented on her group’s discussion with the experienced teacher at the
university seminar.

We also discussed ways of presenting hands-on science activities. For example, should we give them
materials and then free rein to explore? Some of us were worried about how some particular classes
would handle it. From our conversation I decided that it has to be a judgement call, and perhaps it is best
to introduce such activities on a gradually increasing scale. (BT 12 Journal)

Viewing an experienced teacher’s more open approach to science caused Travis to

question his own teaching practice.

[The experienced teacher was] more liberal in the classroom. Kids were walking around and she’s up
there talking. Maybe I’m too much of a control freak or whatever, so that was just totally challenging.
And it’s working for her. It wasn’t like the kids walked around and it was chaos or whatever. . . . So that
in itself was just like wow, very challenging. Can this work for me? Can this work for my students? . . .
I commented to her that I was in awe of her management. I didn’t say this strong enough, but to me, I
couldn’t handle that. Maybe I’m just too young in my career. Maybe there comes a point in time where
. . . . Hopefully, I can reflect and challenge myself and be challenged by others. (BT 10 Int.)

Still another beginning teacher noticed that using different approaches to science
teaching could result in children becoming more excited about and taking more
ownership of the tasks.

Instead of just saying today we’re going to learn about making bird’s nests. He somehow makes it so that
they kind of come up with that idea through, I don’t even know how, it’s harder to explain it, but he can
sort of whip it up. His whole plan is to have them make bird’s nests at the end of the day and they have an
idea in the middle of the day, hey, we should go and make bird’s nests. Know what I mean? So then they
turn around and they walk away thinking, wow, we owned that class. When really all along that’s what
they were going to do. But because they had a say in it, they were more anxious about it, more excited
about it than if he just said we’re going to make bird’s nests today. (BT 9 Int.)
 BEGINNING ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHERS 291

The opportunity for trial and error in science impressed Diane during her second
classroom visit.

He explained that when you give a project assignment for that day they may have to fix and test a few
times and that the students learn more from mistakes and failures (what works and what doesn’t). (BT 7
Int.)

Content Knowledge

Despite four beginning teachers expressing the need to improve their science
content knowledge, only one teacher commented on receiving some help in this area.

[The experienced teacher] also spent time answering our specific curriculum related questions. She rec-
ommended some books and references which teachers could use to increase their knowledge of a specific
curriculum area. She emphasised that as teachers we can also learn from our students and that our students
need to see us as learners as well. (BT 6 Journal)

Summary

In their statements, beginning teachers explain what they learned from their con-
versations with and observations of experienced science teachers making many ref-
erences to subsequent intended changes to their own practice, some of which they
had already tried out in their own classrooms. Beginning teachers did make some ref-
erences to observations and conversations that led to an enhancement of pedagogical
content knowledge and knowledge of learners. However, they focused primarily on
the immediate, practical issues of classroom management and teaching activities and
strategies, which are examples of general pedagogical knowledge and curriculum
knowledge.

Discussion

Supporting the Development of Teaching Knowledge

Although beginning teachers spoke predominantly about interactions they con-

sidered successful, three teachers expressed less satisfaction. Kathy described that
during one of her visits

He did an experiment with the class . . . but I didn’t come away going, oh yeah, you know that’s something
neat I’ll try or that’s something new I learned. I don’t know what I expected going in to visit him. I expected
to learn something. I didn’t know what. I just didn’t come out of it going, oh, that’s one thing that I’m
really going to try . . . Some [visits] are more successful depending on the teacher and what you’re looking
for and what they’re doing at the time. (BT 5 Int.)
292 B. GUSTAFSON, S. GUILBERT AND D. MACDONALD

Kathy’s comment suggests that prior expectations, the lesson topic, the pedagogical
context and perhaps a perception of not having common ground with the experienced
teacher could result in an unsatisfactory visit. Later, Kathy explained that she would
have “loved to have gone to see [another beginning teacher’s] classroom to see if
they are doing the same units that I am at the same time, just to see if we’re doing
the same things.” Also, she wanted more time at the university seminars to discuss
with beginning teachers:

just because it’s so nice to find out what you’re doing is the same thing that other early teachers are doing
or that you have the same concerns as them or you can share, what do I do with this kind of situation? I
think that was one thing that I really, really liked.

Although she did find value in a visit to another classroom, Kathy clearly valued
opportunities to explore common ground and seek reassurance from hearing about
the experiences of other beginning teachers.
Carmen also reported disappointment with an aspect of her classroom visits.

Initially when I went into this, I wanted to look at using science and technology in terms of computer
technology but I found that I wasn’t. I didn’t see too much of that in the teachers I went to observe or
when I went to observe them they didn’t know that was what I was looking for. (BT 6 Int.)

For Carmen, her visits did not meet a need she had identified at commencement of
the project. Fortunately, other identified needs such as assessment were met:

from talking to the experienced teachers as well as from talking with the other beginning science teachers.
I used to do a lot of unit tests and then I would just use that mostly as my evaluation. Now I’ve changed
so much. I do observations daily. I take lots of observation notes

Natasha found the planning session to be less useful.

We spoke about effective vocabulary, covering key concepts and shared good resources. It [the planning
session] was minimally applicable. I knew or was already applying most of the material. (BT 8 Journal)

This beginning teacher had not identified planning as a need she wanted to address.
For her, the planning information was redundant and we speculate that her past,
successful teaching experiences (she was one of the most experienced beginning
teachers and had won a beginning teacher award) suggested that she had already
developed planning competencies she perceived as adequate.
Some of the critical comments about teacher visits show beginning teachers were
developing the ability to critique teaching practice and were not simply looking for
opportunities to observe and imitate – a possible criticism of mentoring programs.
Comments about less successful interactions also indicate that it was not simply
talking to or visiting an experienced teacher that helps the beginning teachers develop
their professional knowledge. More specific aspects of the visit need to be taken into
account if arranged interactions are to be professionally productive.
 BEGINNING ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHERS 293

Facilitating Knowledge Development

Analysis of the beginning teacher/experienced teacher interactions identified a

number of conditions that appeared to facilitate knowledge development. The fac-
tors we identified from our data are: recognising the competence of the experienced
teacher, sensing a connection with the other teacher, meeting a need, and easing a
sense of isolation. In this section we discuss these factors.

Recognising the Competence of the Experienced Teacher

Many beginning teachers commented on the impressive and effective teaching

skills modeled by the experienced teachers. Beginning teachers reported they were
“really impressed” and “in awe” of what they observed. The experienced teachers
discussed individual problems with them, provided advice about science practice,
and most importantly, demonstrated proficiency through teaching a science lesson.
The beginning teachers were encouraged to talk to experienced teachers prior to
their visits and, if they had a preference, to mention an aspect or aspects of science
teaching they would like demonstrated. A recognition of competence appears to have
been enhanced when the experienced teacher tried to accommodate these prefer-
ences, or to demonstrate aspects of practice known to be challenging to beginning
teachers. Being able to observe children engaged in “real science” – science activities
where children were given some leeway in the design, execution, and interpretation
of an exploration (“letting students go a little”) – was highly appreciated by the
beginning teachers.
Our data suggest that the establishment of personal and professional credibility
is an important condition if experienced teachers are to influence the knowledge
development of the beginning teachers. Similar findings have been reported by re-
searchers who write that mentors must have professional credibility in addition to
self-knowledge and professional knowledge (Furlong, 1994; Smith & Alred, 1993;
Stephenson & Sampson, 1994). Clearly, not all experienced teachers have the consid-
erable skills to act as mentors but those who do should be trusted by their colleagues,
have good interpersonal skills, possess professional knowledge, and be able to artic-
ulate what they stand for (Frecknall, 1994; Furlong, 1994; Smith & Alred, 1993). As
Mathew observed of the experienced teachers he interacted with, “Even though they
don’t think they are exemplary, they are.”

Sensing a Connection

Over half the beginning teachers referred to a sense of connection they experi-
enced when observing an experienced teacher. Jane admired “the rapport she [the
experienced teacher] had with the kids. We are very much alike in that way. She had
294 B. GUSTAFSON, S. GUILBERT AND D. MACDONALD

a really one-on-one relationship with each student. I think that’s what I have so I
think we really connected in that way.”
Mathew found that David “had a very different classroom than mine. . . . But at the
same time, here’s a guy who enjoys teaching, who enjoys science, and I think I feed
off of that ‘cause I’m kind of the same.” Kinship was also enhanced when beginning
teachers recognised that experienced teachers are vulnerable.

It was nice to see him struggle with the children. They didn’t end up doing what the experiment called for
but that was okay. An experienced exemplary teacher is just as vulnerable as a first year. (BT 1 Journal)

Other beginning teachers were pleased to see similarities between their own stu-
dents and those they were observing.

It was good to see that when the kids get excited about science, they start shouting out. I guess their
enthusiasm takes over from their self-control. My kids act like that too and it was helpful to see how the
experienced teacher sort of harnessed that enthusiasm. (BT 9 Journal)

This same beginning teacher was pleased to note, “The whole room was just a
mess, full of grass, dirt, and sticks. It was good to know that I’m not the only one
who makes a mess.”
These connections or perceptions of common ground appeared to help beginning
teachers gain confidence in the efficacy of their own current practice and to be more
receptive to new ideas and their use in their own classrooms. Yeomans (1994) reports
that when the mentor has some similarity or connection to the beginning colleague,
a friendship can develop over time. This friendship can become a valued ongoing
source of encouragement for the young teacher. Odell (1990) recommends that one
criterion to consider when matching mentors with beginning teachers is to connect
those with a similar style of thinking. With a recognition of similar thinking styles,
beginning teachers might be more likely to apply advice and observations to their
own classrooms and to begin to develop a sense of professional empowerment.
Other researchers argue, however, that if there is a mismatch of beliefs between the
experienced and beginning teacher, more reflection is likely to occur (Hollingsworth,
1989). We would argue that studies about mentoring beginning teachers tend to de-
scribe a thoughtful, supportive approach as helping beginning teachers gain insight
and confidence (Maynard & Furlong, 1993). Although viewing a diversity of teachers
and teaching styles can cause reflection on one’s own practice, and consideration of
what constitutes good teaching, we believe that for beginning teachers these expe-
riences must be carefully balanced with those that provide confirmation of good
elements of their existing science teaching practice.

Meeting a Need

A correspondence between a professional need and an observation of or conversa-

tion about practice related to that need also appeared to be an important condition for
 BEGINNING ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHERS 295

knowledge development. These needs could be ones that led beginning teachers to
enroll in the project or needs that emerged through participation in project activities.

Identified needs

At the outset of the project, beginning teachers were asked to identify aspects
of science teaching practice they would like to focus on over the year. The data
indicate that teachers tended to focus on these areas of identified need during their
conversations with and observations of experienced teachers. It was here, as well, that
they reported shifts in their thinking and practice or developed a sense of reassurance
for their own practice.
One need initially identified by Natasha and Joseph was confidence. Natasha later
observed that:

I have to say that the best thing was going to visit the [experienced teacher] because he gave me sanity.
All of a sudden I could say, okay, this guy is a good science teacher. What he’s doing, I’m very close to.
It’s like, thank God, you know. I had no idea, you know? So the confidence of finding out that I wasn’t
completely off the wall, ‘cause like real often, like you’re guessing or you’re doing your best but your not
sure exactly where your best should be. That was the best for me. (BT 8 Int.)

Other examples of beginning teachers receiving help with an identified need in-
clude Joseph getting ideas for organising his students, Jim observing new ways of
planning, and Janelle, Krista, and Carmen observing assessment practices.

Previously unidentified needs

Some beginning teachers shared that their classroom visits introduced them to
aspects of science teaching strategies they had been unaware of in the past. Through
observing and talking to the experienced teachers, they came to see these ideas as
promising – sometimes in the short term, occasionally as practice to aspire to over a
longer period of time. Sometimes a previously unidentified need such as confidence
in oneself turned out to be an important need to be met. Four teachers who had not
identified this initial need all discovered that this was an important element they were
seeking.

I think what you think as a beginning teacher is am I doing this right? Is this what it is supposed to look
like? When you go and see an exemplary science teacher who has the same goof-ups in the lesson or that
has the same problems where a child asks a question and you can’t answer it right there or whatever, I
think that gives you some confidence like I am doing the right thing. I got that from it. (BT 2 Int.)
Observing the [experienced teacher’s] class I sure learned a lot of tricks and also a lot of things that I was
doing already that just kind of affirmed my . . . just being worried that maybe I’m not on the right track.
Just seeing other kids that age are doing the same things. It’s just them, not me. Do you know what I
mean? (BT 9 Int.)

Several of the beginning teachers observed activities they viewed as meeting an

immediate, practical need. Although these needs had not been identified at the be-
ginning of the project, they arose over the course of the year as beginning teachers
296 B. GUSTAFSON, S. GUILBERT AND D. MACDONALD

met with experienced teachers. For example, one beginning teacher was planning to
teach the observed science unit the following month and this ‘nearby need’ led her
to pay particular attention to the lesson activities so that she might adapt them to her
own classroom.
The most commonly mentioned new idea, one not really thought about in the past,
was the integration of science with other curriculum subjects.

Easing a sense of isolation

During the project, we were reminded of the isolation experienced by many teach-
ers in their professional lives that is well documented in research literature (Loughran
& Ingvarson, 1993; Schaffer, Stringfield, & Wolfe, 1992; Veenman, 1984). Teacher
after teacher remarked that one of the most valuable activities in the BEST project
was having a chance to talk with and observe another teacher teaching. As Joseph
remarked, “It’s great to be able to see how somebody else is doing things. It’s really
strange coming to work. We have a bunch of colleagues, but the only time we see
them is at recess or at lunch.”
In a similar vein, Mathew said, “It’s good to have the connections.” This referred
not just to connections with experienced teachers, but with other beginning teach-
ers in the project as well. When asked to comment on the project, two beginning
teachers suggested that they would have liked to have observed another beginning
teacher because there was a lot they could learn from each other. Smith and Alred
(1993) concur that younger mentor teachers may have the advantage of being closer
in outlook to the beginning teacher and better able to recall feelings and needs from
their own career beginnings. We believe that this avenue should be explored in future
projects by giving beginning teachers the opportunity to visit both experienced and
beginning teacher classrooms.
In summary, successful interactions between beginning and experienced teachers
were dependent on a number of interconnected conditions. A beginning teacher who
recognised the competence of an experienced teacher, sensed a personal connection
with this teacher, and was introduced to new practice possibilities, was more likely
to perceive of an interaction as a positive, professional experience. Experienced
teachers who took a proactive, helpful stance were better able to help beginning
teachers relax, connect, and learn. These observations highlight the importance of
selecting enthusiastic, empathetic teachers who believe that professional knowledge
is enhanced through connections with colleagues. Criteria used to guide this selection
should be the same whether the project includes a limited or long-term mentoring
experience.

Conclusions and Implications

Offering beginning teachers a chance to talk and visit with an experienced, compe-
tent teacher appears to be a promising way to support professional growth. We found
 BEGINNING ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHERS 297

this experience encompassed many of the positive features of more intensive men-
toring projects such as promoting beginning teachers’ professional knowledge (espe-
cially general pedagogical knowledge and curriculum knowledge) and professional
empowerment. Although the beginning teachers reported that they had expanded
their knowledge of elementary science teaching practice through a number of BEST
project activities, the most frequent reference was to what they had learned while
observing and talking to experienced teachers about science instruction during the
limited mentoring experience. Through these interactions beginning teachers were
able to develop both professional knowledge and confidence in their own science
teaching practice. Beginning teachers also enhanced their meta-cognitive processes
(Gunstone & Northfield, 1994). Through watching and talking with experienced
teachers, beginning teachers were led to evaluate their current practice and decide
whether or not to reconstruct aspects of that practice.
We suggest there are a number of factors that could have contributed to the ap-
parent emphasis on general pedagogical advice. First, the beginning teachers tended
to request to observe lessons that included general strategies for managing, ques-
tioning and assessing children – a tendency of young teachers at the novice level
(Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986). We suggest that with time and experience, these young
teachers would see the need for and be able to acquire pedagogical content knowl-
edge as well as additional kinds of knowledge such as the academic and research
knowledge, professional knowledge, and classroom knowledge described by other
researchers (Barnett & Hodson, 2001). Second, beginning teachers might have well
asked themselves “What can I reasonably take away from a half-day experience?”
and how beginning teachers answered this question might well have contributed to
the observed emphasis on practical teaching advice. This likely indicates the need
to increase time available for classroom visits. We believe that a useful direction for
future research would involve audio-taping pre-visit negotiations between beginning
and experienced teachers as well as the post-lesson debriefing sessions. This data
would assist in understanding how needs were negotiated and whether our interviews
captured the range of knowledge shared in post-lesson de-briefings.
Some beginning teachers offered comments that suggested a growing awareness
of tacit knowledge. Joseph observed an experienced teacher who knew “where to
push, when to step in, when to step back” and Jim shared the difficulty of explaining
how his experienced teacher could “sort of whip up” a seemingly child selected
activity. These examples appear reminiscent of Roth and Tobin’s (2001) discussion
of how “competent teachers in a familiar situation do the right thing at the right time”
(p. 750).
An interesting facet of this study was the notion of unidentified needs such as
subject integration and the need for re-assurance and affirmation. We suggest the be-
ginning teachers quite likely considered subject integration during pre-service years,
but this good idea had been subsumed by other more pressing concerns (e.g., coping).
Observing the experienced teachers likely helped remind the young teachers at a
time in their careers when they were ready to act upon the idea. Readiness to con-
sider a more sophisticated approach to curriculum planning or instructional strategy
298 B. GUSTAFSON, S. GUILBERT AND D. MACDONALD

has, in part, been linked to time in the profession. Schaffer, Stringfield, and Wolfe
(1992) have found that second year teacher inductees are more likely to adopt more
sophisticated instruction approaches as they already have a repertoire of classroom
coping strategies in place. Implications for the selection of potential participants for
mentoring programs are obvious.
Regarding the unidentified need for re-assurance, it is interesting to observe that
young teachers are frequently subject to evaluation that likely includes a record
of areas for growth and areas of accomplishment. We suggest that many begin-
ning teachers likely wonder whether they are “doing the right thing” or are “on the
right track.” Some may give recognition to this need while others may turn their
attention to other matters. This study showed that mentors can play an illuminative
role in highlighting common experiences (e.g., children’s behavior during hands-
on activities; asking children questions) encountered by all science teachers thereby
re-assuring beginning teachers that they share common ground. In addition to roles
reported in research such as trainer, guide, sponsor and confidante (Odell, 1990;
Sampson & Yeomans, 1994a, b) should be added the of role of illuminator.
What the limited mentoring experience was less able to address were interactions
between personal, intellectual, and spiritual development and work. We suggest that
these complex interactions may be more likely to occur only when sufficient time
is allowed for experienced and beginning teachers to engage in more two-way dia-
logue. Additionally, the limited mentoring experience gave experienced teachers the
opportunity only to begin to develop the supportive dimensions of the mentoring role.
Despite this, the beginning teachers felt encouraged. They reported that although they
had not (in most cases) kept in touch with the experienced teachers, they knew the
support was there and they could call on it when needed. This in itself was reassuring
and gave them a sense that there was someone they could talk to and get advice from
if they needed it.
As reported, not all visits proved to be equally effective. From this study we
have concluded that care must be taken in the selection of experienced teachers
with consideration given to the professional credibility and professional knowledge
of potential mentors. Also, projects should provide the option of visiting another
beginning teacher’s classroom. Matches made between experienced and beginning
teachers should be sympathetic to the potential connections (similar philosophies,
personalities, grades) that could be realised and extended upon by the beginning
teacher. We would, as well, encourage experienced teachers to talk to beginning
teachers prior to a classroom visit in order to try to incorporate into a lesson and
discussion aspects of practice identified as important by the beginning teacher. Be-
ginning teachers must also be receptive to the experienced teacher by acknowledging
their own need for growth and the opportunity for developing professional practice
through working with an older colleague (Tickle, 1993). As Mathew wrote:

I would like to visit a classroom that is doing ‘Classroom Chemistry,’ but that is not that important. It
would be good to visit a large class (30+) and see how [the experienced teacher] handles this situation.
I would benefit from observing a classroom that caters to a wide range of abilities. A class that has
 BEGINNING ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHERS 299

everything from learning disabled to academic challenge [gifted]. I have both types of students, as well as
average students.
Note: It doesn’t really matter where I go, it would [just] be great to see somebody else teach science.

Acknowledgement

Support from the Imperial Oil National Centre for Mathematics, Science and
Technology Education, University of Alberta is gratefully acknowledged.

Note

1. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, April 2001, Seattle, Washington,
U.S.A.

Correspondence: Dr Brenda Gustafson, Department of Elementary Education,

551 Education South, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2G5, Canada
E-mail: [email protected]

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