AKNOWLEDGEMENT

i
ABSTRACT

The main intention of the thesis is to discuss reconciliation at identity level in Bosnia and
Herzegovina hereafter Bosnia, by addressing the question of whether there is reconciliation in
the country. It uses the Republika Srpska hereafter RS as a case study. It follows the Herbert C.
Kelman’s approaches on reconciliation at identity level for Bosnia. Based on the research and
criteria set by him, the thesis argues that there is no reconciliation, identity change, in the RS,
ultimately in Bosnia. In light of his approach, it proposes two suggestions in achieving
reconciliation and calls for future research on two suggestions of the author.

ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

AKNOWLEDGEMENT..................................................................................................................i

ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................ii

INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1

1. THE IMPORTANCE OF RECONCILIATION AND IDENITITY CHANGE IN THE

POST CONFLICT SOCIETIES......................................................................................................4

1.1. The Role of Identity.....................................................................................................................7

1.1.1. Kelman: Reconciliation at Identity Level................................................................................8

2. SUSTAINABLE RETURN AND RECONSTRUCTION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE....14

2.1. Sustainable Return.....................................................................................................................14

2.2. Cultural Heritage.......................................................................................................................20

3. ANALYSIS: Is There Reconciliation in the RS, Bosnia?......................................................29

CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................................36

BIBLIOGRAPHY..........................................................................................................................39

iii
iv
v
INTRODUCTION

The thesis aims to discuss the role of identity in the reconciliation process in the post-war
Bosnia. The research question of this study is whether there is reconciliation in Bosnia. To
address this question, the thesis examines the Kelman’s arguments on reconciliation after
identity conflicts. It adopts his argument is that reconciliation means “identity change of the
parties”; meaning that they stop “seeing each other as threatening and accept each other”. 1
To apply Kelman approach to Bosnia, the thesis uses the case study of the RS.
The thesis uses two micro cases; sustainable return and reconstruction of cultural heritage in
order to analyse the conditions for reconciliation in the RS. To accomplish the research, I benefit
from the literature on reconciliation. The related the books, journals, articles are the main
material. I use the reports, and the analyses prepared by the regional and the international
organizations; the United Nations Educational, Scientific, Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Amnesty International, European
Stability Initiative (ESI), Council of Europe (CoE), Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in
Bosnia and Herzegovina. I use the annual reports of the United States Department of State.
Besides, I read through the news portals to obtain updated information regarding the micro cases.
Even if I am not a speaker of Serbian/Croation/Bosnian language, I used some news portals in
this language thanks to the helps of my supervisor, my colleagues who speak the language and
the technical facilities. I also visit the websites of religious authorities to obtain information
particularly about reconstruction of cultural heritage. For my analysis, I follow the ideas of
Kelman. Additionally, I benefit from some related human rights conventions.
The Dayton Peace Agreement (DPA) was signed in 1995 after
Bosnian wars. The DPA recognised a highly decentralised state. It introduced two entities;
Federation of Bosnia Herzegovina and the RS and a separate unit, which is Brcko district. 2 Serbs

1
Herbert C. Kelman, "Reconciliation as Identity Change: A Social-Psychological Perspective." ed. Y. Bar-Siman-Tov
in From Conflict Resolution to Reconciliation, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 119.
2
Florian Bieber, “Politics and Governance in Post-war Bosnia”, in Postwar Bosnia Ethnicity, Inequality and Public
Sector Government, (Palgrave Macmillan: New York, 2006), 60. The Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina was
established by the Washington agreement between Croatia and the Bosnian government in 1994, bringing
the year-long Croat-Bosniak conflict to an end. RS were the product of the Bosnian wars, the territories which were
hold by the Bosnian Serb Army, (see, opcit., Bieber, “Politics and Governance, 62).

1
are dominant in the RS and in the Federation, Bosniac and Croats shares the territorial anatomy. 3
In the state level; there are collective three member presidency, bicameral parliament, (House of
Representatives and House of Peoples), the Council of Ministers and the Central Bank of
Bosnia.4 International community highly involved in Bosnia.5
Yet, Bosnia encountered variety of problems today. There are
institutional problems and the problems are posed by the international community and the DPA
in the functioning of the state. The populism and nationalist discourse by the each national leader
exist. There are divisions in society and unwillingness to cooperate between ethnic communities.
6
The reform failures on constitution in 2006, the separatist attempts by the Serb entity and the
difficulties to form government after 2010 elections prove that there are serious problems in
Bosnia, and these problems should not be only related with the constitution or the national
leaders or institutions. It should be rooted in the Bosnian society.
Hence, I believe that there are deep divisions within the Bosnian
society. Thereby, the research hypothesis is that there is no reconciliation in Bosnia. This
thesis proposes a contribution on reconciliation studies on Bosnia by offering a research whose
focus would goes beyond the institutions, the constitution and political leaders.
The thesis is organized in three chapters. The first chapter offers a brief
literature review on reconciliation. It also introduces Kelman’s approach. The Second chapter
discusses a case study; RS. The obstacles to the sustainable return and the reconstruction of the
cultural heritage in the entity are examined into two sections. In the first section, I find four main
obstacles to sustainable return for minority returnees. These are; ethnically motivated violence to
minority returnees (hereafter only minorities) 7; the poor living conditions of minorities, the
problems in education and discrimination in employment faced by the minorities. In the second
3
Opcit., Bieber, “Politics and Governance”, 61. There are ten cantons. Neither a majority of all Bosnian Croats nor
Bosniacs live in one canton alone. (opcit., Bieber, “Politics and Governance).
4
Opcit., Bieber, “Politics and Governance”, 47.
5
Opcit., Bieber, “Politics and Governance”, 83-84. There is the Stabilisation Force (SFOR) and the International
Police Task Force (IPTF) in areas of security, the European Union (EU), United Nations (UN) in areas of governance.
By promoting democratic and tolerant institutions, there is Organisation of Security and Cooperation for Europe
(OSCE). The primary international agency tasked with civilian matters in Bosnia is the Office of the High
Representative; it has a role in implementation of the DPA. (opcit., Bieber, “Politics and Governance”, 83-84).
6
Ionanis Armakolas, the Working Group on the Western Balkans East European Studies, Woodrow Wilson Center
for International Scholars, “Reading Bosnian Crisis”, sent by mail from Dr. Armakolas.
7
In the thesis, the term of minorities refers Bosniacs and Bosnian Croats. In the DPA, these communities belong to
Constituent People in Bosnia, (See, DPA Annex 4, http://www.ohr.int/dpa/default.asp?content_id=372, last access:
10.06.2011). The term of minority is chosen to represent minority community in the RS to clarify the arguments in
the research.

2
section, I find three main obstacles to reconstruction of cultural heritage. There are
obstructionism against the reconstruction of mosques; lack of enough funds from the RS
authorities to reconstruct mosques; attacks against the reconstructed mosques and catholic
churches in the RS. The third chapter analyses three conditions for the reconciliation with the
findings of the second chapter and it discusses whether these conditions are present in the RS.
Since these conditions are not present the thesis argues that there is no reconciliation in the RS
and ultimately in Bosnia. To conclude, the thesis makes two suggestions (strong local ownership
and truth commission) for the mechanisms proposed by Kelman and calls for the further research
on these suggestions.

3
 1. THE IMPORTANCE OF RECONCILIATION AND IDENITITY CHANGE IN
THE POST CONFLICT SOCIETIES

Reconciliation is one of the most important conditions in achieving sustainable peace.

Sustainable peace is characterized by

“mutual recognition and acceptance, invested interests and goals in developing peaceful
relations, as well as fully normalized, cooperative political, economic, and cultural
relations based on equality and justice, nonviolence, mutual trust, positive attitudes, and
sensitivity and consideration for the other party’s needs and interests”. 8

“Reconciliation builds sustainable peace by bringing a more cooperative and friendly

atmosphere into post-conflict societies”.9 During protracted conflicts, “each part creates their
own beliefs, attitudes and emotions against each other”; because of the very nature of war.
“These beliefs attitudes and emotions embodied into collective memory of each part, and they
demonstrated themselves into continuation of conflict relations between the parts”. Thus, “they
preclude the possibility of development of peaceful relations”. Furthermore, “these beliefs,
attitudes, and emotions which are embodied into collective memories of rival parts in societies
10
cannot change in overnight” when peace agreements are signed. Thereby, reconciliation is
needed in order “to change these beliefs, attitudes and emotions” towards each other and to
“transform the relations of conflict to cooperative and friendly relations”. Reconciliation is
needed in order to sustain sustainable peace.11

8
Daniel Bar-Tal, Gemma H. Bennik, “The Nature of Reconciliation as an Outcome and as a Process”, in From conflict
resolution to reconciliation, ed. Yaacov Bar-Siman Tov, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004),15.
9
Op.cit. Bar-Tal, Bennik, “The Nature of Reconciliation”, 12.
10
Ibid., 13.
11
Ibid.,

4
 There is lack of conceptual developments on the concept of reconciliation. The different
sources provide different definitions of reconciliation. 12 In many studies, reconciliation is defined
as transformation of relations between the parties in conflict into peaceful relations. The
importance of facing with the past deeds is also emphasised. Positive interactions between the
parties are seen as reconciliation.
According to Bar-Siman Tov, reconciliation is “restoring friendly harmonies relations
between rival sides after conflict resolution or transforming relations of hostility and resentment
to friendly harmonious” ones. Saunders defines it as process of “genuine interaction” where the
“parties face the past to agree on present and future”. 13 “Dialogue is an integral part of the
process of reconciliation”. The process of reconciliation between the rival parts in conflict is
seen as “a means to link both past and present, by acknowledging past wrongdoings and looking
forward to peaceful coexistence, and the potential for the future reintroduction of past offenders
into the community”.14 Lederach discusses reconciliation with the four concepts. These concepts
are respectively; Truth (acknowledgment of the past), Mercy (letting go the past and a new
beginning, forgiveness), Justice (individual and group rights, equality), and Peace
(interdependence, well-being and security, harmony). 15 Green reminds us that “reconciliation is
multifaceted phenomena while having social, psychological, spiritual, legal, and political web”. 16
There are many works on achieving reconciliation in post conflict societies under
different topics. The effects of war to the society; war ethos, emotions, identity, identity
narratives, national leaders in post-war are discussed under reconciliation studies. For instance;
Bar Tal examines change in conflictive ethos in reconciliation. He argues that “intractable
conflicts involve society members and result in the construction of a conflictive ethos by the
parties”17. According to him, these conflict ethos involve eight themes of societal beliefs. 18 “The

12
David A. Hoogenboom, Stephaine Vieille, ‘’Rebuilding Social Fabric in Failed States: Examining Transitional Justice
in Bosnia”, Human Rights Review, 11, 2, (2010), 186.
13
H. Saunders A Public Peace Process: Sustained Dialogue to Transform Racial and Ethnic Conflict, Palgrave, New
York, 1999 cited in op.cit., Hoogenboom, Vieille, ‘’Rebuilding Social”, 185.
14
Ibid. 185-186
15
John Paul Lederach, Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies, (United State Institute of
Peace Press: Washington D.C, 1997), 29-30.
16
Paula Green, “Reconciliation and Forgiveness in Divided Societies: A Path of Courage, Compassion, and
Commitment”, in Forgiveness and Reconciliation Psychological Pathways to Conflict Transformation and Peace
Building, ed. Ani Kalayjian, Raymond F. Paloutzian, (Dordrect Heidelberg Springer: London, New York, 2009), 252.
17
Daniel Bar-Tal, “From Intractable Conflict through Conflict Resolution to Reconciliation: Psychological Analysis”,
Political Psychology, 21, 2, (2000), 352, http://tau.ac.il/~daniel/pdf/6.pdf (last access: 10.06.2011).
18
Ibid., 357.

5
change in these beliefs towards more peaceful relations” will bring reconciliation, since “change
in these beliefs changes the conflictive ethos” 19. These eight themes; “justness of one’s own
goals considering the conflict”; “security stress the importance of personal safety and national
survival”; “the ethnocentric tendency”; “victimization”; “delegitimizing the opponent”;
“patriotism”; “unity” and “peace”. These three beliefs are “keys for reconciliation”. These are
“justness of one’s own goals”, “delegitimizing the opponent and positive self-image”. 20 The new
beliefs are; “societal goals living in peaceful coexistence and constructing cooperative relations”;
“change of stereotypes about the adversary group”; “illuminating the in-group in a more
objective light especially with regard to acts related to the conflict”; intergroup conflict. 21 E.
Hutchison-Beiker, discusses the power of emotions like empathy, compassion and wonder as a
facilitator for reconciliation. They believe that “emotions play a significant role in constituting
identities and political community”. The emotions, in this sense, can/must be seen crucial for
conflicts. 22 After conflict end formally, these feelings are crucial for the healing of trauma of war
and are important to transform the new peaceful relations. 23 On the other hand, “the emotions
such as fear, anger may create new cycles of violence”. 24 Thus, they argue that reconciliation
requires “a conscious political engagement with these emotions rather than merely fear and
anger”.25 Dwyer defines reconciliation “as an end to antagonism, graceful acceptance of
disappointment or defeat and beginning of healing and repair of relationship”. 26 To her, change
in “the narrative of the parties in conflict” is crucial. She says that to “bring the incompatible
descriptions of events into a narrative which is acceptable to the other party” is crucial for
reconciliation. This does not mean that there should be “a single interpretation” for each side.
“Mutually tolerant interpretation” of the event is enough for reconciliation.27
Kaufmann argues that “reconciliation requires addressing the emotional and symbolic
process”. According to him, reconciliation efforts should consider “the emotional and symbolic

19
Ibid., 352
20
Ibid., 357.
21
Ibid., 357-369.
22
Emma Hutchison and Roland Bleiker, “Emotional Reconciliation, Reconstituting Identity and Community after
Trauma, European Journal of Social Theory, (2008) 11, 3, 394.
23
Ibid., 395.
24
Ibid., 397
25
Ibid., 386,397.
26
Susan Dwyer, “Reconciliation for Realists”, 82,
http://www.umbc.edu/philosophy/dwyer/papers/Reconciliation.pdf. (last access: 03.09.2011)
27
Ibid., 89.

6
roots of violence” and “tangible interests at stake for the conflictive parts”. 28 He argues that
“leaders’ verbal or symbolic acknowledgement of past deeds, NGO-organized problem-solving
workshops between the parties, cultural events, media initiatives, and educational reform”, are
necessary initiatives for reconciliation.29 He emphasized there should be “economic cooperation
along with the cultural education and cultural contacts, professional, and administrative
interactions”.30 “Political and cultural leaders”, therefore, should “continue their efforts to
reinforce the emotional power of their discourse in favour of peace”. 31 Bargal and Sivan focus on
the role of national political leadership in the reconciliation process. They argue that a national
leader has an important role in reconciliation process. He/she can use his/her personality
resources (charisma) as well as his/her formal high position (legitimate power). They claims that
not only the strong charismatic leaders, “Giants” elites, (e.g. Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin) but
also the “secondary elites and tertiary” such as “civil society and public sphere” are important for
reconciliation.32

1.1. The Role of Identity

Scholars discuss the role of identity in achieving reconciliation as well. For instance, Bar
Tal argues that reconciliation involves the removal of identity related barrier through the
successful completion of an apology and forgiveness circle. He says reconciliation requires
mutual knowledge, acceptance, understanding and respect for differences and focus on
commonalities, development of cooperative relations, valuing peace and mechanisms for
maintaining peace. He argues that reconciliation requires respect for each party’s identity. 33
Auerbach argues that “identity conflicts, which require reconciliation, cannot be achieved
without tackling identity issues and the narratives on which they are built”. 34Kelman, whose
approach I will follow in the remainder of the thesis, also points out the importance of identity
change for successful process of reconciliation in the post conflict societies.
28
Stuart J. Kaufman, “Escaping the Symbolic Politics Trap: Reconciliation Initiatives and Conflict Resolution in Ethnic
Wars”, Journal of Peace Research, 43, 2, (2006), 202.
29
Ibid., 206.
30
Ibid., 212.
31
Ibid., 211.
32
David Bargal and Emanauel Sivan, “Leadership and Reconciliation”, in op.cit., From Conflict Resolution, 125-149.
33
Daniel Bar Tal, “Chapter 10: Reconciliation as a Foundation of Culture of Peace”, in Handbook on Building
Cultures of Peace”, ed. Joseph de Rivera, (Springer:New York, 2009)
http://www.springerlink.com/content/n1j488/front-matter.pdf (last access: 08.09.2011)
34
Yehudith Auerbach, “The Reconciliation Pyramid: A Narrative-Based Framework for Analyzing Identity Conflicts”,
Political Psychology, 30, 2, (2009), 294.

7
 I.1.1. Kelman: Reconciliation at Identity Level

To analyse Kelman’s approach on reconciliation, it is important to start a discussion with how he

examines the process from the conflict cessation to positive peace. He names this process as
peace making. There are three dimensions in this process. These are respectively; “Conflict
Settlement”, “Conflict Resolution” and “Reconciliation”. He notes that “conflict resolution
presupposes conflict settlement and reconciliation presupposes conflict resolution”. Yet, this
does not mean that there is a rigid sequence in their occurrence. They might take place
independently one of each other.35 He discusses the conflict settlement at level of interest,
conflict resolution at level of relationships and reconciliation at level of identity. 36
He defines conflict settlement “as a process producing an agreement which meets the
interests of both parties. Conflict resolution, on the other hand, is beyond the conflict settlement.
“It explores the causes of the conflict, particularly the causes in the form of unmet or threatened
needs for identity, security, recognition, autonomy, and justice”. “It seeks solutions responsive to
the needs of both sides through active engagement in interactive problem solving”. 37 Hence, “the
agreements which achieve through a process of conflict resolution are likely to engender the two
parties’ long-term commitment to the outcome and to transform their relationship”. An
agreement which arrives in this process addresses the parties’ basic needs and fears. It builds “a
degree of working trust and establishes a new relationship between the parties where the parties
are responsive to each other’s needs and constraints”. “It generates public support for the
agreement and encourages the development of new images of the other”. Thereby, conflict
resolution is a transformation of the relationship between the parties. Yet, there are limits to this
new relationship. “Conflict resolution as a process of peace making involves the development of
35
Op.cit., Kelman, "Reconciliation as Identity”,114.
36
Ibid. 117.
37
“Interactive problem solving which is an approach is studied by Kelman as well. According to his description
interactive problem solving is an unofficial, academically-based, third party approach to the resolution of
international and inter-communal conflicts. This approach aims to bring together high level representatives of
parties in conflict in an academic setting for confidential, unofficial, analytical communication under the guidance
of a panel of political and social scientists, through unofficial workshops before or/and after official negotiations.
Such workshops are intended to supplement and complement official negotiations. (see. Kelman “ Experiences
from 30 years of action research on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict”, in Zeitgeschichlicte Hintergrunde Aktueller
Konflikte VII: Zurcher Beitrage zur Sicherispolitik und Konflikforchung eds. KP. Spillman and . Wenger, 54, 173-197,
http://www.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/hck_30_years.pdf

8
a new relationship, with new attitudes along with the old attitudes”. The new attitudes might not
be integrated with one’s pre-existing value structure and belief system with one’s worldview.
This means that the old attitudes (e.g. attitudes of fundamental distrust and negation of the other)
exist even if new attitudes come into existence. 38

“The coexistence of new attitudes toward the other as a potential partner in peace with
old attitudes toward the other as a mortal enemy creates instability in the new
relationship, particularly in (…) identity conflicts. Changing circumstances may trigger
the old attitudes (…).”39

Thereby, reconciliation is needed to change these old attitudes which are embedded in
one’s identity after successful conflict resolution.40 It goes beyond conflict resolution in
representing a change in each party’s identity. 41 Thus, according to Kelman reconciliation means
“identity change”. He defines an identity change as a “removal of denial of the other” in one’s
own identity formation. This revise in identity is about “acceptance other’s identity” and it is
“accepting the other narrative without necessarily fully agreeing on that narrative”. 42
He describes three conditions which are required for reconciliation between
former enemies in protracted identity conflicts. Firstly, “a peace agreement itself must entail a
solution that satisfy the fundamental needs and fulfils the national aspirations of both parties”.
Secondly, “the parties must accept mutually each other’s national identity”. Finally, “parties
must accept the other and the respect for the other’s life, welfare and dignity”. “These attitudes
must be expressed in symbolic gestures, public statements, security, well-being of the others and
human rights”.43

38
Op.cit., Kelman, "Reconciliation as Identity”, 118.
39
Ibid., 119.
40
It does not mean that reconciliation should be right after the conflict resolution as following a certain sequence.
Indeed he says that it should be from the beginning of a peace process and it should be an integral part of it. (see
Kelman, “Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation: A Social-Psychological Perspective on Ending Violent Conflict
Between Identity Groups”, Landscapes of violence, 1,1, 3. http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1001&context=lov (last access 16.09.2011)
41
Op.cit, Kelman, “Reconciliation as Identity”, 119.
42
Ibid. He argues that reconciliation does not necessarily demand for the creation of the supra-national identity;
yet it may even help creation of it through identity change. Ultimately, like a vicious circle, “Such a creation might
reinforce reconciliation”. Moreover, the changes in a group make changes in the ‘other’ (see. op.cit., Kelman,
"Reconciliation as Identity”, 119-122).
43
Op.cit., Kelman, “Transforming the Relationship”, 198-199.

9
 Regarding the first condition, he argues that, in “the protracted identity conflicts” (e.g.
those in Israel, Palestine, Bosnia and Northern Ireland) “national existence is at stake and they
must live together after the conflict cessation”. He claims that reconciliation is not possible on
the defeat of one of parties. Thus, “peace agreements must entail a solution that satisfies both
sides”.44 The second condition for reconciliation in protracted identity conflicts is the parties’
mutual acceptance of the each other’s national identity. Kelman states two main arguments in
protracted identity conflicts before the realization of this condition. Firstly, he claims that “the
parties have tendency to see their dispute as a zero-sum conflict with respect to national identity
and national existence”. In addition to this, Kelman states that “the parties seek to delegitimize
each other national identity’s and re-define significant elements of the other’s identity”. 45 He
argues that the “threat to collective identity is the core of such conflicts”. According to Kelman:

“Each part has a national narrative on groups origins, its history and relationship to the
land which supports national sense of distinctness, self-image and the justice of it claims
and grievances”.46

Consequently, “when groups’ narratives [on origins, history or land are in clash], the identities
which have these narratives are seen also threatening to the other part”. Acknowledging the
other’s identity becomes a threat to the identity and the national existence. Each side holds the
view that the only one can be a nation. 47 This is what he calls as “zero sum identity conflict”. He
claims that “there must be some negotiation of the identity for the realisation of this condition
and ultimately in achieving reconciliation”.48 The Kelman’s third condition for reconciliation is
“basic human acceptance of the other and the respect for the other’s life welfare and dignity”.
Kelman argues that “the protracted identity conflicts are characterized by the dehumanization of
the other, withdrawal of empathy from the other and exclusion of the other from one’s own
moral community”. Therefore, reconciliation, according to Kelman, requires “the development

44
Ibid.,198.
45
Ibid.199.
46
Kelman, “the Role of National Identity in Conflict Resolution: Experiences from Israeli-Palestinian Problem-
Solving Workshop” in Social Identity, Intergroup Conflict and Conflict Reduction, eds R.D Ashmore, L.Jussim and D.
Wilder, (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 191-192,
http://www.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/hck_roleofNationalID.pdf (last acces 05.05.2011)
47
Ibid.
48
Op.cit., Kelman, “Transforming the Relationship”, 199. He believes change in the identity is possible since unlike
the territory and resources, the identities are not inherently zero sum. They are products of social construction
even if they are not purely artificial. (see: the Role of National Identity, 194.)

10
and propagation of new attitudes, marked by inclusion, empathy and respect”. “These attitudes
must be expressed in symbolic gestures, public statements”. Respect to “security and well-being
of other” are important. Besides, Kelman emphasizes the importance of “human rights” in
realization of the third condition.49
On the one hand, according to Kelman, realisation of these conditions is not easy to
achieve. Reconciliation which requires identity change asks for the removal of negation of the
other. Negation of the other, however, is element of one’s identity, and most of the case, it is
core of the identity. 50 Moreover, negation of the other is also important to each party in a violent
conflict. 51

“Insofar as the other can be demonized and dehumanized, it becomes easier for each
party to minimize guilt feelings for acts of violence and oppression against the other and
to avoid seeing itself in the role of victimizer, rather than only the role of victim”. 52

On the other hand, he argues that “negating the identity of the other is not a necessary condition
for preserving, and indeed enhancing the core of one’s own identity”. He claims that “there are
many elements that can be added to or deducted from the identity without threatening its core”.
“During the negotiation of the identities of each side, an assurance that the other is not a threat to
one’s own identity is essence for reconciliation”. For such an assurance, he named 5 mechanisms
to help groups in arriving at revising their identity so as to accommodate the identity of the other.
53

1. “Mutual acknowledgment of the other’s nationhood and humanity, which involves the
acceptance of the other as an authentic nation and inclusion of the other in one’s own
moral community”.54
“This mechanism include political recognition and the acknowledgement of the
others legitimacy, the authenticity of their links to the land, and their national
rights (including the right to national self-determination). (…) The respect for

49
Ibid., 199.
50
Op.cit., Kelman, "Reconciliation as Identity", 119-122.
51
Opcit., Kelman, "Reconciliation as Identity”, 122.
52
Ibid.
53
Ibid.
54
Op.cit., Kelman “Conflict Resolution”, 6.

11
 their dignity, concern for their welfare and attachment of value to the other’s lives
and security are equally important”. 55

2. “Development of a common moral basis for peace, allowing for a peace that both sides
perceive as consistent with the principles of fairness and attainable justice. 56 It is hard to
“attain reconciliation” in areas where there is “no common moral basis in the conflicts”.
There should be “a compromise which is fair and just for the both sides”. He gives
different kinds of justice than a peace agreement might try to achieve”.57

3. “Confrontation with history, which does not require a joint consensual history, but does
require admitting the other’s truth into one’s own narrative. 58 “The re-examination of
historical narrative and the re-evaluation of national myths”- on both sides of a conflict-
contribute this effort”. 59

4. “Acknowledgment of responsibility, expressed in both symbolic and material terms”. 60

“Acknowledgment of responsibility “cannot be based entirely on an objective set

of legal or moral norms, yet, requires a process of negotiation where different
types of responsibility in which different types of responsibility are identified and
agreed on.”61

5. “Establishment of patterns and institutional mechanisms of cooperation. It includes

v0arious people-to-people activities that are useful to both parties and based on the
principles of equality and reciprocity.62 This helps to engage a policy against the
55
Op.cit., Kelman, "Reconciliation as Identity”, 123.
56
Op.cit., Kelman “Conflict Resolution”, 6.
57
Substantive Justice which is achieved by agreement guarantees the fundamental needs of the both sides. Future
justice is achieved by the institutions, arrangements and relationships. Procedural justice guarantees a fair and
reciprocal process of negotiating the agreement. Emotional justice achieved through the sense that the
negotiations have seriously and to a significant degree shaped a just outcome. (see, op.cit., Kelman, "Reconciliation
as Identity”, 123).
58
Op.cit., Kelman “Conflict Resolution”, 6.
59
Op.cit., Kelman, "Reconciliation as Identity”, 123.
60
Op.cit., Kelman “Conflict Resolution”, 6.
61
Op.cit., Kelman, "Reconciliation as Identity”, 123-124.
62
Op.cit., Kelman “Conflict Resolution”, 6.

12
 inevitable setbacks in the implementation and complementation of agreement. It is for
finding integrative solutions for both parties it is for engaging in exploratory
communication. This is basis for positive peace and change in the relations between
parties.”63

All five of these conditions for reconciliation are designed to facilitate changes in the collective
identities of the conflicting parties. They emphasise on removing the negation of the other as a
key element of each group’s own identity.64

The reconciliation literature is quiet extensive and there are many works in different topics.
There are also some works on Bosnia and reconciliation in different topics including the ones
regarding the identity and reconciliation. Yet, the author believes that among the other studies on
reconciliation and identity, Kelman presents a comprehensive study on reconciliation for the
protracted identity conflicts. First of all, he offers a well-structured approach on reconciliation so
that we can address the question of whether there is reconciliation in Bosnia. Secondly, his
approach helps us observe continuation of the effects of conflict into identities and asses the
societal integration in Bosnia in that direction. Last but not least, Kelman gives a direction about
what can be done to attain reconciliation in the country.

2. SUSTAINABLE RETURN AND RECONSTRUCTION OF CULTURAL

HERITAGE

63
Op.cit., Kelman, “Transforming the Conflict”, 203.
64
Op.cit., Kelman, "Reconciliation as Identity”, 123-124.

13
This chapter aims to prepare data for the analysis of Kelman’s conditions for reconciliation.
There are three main reasons behind the selection of two micro cases. First, they are both proper
cases to observe parties mutual acceptance of the identities. Second, the sustainable return is a
good case to observe social integration between the parties. Third, the reconstruction of cultural
heritage is a good example to observe acceptance of the other identities in community since the
cultural heritage is an identity mark in Bosnia.

2.1. Sustainable Return

In this section, I aim to find out the main obstacles to sustainable return for the minorities in the
RS (predominately Serb population). I find that there is ethnically motivated violence against
minorities. The living conditions of minorities are poorer than the rest of the RS. Moreover,
minorities have experienced problems in education and discrimination in employment. The
section, firstly, discusses the return process and the concept of the sustainable return. Then, it
presents the obstacles to the sustainable return in the RS.
Approximately, over half of the population around 2.3 million people had left their home
during and after the war.65 As a consequence to reverse this war effect has been a concern post-
war Bosnia. This concern takes place under the DPA. 66 The International Community (IC) has
involved in return process post-war Bosnia.67 In the early years of post war period the return
generated mostly by the ethnic majority of the returnee areas. Since 1997, the ethnic minorities
65
Huma Haider, “Imagining Co-existence: Striving For Sustainable Return, Reintegration and Reconciliation in
Bosnia and Herzegovina”, the International Journal of Transitional Justice, 3, (2009), 91. Internally Displaced
Persons (IDP) and Refugee Returns are the concerns. “The term ‘refugees’ refers to displaced persons who fled to
other countries; IDPs are those who remained inside the state boundaries. The internally displaced, population
also includes returning refugees who cannot go back to their pre-war home”. (see, Daniela Heimerl, “the Return of
Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons: From Coercion to Sustainability”, International Peacekeeping, (October,
2005), 12,3, 389.
66
See, DPA, Annex 7.
67
Carl Dahlman, Gerard O. Tuathail, “The legacy of ethnic cleansing: The international community and the returns
process in post-Dayton Bosnia Herzegovina”, Political Geography, 24, (2005), 569,
http://people.cas.sc.edu/dahlmanc/Dahlman%20and%20Toal%202005%20Legacy%20of%20Ethnic%20Cleansing
%20IC%20and%20Returns%20in%20BiH.pdf (last access: 15.05.2011). The United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR) has been mainly in charge of the returns with the various assisting organizations. (see. Op.cit.,
Dahlman, Tuathail, “The legacy of ethnic”, 585). There were many international and regional organizations
involved in the process, Office of High Representative Council (OHR) and its associated organizations, the Peace
Implementation Council (PIC), Council of Europe (CoE), inter-governmental and non-governmental; and civil
societies work on refugee and IDP return. (See. Dahlman, Gerard O. Tuathail, “The legacy of ethnic”, 569-596).

14
 68
of the returnee areas were encouraged by the IC. The minority returns increased between 2000
and 2003.69 Today, over one million refugees and displaced persons have returned to their pre-
war place of residence.70 Minority return is 469.594.71 Yet, this increase in minority returnees
cannot assess the societal integration and quality of returns. The concept of Sustainable Return,
hence, is needed. Sustainable return is avoidance of the renewed conflicts or remigration and is
incorporation of the returnees into their original societies.72 Yet, there are many obstacles to the
sustainable return.73 According to the findings in the thesis, more or less, there are similar
obstacles for the sustainable return throughout Bosnia, as I will demonstrate in the following
paragraphs.
Firstly, the ethnically motivated violence remains as an obstacle to sustainable return. 74
Hostile reactions and acts of violence against minority returnees diminished. Yet, it still exists
throughout the country. The ethnically motivated violence includes desecration of graves,
graffiti, and arson, damage to houses of worship, verbal harassment, and dismissal from work,
threats, and assaults. In the RS, the village name was changed from Urkovici into Turkovici (as
connoting the foreign element of the ‘Turk’, Ottoman, occupier) by locals 2005. 75 Some protests
occurred against the commemoration of tragic losses of Bosnian community. For instance, there
was a protest with poster of Karadzic on the day before Srebrenica commemoration where
victims of the Srebenica genocide 76 were remembered in 2005. In 2005, in Zvornik, same year,

68
Op.cit., Heirmerl, “the Return of Refugees”, 379-381.
69
Gerard Toal and Carl Dahlman, “the Efforts to Reverse Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia Herzegovina: The Limits of
Returns”, Eurasian Geography and Economics, 45, 6, 439-464, http://people.cas.sc.edu/dahlmanc/Toal%20and
%20Dahlman%202004%20Limits%20of%20Return%20BiH.pdf (last access: 20.05.2011.
70
The UN Refugee Agency, UNCHR/Bosnia, “Returnees”, http://www.unhcr.ba/index.php?
option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=118&Itemid=132 (last access 18.07.2011).
71
The UNHCR, Statistic Package, 31 December 2010,
http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpDocuments)/
A5471D07EA15C524C125785C005FC9E8/$file/sp_12_2010.pdf (last access: 10.07.2011). According to the UNHCR,
minority returns to the RS is 172.252, FH 275.247, Bricko District 22.095
72
Ibid., 57.
73
The Council of Europe, “Commissioner For Human Rights Report on Bosnia Herzegovina- March 29, 2010”,
https://wcd.coe.int/wcd/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1766837, (last access 18.07.2011).
74
Ibid. https://wcd.coe.int/wcd/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1766837 (last access 18.07.2011).
75
Gerard O. Toal, “After Ethnic Cleansing: Return Outcomes in Bosnia and Herzegovina a Decade Beyond War,
Association of American Geographers, 99,5 (2009), 21-22 ,
http://www.colorado.edu/ibs/pec/johno/pub/AnnalsBiHreturns.pdf (last access: 21.07.2011)
76
The takeover of the UN ‘safe area’ of Srebrenica by Bosnian Serb forces in July 1995 was followed by the killing of
a large number of male Bosnian Muslim civilian. Higher than 7,475 persons were killed after the fall of Srebrenica.
(see, Helge Brunborg, Torkild Hovde Lyngstad, Henrik Urdal, “Accounting for Genocide: How Many Were Killed in
Srebrenica?”, European Journal of Population, 19, 2003, 229).

15
the graffiti appeared on a mosque with offensive contents insulting the Bosniac community. 77 A
bomb was thrown at Hadzi Perviz Mosque in Banja Luka in 2009.78 The Bosniac returnees in
Dzivare reported that they were exposed to numerous provocations, robberies, and verbal insults
in 2009. For example, a group of people teased Bosniak returnee children, asking them whether
"they would want some pork," singing Chetnik songs, and yelling "this is Serbia."
Secondly, there are poor living conditions for the minorities throughout Bosnia. In
the first place, health and social care are not regulated in a way to follow needs of minorities.79
Minorities experienced discrimination in the provision of public service. 80 Overall, minority
populations throughout the country are usually poorer.81 A lack of infrastructure such as
electricity and road is problem. Minorities are unable to access reconstruction assistance for the
reconstruction at the same level as majority population. 82 In 2006, a large number of returnees’
homes in the municipalities Višegrad, Doboj, Sapna, Jajce, Glamoč, Prijedor, Foča, Grahovo,
Zvornik are without electric power supply. In the same year the municipality of Foca, 158
households in 17 settlements do not have electricity. In the municipality of Glamoc, 40 per cent
of households are without electricity.83 In 2007, 6,200 families are waiting for reconstruction of

77
The Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Bosnia Herzegovina, “Report on the Status of Human Rights in
Bosnia and Herzegovina (Analysis for the period January – December 2005)”,
http://www.bh-hchr.org/Reports/reportHR2005.htm, (last access: 21.07.2011)
78
The US Department of State, Helsinki Committee, “2009 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Bosnia
Herzegovina, 2009”, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/eur/136023.htm, (last access: 21.07.2011)
79
Institution of Human Rights Ombudsman of Bosnia Herzegovina, “Annual Report on Results of the Activities by
the Human Rights Ombudsman of Bosnia and Herzegovina for 2010”,
http://www.ombudsmen.gov.ba/materijali/publikacije/GI2010/Annual_Report2010.pdf (last access: 20.08.2011)
80
Amnesty International, “Amnesty International Report 2010 - Bosnia and Herzegovina”,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,AMNESTY,,BIH,,4c03a83c53,0.html (last access 24.07.2011); Huma
Haider, “Politisation of Humanitarian Assistance: Refugee and IDP policy in Bosnia and Herzegovina”, Journal of
Humanitarian Assistance, http://sites.tufts.edu/jha/archives/700 (last access 21.07.2011).
81
The CoE, “Report by the Commissioner for Human Rights, 2007, https://wcd.coe.int/wcd/ViewDoc.jsp?
id=1251561&Site=COE#P249_44556. (last access 27.07.11) This is due to the lack of harmonization between
legislation and welfare systems of the two Entities. See, op.cit., the CoE, “Report by the Commisioner, 2007 ”,
https://wcd.coe.int/wcd/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1251561&Site=COE#P249_44556.
82
European Commission against Racism and Intolerance, (ECRI), Report on Bosnia and Herzegovina, (fourth
monitoring cycle), 8 February 2011, pp.32,
http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/country-by-country/bosnia_herzegovina/BIH-CBC-IV-2011-002-
ENG.pdf (last access: 8.09.2011)
83
The Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Bosnia Herzegovina, “The Report on Status of Human Rights in
Bosnia Herzegovina, (Analysis for the period January – December 2006)”,
http://www.bh-hchr.org/Reports/reportHR2006.htm, (last access 21.07.2011).

16
pre-war houses and flats in the municipalities of Srebrenica, Bratunac, Zvornik, Vlasenica,
Milići, and the local community of Žepa.84
Thirdly, education system of the RS is an obstacle to the sustainable return for the
minorities. It is important to note that the problems for the minorities in the educational system
are almost same in the both entities. For example; the major problem is that educational system
adopts majoritarian point of view. The educational system addresses the needs of majority
students while needs of minorities are ignored. 85 Additionally, ‘hatred’ in text books towards
‘other’ is still in place.86 The right to use of language and alphabet has not adequately solved, in
addition to placement of religious symbols in schools. 87 The ‘Two Schools in One Roof’ in the
Federation, mono-ethnic schools, the busing phenomenon, forced segregation, segregated
‘national’ curriculums 88, issue of religious education are handicaps for the minorities in both
entities.89 Accordingly, in the RS, the schools do not accommodate the needs of minority pupils.
Regarding the curriculum, first of all, it is taught in Serbian and the Cyrillic alphabet, and is

84
The Helsinki for Human Rights in Bosnia Herzegovina, “The Report on Status of Human Rights in Bosnia
Herzegovina, (Analysis for the period January – December 2007,
http://www.bh-hchr.org/Reports/reportHR2007.htm
85
Adila Pasalic-Kreso, “Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Minority Inclusing and Majority Rule, The System of
Education in BiH as a Paradigm of Violence on Education”, Current Issues in Comparative Education,2,
(Fall, 1999), 7, http://www.tc.edu/cice/Issues/02.01/PDFs/21pasalickreso.pdf (Last Access: 22.07.2011); The OECD,
“The Reviews of National Policies for Education”, volume 1: Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo,
(OECD: Paris, 2003), 126, 139.
86
The Agreement on the Removal of Objectionable Material from Textbooks was signed in 1999. The initiative has
been implemented but not to the extent intended. For example, there are cases when material in the textbook
deemed to be hate speech was covered incompletely by black markers or stickers. There are also cases where this
material was removed from the textbooks yet there are on school bulletin boards. (See, Emily Coles, “The
Importance of Education Systems in Post- Conflict Settings: The Case of Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH)”, Honors
Projects: Paper 10, the International Studies, (2011) http://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1009&context=intstu_honproj, last access: 23.07.2011).
87
Op.cit., the Institution of Human, , “The Annual Report, 2010”,
http://www.ombudsmen.gov.ba/materijali/publikacije/GI2010/Annual_Report2010.pdf.
88
During the war, the Bosnian Serb-controlled areas started using Serbian curriculum, Bosnian Croat-controlled
areas Croatian curriculum and areas under the control of the Bosnian state army quickly developed a new Bosnian
curriculum, this did not changed much since even if it illegal use books from abroad nationals copied the book
published there, see Pilvi Torsti, “Segregated Education and Texts: a Challenge to Peace in Bosnia and
Herzegovina”, International Journal on World Peace, 26, 2, (June, 2009), 67-68.
89
‘Two schools under one roof’ resulted from the lack of physical space available for schooling and from an early
initiative by the OSCE and the OHR to promote minority return in 2000 in the Federation. Most commonly students
from the different ethnic background in the same building but follow different curricula and can be divided by walls
and or schoolyard fences. The Busing Phenomenon is illegal practice of crossing administrative boundaries in order
for children to attend schools in which they are part of the majority, see., op.cit Coles, “The Importance of
Education”, 45-50; Op.cit, the OECD, “The Reviews”, 130-131.

17
designed to meet the needs of the majority pupils. 90 Secondly, it is determined by the Serbian
education.91 Similar issues can be raised about textbooks.92 Glorification of the Serbian people
and the patriotism toward Serbia exist in the history textbooks. This causes to overlook
similarities among the Bosnian people.93 The textbooks in the RS have a rhetoric that demonized
and blamed other ethnic groups for the war and describe their own ethnic group as a victim. 94 For
instance, the textbooks; Istorija and Dotatak, for the 8 th grade, focus on the negative description
of Croats from 1945 onwards. They have an ethnocentric view and they impose ‘us’ and
‘them’.95 Even though it is not official, the RS is described as one of the “Serbian countries”
within the “Serbian geographical area. 96 Shortly, the Bosniacs and Bosnian-Croat population of
97
the country are ignored. Serbian culture is promoted over the minority cultures or even
Bosnian.98
As regards to the religious education, some of the minorities are deprived from their own
religious instruction in the RS. In the first place, children attend religious education classes in
primary school. Bosnian Serbs are expected to attend these classes, but attendance is not required
for Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats. The laws give the right to demand instruction of their own
religion if there are more than 30 students who are willing to attend the lecture. Yet, the minority
students often attend these classes because they are reluctant to be signed out as different then

90
The Council of Europe, “Commissioner For Human Rights Report on Bosnia Herzegovina- March 29, 2010”,
https://wcd.coe.int/wcd/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1766837, (last access 18.07.2011).
91
Op.cit. the OECD, “The Reviews”, 133.
92
Ibid., 134.
93
Alenka Bartulovic, “Narrative of the Textbooks War in BiH”, Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 6, 3 (2006), 62.
94
Op.cit., Bartulovic, “Narrative of the Textbooks’, 69; Coles, “the Importance Education”, 52. Civil war in BiH and
the formation of the Serb Republic in Dotatak (History book in RS) presents a threatened and unfairly treated Serb
nation against the oppressive Croats and Muslims, (see., Pilvi Torsti, “Divergent Stories, Convergent Attiudes, Study
on the Presence of History, History Textbooks, and the Thinking of Youth in post-War Bosnia and Herzegovina”,
http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/val/yhtei/vk/torsti/divergen.pdf, (last access: 23.07.2011), 241 .
95
Pilvi Torsti, “How to Deal with a Difficult Past? History Textbooks Supporting Enemy Images in Post-War Bosnia
and Herzegovina”, Journal of Curriculum Studies, 39, 1, (2007), 85.
96
United Nations Cultural Educational and Scientific Organization, “Bosnia Herzegovina”, Fostering Peaceful Co-
existence through Analysis and Revision of History Curricula and Textbooks in Southeast Europe Preliminary
Stocktaking Report 2006, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001514/151474e.pdf,
97
Ann Low-Beer, “Politics, school textbooks and cultural identity: the struggle in Bosnia and Hercegovina”, Politics,
School Textbooks and Cultural Identity, http://faculty.ed.uiuc.edu/westbury/Paradigm/LOW-BEER.PDF, (last access:
23.07.2011), 2.
98
In music Serbian patriotic songs are learnt, in religion only Orthodox Christianity, with much on Saint Sava – the
Serbian national saint. The Serbian forms of the language are used and the Cyrillic script. See., op,cit., Low-Beer,
“Politics, school textbooks” http://faculty.ed.uiuc.edu/westbury/Paradigm/LOW-BEER.PDF, (last access:
23.07.2011), 2.

18
their classmates.99 Besides, to guarantee 30 seat are not readily achievable. 100 In addition to these,
there is usually no qualified religious representative available to teach religion to a small number
of minority students in the RS.101 Moreover, there are physical obstructs for the education
particularly in rural areas. For instance, in some returnee areas there are no schools, therefore,
children attend boarding schools in Sarajevo. In Srebrenica even if has primary and secondary
education and several primary schools were repaired in returnee areas, they provide education up
to the fourth grade. Thus, the older children have to travel to the town to finish compulsory
primary education.102 The returnee community of Kozarac argued that their children are deprived
of a good education by those in charge of education in the RS. 103
Lastly, the ethnic discrimination in employment is an important obstacle to sustainable
return.104 The minorities were laid off during and after the war. The employers often hired were
the members of the local ethnic majority over minorities. Privatized enterprises generally did not
employ minorities. Even when jobs were available, minorities often complained of
discrimination in hiring. The percentage of minorities holding municipal employment was not
represents current populations.105 Among Bosniac returnees, few people have found jobs in the
RS.106 The exclusion and the discrimination continue in the entity. 107 In realms of the public
administration, particularly in police force, virtually there was no non- Bosnia Serb employee in
the RS at the end of late 1990s. This situation changed today. Yet, the share of Bosniacs and
Croats among the public administration in the RS remained low. 108 For instance, in 2000, 1

99
The US, “International Religious, 2006”, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71372.htm (last access:
24.08.2011)
100
Zlatiborka Popov and Anne Mette Ofstad, “Religious education in Bosnia and Herzegovina”, in Religion and
Pluralism in Education: Comparative Approaches in Western Balkans, eds. Zorica Kuburić and Christian Moe (The
Centre for Empirical Researches on Religion: Novi Sad, 2006), 77.
101
Ibid., 79.
102
UNCHR, Sub-Office for Northern Bosnia and Herzegovina Tuzla, “Review of returns to Srebrenica June 2005”,
http://www.unhcr.org/42ce6bf84.html (last access: 22.07.2011).
103
Sebina Sivac-Bryant, “Kozarac School a Window on Transitional Justice for Returnees”, The International Journal
of Transitional Justice, 2, (2008), 114.
104
Op.cit. the CoE, “Commisioner for Human”, https://wcd.coe.int/wcd/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1766837 (last access
27.07.2011); Helsinki Committee Human Rights for Bosnia Herzegovina, “Report on the Status of Human Rights in
Bosnia and Herzegovina (Analysis for the period January – December 2010)”, http://www.bh-hchr.org/index2.htm
(last access 01.09.2011) ; opcit., Institution of Human, “Annual Report, 2010”,
http://www.ombudsmen.gov.ba/materijali/publikacije/GI2010/Annual_Report2010.pdf (last access 01.09.2011).
105
Ibid.
106
European Stability Initiative, “ A Bosnian fortress”, 14, http://www.eft-stanari.net/pdf/eft-esi.pdf (14.09.2011)
107
Opcit., Bieber, “Adressing Inequality and Reforming Governance in Post-War” in Postwar Bosnia 117, Florian
Bieber, “Politics and Governance in Post-war Bosnia”, in Postwar Bosnia , 82.
108
Ibid., 81.

19
person found a job (International Organization) out of 194 people interviewed according to a
UNCHR survey of minority in RS.109 According to numbers of 2007, only 15% of the members
of other constitutional peoples and the members of the category of others are employed in the
administrative service of Banja Luka. In municipal services in Doboj 165 Serbs are employed, 15
Bosniaks and four Croats, which does not correspond with their percentage of their population in
the city. In the municipalities of Sokolac, Pale, Višegrad, Foča, the number of employed
Bosniaks and Croats are only becoming one digit numbers.110

2.2. Cultural Heritage

In this section, I aim to find out the obstacles to reconstruction of the cultural heritage in the RS.
First of all, there is obstructionism against the reconstruction of mosques today. Second of all,
there are not enough funds to reconstruct mosques. Finally, there are attacks against the
reconstructed mosques and catholic churches.

The process of ethnic cleansing in the 1992-1995 war in Bosnia deliberately targeted
cultural heritages throughout the Bosnia in order to erase multi-cultural legacy and to create
ethnic enclaves by the conflicted parties. 111 The targets were “libraries, museums, religious sites
as well as historic architecture”.112 “More than one thousands of Bosnia’s mosques, hundreds of
Catholic churches and of Orthodox churches, monasteries, private and public libraries, archives,
and museums were destroyed.”113 Numerous buildings to the Islamic, Serbian Orthodox and

109
Roberto Belloni, “The Antinomies of Refugee Return”, State Building and International Intervention in Bosnia,
(Routledge: Newyork, 2007), 148.
110
Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Bosnia Herzegovina, “Report on the Status of Human Rights in Bosnia
Herzegovina-2007”, http://www.bh-hchr.org/Reports/reportHR2007.htm, (last access: 28.07.2011)
111
Shannon Supple, “Memory Slain: Recovering Cultural Heritage in Postwar Bosnia”, Interaction: UCLA Journal of
Education and Information Studies, 1,2 (2005), 3 http://escholarship.org/uc/item/28c783b6 (last access 24.8.2011);
“Bosnian war was not a religious war but religious signs such as mosques and Orthodox and Catholic churches
which also mark ethnicity in Bosnia were seen as a worthy targets during the war”. (see Andras J. RieldMayer,
“From the Ashes: the Past and the Future of Bosnia’s Cultural Heritage, Islam and Bosnia: Conflict Resolution and
Foreign Policy in Multi-Ethnic States. Ed. Maya Shatzmiller (McGill-Queens University Press: Montreal, 2002), 108;
“Nationalism and Religious Extremist in Bosnia”
http://pdc.ceu.hu/archive/00003431/01/nationalism_religious.pdf).
112
Op.cit., Supple, “Memory Slain: Recovering”, 3.
113
Op.cit., RieldMayer, “From the Ashes”, 99.

20
Roman Catholic Communities were damaged and destroyed during the war. 114 The
reconstruction of the cultural heritage was also under international agenda post-war Bosnia. 115
Accordingly, the reconstruction of it has placed under annex 8, the DPA. 116 Additionally, the
DPA established a Commission on National Monuments under annex 8. The aim was to protect
national monuments which hold cultural, historic, religious or ethnic importance for the each
group and facilitate their reconstruction.117
Islamic religious heritage consists of “mosques (dzamija, mesdzid), tekkes
(dervish lodges of the Sufi lay brotherhoods), turbes (shrines marking the burial places of
popular saints and martyrs), clock towers (sahat kula), medresas (Islamic theological schools),
mektebs (schools for Qur’an readers), and Islamic libraries and religious archives”. All of these
were targets destruction during the Bosnian war, particularly mosques. 118 Roman Catholic
religious heritage consists of “churches, convents and the religious buildings, and Roman
Catholic religious libraries and archives”. All of these were targets destruction during the
Bosnian war, “particularly churches”.119 These both religious heritages were attacked deliberately
in the RS, as well. The hundreds of mosques were almost entirely destroyed. 120 The mosques in
Foca, Rogatica were destroyed.121 In Banja Luka 15 mosques were dynamited and razed during

114
The US Department of State, “International Religious Freedom Report 2006”,
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71372.htm, (last access 24.8.2011). 1186 mosques destroyed out of 1706
mosques before the war in BiH (see, op.cit., RieldMayer, “From the Ashes”, 99).

115
The UNESCO, Cultural Heritage without Borders, The International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and
Restoration of Cultural Property, International Crisis Group, European Stability Initiative are the examples. “There
are also individual countries and associated NGOs which are interested in reconstruction of specific community’s
cultural heritage”. (see. Dacia Viejo Rose, “Conflict and the Deliberate Destruction of Cultural Heritage”, in Culture
and Globalization Series 1, Conflict and Tensions eds. Helmut Anheier and Yudhishthir Raj Isar, (Sage Publications:
Losangeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore, 2007), 112.
116
The OHR, “The General Framework Aggrement: Annex 8), http://www.ohr.int/print/?content_id=376 (last
access, 10.07.2011)
117
Ibid.
118
Andras J. Rieldmayer, “Destruction of Cultural Heritage in Bosnia and Herzegovina: 1992-1996, A Post-war
Survey of Selected Municipalities”, 9 http://hague.bard.edu/reports/BosHeritageReport-AR.pdf (last access:
27.07.2011). “The cultural heritage, mosques was the result of attacks directed against them”. The ruins of them
were “razed and the sites leveled with heavy equipment”, and “all building materials were removed from the site”.
These empty sites of “razed mosques have been desecrated”. (see, op.cit. Rieldmayer, “Destruction of Cultural”,
11-13, http://hague.bard.edu/reports/BosHeritageReport-AR.pdf)
119
Op.cit., Rieldmayer, “Destruction of Cultural”, 11-13, http://hague.bard.edu/reports/BosHeritageReport-AR.pdf.
120
Op.cit., RieldMayer, “From the Ashes”, 108; the United States Department of State, “U.S. Department of State
Annual Report on International Religious Freedom for 2005 - Bosnia and Herzegovina”, (November, 2005),
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51544.htm.
121
Erna Mačkić, “Historic Decisions by Banja Luka Court”, http://www.bosniaks.net/prilog.php?pid=36228 (last
access 01.09.2011).

21
the war including the famous Ferhadija and Arnaudija Mosque. 122 In Foca, 14 mosques were
destroyed including 16th century built Aladza.123 In Zvornik, 26 mosques were destroyed. 124
In
Bijeljina, 5 mosques were destroyed.125 In Prijedor, 32 mosques were destroyed.126
The Catholic religious buildings had considerable damage as well. 127 “Over 90 per
cent of the church in the Banja Luka diocese128 is mined or destroyed”.129 There were a few of
Roman Catholic churches with a minor damage. There is “the Roman Catholic cathedral in
Banja Luka and the Catholic parish churches in Bijeljina”. 130 Eleven Roman Catholic churches in
the Banja Luka region had been destroyed. 131 6 Catholic churches in Prijedor were destroyed. 132
In the towns of Bosanski Samac, Doboj, Kljuc, Nevesinje, and Prijedor, the local Catholic parish
churches were completely destroyed. In Bosanska Krupa and Kotor Varos, the Roman Catholic
churches were very heavily damaged. 133
Yet, the reconstruction of cultural heritages, specifically for this research;
religious buildings, has not been an easy process. From the beginning, the ethnic majority in the
122
Antony Oberchall, “Memory, Historical Responsibility, Truth and Justice: Balkan Wars, Corvinus Journal of
Sociology and Social Policy, 1, (2010), 32. According to Islamic Community, 618 mosques were destroyed and 307
damaged in Bosnia. 557 Mesdzids (small mosques), 954 Mektebs (schools for Koranic readers), 15 Tekkes
(Dervishes’ lodges), 90 Turbes (Islamic shrines) and 1,425 other community buildings were destroyed. Nadžida
Čano, Je Novinarka- BIRN, “Suđenje zbog uništenja vjerskih objekata” http://www.bim.ba/bh/110/10/9290/?
tpl=30 (last access 1.09.2011)
?
Mačkić, “Historic Decisions”, http://cjssp.uni-corvinus.hu/index.php/cjssp/article/view/25/3 (last access:
8.8.2011).
123
Op.cit., RieldMayer, “From the Ashes”, 108.
124
Barbara Franz, “Returnees, Remittances and Reconstruction: International Politics and Local Consequences in
Bosnia, the Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations Returnees, (Winter/Spring, 2010), 53,
http://blogs.shu.edu/diplomacy/files/archives/07%20Franz_Layout%201.pdf. (last access: 27.07.2011)
125
Antonina Zhelyazkova, International Centre for Minority Studies and Intercultural Relations (IMIR) 2004,
“Bosnia: Tolerant Hostility”, http://www.imir-bg.org/imir/reports/Bosnia_Tolerant_Hostility.pdf. (last access:
27.07.2011)
126
Hariz Halilovic, Bosnian Institute, 08 December, 2009 “Patriarch Paul - high priest of hypocrisy”,
http://www.bosnia.org.uk/news/news_body.cfm?newsid=2655 (last access, 01.09.2011).
127
According to the Catholic community in BiH, 269 religious buildings of the Catholic Church were completely
destroyed and 731 damaged the building. (See “Islamic Community is suing the Republika Srpska’
http://www.muslim-lawyers.net/news/index.php3?aktion=show&number=335, (last access: 27.07.2011).
128
Banja Luka Diocese includes Bihac, Banja Luka, Bos. Gradiska, Prnjavor, Jajce, Livno. (see., Osnovni Podaci o
Banjoluckoj Biskupiji, http://www.biskupija-banjaluka.org/osnovni-podaci.html- last access 1.09.2011)
129
Op.cit, Čano, “Suđenje zbog uništenja” http://www.bim.ba/bh/110/10/9290/?tpl=30 (last access 1.09.2011)
130
Op.cit., Riedlmayer, “Destruction of Cultural”, http://hague.bard.edu/reports/BosHeritageReport-AR.pdf (last
access: 27.07.2011)
131
Op.cit., Riedlmayer, “From the Ashes”, 11.
132
Op.cit., Halilovic “Patriarch Paul ” http://www.bosnia.org.uk/news/news_body.cfm?newsid=2655 (last access,
01.09.2010)
133
Op.cit., Riedlmayer, “Destruction of Cultural” , 16, http://hague.bard.edu/reports/BosHeritageReport-AR.pdf
(last access: 27.09.2011)

22
respective entity or municipality has an easy access to rebuilt and renovated religious
buildings.134 Considering the RS, the entity mainly inhabited by Bosnian Serb, the difficulty has
been the reconstruction of mosques and catholic churches. It was more difficult in the immediate
post war period. Yet, today, the obstacles particularly for the reconstruction of mosques still
remain. The difficulty in obtaining reconstruction permits from the local authorities and the
provision of funds for the reconstruction are the main obstacles. The Bosnian Serb reaction
toward reconstruction of the mosques is also among the obstacles particularly at the beginning.
In the subsequent paragraphs, the initial problems and the difficulties today are discussed. The
aim is to present the progress and stand-still problems.
The obstruction from the local authorities to rebuild the mosques was stated in
several decisions by the Human Rights Chamber for Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1999, the
Chamber stated that the discrimination against the Islamic Community in the reconstruction of
mosques exists. The Chamber ruled that the RS must issue any construction permit necessary to
rebuild 7 mosques; Ferhadija, Arnaudija, Gazanferija, Sefer Begova, Hadzi Perviz, Stupnica and
Hisecka. The Human Rights Chamber ruled that the “Government of the RS had denied the right
of the Islamic Community to freedom of religion by refusing to allow the reconstruction of
mosques destroyed in the war”. According to the decision, “the Government of the RS may not
allow other construction on these sites and must issue any construction permits necessary to
rebuild the mosques on seven of the sites”. The Chamber stated that “the authorities had failed to
secure the right of Muslim believers to manifest freely their religion by refusing to allow the
reconstruction of the mosques”.135 At the immediate post-war period, “the reconstruction of more
symbolic religious facilities” avoided in the RS, such as the Ferhadija Mosque in Banja Luka, the
Aladza Mosque in Foca, the monastery at Plehan near Derventa.136
At the immediate post-war period “the RS authorities did not intervene to prevent
the violent obstruction of efforts to rebuild some of the 618 mosques and 129 churches in the

134
Renata Stuebner, United States Institute of Peace, “The Current Status of Religious Co-existence and Education
in Bosnia Herzegovina”, (November, 2009), 8,
http://www.usip.org/files/resources/religion_education_bosnia_herzegovina_pb.pdf (last access 30.8.2011).
135
The Human Right Chamber for Bosnia Herzegovina, “Decision on Merits Islamic Community in BiH, the Islamic
Community against RS, Human Rights Chamber for BiH, Case No: CH/96/29, 30”,
http://www.hrc.ba/database/decisions/CH96-29%20Islamic%20Community%20Admissibility%20and%20Merits
%20E.pdf (last access: 1.9.2011)
136
Op.cit., The US, “international religious , 2005” http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/437c9cdfa.html (last
access: 1.9.2011).

23
RS”. There were mob riots from the local Bosnian Serb population. 137 Infamous mob riot against
the reconstruction ceremony of Ferhadija Mosque in Banja Luka is well known. “The
reconstruction ceremony which was set for May 7, 2001, the eighth anniversary of the mosque’s
destruction; although the funds and the plans for the reconstruction were not yet ready”, ended
with the violent mob demonstration against the reconstruction of the mosque. 138 Two days
earlier, “the anti- Muslim mob action to stop the reconstruction of a mosque occurred in
Trebinje”.139 Since these riots raised the question of whether it is right time to reconstruct such
“sensitive” heritages in sake of “reconciliation”, it should be dealt with as an obstacle to
construct religious buildings.140
There is some progress regarding the reconstruction of mosques
and catholic churches in the RS. “Some mosques and catholic churches have been rebuilt in areas
where local authorities did not support their reconstruction”. 141 In Bijelina 4 mosques out of 5
were reconstructed including Atik mosque in 2002.142 In Banja Luka, Bratunac, Seher and
Saceska were rebuilt and re-opened in 2004. 143 The mosque in Potocari Gornji near the cemetery
for victims of Srebenica massacre was rebuilt in 2005. 144 Osman Pasha Mosque in Trebinje and
mosques in Konjevic, Polje and Visegrad were reconstructed.145 In Foca several mosques were
reopened.146 In total 130 mosques destroyed and damaged mosques were reconstructed in the RS

137
The US, “International Religious, 2005” http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51544.htm (last access:
1.9.2011).
138
Approximately, 2,000 nationalist Serbs rioted. The visitors were stoned and beaten, their prayer rugs stolen and
burned, the Muslim flag ripped down from the Islamic community building, burned and replaced by a Bosnian Serb
flag. The mob chased a pig into the park where the mosque once stood, slaughtered it, and hung its head in front
of the Islamic community building. (see, op.cit., Rieldmayer, “From the Ashes, 115)
139
Op.cit., Rieldmayer, “From the Ashes”, 115. In the event, “Bosnian Serb mob beat an Office of High
Representative official and a Bosnian journalist”. (see, Beth Kampschror, “RS Leaders under Presssure”, Central
Europe Re-view, http://www.ce-review.org/01/17/bosnianews17.html -last access: 27.08.2011)
140
Op.cit, Riedlmayor, “From the Ashes”,19.
141
Opcit., Stuebner, “Current Status of Religious”, 8, http://www.usip.org/publications/the-current-status-
religious-coexistence-and-education-in-bosnia-and-herzegovina (last access 30.8.2011).
142
Asim Zubcevic, “Islamic Sites in Bosnia: Ten Years After the War”, http://islamicamagazine.com/?p=378, (last
access: 27.08.2011); Zhelyazkova, IMIR, “Tolerant Hostility”.
143
Op.cit., The US Department of State, “International 2005”, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51544.htm
(last access 24.8.2011).
144
Sakib Smajlovic, “Šehidska džamija na starim temeljima”
http://www.idoconline.info/digitalarchive/public/index.cfm?fuseaction=serve&ElementId=53033
145
Op.cit., the US, “International Religious ,2006, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71372.htm, (last access
24.8.2011).
146
David Charter, The Times Online, “World Agenda: US Hopes fpr Bosnia Rest on Town Mayor’s Shoulders”,
http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article6381094.ece (last access: 24.8, 2011).

24
until 2005.147 The famous Ferhadija Mosque took a long time to re-built, today reconstruction did
not terminate.148 Regarding the catholic churches in the RS, the first phase of repairs to a Roman
Catholic Church destroyed in 1992 in Teslic reached completion in 2002. 149 Cathedral of Saint
Bonavorta in Banja Luka suffered damage during the Bosnian wars restored in 2001. 150 Until
2002, 37 catholic churches were reconstructed and 14 of them were under reconstruction in
Banja Luka Diocese.151 In 2011, Virgin Mary reconstructed.152 Franciscan Monastery of Plehan
partially reconstructed and today is in the UNDP project. 153 Overall, Apostolic Nuncio to Bosnia,
Archbishop Alessandro D'Errico said there is a progress reconstruction of Catholic Churches. 154
Yet, there are problems in the reconstruction of mosques despite the fact that there
is some progress. In the first place, obstructionism exists throughout Bosnia. 155 In the RS, there is
an increase in the reconstruction permits, yet, the obstructionism did not disappear. “Serbian
Orthodox churches can be built-rebuilt”, however, “places of worship of other faiths can face
much obstruction”.156 For example, on one hand, Tomasevic, Secretary of the Catholic Bishops'
Conference of Bosnia argues that “most of the churches and parish houses that were destroyed
have been rebuilt or renovated”.157 On the other hand, Chief Imam of Trebinje, Husein Hodzic
claims that there is still obstructionism and he argues that “it is always easier to provide material
147
Op.cit, the US, “International Religious, 2006”, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71372.htm, (last access
24.8.2011).
148
Settimes, 01 September 2011, “Banja Luka Bosniaks Rebuild”,
http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/features/setimes/features/2011/09/01/feature-02 (last:
10.09.2011)
149
The US Department of State, “International Religious Freedom Report 2003: Bosnia and Herzegovina”,
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/24347.htm (last access: 21.08.2011)
150
Banjalucka Biskupio, “Katedrala Svetog Bonaventure”, http://www.biskupija-banjaluka.org/katedrala.html
(last access: 1.09.2011)
151
Katolicka tiskovna agencija Biskupske konferencije Bosne i Hercegovine, Katolicka Crkva u Bosni Herzegovina,
http://www.filg.uj.edu.pl/~wwwip/postjugo/files/24/hrvatski_web.pdf (last access: 1.09.2011)
152
Banjalucka Biskupio, “Biskup Komarica Blagoslovio Obnovljenu Crkvu U Kozarcu”, http://www.biskupija-
banjaluka.org/vijesti-2011_/vijest=id=216.html (last access: 1.09.2011)
153
Op.cit., The US, “International Religious, 2006” http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71372.htm (last access
24.08.2011); the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), Bosnia Herzegovina, “Reconstruction of Three
Religious Monuments-Symbols of Multiculturalism supported by MDGF Culture and Development Program”,
http://www.undp.ba/index.aspx?PID=7&RID=623 (last access 10.09.2011)
154
PRnewswire, 20 july 2010, “Republika Srpska Leader and Roman Catholic Official Praise Increased Unity”,
http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/republika-srpska-leader-and-roman-catholic-official-praise-increased-
unity-98863259.html, (last access. 10.09.2011)
155
John H. Stubbs and Emily G. Mokas, “Chapter 24: The Former Yugoslavia Bosnia Herzegovina” in Architectural
Conservation (in Europe and the Americas), (John Wiley and Sons: New Jersey, 2011). 372; The US Department of
State, “International Religious, 2006”, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71372.htm (last access 24.08.2011)
156
Drasko Djenovic, Forum 18 News Service, “Legally build a worship”,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/468919af2.pdf (last access. 10.09.2011)

25
resources but administrative procedure”.158 Ekrem Tucakovic from the Department of Public
Affairs of the Islamic Community claims that “most of the unreconstructed mosque is located in
the RS”.159
Secondly, there are violent attacks against the reconstructed mosques and the catholic
churches. In 2006, unknown perpetrators placed a grenade launcher and a traffic sign on the bell
tower of the Catholic Church in Drvar, in the RS. 160 In 2007, 5 tombstones at the graveyard of
the Hadzi Omerovic Mosque in Banja Luka were destroyed. 161 In 2008, fire occurred in the
mosque in Kula (Bosniak returnee village of Kula in Gacko). 162 Sefer Begova Mosque had been
attacked in 2009. During the attack, unidentified persons broke the glass on the door of the
mosque.163 In the same year, there was a bombing to Hadzi Perviz in Banja Luka. 164 This year,
the building glasses of the Islam Community were broken in the town of Gacko. 165 There was an
attack on mosque in Zvornik Begsuja on 5 September after Ramadan this year. 166 Thirdly, the
religious communities tended to receive the most funding in areas where their adherents were in
majority in Bosnia.167 Funding is the important reason for delay in reconstruction of the religious
buildings in Bosnia.168 In the RS, there is a funding problem for the reconstruction of mosques.
157
Ibid. He stated that the problem is not rebuilding churches; it is return of Catholic people. From a pre-civil war
Catholic population of about 200,000 Catholics, only 6,000 stayed in the area, and in the 11 years since the civil
war about 6,000 to 7,000 have returned.”(see, opcit. Djenovic, “Legally build a worship”)
158
Islamska Zajednica u Bosni I Hercegovini Medlis Islamske, “Price Iz Tudine, Primjeri Za Ugled Odavno Nevideni
Nedozivljen u Trebinju”, http://www.medzlis-trebinje.ba/web/index.php?limitstart=87 (last access: 28.08.2010)
159
Sabina Čabaravdić, “Uništavanje božjih kuća „onih drugih“ i njihova obnova”, Radio Slobodna Evropa
http://www.slobodnaevropa.org/content/tema_sedmice_vjerski_objekti/1733524.html (last access: 27.08.2010).
160
Op.cit., the US, “International Religious, 2006”, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71372.htm (last access
12.09.2011)
161
The US Department of State, “International Religious Freedom Report 2008 Bosnia Herzegovina”
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108438.htm(last access 27.08.2010).
162
Balkan Insight, “Mosque Burned in Bosnia on Muslim Holiday”,
http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/mosque-burned-in-bosnia-on-muslim-holiday (last access 27.08.2010).
163
Op.cit., the US, “International, 2010”, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148920.htm (last access
24.8.2011).
164
The US Department of State “International Religious 2009 Report”,
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/eur/136023.htm, (last access 23.8.2011).
165
Usak Strateji Gundem, “Bosna Sırp Cumhuriyeti'nde, İslam Birliği Meclisinin Camları Kırıldı”,
http://www.usakgundem.com/haber/61073/bosna-s%C4%B1rp-cumhuriyeti-39-nde-%C4%B0slam-birli%C4%9Fi-
meclisinin-camlar%C4%B1-k%C4%B1r%C4%B1ld%C4%B1.html. (last access 12.09.2011)
166
Islamska Zajednica u Bosni I Herzegovini, 07 September 2011 http://www.rijaset.ba/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=11749:zvornik-novi-napad-na-damiju-begsuja&catid=253:aktuelnosti-
kat&Itemid=184 (last access 29.8.2011).
167
Op.cit., the US, “International, 2010”, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148920.htm, (last access
24.08.2011); op.cit., Stuebner, United States Institute of Peace, “The Current Status of Religious”,
http://www.usip.org/files/resources/religion_education_bosnia_herzegovina_pb.pdf (last access 30.8.2011), 8.
168
Op.cit.,Čabaravdić, “Uništavanje Božjih Kuća”,

26
Additionally, the distribution of the fund to religious building goes to majority religion
(orthodox) in the RS.169 For instance in Foča, although, the mayor and Mufti agreed to
reconstruct mosques in 2003 the funding issue still remained a problem for reconstruction to
start.170 Ferhadija Mosque, which is officially started to rebuild in 2007, today, needs more
money to complete the work.171 On the other hand, D'Ericco pointed at significant financial
assistance that RS Government had provided for the Catholic religious community in RS. 172
Indeed, there are funds to Islamic community as well. For instance, the Islamic community
received $18,519 (30,000 KM) in early 2004.173 In 2009, the The Ministry of Refugees and
Displaced Persons of the RS, claimed to spend 25 million KM (apx 13 million euro) including
the spending on other needs of refuges such as infrastructure and housing.174 Yet, the The Banja
Luka court denied the appeal of Islamic Community for the compensation of 16 destroyed
mosque in 2009.175 In the first appeal from the Islamic community to court had given a different
result. The court ruled that the RS government should pay 30 million € (apx. 60 million BKM)
for the compensation of 16 destroyed mosques in Banja Luka.176 The Islamic community
appealed the RS Supreme Court. Afterwards, the President of the RS, M. Dodik declared that the
RS would pay reconstruction of Ferhadija Mosque in 2010. 177 The Ministry of Refugee and
Displaced Persons allocated approximately € 50.000 (10,000 KM) for the reconstruction of the
Emperor’s Mosque in Nevesinje in 2011.178

http://www.slobodnaevropa.org/content/tema_sedmice_vjerski_objekti/1733524.html, (last access 27.08.2011).

169
op.cit., Stuebner, “The Current”,
http://www.usip.org/files/resources/religion_education_bosnia_herzegovina_pb.pdf (last access 30.8.2011).
170
Ibid.
171
Andras Riedlmayer, Bosnian Instutite, 3 March 2008, “Banja Luka’s’Ferhadija Mosque Rises Again”,
http://www.bosnia.org.uk/news/news_body.cfm?newsid=2373; (last access 20.8.2011).
172
Op.cit., PRnewswire, “Republika Srpska Leader”.
173
Op.cit., the US Department of State, “International Religious Freedom Report 2004: Bosnia and Herzegovina”,
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35445.htm, (last access 28.08.2011).
174
Islamska Zajednica Bosni I Hercegovini, 8 April, 2009, http://www.rijaset.ba/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=6317:muftija-amdi-zatraio-pomo-u-obnovi-damija-i-
kua&catid=253:aktuelnosti-kat&Itemid=184 (last access 27.8.2011).
175
Balkan Insight, 09 November 2009 “Bosnia Court Overturns Mosque Ruling”,
http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/bosnia-court-overturns-mosque-ruling (last access, 15.08.2011)
176
BBC NEWS, 20 February 2009, “Serbs Ordered to Pay for Mosques”, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7902929.stm
(26.06.2011)
177
The US, “International, 2010”, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148920.htm (last access 24.8.2011). This
is important to note here that the second court ruling is not only a bad for the funding source but also it
demostrates a perspective on having no responsibility for the destruction.
178
Republika of Srpska Government, “The Ministry of Refugees and Displaced Persons Allocates Funding for
Reconstruction of Emperor Mosque in Nevesinje”
http://www.vladars.net/eng/vlada/ic/ns/Pages/Ministry_of_Refugees_and_Displaced_Persons_Allocates_Funding

27
Overall, there is some progress in the reconstruction of mosques comparison to immediate post
war period. The issuance of reconstruction permit has increased. The violent mob riots as in the
case of Banja Luka and Trebinje did not repeat and there are some funds from the RS towards
the reconstruction of the mosques and catholic churches in the RS. However, we can identify 3
major obstacles remained particularly in the reconstruction of the mosques in the RS from our
findings. First of all, there is continuation of obstructionism against reconstruction of mosques.
Second of all, there are attacks against the reconstructed mosques and catholic churches. Thirdly,
there are enough funds to reconstruct mosques from the RS authorities.

3. ANALYSIS: Is There Reconciliation in the RS, Bosnia?

As it is described in the introduction, Kelman describes three conditions which are required for
reconciliation and identity change. The thesis aims to analyse the second and the third condition
with the findings of the research while tracing findings from the micro cases. It tries to answer
the question of whether these conditions present in the RS. Ultimately, the thesis asks whether
there is reconciliation in the RS and later in Bosnia. To analyse Bosnia overall, the thesis benefits
from the similarity of findings in the micro cases in both entities.
According to Kelman, the second condition for reconciliation in the protracted
identity conflicts is the parties’ mutual acceptance of the each other’s national identity. He states
_for_Reconstruction_of_Emperor%E2%80%99s_Mosque_in_Nevesinje.aspx (last access 2.9.2011).

28
two main arguments in protracted identity conflicts before the realization of this condition.
Firstly, he claims that “the parties have tendency to see their dispute as a zero-sum conflict with
respect to national identity and national existence”. 179 Secondly, he argues that “the parties seek
to delegitimize the each other national identity and re-define significant elements of the other’s
identity in a way to suit their own narratives”. Considering these two arguments, I analyse the
cases. I try to answer whether the second condition is present. Before doing that, it is important
to note the role of war in national identities, and formation of zero sum conflict which Kelman
discusses in order to analyse two statements in a more comprehensive way.
War, according to Kelman, has a role in national identities. War creates memory
and memory sustains identity. For a group, war shapes the collective memories of the collective
identities. Therefore, wars have a role in national identities. 180 Memory is about what happened,
thoughts and feelings.181 Collective memory is dedicated to a group and it exists beyond the
individual life span.182 Collective identity; a sense of sameness over time and space, is sustained
by the collective memory.183 National identities, for instance, display a form of collective
memory, which is shared between many of the members of any given national community. 184
War, traumas, experiences, and violence constitute “new memories for the community while
eroding the old ones; through horror, distortion of everyday life, disruption of social, economic,
family and gender life.” Furthermore, the memories during the war demarcate ‘us’ from ‘them’
in collective memories of each group.185 Rival groups evolve ethos and this supplies content to
meaning of the group’s social identity which opposes to each other. 186 In other words, the
memories of the war by forming a collective memory for each group, creates ‘us’ and ‘the other’
in each identity.187 Bosnian wars of 1992-1995, in this sense, have affected the identities in
Bosnia. The Bosnian wars provide an atmosphere for each group to develop its own collective

179
Op.cit., Kelman, “Transforming the Relationship”,198-199.
180
Patrick Finley, “On Memory Identity and War”, Rethinking History, 6, 1, (2002), 6.
181
Aleida Assman, “Transformation between History and Memory”, Social Research, 75, 1 (spring, 2008), 49.
182
Duncan S. A. Bell, “Mythscapes: Memory, Mythology, and National Identity”, British Journal of Sociology, 54, 1
(March, 2003) 70.
183
John R. Gillis, “Introduction, the Memory and Identity, the History of a Relationship” in Commerations, the
Politics of National Identity, (Princeton University Press: New Jersey, 1994)
184
Op.cit., Bell, “Mythscapes: Memory”, 69.
185
Op.cit. Finley, “On Memory Identity”, 6.
186
Neta Oren, Daniel Bar-Tal and Ohad David, “Conflict, Identity and Ethos: The Israeli-Palestinian Case”, in the
Psychology of Ethnic and Cultural Conflict: Psychological Dimensions to War and Peace, eds. Yueh-Ting Lee, Clark
McCauley, Fathali Moghaddam ,Stephen Worchel (Praeger Publications: Westport, 2004), 133.
187
Ibid.

29
memory while indicating ‘the other’. Negation of the other is embedded in one’s national
identity. The formation of the other and Kelman’s “zero-sum conflict” with respect to the
national identity (i.e. “the ones will exist, if the other does not”) are evidently shaped by the war.
188

For the first micro case (sustainable return), I try to find out the obstacles to sustainable
return in the RS. Based on the research; there are violent attacks to the minority returnees,
discrimination and problems in minority education and poor living conditions of minority
returnees. Overall, all these obstacles demonstrate that there is continuation of the two
arguments. Thus, the second condition is not present.
Regarding education, firstly, there is a nationalist Serbian oriented curriculum;
particularly, the history lecture. Secondly, the closeness of the curriculum with Serbian one and
practically enforcement of instruction of Orthodox religion to the minority returnees ignore the
existence and needs of Bosnian Croat or Bosniac people. Lastly, there are physical obstructions
for the minority returnees to get education as same as the Serbian kids get. These problems
create a dominant Bosnian Serb perspective and beliefs in the education and ignore other
national communities in the RS. Hence, the tendency to de-legitimize other demonstrates itself in
alienation of minorities in education as we seen in religion lectures, the Serbian dominated
curriculum, and in the existence of the physical obstructs. Secondly, Kelman’s arguments about
‘the redefinitions of the elements of the other’s identity in a ways that suit their own narratives
and strengthen their own claims’ are clearly seen in the history classes, since the history
textbooks are based on Serbian perspective on the war and mainly continued division of us and
them. They continue to state the other as demon and to blame it for what happened in the war. In
this regard, we can see the penetration of the collective memory of war and the continuation of
this in the education system. The all other obstacles in sustainable return,(i.e. poor living
conditions of the minority returnees comparison the Bosnian Serbs, discrimination of the
minorities returnees in employment and the existence of violent attacks; intolerance to the
minority community and their signs for existence of them) are the reflection of de- legitimization
of the other. The continuation of the poorer living conditions within the community occurs
because of the discriminative and the inadequate policies to fix this situation by the RS
authorities. The discrimination in the employment is a clear example of how the almost all

188
Op.cit., Kelman, “Transforming the Relationship” 199.

30
segments of the community have some prejudgements to the minorities. Violent attacks are an
example of the intolerance against minorities. Such problems clearly show that there is a
continuation of de-legitimization of the other community. Besides, the difficulty to accept the
other that we have seen in these obstacles demonstrates that the majority community continue to
see the relations through the prism of us versus them.
Regarding the second micro case (the reconstruction of cultural heritage); I try to find out
the obstacles to reconstruction process in the RS. There are three main problems despite the fact
that there is some progress in the reconstruction of cultural heritage. First of all, there is a
continuation of obstructionism against the reconstruction of mosques. Second of all, there are
attacks at the reconstructed mosques and catholic churches. Thirdly, there are no enough funds
from the RS authorities particularly to reconstruct mosques. All these obstacles are slowing
down the reconstruction process. Hence, despite the fact that there is some progress, second
condition is not present.
The attacks at the reconstructed mosques and catholic churches are evident in the
RS. These mosques and catholic churches mark national identities in Bosnia. Mosques are being
represented in cultural heritage of the Muslim community as a sign of the Bosniac identity in
Bosnia. Catholic churches as being represented in cultural heritage of the Catholic community in
Bosnia as a sign of the Croat identity. Hence, all the problems in terms of reconstruction of the
cultural heritages indicate that there is something negative to the respective national identities.
Moreover, the reconstruction of the mosques and catholic churches, which were destroyed or
damaged during the war, is significant. During the Bosnian war, the cultural heritage was seen as
a marker of the other party and tended to be destroyed. This was a part an ethnic cleansing. 189
This was very obvious denial of the other existence and identity, which placed in the collective
memories of each side and their respective identity. Due to the reason behind the destruction and
the penetration of this reasoning into the identity, the reconstruction of the catholic churches and
mosques is significant. It means a change the place of the ‘other’ in the identity and an
acceptance of the other. Accordingly, the obstacles to the reconstruction of the mosques
represent denial of the identity of the other and thus indicate that there is no full acceptance of
the other’s identity. These obstacles witness that there is still some tendency to see the
continuation of “dispute as a zero-sum conflict” despite of evident progress. Additionally, there

189
Op.cit, Riedlmayer, “From the Ashes”, 9-10.

31
is also continuation of the desire for de-legitimization of the other since the majority community
is reluctant to accept fully the other, and the other’s sign of national identity. Therefore,
Kelman’s first condition (acceptance of the other’s identity) is not met in the RS.
The Kelman’s third condition for reconciliation is basic human acceptance of the
other and the respect for the other’s life welfare and dignity. He argues that reconciliation
requires “the development and propagation of new attitudes, marked by inclusion, empathy and
respect”. Respect to “security and well-being of other” are important. Besides, Kelman
emphasizes the importance of “human rights” in realisation of the third condition. 190 In the
following lines I will examine the findings from the two micro-cases through the prism of
Kelman’s third condition. For the first micro case; violent attacks, poor living
conditions of the minority returnees, discrimination and the problems in minority education are
the major obstacles. All these obstacles demonstrate that third condition does not present.
The existence of the violent attacks to the
non-Serb community targets the minorities physically and mostly physiologically. There are both
tangible attacks, harassments to the persons who belong to minority returnees and there are
attacks to the identity markers of this community, such as religious buildings (as being powerful
identity marks) and village signs. There are verbal assaults and harassment to minority returnee’s
targeting their national identity. These all acts are clearly against the well-being of the
community and endangers to their security. These acts have also a symbolic importance and
demonstrate the exclusionist behaviours towards the minorities, as well as disrespect and lack of
empathy towards the other. Additionally, the attacks to mosques and catholic churches violate
human rights. The Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR), Article 16, states that
“Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes
freedom (…) to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.” 191
Thus, the attacks targets at cultural heritage violate one’s right to manifest his religion freely.
The other obstacle is the poor living conditions for
the minority returnees in the RS. They are deprived from the very basic need such as basic
infrastructure; electricity, health and social care. These facts endanger the well-being of the non-
190
Op.cit., Kelman, “Transforming the Relationship”, 199.
191
The United Nations (UN), “The Universal Declaration on Human Rights”,
http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/, last access 1.09.2011). These rights are also stated in the Declaration on
the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, (see,
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/religion.htm).

32
Serb community. There is discrimination in employment against
minority returnees in the RS despite of some progress comparison to the immediate post-war
period. The findings about discrimination in the employment are against human rights. The
UDHR, 23th article, the first clause states that “Everyone has the right to work (…) and to
protection against unemployment”. Yet, discrimination prevents minorities from enjoying this
right. Thus, discrimination against the minorities in employment violates the right of the work
which is supposed to be enjoyed by everyone. Additionally, this is violation of article 5, clause V
of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(ICERD) which prohibits the discrimination in employment. 192 Apart from the violation of the
basic human rights, the problem of unemployment impairs well-being of the community.
The problems in education for the minorities exist
throughout Bosnia. In the RS, we have seen many problems in area of education for the minority
returnees as well. Minority returnees have been deprived from the education in their area of
residence (physical obstructions). Their needs are ignored (majoritarian point of view in
education, -curriculum- and problematic religious instruction for the minority returnees). They
exposed to the prism of us and them (curriculum, history textbooks). Yet, the rights to have
education in equal conditions are protected under minority rights and human rights. In the first
place, according to the UDHR, “Everyone has the right to have education (…) It shall promote
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups (…)” Yet,
in the first place, the physical obstructions violate this article, since not everyone could enjoy this
right in their area of residence and within the RS. Besides, the curriculum and history textbook
allow the dominance of Serbian identity at the expense of the minorities, and enforce division
between us and them by indicating the other’s guilt for the war. The curriculum and the history
textbooks violate the second part of the article, because they do not promote tolerance and
respect to the minorities. Second of all, according to the Declaration on Persons Belonging to
National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic which aims to promote human rights, article 4,
clause 4 states that “states should (…) take measures in the field of education, in order to
encourage knowledge of the history, traditions, language and culture of the minorities existing
within their territory”.193 The majoritarian point of view in education and the problems regarding
religious instruction violate this article. According to the Declaration on the Elimination of All
192
The OHCHR, “The International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination”,
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm#part1, (last access: 1.09.2011).

33
Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief”, which aims to promote
human rights, 5th article clause 2 states:

“Every child shall enjoy the right to have access to education in the matter of religion or
belief in accordance with the wishes of his parents or, as the case may be, legal
guardians, and shall not be compelled to receive teaching on religion or belief against the
wishes of his parents or legal guardians, (…)”.194

The problems indicated for the religious instruction in the RS violate this clause. Overall,
the minorities have been discriminated in education since they do not enjoy the same
opportunities with the Bosnian Serbs, considering physical obstructs and religious instructions.
This is also violation of Article 5, clause V; ICERD which prohibits the discrimination in
education.195

Regarding the second micro case; the reconstruction of cultural heritage, there are three
main obstacles. Firstly, there is a continuation of obstructionism against the reconstruction of
mosques. Secondly, there are attacks against the reconstructed mosques in the RS. Thirdly, there
are no enough funds from the RS authorities to reconstruct mosques in the RS. Based on
Kelman’s third condition and the findings from the two cases, we observe that these
requirements are not quite present in the RS.
First of all, the existence of obstructionism and the lack of funds specifically for the
mosques to be reconstructed represent discrimination to the minorities, since they deprive the
minorities from professing their religion. The discrimination clauses in general and the right to
profess stated by both the UHRD and the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of
Intolerance and of Discrimination based on Religion or Belief are violated by these obstacles.
Secondly, the all obstacles are slowing down the process of the reconstruction of the mosques in
the RS. The combination of these problems deprives the Bosniac community from the
fundamental rights to worship, ultimately harms the human rights. Thirdly, as it is elaborated in
the first micro case the existence of the attacks to the mosques and catholic churches affects
193
The OHCHR, “ the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic
Minorities”, http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/minorities.htm (last access 01.09.2011)
194
The OHCHR, “ the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on
Religion or Belief” http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/religion.htm (last access 01.09.2011)
195
Op.cit., The OHCHR, “the International Convention”, http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm#part1, (last
access 01.09.2011).

34
negatively the well-being of the minorities. Besides, they demonstrate disrespect and exclusion
from the majority community.
Based on the findings in the thesis, the second and third conditions, as elaborated
by Kelman, are not quite present in the RS. The absence of these conditions means that there is
no reconciliation in the RS. It means that identity change did not occur. People perceive to each
other as threatening to their identities and there is no mutual acceptance of the other. We can
draw some conclusions for Bosnia. The findings as it elaborated in the second chapter are
common throughout Bosnia. The obstacles exist in the federation with minor and sometimes
without any difference. For the federation, these obstacles are against to the Serbs or Croats
(depend on the canton and municipality). As a result, all the arguments as made so far for the RS
are valid for Bosnia. Thus, there is no reconciliation in Bosnia.

CONCLUSION

I aimed to discuss reconciliation at identity level in Bosnia. The starting point of the thesis was
that there was no reconciliation in the country. I attempted to address the question of whether
there was reconciliation in the country. Firstly, I examined the Kelman’s arguments on
reconciliation and used his three conditions for reconciliation. Secondly, I investigated the case
study of the RS through the micro cases (sustainable return and reconstruction of cultural
heritage). Finally, I tried to address the research question through these micro cases, in light of
the Kelman’s approach.
In order to answer the research question, the first chapter introduced the term of
reconciliation and tried to present the multiple meanings attached to the concept. As the most

35
applicable to the case of Bosnia, I have chosen the Kelman’s concepts of reconciliation. Such
choice I have justified by the emphasis of which Kelman puts on identity change after identity
conflict, on the one hand, and by the importance of the inter-ethnic relations in Bosnia, on the
other hand. The second chapter presented empirical findings through the prism of the three
conditions set by Kelman. The first micro-case (sustainable return) provided reliable indications
about the level of achieved social integration. The second micro case (reconstruction of the
cultural heritage) enabled me to assess the extent to majority community in the RS accepted
other’s identity, due to the fact that the cultural heritage is an important identity marker. Third
chapter analysed the implications of the empirical findings for the process of reconciliation in the
RS, and whole Bosnia. The guideline, in this endeavour, was the three conditions set by Kelman.
Given the empirical findings and conceptual framework of the thesis, the conditions for
reconciliation, pointed out by Kelman, are not present in Bosnia. Thereby, reconciliation has not
arrived to Bosnia yet. The application of these conditions to the chosen micro cases was suitable
to discuss the research question. Thereby, the thesis achieved its aim. Considering Kelman’s
mechanism, I believe that these are the assumptions which offer excellent suggestions to achieve
reconciliation after identity conflicts; however, they remained to be elusive. I attempt to propose
two suggestions. These suggestions are connected each other.

 Local ownership should be strengthened.

In these mechanisms, Kelman mentions the necessity to acknowledge the other’s nationhood and
humanity” and he argues that the “respect for their dignity, concern for their welfare and
attachment of value to the other’s lives and security are important”. 196 In this regard, I believe
that civil society supports these needs in achieving reconciliation. Firstly, civil society knows the
delicacy of the locality. It has practical solutions to the facilitate acceptance of the “other”,
provide security and welfare to the people who are in place of the “the other” Secondly, what
Kelman describes, “”the cooperation and the institutions” which facilitate cooperation between
the parties and help the overcome “setback in implementation and complementing of the

196

36
agreement” can be succeed with the help of civil society. 197 Thirdly, civil society assists in
discovery of and function of the communication channels in society. Fourthly, since it comes
from Bosnian themselves to their community through civil society, it has a more credibility in
the community and trust the deeds of locals. Lastly, civil society has a role in re-examination of
historical narrative and the re-evaluation of national myths, after setting the common truth
through truth commission which I describe in the second proposition. Hence, strong civil society
and the dilemmas should be attention of the international community and scholars who are
interested in Bosnia and reconciliation process.

 Truth Commission in Bosnia should be strengthened.

Truth commissions are designated to find out common abuses, crimes during the war. They
provide a common truth to community without indicating any individual. They bring
responsibility to the community about the past abuses during the war and help the communities
acknowledge these abuses.198 Hence, they provide a confrontation with the history. Kelman
argues that the confrontation with history, which requires admitting the other’s truth into one’s
own narrative, is need in achieving reconciliation. 199 For him, acknowledgment of responsibility,
development of a common moral basis for peace, provision of fairness and attainable justice are
also important.200 Yet, the truth commission in Bosnia did not do so much progress. 201
I anticipate
that the well- functioning truth commission in Bosnia will help to reconciliation process. The
existence of strong local ownership and its supports to working of the truth commission are
important. Therefore, the endeavours to achieve the strong truth commission for Bosnia should
be the attention of the international community and scholars who are interested in Bosnia and the
reconciliation process in the country.

Due to the scope of the thesis and the limited amount of words, the research is discussed
in only two micro cases. The further research should be focused on different micro cases from
both entities to make extensive analysis. Additionally, the propositions for the mechanisms in

197
Op.cit., Kelman “Conflict Resolution”, 6.
198

199
Ibid.
200
Ibid.

201
Clark

37
achieving reconciliation have to be study more by scholars, considering particularly, truth
commission in Bosnia and the concept of local ownership.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Assman A. (2008) “Transformation between History and Memory”, Social Research,
volume 75, no 1 (Spring), 49-72.
 Armakolas I., the Working Group on the Western Balkans East European Studies,
Woodrow Wilson Center for International Scholars, “Reading Bosnian Crisis” sent by
mail from Dr. Armakolas.
 Auerbach Y. (2009), “The Reconciliation Pyramid: A Narrative-Based Framework for
Analysing Identity Conflicts”, Political Psychology, volume 30, no 2, pp. 291-318.

38
 Bargal D., Sivan E. “Leadership and Reconciliation”, in Y. Bar-Siman-Tov (ed.) From
Conflict Resolution to Reconciliation, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 125-149.
 Bar-Tal D. and Bennik H. G. (2004) “The Nature of Reconciliation as an Outcome and as
a Process”, in Yaacov Bar-Siman Tov (ed.) From conflict resolution to reconciliation,
Oxford University Press: Oxford, pp.11-39.
 Bartulovic B., (2006) “Narrative of the Textbooks War in BiH”, Studies in Ethnicity and
Nationalism, volume 6, no 3, pp. 51-72.
 Bell S. A. D. (2003) “Mythscapes: Memory, Mythology, and National Identity”, British
Journal of Sociology, volume 54, no 1 (March), pp.63-81.
 Belloni B. (2007) State Building and International Intervention in Bosnia, New York:
Routledge.
 Bieber F. (2006) Post-war Bosnia Ethnicity, Inequality and Public Sector Government,
New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
 Brunborg H., Lyngstad H. T, Urdal H. (2003) “Accounting for Genocide: How Many
Were Killed in Srebrenica?”, European Journal of Population, volume 19, pp. 229-248.
 Finley P. (2002) “On Memory Identity and War”, Rethinking History, volume 6, no 1,
pp.1-13.
 Green P., (2009) “Reconciliation and Forgiveness in Divided Societies: A Path of
Courage, Compassion, and Commitment”, in Ani Kalayjian, Raymond F. Paloutzian
(ed.) Forgiveness and Reconciliation Psychological Pathways to Conflict Transformation
and Peace Building, London, New York: Dordrect Heidelberg Springer, pp. 151-168.
 Haider H., (2009), “Imagining Co-existence: Striving for Sustainable Return,
Reintegration and Reconciliation in Bosnia and Herzegovina”, the International Journal
of Transitional Justice, volume 3, pp. 91-113.
 Heimerl D. (2005) “the Return of Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons: From
Coercion to Sustainability”, International Peacekeeping, (autumn), volume 12, no 3, pp.
377-390.
 Hoogenboom A. D. and Vieille S. (2010) ‘’Rebuilding Social Fabric in Failed States:
Examining Transitional Justice in Bosnia”, Human Rights Review, volume 11, no 2, pp.
183-198.

39
 Hutchison E. and Bleiker R. (2008) “Emotional Reconciliation, Reconstituting Identity
and Community after Trauma, European Journal of Social Theory, Volume 11, No 3, pp.
385-403.
 Kaufman J. S. (2006) “Escaping the Symbolic Politics Trap: Reconciliation Initiatives
and Conflict Resolution in Ethnic Wars”, Journal of Peace Research, volume 43, no 2,
pp. 201-218.
 Lederach J. P. (1997) Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies,
Washington D.C: United State Institute of Peace Press, pp. 29-30.
 Oberchall A., (2010) “Memory, Historical Responsibility, Truth and Justice: Balkan
Wars, Corvinus Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, volume 1, pp. 31-60.
 Popov and Z., Ofstad M. A. (2006) “Religious education in Bosnia and Herzegovina”, in
Zorica Kuburić and Christian Moe (eds.) Religion and Pluralism in Education:
Comparative Approaches in Western Balkans, Novi Sad: The Centre for Empirical
Researches on Religion, pp. 73-104.
 RieldMayer J. A, (2002) “From the Ashes: the Past and the Future of Bosnia’s Cultural
Heritage, Islam and Bosnia: Conflict Resolution and Foreign Policy in Maya Shatzmiller
(ed.) Multi-Ethnic States. Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, pp. 98-135.
 Rose V. D. (2007) “Conflict and the Deliberate Destruction of Cultural Heritage”, in
Helmut Anheier and Yudhishthir Raj Isar eds. Culture and Globalization Series 1,
Conflict and Tensions, Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore: Sage Publications,
pp. 102-119
 Sivac- Bryant S. (2008) “Kozarac School a Window on Transitional Justice for
Returnees”, The International Journal of Transitional Justice, volume 2, pp.106-115.
 The OECD, (2003) “The Reviews of National Policies for Education”, volume 1:
Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo, Paris: the OECD publications,
pp.1-381.
 Torsti P. (2007) “How to Deal with a Difficult Past? History Textbooks Supporting
Enemy Images in Post-War Bosnia and Herzegovina”, Journal of Curriculum Studies,
volume 39, no 1, pp. 76-96.
 Torsti P, (2009) “Segregated Education and Texts: a Challenge to Peace in Bosnia and
Herzegovina”, International Journal on World Peace, volume 26, no 2, (June), 65-82.

40
  Weber T. (1999) “Gandhi, Deep Ecology, Peace Research and Buddhist Economics”,
Journal of Peace Research, volume 29, no 3, pp.349-361.

Electronic Sources:

 Amnesty International, 28 May 2010, “Amnesty International Report 2010 - Bosnia and
Herzegovina”, downloaded from
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,AMNESTY,,BIH,,4c03a83c53,0.html on
24.07.2011.
 Ascherson N., (2005), “Cultural Destruction by War and Its Effect on Identities”, in
Cultural Heritage in Post-war Recovery, critical Lesson in past Fifteen Years, ed.
Nickolas Stanley Price, pp. 17-26, ICCROM, Paper from the ICCROM Forum on
October 4-6 2005, downloaded from
http://www.iccrom.org/pdf/ICCROM_ICS06_CulturalHeritagePostwar_en.pdf on
04.04.2011.
 Balkan Insight, 8 December 2008, “Mosque Burned in Bosnia on Muslim Holiday”,
downloaded from http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/mosque-burned-in-bosnia-on-
muslim-holiday on 27.08.2010.
 Balkan Insight, 09 November 2009, “Bosnia Court Overturns Mosque Ruling”,
downloaded from http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/bosnia-court-overturns-
mosque-ruling on 15.08.2011.
 Bar Tal D. (2009) “Chapter 10: Reconciliation as a Foundation of Culture of Peace”, in
Handbook on Building Cultures of Peace, ed. Joseph de Rivera, New York: Springer, pp.
363-379, downloaded from http://www.springerlink.com/content/n1j488/front-matter.pdf
on 08.09.2011.
 Bar-Tal D. (2000) “From Intractable Conflict through Conflict Resolution to
Reconciliation: Psychological Analysis”, Political Psychology, Volume 21, No 2, pp.
351-365 downloaded from http://tau.ac.il/~daniel/pdf/6.pdf on 10.06.2011.
 BBC NEWS, 20 February 2009, “Serbs Ordered to Pay for Mosques”, downloaded on
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7902929.stm on 26.06.2011

41
 Biro M. and Milin P., (2005), “Traumatic Experience and the Process of Reconciliation”,
Psihologija, volume 38, no 2, downloaded from
http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0048-5705/2005/0048-57050502133B.pdf on
03.09.2011.
 Bjelakovic N., (2002) “Reconciliation, Truth and Justice in the Successor Post Yugoslav
States”, Southeast European Politics, volume 3, no 2-3, (November), pp. 163-167,
downloaded from
http://www.iapss.org/aac/belgrade2009/literature_english/reconciliation_truth_and_justic
e_in_the_post-yugoslav_states.pdf on 10.06. 2011.
 Charter D, The Times Online, 28 May 2009, “World Agenda: US Hopes for Bosnia Rest
on Town Mayor’s Shoulders”, downloaded from
http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article6381094.ece on 24.8, 2011.
 Coles E. (2011) “The Importance of Education Systems in Post- Conflict Settings: The
Case of Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH)”, Honors Projects: Paper 10, International Studies,
downloaded from http://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1009&context=intstu_honproj on 23.07.2011.
 Dahlman C., Tuathail O. G., “the Efforts to Reverse Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia
Herzegovina: The Limits of Returns”, Eurasian Geography and Economics, volume 45,
issue 6, pp. 439-464, downloaded from http://people.cas.sc.edu/dahlmanc/Toal%20and
%20Dahlman%202004%20Limits%20of%20Return%20BiH.pdf on 15.05.2011.
 Dahlman C., Tuathail O. G. (2005) “The legacy of ethnic cleansing: The international
community and the returns process in post-Dayton Bosnia Herzegovina”, Political
Geography, volume 24, pp. 569-599. Downloaded from
http://people.cas.sc.edu/dahlmanc/Dahlman%20and%20Toal%202005%20Legacy%20of
%20Ethnic%20Cleansing%20IC%20and%20Returns%20in%20BiH.pdf on 20.05.2011.
 Djenovic D., 13 July 2006, Forum 18 News Service, “Legally build a worship”,
downloaded from http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/468919af2.pdf on 10.09.2011.
 Dwyer S. “Reconciliation for Realists”, 82, downloaded from
http://www.umbc.edu/philosophy/dwyer/papers/Reconciliation.pdf on 03.09.2011.
 European Commission against Racism and Intolerance, (ECRI), Report on Bosnia and
Herzegovina, (fourt monitoring cycle), 8 February 2011, downloaded from

42
 http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/country-by-country/bosnia_herzegovina/BIH-
CBC-IV-2011-002-ENG.pdf on 8.09.2011.
 European Stability Initiative, “A Bosnian fortress”, pp. 1-33, downloaded from
http://www.eft-stanari.net/pdf/eft-esi.pdf on 14.09.2011.
 Franz F., (2010) “Returnees, Remittances and Reconstruction: International Politics and
Local Consequences in Bosnia, the Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and International
Relations Returnees, Volume 53 (Winter/Spring,), pp. 49-63 downloaded from
http://blogs.shu.edu/diplomacy/files/archives/07%20Franz_Layout%201.pdf on
27.07.2011.
 Haider, H “Politisation of Humanitarian Assistance: Refugee and IDP policy in Bosnia
and Herzegovina”, Journal of Humanitarian Assistance, downloaded from
http://sites.tufts.edu/jha/archives/700 on 21.07.2011.
 Halilovic H., Bosnian Institute, 08 December 2009, “Patriarch Paul - high priest of
hypocrisy”, downloaded from http://www.bosnia.org.uk/news/news_body.cfm?
newsid=2655 on 01.09.2010.
 Institution of Human Rights Ombudsman of Bosnia Herzegovina, “Annual Report on
Results of the Activities by the Human Rights Ombudsman of Bosnia and Herzegovina
for 2010”, downloaded from
http://www.ombudsmen.gov.ba/materijali/publikacije/GI2010/Annual_Report2010.pdf
on 20.08.2011.
 “Islamic Community is suing the Republika Srpska’ downloaded from
 http://www.muslim-lawyers.net/news/index.php3?aktion=show&number=335 on
27.07.2011.
 Kampschror B, 14 May 2001, “RS Leaders under Pressure”, Central Europe Re-view,
Volume 3 , No 17, downloaded from
http://www.ce-review.org/01/17/bosnianews17.html on 27.08.2011.
 Kelman H.C. (1999) “Experiences from 30 years of action research on the Israeli-
Palestinian Conflict”, in Zeitgeschichlicte Hintergrunde Aktueller Konflikte VII: Zurcher
Beitrage zur Sicherispolitik und Konflikforchung eds. KP. Spillman and Wenger, volume
54, 173-197, pp. 173-197, downloaded from
http://www.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/hck_30_years.pdf on 28.06.2011 .

43
 Kelman H.C. (2010)“Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation: A Social-Psychological
Perspective on Ending Violent Conflict Between Identity Groups”, Landscapes of
Violence, volume 1, no 1, pp. 1-10, downloaded from
http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=lov on
16.09.2011.
 Kelman H. C, (2004) "Reconciliation as Identity Change: A Social-Psychological
Perspective" Y. Bar-Siman-Tov (ed.) in From Conflict Resolution to Reconciliation,
Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 112-124 downloaded from
http://www.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/hck_reconciliation.pdf
 Kelman H. C. (2001) “the Role of National Identity in Conflict Resolution: Experiences
from Israeli-Palestinian Problem-Solving Workshop” in R.D Ashmore, L.Jussim and D.
Wilder (eds.) Social Identity, Intergroup Conflict and Conflict Reduction, Oxford and
New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 187-212, downloaded from
http://www.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/hck_roleofNationalID.pdf on 5.5.2011.

 Kohen A. (2009) “the Personal and the Political: Forgiveness and Reconciliation in
Restorative Justice”, Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy,
volume 12, no 3 (September), pp. 399-423, downloaded from
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1033&context=poliscifacpub&sei-redir=1#search=%22personal%20Political%3A
%20Forgiveness%20Reconciliation%20Restorative%20Justice%22 on 05.05.2011.
 Low-Beer A, “Politics, school textbooks and cultural identity: the struggle in Bosnia and
Hercegovina”, Politics, School Textbooks and Cultural Identity, pp. 1-6 downloaded
from http://faculty.ed.uiuc.edu/westbury/Paradigm/LOW-BEER.PDF on 23.07.2011.
 Mačkić E., Bosniaks Net, 13 November 2009, “Historic Decisions by Banja Luka Court”,
downloaded from http://www.bosniaks.net/prilog.php?pid=36228 on 01.09.2011.
 Oren N, Bar-Tal D. and David O. (2004) “Conflict, Identity and Ethos: The Israeli-
Palestinian Case”, in Yueh-Ting Lee, Clark McCauley, Fathali Moghaddam ,Stephen
Worchel (eds.) the Psychology of Ethnic and Cultural Conflict: Psychological
Dimensions to War and Peace, Westport Praeger Publications, pp.133-154 downloaded
from http://www.intech.mnsu.edu/leey/07.133_154.pdf on 10.05.2011

44
 Pasalic-Kreso A. (1999) “Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Minority Inclusing and
Majority Rule, The System of Education in BiH as a Paradigm of Violence on
Education”, Current Issues in Comparative Education, volume 2,
no 7 (Fall), pp.6-14 downloaded from
http://www.tc.edu/cice/Issues/02.01/PDFs/21pasalickreso.pdf on 22.07.2011.
 PRnewswire, 20 July 2010, “Republika Srpska Leader and Roman Catholic Official
Praise Increased Unity”, downloaded from
http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/republika-srpska-leader-and-roman-catholic-
official-praise-increased-unity-98863259.html on 10.09.2011.
 Republika of Srpska Government, “The Ministry of Refugees and Displaced Persons
Allocates Funding for Reconstruction of Emperor Mosque in Nevesinje” downloaded
from
http://www.vladars.net/eng/vlada/ic/ns/Pages/Ministry_of_Refugees_and_Displaced_Per
sons_Allocates_Funding_for_Reconstruction_of_Emperor
%E2%80%99s_Mosque_in_Nevesinje.aspx on 2.9.2011.
 Riedlmayer J.A. “Destruction of Cultural Heritage in Bosnia and Herzegovina: 1992-
1996, A Post-war Survey of Selected Municipalities”, pp.1-31, downloaded from
http://hague.bard.edu/reports/BosHeritageReport-AR.pdf on 27.07.2011.
 Riedlmayer J.A, Bosnian Institute, 3 March 2008, “Banja Luka’s’Ferhadija Mosque Rises
Again”, downloaded from http://www.bosnia.org.uk/news/news_body.cfm?newsid=2373
on 20.8.2011.
 Settimes, 01 September 2011, “Banja Luka Bosniaks Rebuild”, downloaded from
http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/features/setimes/features/
2011/09/01/feature-02 on 10.09.2011.
 Stuebner R. (2009) United States Institute of Peace, “The Current Status of Religious Co-
existence and Education in Bosnia Herzegovina”, (November), pp. 1-16 downloaded
from http://www.usip.org/files/resources/religion_education_bosnia_herzegovina_pb.pdf
on 30.8.2011.
 Supple S. (2005) “Memory Slain: Recovering Cultural Heritage in Post-war Bosnia”,
Interaction: UCLA Journal of Education and Information Studies, volume 1, no 2, pp.1-
12, downloaded from http://escholarship.org/uc/item/28c783b6 on 24.8.201.

45
 The Council of Europe, 20 February 2008, “Report by the Commissioner for Human
Rights, 2007, downloaded from https://wcd.coe.int/wcd/ViewDoc.jsp?
id=1251561&Site=COE#P249_44556 on 27.07.11.
 The Council of Europe, 29 March 2011, “Commissioner for Human Rights Report on
Bosnia Herzegovina- March 29, 2010”, downloaded from
https://wcd.coe.int/wcd/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1766837 on 18.07.2011.
 The Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Bosnia Herzegovina, “Report on the Status
of Human Rights in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Analysis for the period January –
December 2005)”, downloaded from http://www.bh-hchr.org/Reports/reportHR2005.htm,
on 21.07.2011.
 The Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Bosnia Herzegovina, “The Report on
Status of Human Rights in Bosnia Herzegovina, (Analysis for the period January –
December 2006)”, downloaded from http://www.bh-hchr.org/Reports/reportHR2006.htm
on 21.07.2011.
 The Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Bosnia Herzegovina, “Report on the Status
of Human Rights in Bosnia and Herzegovina 2007”, downloaded from http://www.bh-
hchr.org/Reports/reportHR2007.htm on 28.07.2011.
 The Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Bosnia Herzegovina, “Report on the Status
of Human Rights in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Analysis for the period January –
December 2010)”, downloaded from http://www.bh-hchr.org/index2.htm on 01.09.2011.
 The Human Right Chamber for Bosnia Herzegovina, 11 June 1999, “Decision on Merits
Islamic Community in BiH, the Islamic Community against RS, Human Rights Chamber
for BiH, Case No: CH/96/29”, downloaded from
http://www.hrc.ba/database/decisions/CH96-29%20Islamic%20Community
%20Admissibility%20and%20Merits%20E.pdf on 1.9.2011.
 The Office of High Representative, “The General Framework Aggrement: Annex 8”,
downloaded from http://www.ohr.int/print/?content_id=376 on 10.07.2011.
 The Office of High Representative, 14 December 1995, “General Framework Aggrement
Annex 4”, downloaded from http://www.ohr.int/dpa/default.asp?content_id=372 on
10.06.2011.

46
 The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), “the
Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and Discrimination Based on
Religion or Belief”, downloaded from http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/religion.htm on
10.09.2011.
 The OHCHR, “The International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial
Discrimination”, downloaded from http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm#part1,
on 1.09.2011.
 The OHCHR, “The Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or
Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities”, downloaded from
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/minorities.htm 01.09.2011.
 The OHCHR, “The Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of
Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief” downloaded from
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/religion.htm on 01.09.2011.
 The UNHCR, Statistic Package, 31 December 2010, downloaded from
http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpDocuments)/
A5471D07EA15C524C125785C005FC9E8/$file/sp_12_2010.pdf on 10.07. 2011.
 The United Nations Cultural Educational and Scientific Organization, “Bosnia
Herzegovina”, Fostering Peaceful Co-existence through Analysis and Revision of History
Curricula and Textbooks in Southeast Europe Preliminary Stocktaking Report 2006,
downloaded from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001514/151474e.pdf on
10.06.2011
 The United Nations Refugee Agency, Sub-Office for Northern Bosnia and Herzegovina
Tuzla, “Review of Returns to Srebrenica June 2005”, downloaded from
http://www.unhcr.org/42ce6bf84.html on 22.07.2011.
 The United Nations High Commission for Refugees, UNCHR/Bosnia, “Returnees”,
downloaded from http://unhcr.ba/who-we-help/returnees/ on 18.07.2011.
 The United States Department of State, “International Religious Freedom Report 2003:
Bosnia and Herzegovina”, downloaded from
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/24347.htm on 21.08.2011.

47
 The US. Department of State, “International Religious Freedom Report 2005: Bosnia
and Herzegovina” downloaded from
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/437c9cdfa.html on 1.9.2011.
 The US. Department of State, “International Religious Freedom Report 2006: Bosnia
Herzegovina” downloaded from http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71372.htm on
24.08.2011.
 The US. Department of State, “International Religious Freedom Report 2008 Bosnia
Herzegovina” downloaded from http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108438.htm on
27.08.2010.
 The US. Department of State, 11 March 2010, “2009 Country Reports on Human Rights
Practices: Bosnia Herzegovina, 2009”, downloaded from
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/eur/136023.htm, on 21.07.2011.
 The US. Department of State, 11 March 2010 “International Religious 2009 Report”,
downloaded from http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/eur/136023.htm, on
23.8.2011.
 The US. Department of State, 17 November 2011,“International Religious Freedom
Report 2010: Bosnia Herzegovina”, downloaded from
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148920.htm on 24.8.2011.
 The United Nations (UN), “The Universal Declaration on Human Rights”, downloaded
from http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/, on 1.09.2011.
 The United Nations Development Program (UNDP), Bosnia Herzegovina,
“Reconstruction of Three Religious Monuments-Symbols of Multiculturalism supported
by MDGF Culture and Development Program”, downloaded from
http://www.undp.ba/index.aspx?PID=7&RID=623 on 10.09.2011.
 Toal G. O (2009) “After Ethnic Cleansing: Return Outcomes in Bosnia and Herzegovina
a Decade Beyond War, Association of American Geographers, volume 99, no, 5, 21-22 ,
pp.1-24 downloaded from
http://www.colorado.edu/ibs/pec/johno/pub/AnnalsBiHreturns.pdf on 21.07.2011.
 Torsti P. “Divergent Stories, Convergent Attitudes, Study on the Presence of History,
History Textbooks, and the Thinking of Youth in post-War Bosnia and Herzegovina”, pp.

48
 9-327 downloaded from http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/val/yhtei/vk/torsti/divergen.pdf
on 23.07.2011.
 Zhelyazkova A, International Centre for Minority Studies and Intercultural Relations
(IMIR) 2004, “Bosnia: Tolerant Hostility”, pp. 1-25, downloaded from http://www.imir-
bg.org/imir/reports/Bosnia_Tolerant_Hostility.pdf on 27.07.2011.
 Zubcevic A. “Islamic Sites in Bosnia: Ten Years After the War”, downloaded from
http://islamicamagazine.com/?p=378 on 27.08.2011
 “Nationalism and Religious Extremist in Bosnia”
http://pdc.ceu.hu/archive/00003431/01/nationalism_religious.pdf).

Foreign Language Sources:

 Banjalucka Biskupio, “Katedrala Svetog Bonaventure”, downloaded from

http://www.biskupija-banjaluka.org/katedrala.html on 1.09.2011
 Banjalucka Biskupio, “Biskup Komarica Blagoslovio Obnovljenu Crkvu U Kozarcu”,
http://www.biskupija-banjaluka.org/vijesti-2011_/vijest=id=216.html on 1.09.2011.
 Čabaravdić S, “Uništavanje božjih kuća „onih drugih“ i njihova obnova”, Radio
Slobodna Evropa, 17 May 2005, downloaded from
http://www.slobodnaevropa.org/content/tema_sedmice_vjerski_objekti/
1733524.html on 27.08.2010.
 Čano N, Je Novinarka- BIRN, “Suđenje zbog uništenja vjerskih objekata” downloaded
from http://www.bim.ba/bh/110/10/9290/?tpl=30 on 1.09.2011.
 Islamska Zajednica u Bosni I Herzegovini, 07 September 2010, downloaded from
http://www.rijaset.ba/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=11749:zvornik-
novi-napad-na-damiju-begsuja&catid=253:aktuelnosti-kat&Itemid=184 on 29.8.2011.
 Islamska Zajednica Bosni I Hercegovini, 8 April, 2009, downloaded from
http://www.rijaset.ba/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6317:muftija-

49
 amdi-zatraio-pomo-u-obnovi-damija-i-kua&catid=253:aktuelnosti-kat&Itemid=184 on
27.8.2011.
 Islamska Zajednica u Bosni I Hercegovini Medlis Islamske, “Price Iz Tudine, Primjeri Za
Ugled Odavno Nevideni Nedozivljen u Trebinju”,
http://www.medzlis-trebinje.ba/web/index.php?limitstart=87 (last access: 28.08.2010)
 Smajlovic S, “Šehidska džamija na starim temeljima”, 11 July 2005, downloaded from
http://www.idoconline.info/digitalarchive/public/index.cfm?
fuseaction=serve&ElementId=53033 on 24.8.2011.
 Katolicka tiskovna agencija Biskupske konferencije Bosne i Hercegovine, Katolicka
Crkva u Bosni Herzegovina,
http://www.filg.uj.edu.pl/~wwwip/postjugo/files/24/hrvatski_web.pdf (last access:
1.09.2011)
 Osnovni Podaci o Banjoluckoj Biskupiji, downloaded from http://www.biskupija-
banjaluka.org/osnovni-podaci.html on1.09.2011.
 Usak Strateji Gundem, “Bosna Sırp Cumhuriyeti'nde, İslam Birliği Meclisinin Camları
Kırıldı”, downloaded from http://www.usakgundem.com/haber/61073/bosna-s
%C4%B1rp-cumhuriyeti-39-nde-%C4%B0slam-birli%C4%9Fi-meclisinin-camlar
%C4%B1-k%C4%B1r%C4%B1ld%C4%B1.html on 12.09.2011.

50