Journal of Scholarship and Teaching, Vol. 6, No. 1, August 2006, pp 110 - 117.

Bridging the Theory-practice Divide:

A Creative Approach to Effective Teacher Preparation
Jacqueline A. Hughes, Ph.D.1

Abstract: Teacher educators need to remain current regarding the challenges

that prospective teachers are going to face in their classrooms. One way to
maintain this currency is for teacher educators periodically to spend some time in
the K-12 classroom testing the theories they teach. This paper will discuss the
benefits both teacher educators and prospective teachers will derive from
engaging in such an activity.

I. Introduction

Preparing prospective teachers for the realities of todays classrooms is a complex and
challenging undertaking for teacher educators. This complexity and challenge is a result of the
changing nature of the classroom. Schools today face an increasing number of language
learners, the mainstreaming of special population students, and, working with a standards driven
curriculum, all of which present new challenges for the teacher as they attempt to meet their
students educational needs.
As a result of this new classroom environment and the educational needs they present
teacher educators must now seek different approaches to prepare prospective teachers to meet
these needs because the traditional (e.g. coursework independent of fieldwork) approaches to
teacher preparation are no longer effective in equipping teachers to address these issues.
It has been my observation that some teacher educators are so far removed from the K-12
environment that WHAT they teach sometimes does not reflect the realities their students face.
Additionally, there is the belief that learning to teach is a two-step process of knowledge
acquisition and application or transfer (Feiman-Nemser & Remillard, 1996, p. 79). The latter
view infers a mutually exclusive relationship between the teacher educator, the prospective
teacher and the classroom. In this approach to teacher preparation, the teacher educator provides
the knowledge and the prospective teacher applies it. However, the teaching of theories or
knowledge to prospective teachers and expecting that they will effectively apply them is an
inadequate approach (Stuart & Thurlow, 2000;Wideen, Mayer-Smith & Moon, 1998; Adams,
Shea, Liston & Deever, 1998) to teacher preparation. The assumption lying herein is that
prospective teachers not only acquired the knowledge and theories in their program but the
wherewithal to apply it in their classrooms. This, of course, might be true if the process of
learning to teach were linear rather than dynamic; free of extraneous influences and circumstance
rather than a complex mlange of variables This thought is best captured by Britzman (1991):

learning to teach is not a mere matter of applying decontextualized skills or of

mirroring predetermined images: it is a time when ones past, present and future
are set in dynamic tension. Learning to teach- like teaching itself- is always the
process of becoming: a time of formation and transformation, of scrutiny into

1
Assistant Professor, School of Education, California State University, Bakersfield, (661) 665-6807,
[email protected]
Hughes, J.A.

what one is doing and who one can becomeLearning to teach is a social process
of negotiation rather than an individual problem of behavior.

Since preparation of teacher candidates is, at best, a complicated process, teacher

educators must consider adopting new practices: As such, for teacher educators to better prepare
prospective teachers three things must occur: examination of their teaching practices and the
process of learning to teach (Szabo, Scott & Yellin, 2002, p.1); utilization of field work to aid
prospective teachers in their process of meaningful reflection and construction of practical
knowledge (Perry & Power, 2004); and, finally, inculcating prospective teachers understanding
of the relationship between theory and practice (Szabo, Scott & Yellin, 2002). It is the consistent
interconnection and persistent engagement in the above facets of learning-to-teach that show
promise of more effectively preparing teachers.
In this paper, I will discuss a field-based approach I implemented to examine my own
teaching practices in linking theory with practice and regaining currency in the real world of
public school. I approached this project with the tentative optimism that my experiences would
assist me in preparing prospective teachers for their multiple roles and [the] contextual
complexities of life in schools (Knowles & Cole, 1996, p. 648).

II. A Theoretical Framework

The teaching of theory must be (or should be) inextricably linked to its application
(Brunner, 1997). When students are exposed to theoretical concepts for the first time, they must
be introduced to these ideas in a manner to which they can best relate (Brunner, 1997). Brunner
(1977) refers to this as grasping the structure of a subject. He further argues that teaching
specific topics or skills without making clear their context in the broader fundamental structure
of a field of knowledge is uneconomical in several deep senses (pg. 31), in that:

such teaching makes it exceedingly difficult for a student to generalize from

what he has learned to what he will encounter laterThe best way to create
interest in a subject is to render it worth knowing, which means to make the
knowledge gained usable in ones thinking beyond the situation in which the
learning have occurred. Third, knowledge one has acquired without sufficient
structure to tie it together is knowledge that is likely to be forgotten. An
unconnected set of facts has a pitiably short half-life in memory.

Similarly, theories cannot be taught in a vacuum; prospective teachers must understand

the relationship between the ideas they are taught and the applications they will encounter. One
way to develop this skill is to arrange for this connection to be made in the context of their
lived realities. Such learning-in-context will provide prospective teachers with the opportunity
of questioning what they do and think (Brookfield, 1995). It is during this process of inquiry,
thinking about their practice, that teacher transformation occurs.
Another valuable theoretical approach which informs this process is the constructivist
approach to learning, which derives its name and its power from the belief that knowledge is best
constructed when the learner actively interacts with the environment and, hence, constructs
meaning from that experience (Hausfather, 2001). Similarly, Hall-Quest asserts in the editorial
foreword to Deweys Experience and Education, that sound educational experience involves,
above all, continuity and interaction between the learner and what is learned (Dewey, 1938,

Journal of Scholarship and Teaching, Vol. 6, No. 1, August 2006. 111

Hughes, J.A.

p.10). The end result of this nexus is the teachers ability to transfer teacher-knowledge to
effective practice. In sum, the theories that drive this project are those of constructivism, the
theory of integration, and the rigorous application of critical reflective thinking.

III. The Role of Fieldwork in Teacher Preparation

Field experiences are significant means through which to develop prospective teachers
understanding of the why, what, and how of teaching and learning. However, simple placement
of student teachers in the field does not automatically result in a valuable experience for the
teacher candidate (Zeichner, 1990). After all, not all experiences are genuinely or equally
educative (Dewey, 1938, p. 25). Dewey (1938) asserts that it is not enough to insist upon the
necessity of experience, nor even of activity in experience [emphasis mine]. Everything depends
upon the quality of the experience which is had (Dewey, 1938, pg. 27).
Although, there is little doubt among teacher educators about the role of fieldwork in
preparing better teachers, there is persistent concern that such experiences do not reach their full
potential value (Bowman & McCormick, 2000, p.256). Several circumstances may account for
this: traditional structures of student teaching (Zeichner, 2002), which are often developed out of
convenience or tradition (Guyton & McIntyre, 1990, p 517) rather than innovative practices;
limited resources to carry out field work (Goodlad, 1990; Darling Hammond, 1999); the
individualized nature of fieldwork (Goodlad, 1994); the quality of the field placement (Laboskey
& Richert, 2002); and a traditional approach to university supervision (Bowman & McCormick,
2000). Empirical evidence and current thinking suggest that many time-honored and time-worn
field experience practices, such as those referenced earlier, need to be either refurbished or
abandoned all together.
One viable solution to teacher-educator lack of currency lies in the periodic return of
teacher-educators to the public school environment with the intent of gaining practical
experience. A return to the living laboratory of the K-12 classroom will allow teacher educators
to test the theories and concepts they teach as well as to examine their own teaching practices
while making pertinent and necessary revisions and adjustments in their practice.

IV. Approach

From several years of informal conversations with teacher candidates during office hours,
class discussions, brief encounters with them in the hallways, and reading their observation
journals, I have concluded that for teacher preparation to be effective it must take place in the
context in which it occurs, the school environment.
Over the course of several semesters, I utilized various approaches to field work, such as
focused observation activities with required critical reflective inquiry of their observation and
case study development and analysis of issues of interest to the prospective teacher. Although
these exploratory attempts at teaching in context yielded some satisfying results, I became
increasingly restless with my methodology. Searching for something new and innovative, I
assumed the role of a 9th grade Algebra-I teacher, sharing teaching responsibilities with the
teacher of record.
This pilot project was conducted at a high school located in a predominantly Hispanic
community in Southern California. The high school population consisted of approximately 95%
Hispanic with Asians, Caucasians, and African Americans constituting the remaining 5%. I
selected this school because of its cultural location (a high percentage of minority students,

Journal of Scholarship and Teaching, Vol. 6, No. 1, August 2006. 112

Hughes, J.A.

Mexican and South-American, of low socio-economic status) as well as the current commitment
between the university and the school district.2
Four students fully participated in this pilot project. Because the majority of my students
were themselves classroom teachers (on emergency permit) or holding jobs outside of the field
of education, the remainder of my college class members participated in a somewhat more
limited way. The project full-participants observed my classroom experience for a minimum of
two class periods twice weekly. In addition, a thirty to forty minute critical and reflective
debriefing was conducted immediately after the observation. If time constraints prevented this
from happening, the requisite discussion session took place in my university office later that
same day. During these discussion sessions, participants were encouraged to speak freely about
my teaching strategies and my interaction with the algebra students, as well as the general
classroom atmosphere; they provided insights into the events of the period, explored various
perspectives on the relationship between classroom practice and education theory, highlighted
various concepts already covered in class discussions at the university, interpreted and analyzed
particular incidents and offered suggestions for solutions; further, they discussed with me the
reasons I had handled an issue or situation in the way that I had. In addition to these discussions,
all participants maintained an observation journal in which they reflected on the various concerns
and issues they encountered, some entries of which are noted below:
It is important to note here that the 9th graders received a combination of before and/or
after school tutoring; tutoring from the student teachers; exam review activities; and, homework
to practice Algebraic concepts.

A. Student #1

First reflective entry: How do I adjust Piagets cognitive theories to meet the different
learning stylesin my classroom? It does not seem as if it applies. Especially, when I have to
interpret the curriculum standards in order to teach it to my students who have such grave
disparities in their learning levels.
Second reflective entry: I also find that learning the concept takes so much time and I
dont have the luxury to study it in a way that would help me put it into practice due to the day-
to-day demands of my classroom environment. I know that the things that I learn in this course
are important and informs my teaching in some way. But, I dont see it, yet. I know that students
are at different stages cognitively, intellectually, socially, and so forth. Thats evident! I see it
demonstrated in my students everyday. So I dont need a theorist to tell me this. My problem is
how these seemingly relevant concepts, theories, help me motive, J--e. How does it help me
teach my academically diverse students complex curriculum standards while being cognizant of
their overall development social, emotional, behavioral?
Third reflective entry: I find myself not wanting to learn these concepts because I dont
know yet howto readily apply it to my class. I hear my peers speak of how they have applied
cooperative learning in their classroom and how successful it was. But, I am afraid I dont share
those experiences. Dr. Hughes struggled to illustrate this concept in class last night and there
were no videos except from her high school class regarding this issue. So I was really stuck.

2
Human subjects clearance was not needed for this research.

Journal of Scholarship and Teaching, Vol. 6, No. 1, August 2006. 113

Hughes, J.A.

B. Student #2

Reflective entry: I think I got it! The theory of motivation. I so want my students to want
to learn. Then it occurred to me that (as I watched Dr. Hughes struggle with how best to motivate
A----a and some of the other low motivated students) that she missed something important
what interest them). She talked about it in class but she didnt do it. I dont know why! I will ask
her later.
Reflective entry a week later: This week Dr. Hughes planned to review for the
upcoming exam. S----n and I have worked hard all weekend putting together a Jeopardy
Algebra game. We werent sure if it would work but Dr. Hughes let us try anyway. It worked
well! I was so relieved. The students were excited and very much into the game. I thought it was
because the method was fun, innovative and so forth. I was worried about no real reward (e.g. no
homework, etc.) except for the points they received for the correct answers in each category.
Much to our surprise (Dr. Hughes, too). The students were really into the activity. They didnt
seem to mind that all they would have at the end of the period was just points for first, second, or
third place. I am not sure if the students learned much in preparation for the exam. But, they
indicated that they liked the game, that it was fun. Dr. Hughes informed us the next week that a
majority of the students had passed the exam We had hope that the game would motivate the
students to go home and study as a result of the positive feelings of giving the right answer and
being praised by their team-mates and teacher.

These sessions (as well as several days of my teaching) were videotaped; these tapes
were then used in my university class as a teaching tool to enhance the curriculum and to
demonstrate best or worst practices. This procedure provided a rich foundation for discussion by
both full and limited participants. The limited participants benefited from watching the video of
my teaching as well as listening to the discussions between me and their student colleagues. The
retrospective discussions allowed all students the opportunity to form sound and valid
arguments, to make explicit their practical knowledge, and to apply this new knowledge to
current educational issues. Throughout the entire experience, I provided extensive feedback to
guide interpretations and encourage critical reflective inquiry.
It is important to note here that the 9th graders received a combination of before and/or after
school tutoring; tutoring from the student teachers; exam review activities; and, homework to
practice Algebraic concepts.

V. Reflections

I found from my experience that when both the teacher-educator and prospective teachers
are actively involved in both the college class and the K-12 environment, the ability for everyone
to teach and learn simultaneously was enhanced. Furthermore, this process made it possible for
me and my prospective teachers to identify and examine the convergence of theory and practice.
The goal of exposing students to the process of teaching and learning through such organized
field experience was met. I fervently believe that a process similar to that which I have
described has the potential to augment the quality and merits of the field observation
requirement. As such it contributes immeasurably to the overall ability of the students to teach
effectively in the K-12 environment. A summative entry from my own journal follows:

Journal of Scholarship and Teaching, Vol. 6, No. 1, August 2006. 114

Hughes, J.A.

What I learned as a Teacher Educator. As an educator I learned that it wasnt

just about teaching the theories of motivation, Piagets theories of cognitive
development, or Vygostkys Zone of Proximal development in my Educational
Psychology course. Rather it was about teaching motivation as it came to life in
my Algebra class instead of in abstract form. I was challenged with how best to
motivate my 9th grade students. I tried no homework if they completed their
worksheet, etc. But, I was faced with the fact that most of my students did not
understand the concepts. So with the help of the collaborating teacher we divided
the class into several smaller groups and assigned them work that met their skill
and comprehension level. This approach worked very well.
The next semester I used the experience to exemplify how Piagets theory of
Cognitive Development might inform high school teaching. My college students
remarked how very beneficial this was. Of course, I did not do away with
teaching the stages of the theory of Piagets Cognitive Development, etc.
What this experience did for me was to transform how I teach and how I
constructed my course curriculum. Theoretical concepts were paired with some
real life classroom experience I had encountered. My text selection was based on
how well the authors presented complex theoretical concepts (that is their
approach to illustrating these complex theories in the hope of increasing
comprehension, and possible later transfer of this understanding). As a result, I
looked for the level of language used to introduce complex concepts, case studies,
activities that would facilitate understanding and skill acquisition.
VI. Suggestions for Change

The serious nature of the process of preparing students to meet the demands of their
profession requires a critical examination of the professional requirements. One such
requirement is the familiarity with the changing nature of the profession. Meeting this
requirement will likely provide insights on how to interpret and integrate professional standards
and expectations into program course work and requirements.
Educators can meet this requirement in one of two ways. The first is, a return to the
environment of professional practice for a semester or a year-long reintroduction to the field. The
educator may serve as a social worker, counselor, or teacher performing duties similar to what
their current students would do once in the field. The second approach to gaining familiarity with
the current practices in ones field is to allow former students to return to the college classroom
to share their lived experiences and current practices as it relates to theory.
The above approaches can be combined or employed separately. I prefer the approach
wherein the educator returns to the field. Implementation of one or both of the above approaches
or a variation will no doubt demonstrate how serious we are in bridging the divide between what
our students are learning in their college classrooms and what they do in their jobs.
As a result of my experiences, I am now even more convinced that faculty
currency is critical to the development of well-grounded students who can effectively respond to
the demands and challenges of their profession.

Journal of Scholarship and Teaching, Vol. 6, No. 1, August 2006. 115

Hughes, J.A.

References

Adams, N., Shea, C., Liston, D., & Deever, B. (1998). Learning to teach: A critical approach to
field experiences. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Baker, B. (1997). Anthropology and Teacher Preparation: Some possibilities and precautions.
Queensland Journal of Educational Research, 13(2), 41-58.

Bullough, R. V., jr. Young, J., Erickson, L., Birrell, J.R., Clark, D.C. Egan, M.W., Berrie, C. F.,
Hales, V. & Smith, G. C., (2002). Rethinking field experiences partnership teaching versus
single-placement teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(1), 68-80.

Bowman, C., & McCormick, S. (2000). Comparison of peer coaching versus traditional
supervision effects. Journal of Educational Research, 93(4), 256-261.

Britzman, D. (1991). Practice makes practice. Albany, NY: State University of New York
Press.

Brookfield, S. D. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective teacher. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Brunner, J. (1977). The process of education. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press

Darling-Hammond, L. (1999). Educating teachers for the next century: Rethinking practice and
policy. In G. Griffin (Ed.), The Education of Teachers. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Dewey, J. (1933). How we Think. New York: Houghton Mifflin.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. New York: Macmillan.

Feiman-Nemser, S. & Remillard, J. (1996). Perspectives on learning to teach. In F. Murray

(ed.), The Teacher Educators Handbook (pp.63-91). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Goodlad, J. (1990). Teachers for our nations schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Goodlad, J. (1994). Educational renewal better teachers, better schools. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.

Guyton, E., & McIntyre, D. J. (1990). Student teaching and school experiences. In W.R.
Houston (Ed.), Handbook of research on teacher education. New York: Macmillan.

Hausfather, S. (2001). Wheres the Content? The Role of Content in Constructivist Teacher
Education. Educational Horizons, 80(1), 15-19.

Knowles, J. & Cole, A. (1996). Developing practice through field experiences. In F. Murray
(ed.), The teacher educators handbook (pp. 648-688) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Laboskey, V.K., & Richert, A. E. (2002). Identifying good student teaching placements: A
programmatic perspective. Teacher Education Quarterly, 29(2), 7-34.

Journal of Scholarship and Teaching, Vol. 6, No. 1, August 2006. 116

Hughes, J.A.

Perry, C. M. & Power, B. M. (2004). Finding the Truths in Teacher Preparation Field
Experiences. Teacher Education Quarterly, 31(2), 125 136.

Stuart, C., & Thurlow, D. (2000). Making it their own: Preservice teachers experiences,
beliefs and classroom practices. Journal of Teaching Education, 51(2), 113-121.

Wideen, M., Mayer-Smith, J. & Moon, B. (1998). A critical analysis of the research on learning
to teach: Making the case for an ecological perspective on inquiry. Review of Educational
Research, 68(2), 130-178.

Zeichner, K. (1990). Changing directions in the practicum: Looking ahead to the 1990s.
Journal of Education for Teaching, 16(2), 105-132.

Zeichner, K. (2002). Beyond traditional structures of student teaching. Teacher Education

Quarterly, 29(2), 59-64.

Journal of Scholarship and Teaching, Vol. 6, No. 1, August 2006. 117