MODALS, Modal Auxiliary Verbs

I. Definition
A modal auxiliary verb, often simply called a modal verb or even just a modal, is used to change the
meaning of other verbs (commonly known as main verbs) by expressing modality.
Modality is “the expression of the speaker’s attitude” (Lyons, 1977, p. 792). Epistemic modality is
expressed by the use of the modals reflecting the knowledge and degree of certainty and confidence the speaker
has about the fact/ truth, while “Deontic modality refers to the obligation or permission the subject of the sentence
has to perform the action described” (Haan, 2008, p. 1). Deontic modals involve an attempt to influence, direct
or control the event and regulate the behaviour of the addressee. The following example demonstrates the way
modality affects or adds meaning to the neutral value of the sentence as a whole.
(a) Samir uses the computer. (b) Samir may use the computer.
The first sentence (a) is ‘non-modal’. The value of the proposition in the utterance is neutral. The second sentence
(b) is a proposition modified by adding the modal ‘may’. Accordingly, the meaning of the proposition is open to
dual interpretations; one meaning (deontic / performative) is that the speaker gives permission to Samir to use
the computer. The other message is that the speaker postulates and guesses (epistemic / knowledge) but is not
sure that Samir will use the computer.
II. Form
Modal verbs are do not take an “-s” at the end when he, she, or it is the subject, and they cannot form
infinitives, past participles, or present participles. All modal auxiliary verbs are followed by a main verb in its
base form (the infinitive without to); they can never be followed by other modal verbs, lone auxiliary verbs, or
nouns. As with the primary auxiliary verbs, modal verbs can be used with not to create negative sentences, and
they can all invert with the subject to create interrogative sentences.

III. Core Modals (1): Epistemic / Knowledge: confidence/ certainty (2) Deontic / Performative

Modals Example Speech Function & paraphrase

Surfing can indeed help.
Possibility – it is possible for …
That can happen.
Can you come tomorrow? Is it possible for you to come tomorrow?
Can (1)
Dragons can’t be living now. Certainty / Impossibility
He can’t come. He is too tired Negative deduction on evidence: I am sure he is not
coming
Ability – he is able to play the guitar.
Ted can play the guitar.
Permission – it is possible for ted to play the guitar.
Ted can’t play the guitar here. Refuse permission (prohibition rule)
Can (2) Can I borrow your pen? Asking for permission ( the least formal)
Can I bring you a cold drink?
Making an offer (informal)
I can make you some tea.
Could (1) That could happen soon. Possibility – it is possible to happen
He could be inside, but I cannot see him. The story could be true, I suppose.
He could not know the answers; he has Negative deduction
not read the book
Could (2) He could swim when he was young. Ability in the past
Could I get you a pen? Making an offer (formal)
Could I borrow your pen? Asking for permission. (more formal/ polite than ‘can’)
I could book the hotel for you. Making Polite Request
Could I borrow your calculator?
May (1) That may be a problem. Possibility (present & future)
It may rain tonight
May (2) May I borrow your pen? Asking for Permission (more formal than can & could)
You may go to the cafeteria to watch TV Give and refuse permission
Passengers may not bring more than two bags
Might (1) The weather might improve. Possibility (present&future)
Might (2) Might I borrow your pen? Extremely formal request for permission
Must (1) Teo must be ill. He never misses classes. Certainty – Teo is certainly tired
Must (2) Sam must go to school. Obligation (speaker decides)
Sam has to go to school. External obligation: someone else makes the decision

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Shall (2) You shall get a book. Undertaking a promise.
Shall I give you a lift? Making offer / suggestion
I shall have you pay what you damaged Determination (Formal)
Should (1) That should be surprising. Probability – that is probably surprising
I bought two pizzas; that should be enough. Logical probability
He should be at home at 3 o’clock Obligation – he is obliged to be at home
Should (2) You should eat more vegetables (Moral& polite) Obligation / recommendation & duties
He should see a doctor because he feels bad. Advisability /
Should we start our task now? Suggestion
Will (1) It will rain Prediction without evidence. It's my feeling but I can't be
sure
The minister will + probably/ possibly visit us Probability
The minister will certainly visit us Certainty
Will (2) I will do it tomorrow. Ok! Intention
I will do my best to help you. Willingness /
I will bring you the pen. Offer
Will you stop doing that? Request /order
Would (1) Dad wouldn’t lend me the car. I am not 18 yet. Almost certainty
Nothing would accomplish that.
Would (2) Would + infinitive : I would volunteer if you Volition, willingness
want
When I was teenager, I would wake up late Past habits ( active verbs)# used to + stative vs

IV. Perfect Modal Verbs

Perfect Modal Examples Functions
Must + present perfect = Paul didn´t answer my calls. He must Positive past deduction: When we are certain
(have + past participle) have been out all day. about past actions or draw logical
Must not + present perfect = _________. He can’t have muted his conclusions
(have + past participle) phone. Negative past deduction: When we are
Can´t + present perfect = He must not have heard about the certain something did not happen.
(have + past participle) earthquake (=can´t have heard)
May/might /could + present Paul is late for work. He may have
When we are not sure because we do not
perfect = (have + past missed the bus. He might have left his
actually know what happened in the past.
participle) house late.
Could + present perfect = I could have gone to the party, but I When we had the ability to do something in
(have + past participle) didn´t want to. the past but we didn´t do it.
Could not + pp She couldn’t have taken the car; she Very certain that something didn’t happen
doesn’t have a key in the past
He should have arrived by now, but Past obligation/ regret past event
Should + present perfect = he still isn´t here. When expectations were not fulfilled.
(have + past participle) You should have checked the brakes When sensible advice wasn´t followed.
Should not + present perfect on your car before starting out. To refer to a foolish past action.
= (have+ past participle) You shouldn´t have taken the car
without asking.
Would + present perfect = ( I would have helped you, but I was
When we were willing to do something, but
have + past participle) away for the weekend. we didn´t do it. / regret
Will + present perfect = (have
By this time next week, I will have When we talk about an action that will be
+ past participle) (Future
finished all my exams. completed by somepoint in the future.
perfect)

V. Semi-modals
Semi-modal auxiliary verbs, Semi-modals are verbs that share some characteristics of modal verbs and
some characteristics of main verbs. Most common semi-modal verbs are: Dare, need, used to, and ought to
Semi-modal verbs are a group of verbs that possess characteristics of both modal and main verbs. They often
convey similar meanings to modal verbs but can also behave like main verbs in certain contexts. Here are some
examples of semi-modal verbs along with their meanings and usage:
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 1. Dare

Dare as a semi-modal verb means “to be brave, reckless, or rude enough to do or try something.”
• “If he dare speak impolitely to his boss, he risks to be fired.
• “I dare not discuss the issue of borrowing more money from my friend
• “How dare she talk to her father like that?”
• “Dare he interfere in the neighbour’s family issues?”
• “The students daren’t give a reason to be absent.”
Compare: Dare can also be used as an intransitive main verb with the same meaning as the modal version.
However, it is able to conjugate for person and tense, and it can be followed by a verb in either its base or
infinitive form (the to becomes optional).
• “I can’t believe he dared (to) stand up to the boss.”
• “No one dares (to) question my authority!”
• “Did they dare (to) go through with it?”
• “He doesn’t dare (to) argue with the supervisor.”
“I dare you to ask your boss for higher salary.” “to challenge someone to (do) something that require courage,
boldness, or recklessness,” in which case it must take a noun, pronoun, or infinitive as a direct object.

2. Needn’t

Needn’t expresses a lack of obligation or necessity, either taking the adverb not (usually contracted as needn’t)
or paired with a negative word or phrase, such as never, no one, nothing, etc. For example:
• “No one need know about this.”
• “He needn’t have called; I told him I would be late.”
• “You needn’t worry about my grades.”
• “Nothing need change simply because my father is no longer here.”
It can also be used to form interrogative sentences by inverting with the subject, as in:
• “Need we be concerned?”
• “Need I go to the market later?”
Compare: Like dare, though, the modal use of need has become quite uncommon in modern English, except in
very formal speech or writing.
As a main verb
Need is much more common as a main verb. This means it conjugates for person (becoming needs in the third-
person singular) or tense (becoming needed), and it uses auxiliary did to form negatives and questions. As a main
verb, need can be followed by nouns, noun phrases, pronouns, gerunds, or infinitives. For example:
• “He needs that report by tomorrow.”
• “Does she need to know where the house is?”
• “You have plenty of time, so you don’t need to rush.”
• “He needed a place to stay, so I offered him one.”

3. Used to

Used to refers to past habit, condition, or fact that is no longer the case, we can use the semi-modal used to with
the base form of the verb. For example:
• “I used to get up early when I lived in New York.”
• “She used to live in Ireland.”
• “We used to be in a band together.”
• “This watch used to belong to my father.”
The question and negative of used to is formed the same way as for main verbs in the past tense by using the
auxiliary did for the question and did not for the negative. Example:
• “Did you use to live in Manchester?”
• “I didn’t use to like coffee.”
• “She didn’t use to go to the gym every day.”
Compare: As a main verb, ‘Be used to’ means “to be accustomed to something.” For example:
• “I am used to getting up at 7 AM every morning.”
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• “She was used to the stress by that point.”
• “I am not use d to living in the city.”
• “He wasn’t use d to so much work.”
• “Are you use d to living with roommates?”
Get used to “get” here means become. In fact, in more formal English, it is considered preferable to say
become used to instead. In everyday speech and writing, however, get used to is perfectly acceptable.
We often use get used to in the present continuous tense . For example:
• “I am getting used to living in the city.” (I am becoming accustomed to living in the city.)
• “He is getting used to public speaking. (He is becoming accustomed to the act of public speaking.)
• The past simple tense. For example: “She never got used to the silence of the countryside.”
• “I can’t get used to working so many hours. I am so tired.” (I am unable to become accustomed to this.)
• “I could get used to doing nothing all day.” (This is something that I could find easy to do.)
• “I will never get used to these cramped conditions.” (At no point in the future will I become accustomed to
this.)

4. Ought to

like used to, Ought to is a semi-modal. It ends in to and so makes verbs infinitive. Compared to should, it expresses
that something is viewed as correct, preferable, or necessary or as probable, likely, or expected.
For example:
• “With the cost of airfare so high, in-flight meals ought to be free.” (It is correct or preferable that the meals be
free.)
• “We ought to arrive in the evening.” (It is probable or expected that we’ll arrive in the evening.)
• “I think we ought to turn back.” (Turning back is the necessary or best course of action— worded as advice.)
• “You ought to see Oujda some day.” (It is my advice or recommendation for you to visit Oujda.)
When ought to is made negative, not comes between ought (sometimes contracted as oughtn’t) and to; it is
common to omit to when ought to is used with not. For example:
• “You ought not to read in such dim light.”
• “We oughtn’t leave the house; it isn’t safe.”
We can also form questions by inverting ought with the subject; this is not very common, though. Again, to is
sometimes omitted in this form. For example:
• “Ought we find someplace to eat?”
• “Oughtn’t she study for her exam?”
• “Ought they to be more worried about the storm?”
• “Ought not he to finish his homework first?”
• Ought to is becoming far less common than should in modern English, especially in American English.

Videos on Modals:
Video 1&2: Core modals: https://youtu.be/dbGEAdGN8fs?si=vQnoe1WTTPwHqk2h
https://youtu.be/4GMU08J98MQ?si=BXPeyk5x7ewNLZjE
Video 3: Core Modals of possibility: https://youtu.be/FMGxeChtYLc?si=kDmdRjRKToPYg4yc
Video4 : Semi-modals: https://youtu.be/nHX4lRXGbrs?si=SMF2oYbZTW_10cVV
Video 5: Past Modals: https://youtu.be/WQpM0NVM0CM?si=6gf6hyvCE8aQxJ9c
Video 6 Modals of lost opportunity https://youtu.be/LPpZEq8d66g?si=fnzRvs7HCrM6er8o

VI. Exerciseses

1. Underline the modal verb and supply its function.

Example: You can leave him on his own: he's old enough. (possibility)

1. We needn't wear a tie for the meeting with work colleagues. (_______________________)
2. He can't mean to say that. (_______________________)
3. You should have written to him earlier. (_______________________)
4. He must have missed his train. (_______________________)
5. Shakespeare may have written this play. (_______________________)
6. The thieves might have had an accomplice in the bank. (_______________________)
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 7. The train may be late. (_______________________)
8. Children should not use slang words at home. (_______________________)
9. You should stop smoking! (_______________________)
10. He used to visit his grandparents every Sunday. (_______________________)
11. You had better finish your assignment before the deadline. (_______________________)
12. You should have had a rest. Now you are too exchausted. (_______________________)
13. Shall I make you some tea? (_______________________)
14. The weather is awful, so you had better stay at home! (_______________________)
15. You may park here if you get special permission. (_______________________)
16. He may have phoned while we were out. (_______________________)
17. You needn't come if you don't want to. (_______________________)
18. The thieves must have run away through a tunnel. (_______________________)

2. Rewrite the sentences using the modal verbs in brackets.

1. It’s possible that Jane will visit Switzerland next year. (could)
2. I’m thinking about taking Spanish lessons. (may)
3. I’m sure they’ll be home by now. (must)
4. James definitely isn’t eighteen yet! (can’t)
5. It’s possible the weather will be sunny tomorrow. (might)
6. I’m sure that Mrs Smith didn’t leave home. (can’t)
7. Mrs Smith ... Perhaps she’s gone to stay with her mother. (might)
8. She ... It’s possible that Mr Smith committed a crime. (may)
9. Mr Smith ... I’m certain that he buried something in the garden. (must) He ..
10. Perhaps he won the competition. (could) He ...
11. I’m sure he bought a new car. (must) He ...
12. Perhaps the criminal murdered the victim. (might) The criminal ...
13. I'm sure she's at home. (must)

3. Fill in the blank with a modal verb and label it in the subsequent blank

Example: You ________________ visit your grandparents. They miss you a lot.( ________________)
You should visit your grandparents. They miss you a lot. (moral advice)
1. You _____________________ park your car here. It’s a hospital exit. ( _________________________ )
2. We _____________________ study more. The exam is close. ( _________________________ )
3. You _____________________ use a mobile phone in class. ( __________________________ )
4. You _____________________ arrive at 7:00 o’clock. The speech starts on time. ( __________________ )
5. You _____________________ eat more vegetables. ( _____________________ )
6. You _____________________ have sugary food. It is not good for you. ( _____________________ )
7. You _____________________ blow a carn horn nearby a hospital. ( _____________________ )
8. They _____________________ walk every day. Both are fat. ( _____________________ )
9. We _____________________ go to talk with the headmaster. ( _____________________ )
10. We _____________________ speak aloud. There are ill people. ( _____________________ )
11. He __________________ be rude to his parents. ( _____________________)
12. She _____________________ buy this dress. It isn’t expensive. ( _____________________ )
13. She _____________________ eat chocolates. It isn’t good for her diet. ( _____________________ )
14. I _____________________ open the window. He is painting the walls. ( _____________________)
15. I _____________________ start a diet. Summer is close. ( _____________________ )
16. You _____________________ talk in class. Your teacher will reprehend you. ( _____________________ )
17. They _____________________ wear a uniform. It’s a religious school. ( _____________________ )
18. We _____________________ talk if the priest is celebrating mass. ( _____________________)
19. We _____________________ exercise more. ( _____________________ )
20. He _____________________ go now. It’s late. ( _____________________ )
21. You _____________________ finish your homework until 9:00 o’clock. ( _____________________ )
22. We _____________________ cheat if we have an exam. ( _____________________ )
23. They _____________________ run now. It´s late for the class. ( _____________________ )
24. He _____________________ take an umbrella. It’s raining. ( _____________________ )
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 4. Rewrite the sentences using a modal verb.

Example: It isn’t necessary for you to take a jacket.

You needn’t take a jacket.
1. I advise you to see a dentist.
2. You aren’t allowed to talk during the exam.
3. It’s forbidden to park here.
4. I advise you to study harder.
5. He is obliged to go to the police station twice a week.
6. Tom knows how to speak Spanish.
7. He had permission to go to the party.
8. It isn’t possible that that is our plane.
9. It isn’t necessary to take a thick coat.
10. I wish I had paid for half of the meal, but I didn’t.
11. It was wrong of Mary to tell Steve about us.
12. Perhaps Anita didn’t get the text message.
13. It’s possible that they went to the cinema.
14. It wasn’t a good idea to ask the other couple to come with us.
15. I am certain you haven’t seen John because he is on a trip. You.

5. Use the appropriate modals and the appropriate form of the verbs between parenthesis

1. A: I saw a ghost last night.

B: You (not see) _________________a ghost; there aren’t any ghosts. You
(dream)_____________________ it.
2. A: I have had a toothache for two days. B: You (go) ___________________to the dentist when it started.
3. A: As I was standing in the hall your dog bit me.
B: It (not be) ________________________my dog; he was with me all day. It (be) _________my brother s
dog.
4. A: The plane is late; I wonder what has happened?
B: Possibly, it (delay) ________________________________by fog.
5. A: I waited from 8.00 to 8.30 under the clock and he says he waited from 8.00 to 8.30 under the clock, and
we didn t see each other! B: You (wait) __________________________under different clocks! There are
two in the station, you know.
6. A: I left my car here under the NO Parking sign; and now it s gone. It (be) ______________________stolen!
B: Not necessarily. The police (drive) ____________________________it away.
7. A: Look at this beautiful painting! Only a very great artist (paint) ___________________________such a
picture! B: Nonsense! A child of five (paint) __________________________it with his eyes shut.
8. There is only one set of footprints, so the kidnapper (carry) ________________________________his
prisoner out. He not (do) _________________________it in daylight or he (be)
_________________________seen. He (wait) ____________________________till dark.

6. Choose the most suitable modal

1. They (may/must)................................................ be away for the weekend but I'm not sure.
2. He (can/could)................................................... be French, judging by his accent.
3. They (can't/may)................................................... still be out! They have work at 8 am.
4. With luck, tomorrow (can't/could)............................................................ be a rainy day.
5. You (can/might)...................................................................... be right but I'm going to check anyway.
6. The exam (can't/might)...................................................................... be easy. You never know.
7. Dave reckons she's from The States but I think she (can't/might)............................................... be from
Scandinavia.
8. I (can't/might)...................................................... go to the party but I'm not sure yet.
9. This (must/could)................................................................. be the right answer but we'll have to check with
your teacher to make sure.

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10. That person, being rich and famous, (can't/could)............................................................. steal things from
shops.
11. I really think Real Madrid (can't/could)..................................................... lose the final of the King's Cup.
12. She's been revising 10 hours a day for 3 weeks. She (could/must)............................................... be exhausted.
13. Nobody's answering. They (can't/must)............................................................................... be out.
14. He (can't/may)............................................................. be from the USA. He doesn't speak English.

7. Rewrite the sentences with need, may, must or have to.

Example: Is it all right if I borrow your pen? May I borrow your pen?
1. Don't park your car on bends. It is illegal. You.................................................................................................
2. Perhaps she will agree with it. Who knows? She ................................................................................................
3. Our teacher asked us to tidy the classroom. We ................................................................................................
4. I need your help. It's too much work for me. You ................................................................................................
5. Look at that balloon. It's over there. ....................... see ................................................................ ?
6. Don't worry about dinner. I'll make it. You ....................................................................
7. It is not necessary to be there. We .....................................................................
8. Why don't you stay with us? No problem! You .......................................................... ..........

8. Fill in the blanks with: can, can’t, could, should, shouldn’t, must, mustn’t, may, might, needn’t

1. We _____________ hurry. We've got plenty of time.

2. Gail's flight from New York took more than 11 hours. She ______________ be exhausted and
________________ prefer to stay in tonight.
3. When you have a small child in the house, you _________________ be careful. For example, you
________________leave small objects lying around. Such objects ____________________ be swallowed,
causing serious injury or even death.
4. You _________________ smoke because it’s bad for your health.
5. Tracy’s engagement ring is huge! It __________________ have cost a fortune!
6. Oh look! Jenny’s scarf is lying on the table. She __________ have left it here last night.
7. It’s going to rain, you ________________ take an umbrella.
8. The light is off in his room. Peter _______________ be sleeping now.
9. This is a very precious book. You ___________ lose it.
10. You ______________ wash those carrots. They've already been washed.
11. I _____________ believe that you failed your test!

9. Fill in the blanks

1. Leila grew up beside the sea. She ____________ swim when she was four years old.
A..Would B..Might C. Could

2. I doubt if the minister will stop at our stand but the organizers thought he ____________ come by.
A..Should B..Might C. Could

3. You ____________ take a warm jacket with you in case it gets cold later on.
A..Should B..Would C. Could

4. I think everyone has arrived now. ____________ we start?

A..Will B..Shall C. Can

5. I ________________have bought extra jacket, but I hadn't had enough money.

A. could B. would C. should

6. She has been training hard all the season. She ____________ have been ready for the tournament!
A..must B..may C. will

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7. Your grandmother is growing old and weak. You ________________ stand by her side regularly .
A..Have to B..Need to C. Ought to

8. Excuse me. ____________ you tell me the way to the post office please?
A..Will B..Shall C. Can
9. They _______________ have set up their own firm, had they united their efforts.
A..must B. might C. would

10. When I lived in a small city, I ____________ walk to the office.

A..Had to B..Used to C. Ought to
11. I can't find my dictionary. ____________ I borrow yours please?
A..Should B..Might C. Could
12. The meeting starts at 2 p.m. tomorrow. Do you think you __________ arrive on time?
A..will B..may C. can
13. Please, contact us _______________ you require any further information
A..could B..should C. would
14. Sofia: When did you go shopping last? Jon: It _________________ ages ago.
A.must be B. had to be C. must have been
15. It's my first job. I_____ ________________ regular hours
A.am used to working B. I used to work

16. I _______________________ have visited you when I was in Paris as I didn't know your address.
A. Mightn’t B. couldn't C. wouldn’t
17. He need not have knocked the door violently; he awoke the baby.
A. mustn’t B. couldn't C. needn’t D. wouldn’t
18. We're all having lunch together tomorrow. __________ you be able to join us?
A. must B. need C. shall
19. Do you remember the first time we met? You _____ remember! It was the same day as your graduation.
A. can B. could C. must
20. I've lost my keys. They ___________ be at work or they could be in the car.
A. will B. might C. must
21. You ______________ be bored already! You've only been working for five minutes.
A. must B. might C. can't
22. It ____________ be easy for him, looking after three kids on his own.
A. must B. might C. can't
23. The thief ____________________a key. The door was locked and nothing was broken.
A. A. could have had B. must have had C. should have had
24. Oh, good! We've got milk. Sally _________________ some yesterday.
A. bought B.must have bought C. would buy

10. Rewrite the following sentences, providing the appropriate modal auxiliary without changing the
original meaning of the sentence.

1. It is possible that he was not at home .……………………………………………………….……

2. It is a pity that you have not brought your camera. ……………………………………………………
3. I am sure they were not proud of their children.………………………………………………………
4. It was not necessary for her to come that early. ……………………………………………………

11. Use a suitable present or past modal auxiliary

1. I can’t find my book. I ……………. (leave) it on the bus.

2. They do not answer their phone; they……….. (go) away on their vacation.
3. John went to the movies last night, but he……………(stay) at home and ………. (prepare)
his lessons.
4. The lights have gone out. A fuse………………(blow).
5. She …….(go) to school. It is Saturday.
6. You were stupid to go skiing here. You …………… (break) your leg.
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7. She ………….(sing) like an angel when she was a kid.
8. ………………..I (make) a suggestion?
9. You …………(go) and see “Batman”. It is a great film.
10. He came home alone. You …………. (let) him do that; he ……………….(get) lost.

12. Complete the sentences with a past modal and the verb in brackets.

1. It's started raining! I___________________________(water) the garden!score

2. Michael ___________________________ (go) to London – his car's still outside.score
3. I didn't mind you finishing the cake, but you ___________________________ (ask) me first.score
4. Sally's looking very happy. She ___________________________ (get) the promotion she wanted.score
5. You're crazy to have skied down the black piste! You___________________________ (break) a leg!score
6. You ___________________________ (tell) Andy our secret – now everyone will know!score

References

Haan, Ferdinand de. 2008. “Epistemic Must: a Corpus Study.” Unpublished work.
Halliday Michael Alexander K. 1985. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: E. Arnold.
Herring, Peter. 2016. Complete English Grammar Rules. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform
Lyons, John. 1977. Semantics. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Websites

https://grammartop.com/modal-verbs-making-deductions-2/
https://grammartop.com/modal-verbs-possibility-2/