EPM2036 Control Theory Chapter 4: Time-Domain Analysis of Control Systems

Chapter 4 Time-Domain Analysis of Control Systems

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The ability to adjust the transient and steady-state response of a control system is a beneficial
outcome of the design of a feedback system. Since time is used as an independent variable in
most of control systems, it is usually of interest to evaluate the state and output responses with
respect to time, or simply the time response.

In the analysis problem we will use selected input signals to test the response of control system.
This response will be characterized by a selected set of response measures. In this chapter, we
will strive to delineate a set of quantitative performance measures that adequately represent the
performance of the control systems.

4.2 TIME RESPONSE AND TEST SIGNALS

The time response of a control system is usually divided into two parts: the transient response and
the steady-state response. Let y(t) denote the time response of a continues-data system; then, in
general, it can be written as
y(t) = yt(t) + yss(t) (4.1)
where yt(t) denotes the transient response and yss(t) denotes the steady-state response.

In control systems, transient response is defined as the part of the time response that goes to zero
as time becomes very large. Thus yt(t) has the property
lim yt (t ) = 0
t →∞ (4.2)
The steady-state response is simply the part of the total response that remains after transient has
died out. All real stable systems exhibit transient phenomena to some extent before the steady
state is reached.

In the design problem, specifications are usually given in terms of the transient and steady-state
performance, and controllers are designed so that the specifications are all met by the design
system.

Since it is difficult to design a control system so that it will perform satisfactory for all possible
forms of input signals, it is necessary, for purpose of analysis and design, to assume some basic
types of test signals properly for the prediction of system's performance to other more complex
inputs.

1. Step-Function Input
The step-function input represents an instantaneous change in the reference input. The
mathematical representation of a step function of magnitude R is

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R t ≥ 0
r( t ) = 
0 t<0
Mathematically, r(t) = Rus(t), where us(t) is the unit-step function. The step function is shown in
Figure 4.1 (a).

2. Ramp-Function Input
The ramp function is a signal that changes constantly with time. Mathematically, a ramp function
is represented by
r (t ) = Rtus (t )
where R is a real constant. The ramp function is shown in Figure 4.1 (b).

3. Parabolic-Function Input
The parabolic function represents a signal that is one order faster than the ramp function.
Mathematically, it is represented as
Rt 2
r (t ) = us (t )
2
The Parabolic function is shown in Figure 4.1 (c).

Figure 4.1 Time-domain test input signals: (a) Step, (b) Ramp, (c) Parabolic

4.3 UNIT-STEP RESPONSE AND TIME-DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS

For linear control systems, the time response is characterized by using the unit step-input. The
response of the control system to the unit step-input is called unit-step response. Figure 4.2
illustrate a typical unit-step response of a linear control system.

With reference to unit-step response, the following performance criteria (parameters) are defined:

1. Maximum overshoot
Let ymax denotes the maximum value of y(t) and yss be the steady-state value of y(t) and ymax ≥ yss.
The maximum overshoot of y(t) is defined as,
Maximum overshoot = ymax - yss
maximum overshoot
Percent maximum overshoot = × 100% (4.3)
y ss
2. Delay time
The delay time, td is defined as the time required for the step response to reach 50% of its final
value.
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3. Rise time
The rise time, tr is defined as the time required for the step response to rise from 10 to 90 percent
of its final value.

4. Settling time
The settling time, ts is defined as the time required for the step response to reach and stay within a
specified percentage (5%) of its final value.

Figure 4.2 Step response of a control system

Analytically, these quantities are difficult to establish, except for simple systems lower than the
third order.

4.4 TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF A PROTOTYPE SECOND-ORDER SYSTEM

Although true second-order control systems are rare in practice, their analysis generally helps to
form a basis for the understanding of analysis and design of higher-order systems, especially the
ones that can be approximated by second-order systems.

Consider that a second-order control system with unity feedback is represented by the block
diagram shown in Figure 4.3. The open-loop transfer function of the system is
ω n2
G( s) = (4.5)
s (s + 2ξω n )
where ξ and ωn are real constants. The closed-loop transfer function of the system is
Y ( s) ω n2
= (4.6)
R( s ) s 2 + 2ξω n s + ω n2
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The characteristic equation of the prototype second-order system is obtained by setting the
denominator of Eq. 4.6 to zero
∆( s ) = s 2 + 2ζω n s + ω n2 = 0 (4.7)

As we shall see later, the system is stable (bounded output for bounded input) if the roots of the
characteristic equation locate on the left half of s-plane, and marginally stable (oscillation for a
bounded input) if the characteristic equation has simple roots on the imaginary axis with all other
roots in the left half of s-plane. For an unstable (unbounded output for any bounded input) system
the characteristic equation has at least one root in the right half of the s-plane or it has a repeated
jω roots.

Figure 4.3 Prototype Second-order control system

For a unit-step input, R(s) = 1/s, the output response is given as

2
ωn
Y ( s) = 2
(4.8)
s( s + 2ζω n s + ω n )
2

By taking inverse Laplace transform, we obtain the unit step response of the control system

y (t ) = 1 −
e −ζωnt
1−ζ 2
(
sin ω n 1 − ζ 2 t + cos −1 ζ ) t ≥0 (4.9)

Figure 4.4 shows the unit-step response of the second-order system for various values of ζ. It
may be noted that the response becomes more oscillatory with larger overshoot as ζ decreases.

Figure 4.4 Unit-step response of second-order system with various ξ values

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4.4.1 Damping Ratio and Damping Factor

The effects of the system parameters ξ and ωn on the step response y(t) can be studied by
referring to the roots of the characteristic equation in Eq. (4.7). The roots can be expresses as
s1 , s2 = −ζω n ± jω n 1 − ζ 2
(4.10)
= −α + jω
where α = ξωn (4.11)
and ω = ωn 1 − ζ 2
(4.12)
The physical significance of ξ and α is now investigated. As seen from Eq. (4.9) the factor
α = ζωn appears as a constant multiplied by t in the exponential term of the response y(t).
Therefore, α controls the rate of rise or decay of the unit-step response y(t). In other words, α
controls the “damping” of the system and is called damping factor. The inverse of α , 1/α is
proportional to the time constant of the system. When ζ = 1, the oscillations disappear and the
system is said to be critically damped. Under this condition α = ωn. Thus, we can regard ζ as
α actual damping factor
ζ = = (4.13)
ω n damping factor at the critical damping
When ζ < 1, the system is under-damped and when ζ > 1, the system is over-damped.

4.4.2 Natural Undamped Frequency

The parameter ωn is defined as the natural undamped frequency. As seen from equation (4.10),
when ζ = 0, the roots of the characteristic equation are imaginary. Thus, the unit-step response of
the system becomes purely oscillatory with angular frequency of ωn. For 0 < ζ < 1, the imaginary
parts of the roots have the magnitude of the actual (damped) frequency of oscillation.
Thus, ω = ωn 1 − ζ 2
Figure 4.5 illustrates the relationships between the location of the characteristic equation roots
and α, ξ, and ωn.

Figure 4.5 The relationship between the characteristic equation roots and α, ξ, and ω
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The effect of the characteristic equation roots on the damping of the second-order system is
illustrated in Figure 4.6

Figure 4.6 Step-response comparisons for various

characteristic equation – root locations in the s-plane

4.4.3 Analytical Expression for Maximum Overshoot

By taking the derivative of Eq. (4.9) with respect to time t and setting the result to zero, we get
dy (t ) ωn −ζω n t
= e sin ω n . 1 − ζ 2
.t (4.14)
dt 1−ζ 2
ω n 1 − ζ 2 t = nπ n = 1,2 ,3,...
nπ
From which we get t= n = 1,2,3,... (4.15)
ωn 1− ζ 2

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For the unit-step responses shown in Fig. 4.4, the first overshoot is the maximum overshoot. This
corresponds to n = 1 in Eq. (4.15). Thus, the time at which the maximum overshoot occurs is
π
tmax = (4.16)
ωn 1 − ζ 2
With reference to Fig. 4.4, the overshoots occur at odd values of n, that is, n =1, 3, 5, …, and
undershoots occur at even values of n.

The magnitude of the overshoot and undershoots can be determined by subistituting Eq. (4.14)
into Eq. (4.9). This results in y(t)max or y(t)min . Therefore
−πζ
1−ζ 2
maximum overshoot = y max − 1 = e (4.17)
and the percent maximum overshoot is
-πζ
1-ζ 2
percent maximum overshoot = 100e (4.18)

The relationship between the percent maximum overshoot and the damping ratio, given in Eq.
(4.18) is plotted in Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.7 The relationship between the percent maximum overshoot and the damping ratio

4.4.4 Delay Time and Rise Time

It is more difficult to determine the exact analytical expressions of the delay time td and rise time
tr, and settling time ts. However, we can utilize the linear approximation
1 + 0.7ζ
td ≅ 0 < ζ < 1.0 (4.19)
ωn
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The plot of ωntr versus ξ is shown in Figure 4.8. This relation can be approximated by a straight
line over a limited range of ξ:
0.60 + 2.16ζ
tr = 0 <ζ <1 (4.20)
ωn

Figure 4.8 Normalized rise time versus ξ for the prototype second-order system

From this discussion, the following conclusions can be made:

1. tr and td are proportional to ξ and inversely proportional to ωn.
2. Increasing (decreasing) the natural undamped frequency ωn will reduce (increase) tr and td.

In regard to the settling time ts, it can be approximated as

3.2
ts ≅ 0 < ζ < 0.69 (4.21)
ζω n
4.5ζ
and ts = ζ > 0.69 (4.22)
ωn

We can summarize the relationships between ts and the system parameters as follows:
1. For ξ < 0.69, the settling time is inversely proportional to ξ and ωn. A practical way of
reducing the settling time is to increase ωn while holding ξ constant.
2. For ξ > 0.69, the settling time is proportional to ξ and inversely proportional to ωn. Again, ts
can be reduced by increasing ωn.

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4.5 STABILITY OF LINEAR CONTROL SYSTEMS

The transient response of a feedback control system is of primary interest and must be
investigated. A stable system is defined as a system which gives a bounded output in response to
a bounded input.

The concept of stability can be illustrated by considering a circular corn placed on a horizontal
surface, Fig. 4.9 and Fig. 4.10.

Figure 4.9 The stability of a cone

Figure 4.10 Stability in the s-plane

The stability of a dynamic system is defined in a similar manner. Let u(t), y(t), and g(t) be the
input, output, and impulse response of a linear time-invariant system, respectively. The output of
the system is given by the convolution between the input and the system's impulse response.
Then
∞
y (t ) = ∫0 u(t − τ ) g (τ )dτ (4.23)
This response is bounded (stable system) if and only if the absolute value of the impulse
response, g(t), integrated over an infinite range, is finite. That is
∞
∫0 g (τ ) dτ <∞ (4.24)
Mathematically, Eq. (4.24) is satisfied when the roots of the characteristic equation, or the poles
of G(s), are all located in the left-half s-plane.
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A system is said to be unstable if any of the characteristic equation roots locates in the right-half
s-plane. When the characteristic equation has simple roots on the jω-axis and none in the right-
half plane, we refer to the system as marginally stable.

The following table illustrates the stability conditions of linear continuous system with reference
to the locations of the roots of the characteristic equation.

Stability Condition Roots Values

Stable All the roots are in the left-half s-plane
At least one simple root, and no multiple roots on
Marginally stable or marginally unstable
the jω-axis; and no roots in the right-half s-plane.
At least one simple root in the right-half s-plane or
Unstable
at least one multiple-order root on the jω-axis.
Table 4.1 Stability Conditions of LTI System

The following examples illustrate the stability conditions of systems with reference to the poles
of the closed-loop transfer function M(s).

20
M ( s) = Stable
(s + 1)(s + 2 )(s + 3)
20( s + 1 )
M( s ) = Unstable due to the pole at s = 1
( s − 1 )( s 2 + 2 s + 2 )
20( s − 1) Marginally stable or marginally unstable due
M ( s) =
( s + 2)( s 2 + 4) to s = ±j2.
10 Unstable due to the multiple-order pole at
M ( s) = 2
( s + 4) 2 ( s + 10) s= ±j2.

4.5.1 Methods of Determining Stability

The discussion in the proceeding sections lead to the conclusion that the stability of linear time-
invariant system can be determined by checking on the location of the roots of the characteristic
equation. When the system parameters are all known, the roots of the characteristic equation can
be solved by means of a root-finding computer program. For example the M-file roots(a) of
MATLAB.

For design purposes, there will be unknown or variable parameter embedded in the characteristic
equation, and it will be feasible to use the root-finding programs. The method outlined below is
well known for the determination of stability of LTI system without involving root solving.

4.5.1.1 Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

The Routh-Hurwitz criterion represents a method of determining the location of zeros of a
polynomial with constant real coefficients with respect to the left and right half of the s-plane,
without actually solving for the zeros.
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Consider that the characteristic equation of a linear time-invariant SISO system is of the form
F ( s ) = an s n + an −1s n −1 + L + a1s + a0 = 0 (4.25)
where all the coefficients are real. In order that Eq. (4.25) not has roots in the right half of
s-plane, it is necessary and insufficient that the following conditions hold:

1. All the coefficients of the equation have the same sign

2. None of the coefficients vanishes

However, these conditions are not sufficient, for it is quite possible that an equation with all its
coefficients nonzero and with the same sign still may not have all the roots in the left half of the
s-plane.

The first step in the Routh-Hurwitz criterion is to arrange the coefficients of the Eq. (4.25) as
follows:
sn an an−2 a n −4 L
s n−1 an−1 a n −3 a n −5 L
Further rows of the schedule are then completed as follows:
sn an a n −2 an−4 L
n −1
s an−1 a n −3 a n −5 L
s n −2 bn −1 bn−3 bn−5 L
s n −3 cn−1 cn − 3 cn − 5 L
M M M M M
s0 hn −1
where
1 an an−2
bn−1 = −
an−1 an−1 a n −3
1 an an−4
bn−3 = −
an−1 an−1 a n −5
1 an−1 a n −3
cn−1 = −
bn −1 bn−1 bn−3
and so on. Once The Routh’s tabulation has been completed, we investigate the signs of the
coefficients in the first column of the tabulation.

The roots of the equation are all in the left half of the s-plane if all the elements of the first
column of the Routh’s tabulation are of the same sign. The number of changes of signs in the
elements of the first column equals the number of roots with positive real parts or in the right-half
s-plane.
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Example 4.1
Consider the equation
(s − 2 )(s + 1)(s − 3) = s 3 − 4 s 2 + s + 6 = 0
This equation has one negative coefficient. Thus, we know without applying Routh’s test that not
all the roots of the equation are in the left-half s-plane. In fact, from the factored form of the
equation, we know that there are two roots in the right-half s-plane, at s = 2 and s = 3. For
purpose of illustrating the Routh’s Tabulation, it is made as follows:
s3 1 1
s2 −4 6
s1 2.5 0
s0 6 0
Since there are two sign changes in the first column of the tabulation, the equation has two roots
located in the right-half s-plane.

Example 4.2
Consider the equation
2 s 4 + s 3 + 3s 2 + 5s + 10 = 0
Since this equation has no missing terms and the coefficients are all of the same sign, it satisfies
the necessary conditions for not having roots in the right half or on the imaginary axis of the
s-plane. However, since these conditions are necessary but not sufficient, we have to check
Routh’s tabulation.
s4 2 3 10
s3 1 5 0
s2 −7 10 0
1
s 6.43 0 0
s 0 10 0 0
Since there are two changes in the first column of the tabulation, the equation has two roots in the
right half of the s-plane.

4.5.1.2 Special Cases When Routh’s Tabulation Terminates Prematurely

Depending on the coefficients of the equation, the following difficulties may occur that prevent
Routh’s tabulation from completing properly:

1. The first element in any one row of Routh's tabulation is zero, but the others are not.
2. The elements in one row of Routh's tabulation are all zero.

In the first case we replace the zero element in the first column by an arbitrary small positive
number ε, and then proceed with Routh’s tabulation.
This is illustrated by the following example.

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Example 4.3
Consider the characteristic equation of a linear system:
s 4 + s 3 + 2s 2 + 2s + 3 = 0
Since all the coefficients are nonzero and of the same sign, we need to apply the Routh-Hurwitz
criterion. Routh’s tabulation is carried out as follows:
s4 1 2 3
3
s 1 2 0
2
s 0 3
Since the first element of the s2 row is zero, the element in the s1 row would all be infinite. To
overcome this difficulty, we replace the zero in the s2 row by a small positive number ε and then
proceed with the tabulation.
s2 ε 3
3
s1 ≅− 0
ε
s0 3 0
Since there are two sign changes in the first column of Routh’s tabulation, the equation has two
roots in the right-half s-plane.

In the second special case, when all the elements in one row of Routh’s tabulation are zeros
before the tabulation is properly terminated, it indicates that one or more of the following
conditions may exist:
1. The equation has at least one pair of real roots with equal magnitude but opposite signs.
2. The equation has one or more pairs of imaginary roots.
3. The equation has pairs of complex-conjugate roots forming symmetry about the origin of the
s-plane (e.g. s = -1 ± j1, s = 1 ±j1).

The situation with the entire row of zeros can be remedied by using the auxiliary equation
A(s) = 0, which is formed from the coefficients of the row just above the row of zeros in Routh’s
tabulation. The roots of the auxiliary equation also satisfy the original equation.

To continue with Routh’s tabulation when a row of zeros appears, we conduct the following
steps:
1. For the auxiliary equation A(s) = 0 by use of the coefficients from the row just preceding the
row of zeros.
2. Take the derivative of the auxiliary equation with respect to s; this gives dA(s)/ds = 0.
3. Replace the row of zeros with the coefficients of dA(s)/ds = 0.
4. Continue with Routh's tabulation in the usual manner.

Example 4.4
Consider the following characteristic equation of a linear control system:
s 5 + 4 s 4 + 8s 3 + 8s 2 + 7 s + 4 = 0

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Routh’s tabulation is
s5 1 8 7
s4 4 8 4
s3 6 6 0
s2 4 4
s1 0 0
A(s) = 4s2 + 4 = 0
The derivative of A(s) with respect to s is
dA(s)/ds = 8s = 0

From which the remaining portion of the Routh’s tabulation is

s1 8 0
s0 4
Since there are no sign changes in the first column, the system is stable. Solving the auxiliary
equation A(s) = 0, we get the two roots at s = j and s = -j, which are also two of the roots of the
characteristic equation. Thus the equation has two roots on the jω-axis, and the system is
marginally stable. These imaginary roots caused the tabulation to have an entire row of zeros in
the s1 row.

Example 4.5
Consider that a third-order control system has the characteristic equation
s 3 + 3408.3s 2 + 1204 × 103 s + 1.5 × 107 k = 0
Determine the crucial value of k for stability.

Routh’s tabulation is
s3 1 1204 × 103
s2 3408 1.5 × 107 k
1.5 × 10 k − 3408 × 1204 × 10
7 3
s1 − 0
3408
s0 1.5 × 107

For the system to be stable, all the coefficients in the first column must have the same sign. This
lead to the following conditions:
1.5 × 107 k − 410.36 × 107
− >0
3408
Therefore, the condition of k for the system to be stable is
0 < k < 273.57
If we let k = 273.57, the characteristic equation will have two roots on the jω-axis.
To find these roots, we substitute k = 273.57 in the auxiliary equation, as follows:
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A( s ) = 3408.3s 2 + 4.1036 × 109 = 0

which has roots at s = j1097.27 and s = -j1097.27. Thus if the system operate with k = 273.57, the
system response will be an undamped sinusoid with a frequency of 1097.27 rad/sec.

4.6 STEADY STATE ERROR

One of the objectives of most control systems is that the system output response follows a
specific reference signal accurately in the steady state. Steady-state error is the difference
between the output and the reference in the steady state. Steady-state errors in control systems are
almost unavoidable and generally derive from the imperfections, frictions, and the natural
composition of the system. In the design problem, one of the objectives is to keep the steady-state
error below a certain tolerable value.

4.6.1 Definition of the Steady-State Error with Respect to System Configuration

Let us refer to the closed-loop system shown in Figure 4.11, where r(t) is the input, e(t) is the
actuating signal, and y(t) is the output.

Figure 4.11 Closed-Loop Control System

The error of the system may be defined as:
e(t ) = reference signal - y(t) (4.26)
where the reference signal is the signal that the output is to track. When the system has unity
feedback [i.e. H(s) = 1], the error is simply
e( t ) = r ( t ) − y ( t )
The steady-state error is defined as
ess = lim e(t ) = lim sE ( s )
s→∞ s→∞

sR( s ) (4.27)
= lim
s→ ∞ 1 + G ( s )

Clearly, ess depends on the characteristics of G(s). More specifically, ess depends on the number
of poles that G(s) has at s = 0. This number is known as the system type. Figure 4.12 shows
steady state errors for different input functions.

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Figure 4.12 Steady-state errors: (a) step input, (b) ramp input

Now, let us investigate the effects of the types of inputs on the steady-state error.

4.6.2 Steady-State Error of System with a Step-Function Input

When the input r(t) to a control system with unity-feedback is a step function with magnitude R,
then R(s) = R/s and the steady-state error is written from Eq. (4.27) as
sR( s ) R R
ess = lim = lim = (4.28)
s→∞ 1 + G ( s ) s →0 1 + G ( s ) 1 + lim G ( s )
s →0
For convenience, we define
K p = lim G ( s )
s →0
as the step-error constant. Then Eq. (4.28) becomes
R
ess = (4.29)
1+ Kp

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We can summarize the steady-state error due to a step-function input as follows:

R
• Type 0 system: ess = = constant
1+ Kp
• Type 1 or higher system: ess = 0

4.6.3 Steady-State Error of System with a Ramp-Function Input

When the input to the unity-feedback control system is a ramp function with amplitude R,
r (t ) = Rtus (t )
R
where R is a real constant, the Laplace transform of r(t) is R( s ) =
s2
The steady-state error is written using Eq. (4.27) as follows:
R R
ess = lim = (4.30)
s →0 s + sG ( s ) lim sG ( s )
s →0
We define the ramp-error constant as k v = lim sG ( s )
s →0

R
Then Eq. (4.30) becomes ess = (4.31)
kv
The following conclusions may be stated with regard to the steady-state error of a system with
ramp input:
• Type 0 system: ess = ∞
• Type 1 system: ess = R/kv = constant
• Type 2 or higher system: ess = 0

4.6.4 Steady-State Error of System with a Parabolic Input

When the input is described by the standard parabolic form
Rt 2
r (t ) = us (t )
2
R
The Laplace transform of r(t) is R( s ) = 3
s
The steady-state error of the system is
R
ess = (4.32)
lim s 2G ( s )
s →0
Defining the parabolic-error constant as
k a = lim s 2G ( s ) (4.33)
s →0

R
the steady-state error becomes ess = (4.34)
ka

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The following conclusions are made with regard to the steady-state error of a system with
parabolic input:
• Type 0 system: ess = ∞
• Type 1 system: ess = ∞
• Type 2 system: ess = R/ka = constant
• Type 3 or higher system: ess = 0

Example 4.5
Find the steady state errors of the following system
k ( s + 3.15)
G( s) = H(s) = 1
s ( s + 1.5)( s + 0.5)
It is clear that this system is a type 1 system.
The steady-state errors are:
Step input Step-error constant, kp = ∞ ess=R/(1+kp) = 0
Ramp input Ramp-error constant, kv = 4.2k ess=R/kv = R/(4.2k)
Parabolic input Parabolic-error constant, ka = 0 ess = R/ka = ∞.

4.6.5 Steady-State Error for nonunity feedback system

For nonunity feedback control, we usually find the equivalent unity-feedback system, as shown
in Fig. 4.13.

Figure 4.13 Forming an equivalent unity feedback for nonunity feedback system

We have to take into consideration that the above steps require the input and output in the same
units.
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EPM2036 Control Theory Chapter 4: Time-Domain Analysis of Control Systems

The following example summarizes the concepts of steady-state error, system type, and the
steady state errors.

Example 4.6
For the system shown in Figure 4.14, find the system type and the steady state error for the unit
step function. Assume input and output units are the same.

Figure 4.14 Nonunity feedback control system for Example 4.6

The first step in solving the problem is to convert the system of Fig. 4.14 into an equivalent unity
feedback system. Using the equivalent forward transfer function of Figure 4.13 (e) along with
100 1
G( s) = and H ( s ) = ,
s( s + 10) s+5
G( s) 100( s + 5)
we find Ge ( s ) = = 3 .
1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) − G ( s ) s + 15s 2 − 50s − 400

Thus, the system is type 0,

100 × 5 5
and k p = lim Ge ( s ) = =−
s →0 − 400 4

1
The steady-state error is ess = = −4 .
1+ kp

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