Hydroelectric and Nuclear Power Plant

Hydro-Electric Power Plant 6
6.1. Introduction. 6.2. Application of hydro-electric plants. 6.3. Advantages and disadvantages of hydro-electric plants.
6.4. Selection of site for a hydro-electric plant. 6.5. Essential features/elements of hydro-electric power plant—
Catchment area—Reservoir—Dam—Spillways—Conduits—Surge tanks—Prime movers—Draft tubes—Powerhouse and
equipment. 6.6. Classification of hydro-electric power plants—High head power plants—Medium head power plants—
Low head power plants—Base load plants—Peak load plants—Run-of-river plants without pondage—Run-of-river plant with
pondage—Storage type plants—Pumped storage plants—Mini and microhydel plants. 6.7. Hydraulic turbines—Classification
of hydraulic turbines—Description of various types of turbine—Specific speed of a turbine—Efficiencies of a turbine—
Cavitation—Performance of hydraulic turbine—Governing of hydraulic turbines—Selection of turbines. 6.8. Plant layout.
6.9. Hydro-plant auxiliaries. 6.10. Cost of hydro-plant. 6.11. Average life of hydro-plant components. 6.12. Hydro-
plant controls. 6.13. Electrical and mechanical equipment in a hydro-plant. 6.14. Combined hydro and steam power
plants. 6.15. Comparison of hydro-power station with thermal power stations. 6.16. Underground hydro-plants. 6.17.
Automatic and remote control of hydro-station. 6.18. Safety measures in hydro-electric power plants.
6.19. Preventive maintenance of hydro-plant. 6.20. Calculation of available hydro-power. 6.21. Cost of hydro-power.
6.22. Hydrology—Introduction—The hydrologic cycle—Measurement of run-off—Hydrograph—Flow duration curve—Mass
curve. 6.23. Hydro-power development in India—Worked Examples—Highlights—Theoretical Questions—Unsolved
Examples—Competitive Examinations Questions.
6.1. INTRODUC TION actually flows over the ground surface as direct run off and
forms the streams which can be utilised for hydro-schemes.
In hydro-electric plants energy of water is utilised to move First hydro-electric station was probably started in
the turbines which in turn run the electric generators. The America in 1882 and thereafter development took place
energy of water utilised for power generation may be kinetic very rapidly. In India the first major hydro-electric
or potential. The kinetic energy of water is its energy in development of 4.5 MW capacity named as Sivasamudram
motion and is a function of mass and velocity, while the Scheme in Mysore was commissioned in 1902. In 1914 a
potential energy is a function of the difference in level/head hydro-power plant named Khopoli project of 50 MW
of water between two points. In either case continuous capacity was commissioned in Maharashtra. The hydro-
availability of a water is a basic necessity ; to ensure this, power capacity, upto 1947, was nearly 500 MW.
water collected in natural lakes and reservoirs at high
Hydro (water) power is a conventional renewable
altitudes may be utilised or water may be artificially stored
source of energy which is clean, free from pollution and
by constructing dams across flowing streams. The ideal
generally has a good environmental effect. However the
site is one in which a good system of natural lakes with
following factors are major obstacles in the utilisation of
substantial catchment area, exists at a high altitude.
hydro-power resources :
Rainfall is the primary source of water and depends upon
such factors as temperature, humidity, cloudiness, wind (i) Large investments
etc. The usefulness of rainfall for power purposes further (ii) Long gestation period
depends upon several complex factors which include its (iii) Increased cost of power transmission.
intensity, time distribution, topography of land etc.
Next to thermal power, hydro-power is important
However it has been observed that only a small part of the
in regard to power generation. The hydro-electric power
rainfall can actually be utilised for power generation. A
plants provide 30 per cent of the total power of the world.
significant part is accounted for by direct evaporation, while
The total hydro-potential of the world is about 5000 GW.
another similar quantity seeps into the soil and forms the
In some countries (like Norway) almost total power
underground storage. Some water is also absorbed by
generation is hydrobased.
vegetation. Thus, only a part of water falling as rain
323
324 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
6.2. APPLICATION OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC thermal plants run at a speed 3000 to 4000 r.p.m.
Therefore, there are no specialised mechanical
PLANTS problems or special alloys required for
Earlier hydro-electric plants have been used as exclusive construction.
source of power, but the trend is towards use of hydropower 15. The cost of land is not a major problem since the
in an inter connected system with thermal stations. As a hydro-electric stations are situated away from
self-contained and independent power source, a hydro-plant the developed areas.
is most effective with adequate storage capacity otherwise Disadvantages :
the maximum load capacity of the station has to be based
1. The initial cost of the plant is very high.
on minimum flow of stream and there is a great wastage of
water over the dam for greater part of the year. This 2. It takes considerable long time for the erection
increases the per unit cost of installation. By inter- of such plants.
connecting hydro-power with steam, a great deal of saving 3. Such plants are usually located in hilly areas
in cost can be effected due to : far away from the load centre and as such they
(i) reduction in necessary reserve capacity, require long transmission lines to deliver power,
subsequently the cost of transmission lines and
(ii) diversity in construction programmes,
losses in them will be more.
(iii) higher utilisation factors on hydroplants, and
4. Power generation by the hydro-electric plant is
(iv) higher capacity factors on efficient steam plants. only dependent on the quantity of water
In an inter connected system the base load is supplied available which in turn depends on the natural
by hydropower when the maximum flow demand is less than phenomenon of rain. So if the rainfall is in time
the stream flow while steam supplies the peak. When stream and proper and the required amount of can be
flow is lower than the maximum demand the hydroplant collected, the plant will function satisfactorily
supplies the peak load and steam plant the base load. otherwise not.
6.3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 6.4. SELECTION OF SITE FOR A HYDRO-

OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS ELEC TRIC PLANT
Advantages of hydro-electric plant : The following factors should be considered while selecting
1. No fuel charges. the site for a hydro-electric plant :
2. An hydro-electric plant is highly reliable. 1. Availability of water
3. Maintenance and operation charges are very low. 2. Water storage
4. Running cost of the plant is low. 3. Water head
5. The plant has no stand by losses. 4. Accessibility of the site
6. The plant efficiency does not change with age. 5. Distance from the load centre
7. It takes a few minutes to run and synchronise 6. Type of the land of the site.
the plant.
8. Less supervising staff is required. 1. Availability of water : The most important
9. No fuel transportation problem. aspect of hydro-electric plant is the availability of water at
the site since all other designs are based on it. Therefore
10. No ash problem and atmosphere is not polluted
the run-off data at the proposed site must be available
since no smoke is produced in the plant.
before hand. It may not be possible to have run-off data at
11. In addition to power generation these plants are the proposed site but data concerning the rainfall over the
also used for flood control and irrigation large catchment area is always available. Estimate should
purposes. be made about the average quantity of water available
12. Such a plant has comparatively a long life throughout the year and also about maximum and
(100–125 years as against 20–45 years of a minimum quantity of water available during the year.
thermal plant). These details are necessary to :
13. The number of operations required is (i) decide the capacity of the hydro-electric plant,
considerably small compared with thermal
(ii) setting up of peak load plant such as steam,
power plants.
diesel or gas turbine plant and to,
14. The machines used in hydro-electric plants are
(iii) provide adequate spillways or gate relief during
more robust and generally run at low speeds at
the flood period.
300 to 400 r.p.m. where the machines used in
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT 325
2. Water storage : Since there is a wide variation 1. Catchment area

in rainfall during the year, therefore, it is always necessary 2. Reservoir
to store the water for continuous generation of power. The
3. Dam
storage capacity can be calculated with the help of mass
curve. Maximum storage should justify the expenditure 4. Spillways
on the project. 5. Conduits
The two types of storages in use are : 6. Surge tanks
(i) The storage is so constructed that it can make 7. Prime movers
water available for power generation of one year 8. Draft tubes
only. In this case storage becomes full in the 9. Powerhouse and equipment.
beginning of the year and becomes empty at the Fig. 6.1 shows the flow sheet of hydro-electric power
end of each year. plant.
(ii) The storage is so constructed that water is The description of various elements of hydro-electric
available in sufficient quantity even during the plants is as follows :
worst dry periods.
6.5.1. Catchment Area
3. Water head : In order to generate a requisite
quantity of power it is necessary that a large quantity of The whole area behind the dam draining into a stream or
water at a sufficient head should be available. An increase river across which the dam has been built at a suitable
in effective head, for a given output, reduces the quantity place, is called catchment area.
of water required to be supplied to the turbines.
6.5.2. Reservoir
4. Accessibility of the site : The site where hydro-
The water reservoir is the primary requirement of hydro-
electric plant is to be constructed should be easily
electric plant. A reservoir is employed to store water which
accessible. This is important if the electric power generated
is further utilised to generate power by running the
is to be utilised at or near the plant site. The site selected
hydraulic turbines.
should have transportation facilities of rail and road.
A reservoir may be of the following two types :
5. Distance from the load centre : It is of
1. Natural
paramount importance that the power plant should be set
up near the load centre ; this will reduce the cost of erection 2. Artificial
and maintenance of transmission line. A natural reservoir is a lake in high mountains.
An artificial reservoir is built by erecting a dam
6. Type of the land of the site : The land to be
across the river.
selected for the site should be cheap and rocky. The ideal
site will be one where the dam will have largest catchment Water held in upstream reservoir is called storage
area to store water at high head and will be economical in whereas water behind the dam at the plant is called
construction. pondage.
The necessary requirements of the foundation rocks 6.5.3. Dam
for a masonry dam are as follows :
A dam is a barrier to confine or raise water for storage or
(i) The rock should be strong enough to withstand diversion to create a hydraulic head. An hydro-electric dam
the stresses transmitted from the dam structure
diverts the flow from the river to the turbines and usually
as well as the thrust of the water when the
increases the head. A reservoir dam stores water by raising
reservoir is full.
its level.
(ii) The rock in the foundation of the dam should be
Dams are built of concrete or stone masonry, earth
reasonably impervious.
or rock fill, or timber. Masonry dams may be the solid-
(iii) The rock should remain stable under all
gravity, buttress or arch type. A barrage is a diversion dam,
conditions.
especially at a tidal power project. A weir is a low overflow
dam across a stream for measuring flow or maintain water
6.5. ESSENTIAL FEATURES/ELEMENTS OF level, as at a lake outlet. A dike is an embankment to confine
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT water ; a levee is a dike near the bank of a river to keep low
The following are the essential elements of hydro-electric land from being overflowed.
power plant :
2. For safe and cheap construction good foundation

Catchment should be available at moderate depth.
area 3. Good and suitable basin should be available.
4. Material for construction should be available at
a dam site or near by. As huge quantities of construction
materials are required for construction of the dam, the
Reservoir
distance at which the material is available affects the total
cost of the project.
Dam 5. For passing the surplus water, after the reservoir
has been filled upto its maximum capacity, a spillway is to
be provided. There should be good and suitable site
Sluice gate available for spillway construction. It may be in dam itself
or valve
or near the dam on the periphery of the basin.
6. The value of the property and the land likely to
be submerged by the proposed dam should be sufficiently
low in comparison with the benefits expected from the
Penstock project.
7. The site of the dam should be easily accessible in
all the seasons. It should be feasible to connect the site
with good lines of communication.
8. There should be a good catchment on the
Inlet valve upstream side of the site, that is the catchment should
3 - Phase supply contribute good and sufficient water to the basin. The
ü
ý
þ
catchment area should not be easily erodable otherwise

excessive silt will come in the reservoir basin.
Turbine Alternator 9. There should be suitable site available for
providing living accommodation to the labourers and
engineering staff. It is very essential to see that the climate
Draft tube
of the site is healthy.
10. Overall cost of construction and maintenance of
the dam should be taken into consideration.
Tail race
Selection of type of a dam
Fig. 6.1. Flow sheet of hydro-electric power plant.
The selection of a type of dam is affected by the
following topographical and geological factors :
6.5.3.1. Types of dams 1. Nature of foundation
The different types of dams are as follows : Sound rock formation Any type of dam
in the foundation can be adopted
A. Fill dams
Poor rock and earth Earth dam
1. Earth dams
foundation
2. Rock-fill dams. 2. Nature of valley
B. Masonry dams Narrow valleys (with Arch dam
1. Solid gravity dams good rock abutments)
2. Buttress dams If george with rocky Solid gravity dam
3. Arch dams. bed available
C. Timber dams If valley is wide and Buttress dam
Selection of site for dams foundation is weak
For any width of valley Steel dam
The following points should be taken into
consideration while selecting the site for a dam. with good foundations
1. For achieving economy the water storage should For any width of valley with Timber dam
be largest for the minimum possible height and length. any foundation and low
Naturally site should be located in a narrow valley. height of water to be stored
For wide valley with gentle Earth dam or Following are the causes of failure of earth dams :
side slopes rock fill dam. 1. Overtopping caused by insufficient spillway
3. Permeability of foundation material capacity.
When uplift pressure Arch dam 2. Seepage along conduits through the dam.
exerted on the base of the 3. Piping through the dam or its foundation.
dam is excessive 2. Rock-fill dams. A rock-fill dam consists of loose
When the foundations Earth dam rock of all sizes and has a trapezoidal shape with a wide
are pervious base, with a watertight section to reduce seepage. It is used
in mountaneous locations where rock rather than earth is
In addition to these factors the following points
available. A rock-fill dam may be destroyed if overtopped
should also be given consideration.
to any great extent, and so it needs a supplementary
(i) Suitable site for locating spillways sometimes spillway of adequate capacity.
affects the selection of the type of a dam.
(ii) The availability of construction material may B. Masonry dams :
sometimes dictate the choice. 1. Solid gravity dams. This type of dam is more
It may be mentioned that in general the most massive and bulky than the other types since it depends
permanent and safe dam will be found to be most on its weight for stability. Because of its weight it requires
economical one. a sound rock foundation. It may be used as a spillway
section for a dam of another type on sand or gravel
Description of dams
foundations if the stresses are limited and a suitable cut-
A. Fill dams : off is provided. On a rock foundation the base of a solid
1. Earth dams. For small projects, in particular, gravity dam which is 0.7 of the head usually results in a
dam constructed of earth fill or embankment are commonly satisfactory and economical section for either a bulkhead
used. Because of the great volume of material required, it or spillway section. On an earth foundation the base
is imperative that the fill be obtainable in the vicinity of generally equals the head.
dam site. 2. Buttress dam. A buttress dam has an inclined
upstream face, so that water pressure creates a large
downward force which provides stability against
Stone pitching overturning or sliding. The forces on the upstream face
are transmitted to a row of buttresses or piers. This type of
Impervious dam requires only about one-third the concrete needed for
material a solid gravity dam, but extra cost of reinforcing steel and
near wall framework and the skilled labour needed for the thinner
sections may largely offset the saving in concrete. The
Earth relatively thin sections of concrete in a buttress dam are
Rock
and gravel susceptible to damage from frost and temperature and may
require protection or precautionary measures.
Fig. 6.2. Earth dam.
Fig. 6.3 and Fig. 6.4 shows typical buttress dams.
The earth dams have the following advantages :
(i) It is usually cheaper than a masonry dam. Flat deck
(ii) It is suitable for relatively previous foundation.
(iii) It blends best with the natural surroundings. Buttress
Haunch
(iv) It is the most permanent type of construction if Section-AA
protected from corrosion.
Disadvantages of the earth dam are :
(i) It has greater seepage losses than most other
types of dams.
(ii) Since this type of dam is not suitable for a A
Struts
spillway structure, therefore it requires a A
supplementary spillway. Buttresses
(iii) It is subject to possible destruction or serious
damage from erosion by water either over-
topping the dam or seeping through it.
Fig. 6.3. Slab-and-buttress type.
C. Timber dams :
When wood is plentiful and more durable materials
are not accessible timber is sometimes used for low dams
upto 12 m. In the early days, timber could be had for the
cutting, but most of the original timber dams have been
superseded by masonry or fill dams. Now-a-days wooden
dams are uncommon.
6.5.4. Spillways
When the water enters the reservoir basin, the level of
water in basin rises. This rise is arranged to be of temporary
nature because excess accumulation of water endangers
the stability of dam structure. To relieve reservoir of this
excess water contribution, a structure is provided in the
body of a dam or near the dam or on the periphery of a
basin. This safeguarding structure is called a spillway.
Fig. 6.4. Multiple-arch type.
A spillway should fulfil9 the following requirements:
3. Arch dam. Refer to Fig. 6.5. This type of dam
1. It should provide structural stability to the dam
resists the water force by being braced against the canyon
under all conditions of floods.
sides because of its curved shape. Few sites are suitable
2. It should be able to pass the designed flood
for the this type of dam, which requires a fairly narrow
without raising reservoir level above H.F.L. (high
valley with steep slopes of solid rock to support the outward
flood level).
thrust of the structure. An arch dam is not ordinarily used
for a spillway as the downstream face is too steep for the 3. It should have an efficient operation.
over- flowing water except for low discharges. It is generally 4. It should have an economical section.
necessary to provide a separate spillway for an arch dam, Types of spillways
either a tunnel or conduit type, a side-channel wasteway Following are some types of spillways :
at the end of the dam, or a spillway in another location.
(i) Overfall spillway or solid gravity spillway
F (ii) Chute or trough spillway
(iii) Side channel spillway
(iv) Saddle spillway
t (v) Emergency spillway
(vi) Shaft or glory hole spillway
R
R (vii) Siphon spillway.
r q
In the types from (i) to (v) water spills and flows
q f
over the body of the spillway whereas in the types (vi) and
(vii) water spills over the crest and then flows through the
body of the spillway.
(a) Plan The selection of type of spillway is generally based
on the type of the dam and the quantity of flood water to be
discharged below ; it also depends on the site conditions.
6.5.4.1. Overfall spillway or Solid gravity spillway
Refer to Fig. 6.6. This type of spillway is provided in case
of concrete and masonry dams. It is situated in the body of
the dam, generally in the centre. As it is provided in the
dam itself the length of dam should be sufficient to
accommodate the designed spillway crest.
This spillway consists of an ogee crest and a bucket.
Water spills and flows over the crest in the form of a rolling
sheet of water. The bucket provided at the lower end of the
(b) Section spillway changes the direction of the fast moving water. In
this process the excess energy of fast moving water is
Fig. 6.5. Typical arch dam : (a) Plan (b) Section. destroyed. The portion between the front vertical face and
the lower nappe of sheet of water is filled with concrete to To maintain satisfactory flow conditions a sufficient
conform the profile of the spillway to the lower nappe. This longitudinal slope is given to the side channel.
type of construction practically avoids the development of
negative pressures. The section is always designed for 6.5.4.4. Saddle spillway
maximum head of water over the crest of spillway. A saddle spillway may be constructed when conditions are
not favourable for any of the types mentioned above. There
Crest H.F.L. may be some natural depression or saddle on the periphery
Upper nappe F.R.L. of the reservoir basin away from the dam as shown in
Lower nappe Fig. 6.8. The depression may be used as a spillway. It is
H.F.L. = High flood level essential that the bottom of the depression should be at full
Bucket F.R.L. = Full reservoir level reservoir level. For ideal conditions there should be good
rock formation at the site of a spillway.
Top of dam Saddle spillway site

Fig. 6.6. Overfall spillway.
6.5.4.2. Chute or Trough spillway Free reservoir level

This type of spillway is most suited under the situation
when the valley is too narrow to accommodate the solid
gravity spillway in the body of the dam or when the non-
rigid type of dam is adopted. It is called chute spillway
because after crossing over the crest of the spillway the
water flow shoots down a channel or a trough to meet the Profile of basin along its periphery
river channel downstream of the dam. Fig. 6.8. Saddle spillway.
In this type the crest of the spillway is at right angles
to the centre line of the trough or the chute. The crest is 6.5.4.5. Emergency spillway
isolated from the dam axis. The trough is taken straight
As the name suggests this type of spillway is very rarely
from the crest to the river and it is generally lined with
concrete. put into action. Naturally it is not necessary to protect the
structure, its foundation or its discharge channel from
6.5.4.3. Side channel spillway serious damage.
A side channel spillway is employed when the valley is too An emergency spillway comes into action when the
narrow in case of a solid gravity dams and when non-rigid occurring flood discharge exceeds the designed flood
dams are adopted. In non-rigid dams it is undesirable to discharge.
pass the flood water over the dam. When there is no room
for the provision of chute spillway this type is adopted as 6.5.4.6. Shaft or Glory hole spillway
it requires comparatively limited space. Thus the situations The shape of shaft spillway is just like a funnel. The lower
where chute and side channel spillways are required are
end of the funnel is turned at right angles and then taken
mostly the same. The side channel spillway differs from
out below the dam horizontally. Water spills over the crest,
the chute spillway in the sense that after crossing over the
spillway crest, water flows parallel to the crest length in which is circular, and then enters the vertical shaft and is
former, whereas the flow is normal to the crest in the latter taken out below the dam through a horizontal tunnel.
(Fig. 6.7). Sometimes the flow is guided by means of radial piers on
the crest of the spillway. It avoids creation of spiral flow
Dam
in the shaft. The piers may be used to support a bridge
around the crest. The bridge may be used to connect the
spillway to the dam.
River 6.5.4.7. Siphon spillway
Spillway crest A siphon spillway, as the name suggests, is designed on
the principle of a siphon.
Fig. 6.9 shows a saddle siphon spillway. The crest
Side channel
is fixed at full reservoir level (F.R.L.). When the water level
in the reservoir rises above F.R.L. water starts spilling over
Fig. 6.7. Side channel spillway. the crest. The step or a joggle deflects the sheet of water
and consequently the lower end is sealed. As the lower end Canal. A canal is an open waterway excavated in
is sealed the air gets entrapped in the lower limb. This air natural ground. It has to follow the contour of the ground,
is driven out by incoming water completely. This process with perhaps a slight gradient corresponding to the head loss.
of evacuating and filling the lower limb by water is known Flume. A flume is an open channel erected on the
as priming. Once the siphon is primed water starts flowing surface of supported above ground on a trestle. A flume
out till the level of the water in the reservoir falls below might be used with a canal to cross a ravine or where the
the level of the upper limb. Usually the lower end of the slope of the ground is greater than the hydraulic gradient.
upper limb is kept below full reservoir level. It prevents Tunnel. It is a closed channel excavated through a
blocking of the entrance due to the floating matter such as natural obstruction such as a ridge of higher land between
the dam and the powerhouse. A tunnel across a bend in
ice etc. Naturally if the water is emptied till the lower end
the river might be cheaper than a conduit that goes around.
of the upper limb emerges out the useful live storage is
Tunnels are also commonly used in diverting water from
lost. To break the siphon action at proper time, that is when one drainage area to another, where the divide between
the water level falls to F.R.L., an air vent is provided on watersheds is higher than the reservoir.
the crown as shown in Fig. 6.9. Thus when the water level Pipeline. A pipeline is a closed conduit usually
falls to F.R.L. air enters in the lower limb through air vent supported on or above the surface of the land. When a
and siphonic action is broken or stopped. pipeline is laid on the hydraulic gradient, it is called a
flow line.
Air vent Crown
Penstock. It is a closed conduit for supplying water
Full reservoir under pressure to a turbine.
level
Advantages and limitations of different types of
Lower limb
conduits :
Upper limb
Open channels are generally the least expensive, but
Inlet the cost of a flume increases with the height of the trestle.
Crest Step
Reservoir Where the land is fairly level at head water elevation
between the dam and powerhouse sites, a canal would be
feasible, but not many sites fit this requirement.
Tunnels are generally the most costly type of conduit
for a given length but are justified if their use results in
considerable saving in distance. While ordinarily tailraces
Fig. 6.9. Saddle siphon spillway.
are open channels, tunnels are used for the discharge from
an underground hydro-station.
6.5.5. Conduits
Penstocks are used where the slope is too great for a
A headrace is a channel which leads water to a turbine and canal, especially for the final stretch of the diversion system
a tailrace is a channel which conducts water from the where the land pitches steeply to the powerhouse. Surge
wheels. The conduit may be open or close. tanks or other measures are necessary to prevent damage
Open conduits ...... Canals and flumes in closed conduits due to abnormal pressures.
Close conduits ...... Tunnels, pipelines and Fig. 6.10 shows the combination of tunnel, flume,
penstocks and penstocks at a high-head development. The tunnel
Fig. 6.10. Combination of tunnel, flume and penstocks at a high-head development.

intake regulates the flow between the reservoirs, while the — Wood-stave penstocks are used for heads upto
sluice gates at the entrance to the flume control the about 75 m and consist of treated timbers laid
discharge to that needed by the turbines. The regulating side by side to form a cylinder held together by
forebay has a small storage capacity to care for minor flow the steel hoops. The size and spacing of the
fluctuations. It has an automatic spillway to discharge hoops on a wood-stave pipe and the reinforcing
overflow when turbines shut down suddenly. steel in concrete increase with the head.
Penstocks : — Steel penstocks can be designed for any head,
with the thickness varying with the pressure
(i) How to calculate penstock thickness ?
and diameter. The minimum thickness of steel
The thickness of steel penstock which depends on plate is used for heads upto 45 m ; for lower
the water head hoop/circumferential stress allowed in the heads it may be more economical to use wood or
material can be calculated by using the following relation: concrete pipe rather than steel.
pd The strength of a penstock can be expressed as the
t
2f  horse power it can carry. Since the size of a pipe depends
where t = Thickness of the penstock, on the flow, the product of head and flow determines both
p = Pressure due to water including water maximum stresses and power.
hammer = wH, w and H being specific weight — High pressure penstocks are fabricated in 6 to
of water and head of water respectively, 8 m lengths for mountaneous regions where
transportation is difficult. The manholes give
d = Diameter (internal) of the penstock,
access to the interior of the penstocks for
f = Permissible hoop/circumferential stress, and inspection and maintenance. Welded joints are
 = Joint efficiency. preferable to riveted ones because of the higher
(ii) Number of penstocks to be used : friction losses in the latter. Steel penstocks are
To supply water to a number of turbines penstocks usually given protective coatings in the shop and
needed may be decided from the following alternatives : after erection.
— Penstocks are generally supported by concrete
1. To provide one penstock for each turbine
piers or cadles, although they may be laid on or
separately. In such a case water is supplied independently
in the ground. A bridge or trestle is used to carry
to each turbine from a separate penstock.
a penstock across a narrow defile. Anchors on
2. To use a single penstock for the entire plant. In steep grades support the weight of the fill
this case the penstock should have as many branches as penstock and also take the thrusts from water
the number of hydraulic turbines. pressure acting at angles in the pipe. It may be
3. To provide multiple penstocks but each penstock cheaper to bury small pipes, while penstocks are
should supply water to atleast two hydraulic turbines. sometimes covered to protect them from rock or
While selecting the number of penstocks to be used snow slides, prevent freezing, or eliminate
for supplying water to the turbines, the following points expansion joints. Buried penstocks are subject
need be considered : to corrosion, which can be eliminated or at least
greatly reduced by cathodic protection which
(a) Operational safety. As far as possible a single
prevents electrolysis from attacking the metal.
penstock should not be used for supplying to different
Exposed penstocks last longer and are more
turbines for generating power because any damage to this
accessible for inspection and maintenance.
penstock would mean shut down of the entire set of
turbines. 6.5.6. Surge Tanks
(b) Economy. From view point of economy, if the A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank in which the
length of penstock required is short then one penstock each water level rises or falls to reduce the pressure swings so
may be provided to the turbines, however for longer that they are not transmitted in full to a closed circuit. In
penstocks a single penstock or as few penstocks as possible general a surge tank serves the following purposes :
may be used.
1. To reduce the distance between the free water
(c) Transportation facilities. The penstock size surface and turbine thereby reducing the water-hammer
should be so selected that it is easily transported from one effect (the water hammer is defined as the change in
place to another. pressure rapidly above or below normal pressure
(iii) Penstock materials and their suitability : caused by sudden changes in the rate of water flow through
— Reinforced concrete penstocks are suitable upto the pipe according to the demand of prime mover) on
18 m head as greater pressures cause rapid penstock and also protect upstream tunnel from high
deterioration of concrete exposed to frost action. pressure rises.
2. To serve as a supply tank to the turbine when the 1. Simple surge tank. A simple surge tank is a
water in the pipe is accelerating during increased load vertical stand pipe connected to the penstock as shown in
conditions and as a storage tank when the water is Fig. 6.11. In the surge tank if the overflow is allowed, the
decelerating during reduced load conditions. rise in pressure can be eliminated but overflow surge tank
Types of surge tanks is seldom satisfactory and usually uneconomical. Surge
The different types of surge tanks in use are : tanks are built high enough so that water cannot overflow
even with a full load change on the turbine. It is always
1. Simple surge tank
desirable to place the surge tank on grond surface, above
2. Inclined surge tank the penstock line, at the point where the latter drops rapidly
3. The expansion chamber and gallery type surge to the power house as shown in Fig. 6.11. Under the
tank circumstances when suitable site for its location is not
4. Restricted orifice surge tank available the height of the tank should be increased with
5. Differential surge tank. the help of a support.
Dam
Reservoir level Surge tank
Reservoir
Hydraulic gradient line
Tunnel
Penstock
Power
house
Fig. 6.11. Surge tank on ground level.
2. Inclined surge tank. When a surge tank is ‘bottom gallery’ must be below the lowest steady running
inclined (Fig. 6.12) to the horizontal its effective water level in the surge tank. Besides this the intermediate shaft
surface increases and therefore, lesser height surge tank should have a stable minimum diameter.
is required of the same diameter if it is inclined or lesser
diameter tank is required for the same height. But this
type of surge tank is more costlier than ordinary type as
construction is difficult and is rarely used unless the
topographical conditions are in favour.
Inclined surge
tank
Conduit
Fig. 6.13. The expansion chamber surge tank.

Conduit
4. Restricted orifice surge tank. Refer to
Fig. 6.12. Inclined surge tank.
Fig. 6.14. It is also called throttled surge tank. The main
object of providing a throttle or restricted orifice is to create
3. Expansion chamber surge tank. Refer to an appreciable friction loss when the water is flowing to or
Fig. 6.13. This type of a surge tank has an expansion tank from the tank. When the load on the turbine is reduced,
at top and expansion gallery at the bottom ; these the surplus water passes through the throttle and a
expansions limit the extreme surges. The ‘upper expansion retarding head equal to the loss due to throttle is built up
chamber’ must be above the maximum reservoir level and in the conduit. The size of the throttle can be designed for
any designed retarding head. The size of the throttle 1. Impulse turbine. Here the pressure energy of
adopted is usually such as the initial retarding head is equal water is converted into kinetic energy when passed through
to the rise of water surface in the tank when the full load is the nozzle and forms the high velocity jet of water. The
rejected by the turbine (a case when there is closure of the formed water jet is used for driving the wheel.
gate valve). 2. Reaction turbine. In this case the water
pressure combined with the velocity works on the runner.
The power in this turbine is developed from the combined
action of pressure and velocity of water that completely fills
Surge tank the runner and water passage.
For more details on hydraulic turbines refer to
Arte 6.7.
6.5.8. Draft Tubes
The draft tube serves the following two purposes :
Restricted 1. It allows the turbine to be set above tail-water level,
orifice without loss of head, to facilitate inspection and
maintenance.
Conduit
2. It regains, by diffuser action, the major portion of
Fig. 6.14. Restricted orifice surge tank. the kinetic energy delivered to it from the runner.
At rated load the velocity at the upstream end of
Advantage. Storage function of the tank can be the tube for modern units ranges from 7 to 9 m/s,
separated from accelerating and retarding functions. representing from 2.7 to 4.8 m head. As the specific speed
Disadvantage. Considerable portion of water (it is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine running
hammer pressure is transmitted directly into the low under a unit head and producing unit power) is increased
pressure conduit. and the head reduced, it becomes increasingly important
In comparison to other types of surge tanks these to have an efficient draft tube. Good practice limits the
are less popular. velocity at the discharge end of the tube to 1.5 to 2.1 m/s,
5. Differential surge tank. Refer to Fig. 6.15. A representing less than 0.3 m velocity head loss.
differential surge tank has a riser with a small hole at its Types of draft tubes. The following two types of
lower end through which water enters in it. The function draft tubes are commonly used :
of the surge tank depends upon the area of hole. (i) The straight conical or concentric tube
(ii) The elbow type.
Properly designed, the two types are about equally
efficient, over 85%.
Riser
(i) Conical type. The conical type is generally used
on low-powered units for all specific speeds and, frequently,
on large high-head units. The side angle of flare ranges
from 4 to 6°, the length from 3 to 4 times the diameter and
the discharge area from four to five times the throat area.
Fig. 6.16 shows a straight conical draft tube.
Conduit
Fig. 6.15. Differential surge tank.
6.5.7. Prime Movers

In an hydraulic power plant the prime mover converts the
energy of water into mechanical energy and further into
electrical energy. These machines are classified on the basis
of the action of water on moving blades. As per action of
water on the prime mover, they are classified as :
Fig. 6.16. Straight conical draft tube
(ii) Elbow type. The elbow type of tube is now used (v) Relief valves
with most turbine installation. With this type the vertical (vi) Water circulating pumps
portion begins with a conical section which gradually (vii) Flow measuring equipment
flattens in the elbow section and then discharges
(viii) Air duct
horizontally through substantially regular sections to the
tailrace. Most of the regain of energy takes place in the (ix) Water circulating pumps
vertical portion, very little in the elbow section, which is (x) Switch board equipment and instruments
shaped to deliver the water to the horizontal portion so (xi) Oil circuit breakers
that the regain may be efficiently completed. Fig. 6.17 (xii) Reactors
shows an elbow type draft tube. One or two vertical piers (xiii) Low tension and high tension bar
are placed in the horizontal portion of the tube, for
(xiv) Storage batteries
structural and hydraulic reasons.
(xv) Cranes.
Small conical tubes are sometimes made entirely of
steel plate. Most tubes are made of concrete with a steel- Besides the above important equipment shops and
plate lining extending from the upper end to a point where offices are also provided in the power house.
the velocity has been sufficiently reduced (say 5 m/s) to
prevent erosion of the concrete. Sometimes the liner is 6.6. CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRO-
carried around the elbow. Pier noses are also lined where ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
necessary to prevent erosion for structural reasons.
Hydro-electric power stations may be classified as follows:
A. According to availability of head
1. High head power plants
2. Medium head power plants
3. Low head power plants
B. According to the nature of load
1. Base load plants
Fig. 6.17. Elbow type draft tube. 2. Peak load plants
C. Accordingly to the quantity of water
6.5.9. Powerhouse and Equipment
available
A powerhouse should have a stable structure and its layout 1. Run-of-river plant without pondage
should be such that adequate space is provided around the
2. Run-of-river plant with pondage
equipment (such as turbines, generators, valves, pumps,
governors etc.), so that the dismantling and repairing may 3. Storage type plants
be easily carried out. 4. Pump storage plants
A powerhouse, mostly, comprises of the following 5. Mini and microhydel plants
sub-divisons : A. According to availability of head
1. The substructure. This part of the powerhouse The following figures give a rough idea of the heads
extends from top of generator to the soil or rock and houses under which the various types of plants work :
most of the generating equipment. In case of Francis and
(i) High head power plants 100 m and above
Kaplan turbines the substructure not only accommodates
various equipment but draft tube as well. (ii) Medium head power plants 30 to 500 m
2. Intermediate structure. It is that part of the (iii) Low head power plants 25 to 80 m.
structure which extends from the top of the draft tube to Note. It may be noted that figures given above overlap
top of generator foundation. each other. Therefore it is difficult to classify the plants
3. The superstructure. This part of the structure, directly on the basis of head alone. The basis, therefore,
lies above the generator level. It houses mostly the cranes technically adopted is the specific speed of the turbine used
which handle the heavy equipment in the substructures. for a particular plant.
Following important equipment may be provided in 6.6.1. High Head Power Plants
a power house
These types of plants work under heads 100 m and above.
(i) Hydraulic turbines Water is usually stored up in lakes on high mountains
(ii) Electric generators during the rainy season or during the reason when the
(iii) Governors snow melts. The rate of flow should be such that water can
(iv) Gate valves last throughout the year.
Fig. 6.18 shows high head power plant layout. the stability of the main dam by erosion because they are
Surplus water discharged by the spillway cannot endanger separated. The tunnel through the mountain has a surge
chamber excavated near the exit. Flow is controlled by head
Headworks Surge chamber gates at the tunnel intake, butterfly valves at the top of
Spillway
Reservoir Tunnel the penstocks, and gate valves at the turbines. This type
Valve house of site might also be suitable for an underground station.
The Pelton wheel is the common prime mover used
in high head power plants.
Penstock
6.6.2. Medium Head Power Plants
Refer to Fig. 6.19. When the operating head of water lies
Power between 30 to 100 metres, the power plant is known as
house medium head power plant. This type of plant commonly
uses Francis turbines. The forebay provided at the
beginning of the penstock serves as water reservoir. In such
plants, the water is generally carried in open canals from
Fig. 6.18. High head power plant layout. The main dam, spillway, main reservoir to the forebay and then to the powerhouse
and powerhouse stand at widely separated locations. Water flows through the penstock. The forebay itself works as a surge
from the reservoir through a tunnel and penstock to the turbines. tank in this plant.
Inlet sluice gate

Dam
Forebay
(or surge tank)
Powerhouse
Penstock
River (or Trash
reservoir) rack
Inlet
valve Francis
turbine
Tailrace
Draft tube
Fig. 6.19. Medium head power plant layout.
6.6.3. Low Head Power Plants

Refer to Fig. 6.20. These plants usually consist of a dam across a river. A sideway stream diverges from the river at the
dam. Over this stream the power house is constructed. Later this channel joins the river further downstream. This type
of plant uses vertical shaft Francis turbine or Kaplan turbine.
Dam
River
Tailrace
Sluice gate Powerhouse

Canal
Forebay
Fig. 6.20. Low head power plant layout.

B. According to the nature of load firm capacity to the plant. During good flow conditions these
plants may cater to base load of the system, when flow
6.6.4. Base Load Plants reduces they may supply the peak demands. Head water
The plants which cater for the base load of the system are elevation for plant fluctuates with the flow conditions. These
called base load plants. These plants are required to supply plants without storage may sometimes be made to supply
a constant power when connected to the grid. Thus they the base load, but the firm capacity depends on the
run without stop and are often remote-controlled with which minimum flow of river. The run-of-river plant may be made
least staff is required for such plants. Run-of-river plants for load service with pondage, though storage is usually
without pondage may sometimes work as baseload plant, seasonal.
but the firm capacity in such cases, will be muchless.
6.6.7. Run-of-River Plant with Pondage
6.6.5. Peak Load Plants Pondage usually refers to the collection of water behind a
The plants which can supply the power during peak loads dam at the plant and increases the stream capacity for a
are known as peak load plants. Some of such plants supply short period, say a week. Storage means collection of water
the power during average load but also supply peak load in up stream reservoirs and this increases the capacity of
as and when it is there ; whereas other peak load plants the stream over an extended period of several months.
are required to work during peak load hours only. The run- Storage plants may work satisfactorily as base load and
of-river plants may be made for the peak load by providing peak load plants.
pondage. This type of plant, as compared to that without
C. According to the quantity of water available pondage, is more reliable and its generating capacity is less
dependent on the flow rates of water available.
6.6.6. Run-of-River Plants Without Pondage
6.6.8. Storage Type Plants
A run-of-river plant without pondage, as the name
indicates, does not store water and uses the water as it A storage type plant is one with a reservoir of sufficiently
comes. There is no control on flow of water so that during large size to permit carry-over storage from the wet reason
high floods or low loads water is wasted while during low to the dry reason, and thus to supply firm flow substantially
run-off the plant capacity is considerably reduced. Due to more than the minimum natural flow. This plant can be
non-uniformity of supply and lack of assistance from a firm used as base load plant as well as peak load plant as water
capacity the utility of these plants is much less than those is available with control as required. The majority of hydro-
of other types. The head on which these plants work varies electric plants are of this type.
considerably. Such a plant can be made a great deal more 6.6.9. Pumped Storage Plants
useful by providing sufficient storage at the plant to take
care of the hourly fluctuations in load. This lends some Refer to Fig. 6.21.
Dam
Head water pond
Penstock
Powerhouse with
pumps & turbines
Head
Tail water
pond
Dam
Fig. 6.21. Pumped storage plant.
Pumped storage plants are employed at the places energy available. This water can be again used for
where the quantity of water available for power generation generating power during peak load periods. Pumping of
is inadequate. Here the water passing through the turbines water may be done seasonally or daily depending upon the
is stored in ‘tail race pond’. During low load periods this conditions of the site and the nature of the load on the
water is pumped back to the head reservoir using the extra plant.
Such plants are usually interconnected with steam To reduce the cost of microhydel stations than that
or diesel engine plants so that off peak capacity of of the cost of conventional installation the following
interconnecting stations is used in pumping water and the considerations are kept in view :
same is used during peak load periods. Of course, the energy 1. The civil engineering work needs to be kept to a
available from the quantity of water pumped by the plant minimum and designed to fit in with already
is less than the energy input during pumped operation. existing structures e.g., irrigation, channels,
Again while using pumped water the power available is locks, small dams etc.
reduced on account of losses occurring in prime movers. 2. The machines need to be manufactured in a
Advantages. The pump storage plants entail the small range of sizes of simplified design, allowing
following advantages : the use of unified tools and aimed at reducing
the cost of manufacture.
1. There is substantial increase in peak load
capacity of the plant at comparatively low capital 3. These installations must be automatically
cost. controlled to reduce attending personnel.
4. The equipment must be simple and robust, with
2. Due to load comparable to rated load on the
easy accessibility to essential parts for
plant, the operating efficiency of the plant is
maintenance.
high.
5. The units must be light and adequately
3. There is an improvement in the load factor of
subassembled for ease of handling and transport
the plant. and to keep down erection and dismantling costs.
4. The energy available during peak load periods Microhydel plants (micro-stations) make use of
is higher than that of during off peak periods so standardised bulb sets with unit output ranging from 100
that inspite of losses incurred in pumping there to 1000 kW working under heads between 1.5 to 10 metres.
is over-all gain.
5. Load on the hydro-electric plant remains 6.7. HYDRAULIC TURBINES
uniform.
A hydraulic turbine converts the potential energy of water
6. The hydro-electric plant becomes partly
into mechanical energy which in turn is utilised to run an
independent of the stream flow conditions.
electric generator to get electric energy.
Under pump storage projects almost 70 per cent
power used in pumping the water can be recovered. In this
6.7.1. Classification of Hydraulic Turbines
field the use of “Reversible Turbine Pump” units is also The hydraulic turbines are classified as follows :
worth noting. These units can be used as turbine while (i) According to the head and quantity of water
generating power and as pump while pumping water to available.
storage. The generator in this case works as motor during (ii) According to the name of the originator.
reverse operation. The efficiency in such case is high and (iii) According to the action of water on the moving
almost the same in both the operations. With the use of blades.
reversible turbine pump sets, additional capital investment (iv) According to the direction of flow of water in the
on pump and its motor can be saved and the scheme can runner.
be worked more economically. (v) According to the disposition of the turbine shaft.
(vi) According to the specific speed Ns.
6.6.10. Mini and Microhydel Plants
1. According to the head and quantity of water
In order to meet with the present energy crisis partly, a available :
solution is to develop mini (5 to 20 m head) and micro (less (i) Impulse turbine—requires high head and small
than 5 m head) hydel potential in our country. The low quantity of flow.
head hydro-potential is scattered in this country and (ii) Reaction turbine—requires low head and high
estimated potential from such sites could be as much as rate of flow.
20,000 MW.
Actually there are two types of reaction turbines,
By proper planning and implementation, it is one for medium head and medium flow and the other for
possible to commission a small hydro-generating set up of low head and large flow.
5 MW with a period of one and half year against the period 2. According to the name of the originator :
of a decade or two for large capacity power plants. Several
(i) Pelton turbine—named after Lester Allen Pelton
such sets upto 1000 kW each have been already installed of California (USA). It is an impulse type of
in Himachal Pradesh, U.P., Arunachal Pradesh, West turbine and is used for high head and low
Bengal and Bhutan. discharge.
(ii) Francis turbine—named after James Bichens The specific speeds for the various types of runners
Francis. It is a reaction type of turbine for are given below :
medium high to medium low heads and medium
small to medium large quantities of water. Type of turbine Type of runner Specific speed (Ns)
(iii) Kaplan turbine—named after Dr. Victor Kaplan.
It is a reaction type of turbine for low heads and
LM Slow 10 to 20
large quantities of flow.

Pelton
MN Fast
Normal 20 to 28
28 to 35
3. According to action of water on the moving
blades :
LM Slow 60 to 120
Impulse turbine—Pelton turbine

Francis
MN Normal
Fast
120 to 180
180 to 300
Kaplan — 300 to 1000
Turbine Turbines with low specific speeds work under a high

head and low discharge condition, while high specific speed
Francis turbine turbines work under low head and high discharge
Reaction turbine
Kaplan and conditions.
Propeller turbines 6.7.2. Description of Various Types of Turbines
4. According to direction of flow of water in 6.7.2.1. Impulse turbines
the runner :
Pelton wheel, among the various impulse turbines that
(i) Tangential flow turbine (Pelton turbine)
have been designed and utilized, is by far the important.
(ii) Radial flow turbine (no more used) The Pelton wheel or Pelton turbine is a tangential flow
(iii) Axial flow turbine (Kaplan turbine) impulse turbine. It consists of a rotor, at the periphery of
(iv) Mixed (radial and axial) flow turbine (Francis which are mounted equally spaced double-hemispherical
turbine) or double-ellipsoidal buckets. Water is transferred from a
In tangential flow turbine of Pelton type the water high head source through penstock pipes. A branch pipe
strikes the runner tangential to the path of rotation. from each penstock pipe ends in a nozzle, through which
In axial flow turbine water flows parallel to the axis the water flows out as a high speed jet. A needle or spear
of the turbine shaft. Kaplan turbine is an axial flow turbine. moving inside the nozzle controls the water flow through
In Kaplan turbine the runner blades are adjustable and the nozzle and at the same time, provides a smooth flow
can be rotated about pivots fixed to the boss of the runner. with negligible energy loss. All the available potential
If the runner blades of the axial flow turbines are fixed, energy is thus converted into kinetic energy before the jet
these are called “Propeller turbines”. strikes the buckets. The pressure all over the wheel is
constant and equal to atmosphere, so that energy transfer
In mixed flow turbines the water enters the blades
occurs due to purely impulse action.
radially and comes out axially, parallel to the turbine shaft.
Modern Francis turbines have mixed flow runners. Fig. 6.22 shows a schematic diagram of a Pelton
wheel, while Fig. 6.23 shows two views of its bucket.
5. According to the disposition of the turbine
shaft : Turbine shaft may be either vertical or horizontal. The jet emerging from the nozzle hits the splitter
In modern turbine practice, Pelton turbines usually have symmetrically and is equally distributed into the two halves
horizontal shafts whereas the rest, especially the large of hemispherical bucket as shown. The bucket centre-line
units, have vertical shafts. cannot be made exactly like a mathematical cusp, partly
because of manufacturing difficulties and partly because
6. According to specific speed : The specific speed
the jet striking the cusp invariably carries particles of sand
of a turbine is defined as the speed of a geometrically similar
and other abrasive materials which tend to wear it down.
turbine that would develop one brake horse power under
The inlet angle of the jet is therefore between 1° and 3°,
the head of one metre. All geometrically similar turbines
but it is always assumed to be zero in all calculations.
(irrespective of their sizes) will have the same specific speed
Theoretically, if the bucket were exactly hemispherical, it
when operating under the same conditions of head and flow.
would deflect the jet through 180°. Then, the relative
N Pt velocity of the jet leaving the bucket, Cr , would be opposite
Specific speed, Ns  2
H 5/ 4 in direction to the relative velocity of the entering jet Cr .
1
where, N = The normal working speed in r.p.m., This cannot be achieved in practice since the jet leaving
Pt = Power output of the turbine, and the bucket would then strike the back of the succeeding
H = The net or effective head in metres. bucket to cause splashing and interference so that the overall
turbine efficiency would fall to low values. Hence, in T

practice, the angular deflection of the jet in the bucket is
limited to about 165° or 170°, and the bucket is therefore,
slightly smaller than a hemisphere in size. Jet diameter
d
10° to 15°
e
d B
Casing
Splitter
Buckets
Penstock Runner
L
Nozzle L
= 2.5 – 2.8,
d
D
= 14 – 16,
d
Jet of water T
= 0.95, Notch (width) = 1.1d + 5 mm
Spear d
Fig. 6.23. The bucket dimensions.
Fig. 6.24 shows a section through horizontal-impulse
turbine.
Fig. 6.22. Pelton wheel.
Hydraulic
brake
Needle Penstock
gate
valve
Baffle
plate
Jet deflector
Tail water elevation Nozzle pipe
Fig. 6.24. Section through horizontal-impulse turbine.
Velocity triangles  = Angle between the direction of the jet and

Refer to Fig. 6.25. direction of motion of the vane/bucket
(also called guide angle),
Let, Cbl = Peripheral (or circumferential) velocity
of runner. It will be same at inlet and  = Angle made by the relative velocity ( Cr )
1
outlet of the runners at the mean pitch with the direction of motion at inlet (also
diameter (i.e., Cbl  Cbl = Cbl), called vane angle at inlet),
1 2
Cw1 and Cf1 = The components of the velocity of the jet
C1 = Absolute velocity of water jet at inlet,
C1, in the direction of motion and
Cr1 = Jet velocity relative to vane/bucket at perpendicular to the direction of motion
inlet, of the vane respectively.
To be fixed and Cw2 = Cr2 cos  – Cbl2

to runner
A A = Cr2 cos  – Cbl
The force exerted by the jet of water in the direction
of motion is given as
Splitter F = aC1 ( Cw  Cw ) ...(6.1)
1 2
Cbl2 Cw
[ and a are mass density and area of jet (a = /4 d2)
2 respectively]
Outlet f b Now the work done by the jet on the runner per
C2
Cf 2 Cbl1 = Cbl2 second
Cr
2 = F × Cbl
= aC1 ( Cw  Cw ) × Cbl ...(6.2)
1 2
Angle of
C1
deflection Work done/sec per unit weight of water striking
M N
Inlet L aC1 (Cw1  Cw2 )  Cbl
=
Cbl
1
Cr
1
Weight of water striking
Cw
1 aC1 (Cw1  Cw2 )  Cbl
=
aC1  g
Fig. 6.25. Velocity triangles.
1
= (Cw1  Cw2 )  Cbl ...(6.3)
Cw1 is also known as velocity of whirl at inlet g
The energy supplied to the jet at inlet is in the form
Cf1 is also known as velocity of flow at inlet
1
of kinetic energy and is equal to mC2.
C2 = Velocity of jet, leaving the vane or 2
velocity of jet at outlet of the vane.  Kinetic energy (K.E.) of jet per second
Cr2 = Relative velocity of the jet with respect 1
= (aC1) × C12
2
to the vane at outlet.
 Hydraulic efficiency,
 = Angle made by the relative velocity Cr ,
2 Work done per second
with the direction of motion of vane at h =
K. E. of jet per second
outlet and also called vane angle at outlet.
aC1 (Cw1  Cw2 )  Cbl
 = Angle made by the velocity C2 with the =
1
direction of motion of the vane at outlet. ( aC1 )  C12
2
Cw2 and Cf2 = Components of the velocity C2, in the
2(Cw1  Cw2 )  Cbl
direction of motion of vane and = ...(6.4)
C12
perpendicular to the direction of motion
of vane at outlet. Now, Cw1 = C1, Cr1
Cw2 is also called the velocity of whirl at outlet = C1 – Cbl1 = (C1 – Cbl)
Cf2 is also called velocity of flow at outlet.  Cr2 (= Cr1 ) = C1 – Cbl
Inlet. The velocity triangle at inlet will be a straight and Cw2 = Cr2 cos  – Cbl2
line where = Cr cos  – Cbl
2
Cr1 = C1 – Cbl1 = C1 – Cbl
= (C1 – Cbl) cos  – Cbl
Cw1 = C1,  = 0 Substituting the value of Cw and Cw in eqn. (6.4),
1 2
and =0 we get:
Outlet. From the velocity triangle at outlet, we have 2[C1  (C1  Cbl ) cos   Cbl ]  Cbl
h =
Cr = Cr (assuming no friction)
2 1 C12
2[(C1  Cbl )  (C1  Cbl ) cos  ]  Cbl 4. The mean diameter or the pitch diameter D of
= the Pelton wheel is given by
C12
DN
2(C1  Cbl ) (1  cos  ) Cbl Cbl =
= ...(6.5) 60
C12
60Cbl
The efficiency will be maximum for a given value of or D=
C1 when N
d D
(h )  0 5. Jet ratio (M) = (= 12 for most cases) ...(6.8)
dCbl d
LM OP LM D  Pitch diameter of the Pelton wheelOP

or
d
dCbl
2 Cbl (C1  Cbl ) (1  cos )
MN C12
0
PQ Nd  Diameter of the jet Q
6. Number of buckets on a runner
(1  cos ) d
2
. (2Cbl C1 – 2Cbl2) = 0 D
C1 dCbl = 15 + = 15 + 0.5M ...(6.9)
2d
d
or (2Cbl C1 – 2Cbl2) = 0 7. Number of jets is obtained by dividing the total
dCbl
rate of flow through the turbine by the rate of flow of water
F∵ 1  cos  I
GH C12
0JK through a single jet.
6.7.2.2. Reaction turbines
2C1 – 4Cbl = 0
In reaction turbines, the runner utilizes both potential and
C1
Cbl = ...(6.6) kinetic energies. As the water flows through the stationary
2 parts of the turbine, whole of its pressure energy is not
The above equation states that hydraulic efficiency transferred to kinetic energy and when the water flows
of a Pelton wheel is maximum when the velocity of the wheel through the moving parts, there is a change both in the
is half the velocity of the jet of water at inlet. The maximum pressure and in the direction and velocity of flow of water.
efficiency can be obtained by substituting the value of As the water gives up its energy to the runner, both its
C1 pressure and absolute velocity get reduced. The water
Cbl = in eqn. (6.5).
2 which acts on the runner blades is under a pressure above
C1 LM OP
C
(1  cos )  1
atmospheric and the runner passages are always completely
 Max. h =
2 N
2 C1 
Q
2 filled with water.
C12 Francis turbines
C C Refer to Fig. 6.26 (a), (b). The modern Francis water
2  1 (1  cos ) 1
= 2 2 turbine is an inward mixed flow reaction turbine i.e. the
C12 water under pressure, enters the runner from the guide
FG 1  cos  IJ vanes towards the centre in radial direction and discharges
=
H 2 K ...(6.7) out of the runner axially. The Francis turbine operates
under medium heads and also requires medium quantity
Important relations for Pelton wheel : of water. It is employed in the medium head power plants.
1. The velocity of the jet at inlet is given by This type of turbine covers a wide range of heads. Water is
brought down to the turbine and directed to a number of
C1 = Cv 2 gH stationary orifices fixed all around the circumference of
where Cv = Coefficient of velocity = 0.98 or 0.99 and H = Net the runner. These stationary orifices are commonly termed
head on turbine. as guide vanes or wicket gates.
2. The velocity of wheel (Cbl) is given by The head acting on the turbine is partly transformed
into kinetic energy and the rest remains as pressure head.
Cbl =  2 gH There is a difference of pressure between the guide vanes
where  = Speed ratio. It varies from 0.43 to 0.48. and the runner which is called the reaction pressure and is
3. The angle of deflection of the jet through buckets responsible for the motion of the runner. That is why a
is taken as 165° if no angle of deflection is given. Francis turbine is also known as reaction turbine.
water making, thus, the entire water passage, right from

the head race upto the tail race, totally enclosed.
The inlet and outlet triangles are shown in the
Fig. 6.27.
Cbl
2
f b = 90°
Cf = C 2
Cr 2
2
(a)
C1
Shaft Guide blades Cr Cf
a 1 q 1
Spiral casing
Cbl
1
Cw
1
2.5 to D Fig. 6.27. The inlet and outlet triangles.

Runner
3D Draft tube
tailrace As in case of Francis turbine, the discharge is axial
0.5 to 1D at outlet, the velocity of whirl at outlet (i.e., Cw ) will be
2
From penstock zero. Hence the work done by water on the runner per
second will be
Guide wheel = Q( Cw Cbl )

1 1
And work done per second per unit weight of water

1
Guide blades =[Cw1 Cbl1 ]
g
Hydraulic efficiency will be given by,
Rotor blades
(b) Cw1 Cbl1
h = ...(6.10)
Fig. 6.26. Schematic diagram of a Francis turbine. gH
In Francis turbine the pressure at the inlet is more Important relations for Francis turbine :
than that at the outlet. This means that the water in the 1. The ratio of width of the wheel to its diameter
turbine must flow in a closed conduit. Unlike the Pelton varies from 0.10 to 0.40.
type, where the water strikes only a few of the runner
Cf1
buckets at a time, in the Francis turbine the runner is 2. Flow ratio = and varies from 0.15 to 0.30.
always full of water. The moment of the runner is affected 2 gH
by the change of both the potential and the kinetic energies Cbl1
of water. After doing its work the water is discharged to 3. The speed ratio = and varies from 0.6
2 gH
the tail race through a closed tube of gradually enlarging to 0.9.
section. This tube is known as draft tube. It does not allow
Fig. 6.28 shows a plate-steel spiral-case setting of
water to fall freely to tail race level as in the Pelton turbine.
vertical Francis turbine, welded casing.
The free end of the draft tube is submerged deep in the tail
Permanent magnet
generator for governor Maximum
tail water
Generator
CL of turbine Tail water

Penstock and guide
case
Mandoor
End of
Mandoor steel liner
Elbow
draft tube Supporting
Casing drain vanes
Fig. 6.28. Plate-steel spiral-case setting of vertical Francis turbine, welded casing.
Propeller and Kaplan turbines is modification of propeller turbine the runner blades are
The need to utilize low heads where large volumes adjustable and can be rotated about pivots fixed to the boss
of water are available makes it essential to provide a large of the runner. The blades are adjusted automatically by
flow area and to run the machine at very low speeds. The servo-mechanism so that at all loads the flow enters them
propeller turbine is a reaction turbine used for heads without shock.
between 4 m and 80 m, and has a specific speed ranging Kaplan turbines have taken the place of Francis
from 300 to 1000. It is purely axial-flow device providing turbines for certain medium head installations. Kaplan
the largest possible flow area that will utilize a large volume turbines with shoping guide vanes to reduce the overall
of water and still obtain flow velocities which are not too dimensions are being used.
large.
Shaft
Vanes
Fig. 6.29. Propeller turbine.
The propeller turbine (Fig. 6.29) consists of an axial-

flow runner with four to six or at most ten blades of air-foil
shape. The spiral casing and guide blades are similar to Hub
those in Francis turbines. In the propeller turbine as in
Francis turbine the runner blades are fixed and non- (a)
adjustable. However in a Kaplan turbine (Fig. 6.30), which
Water inlet
from penstock
Scroll
Main casing
shaft Scroll
casing
Guide
vane
Tail Guide
Runner Flow Boss race wheel
blade Link
Runner
blade
Draft
tube
(b) (c)
Fig. 6.30. Schematic diagram of a Kaplan turbine.

Fig. 6.31 shows a cross-section of typical low head concrete spiral-case setting, with Kaplan turbine.
Crane
Crane
Governor cabinet
Motor Head
generator water
set
Cable
Tail water
trays
Fig. 6.31. Cross-section of typical low head concrete spiral-case setting, with Kaplan turbine.
Important Kaplan Turbine Installations in India
S. No. Scheme/Project Location (State) Source of water
1. Bhakra-Nangal project Gangwal and Kota (Punjab) Nangal hydel

2. Hirakud dam project Hirakud (Odisha) Mahanadi river
3. Nizam Sagar project Nizam sagar (Andhra Pradesh) Nanjira river
4. Radhanagri hydroelectric scheme Kolhapur (Maharashtra) Bhagvati river
5. Tungbhadra hydroelectric scheme Tungbhadra (Karnataka) Tungbhadra river
Differences between Francis Turbine and Kaplan Turbine
S. No. Aspect Francis turbine Kaplan turbine
1. Type of turbine Radially inward or mixed flow Partially axial flow

2. Disposition of shaft Horizontal or vertical Only vertical
3. Adjustability of runner vanes Runner vanes are not adjustable Runner vanes are
adjustable
4. Number of vanes Large, 16 to 24 blades Small 3 to 8 blades
5. Resistance to be overcome Large, (owing to large number of Less (owing to
vanes and greater area of contact fewer number of
with water) vanes and less
wetted area)
6. Head Medium (60 m to 250 m) Low (upto 30 m)
7. Flow rate Medium Large
8. Specific speed 50–250 250–850
9. Type of governor Ordinary Heavy duty
Working proportions : The expressions for work

100
done, efficiency and power developed by axial flow propeller Efficiency percentage
and Kaplan turbines are identical to those of a Francis 90 Kaplan
turbine, and the working proportions are obtained in an 80
identical fashion. However, the following deviations need Fixed blade
to be noted carefully. 70 propeller
1. In case of a propeller/Kaplan turbine, the ratio n 60
Db FG B IJ 50
is taken as
D0 H
and not
D
,
K 0 20 40 60 80
Full load, percentage
100 120 140
where, D0 = Outside diameter of the runner, and

Db = Diameter of boss (or hub). Fig. 6.32. Comparison of efficiencies of propeller
(fixed blades) and Kaplan turbines.
Discharge Q = Area of flow × Velocity of flow
 Tubular (or Bulb) turbines
= (D02 – Db2) × Vf
4 Kaplan turbine when employed for very low head
 has to be installed below the tail race level, thus requiring
= (D02 – Db2) × Kf 2gH a deep excavation. Further for Kaplan turbine installation
4
(where Kf = flow ratio) there are a number of bends at inlet casing and the draft
tube of elbow type through which the water flows describing
 2
or Q= D0 (1  n2 )  K f 2 gH ...(6.9) ‘Z ’ path giving rise to continuous losses at the bends.
4 Whenever the turbine is repaired or dismantled, the
F∵ Db I generator has to be removed first. The cost of turbine and
GH n
D0
; Db  nD0 JK that of civil engineering works using conventional Kaplan
turbine with deep excavation is very high. The efficiency
The value of n ranges from 0.35 to 0.60. of such plants working under low head is less due to
The value of Kf ~ 0.70. excessive losses at the bends. Therefore, efforts have been
2. The peripheral velocity u of the runner vanes made to reduce the overall cost and improve the efficiency
depends upon the radius of the point under consideration of the power plant keeping these two things in view.
and thus the blade angles vary from the rim to the boss In 1937 Arno Fischer developed in Germany a
and the vanes are warped ; this is necessary to ensure shock modified axial flow turbine which is known as tubular
free entry and exit. turbine. The turbo-generator set using tubular turbine has
3. The velocity of flow remains constant throughout. an outer casing having the shape of a bulb. Such a set is
now termed as bulb set and the turbine used for the set is
Fig. 6.32 shows the comparison of efficiencies of called a bulb turbine. The bulb unit is a water tight
propeller (fixed blades) and Kaplan turbines. assembly of turbine and generator with horizontal axis,
submerged in a stream of water. The economical harnessing head for axial flow turbines. As this energy cannot be used
of fairly low heads on major rivers is now possible with in the runner, therefore, it becomes necessary to find a
high-output bulb turbines. way out to extract this energy. An expanding pressure
Fig. 6.33 shows a power station (87300 kW) under a conduit hermetically fixed at runner outlet and having the
head of 10 m, provided with six 14550 kW bulb sets running other end below the minimum tail water level helps to
at 125 r.p.m. convert the velocity head into pressure or potential head.
This expanding device is called draft tube. Draft tube is
an integral part of mixed and axial flow turbines. Because
of the draft tube it is possible to have the pressure at runner
outlet much below the atmospheric pressure.
The draft tube serves the following two purposes :
1. It allows the turbine to be set above tail-water
level, without loss of head, to facilitate inspection
and maintenance.
2. It regains, by diffuse action, the major portion of
the kinetic energy delivered to it from the runner.
At rated load, the velocity at the upstream end of
20.80 m 22.80 m
the tube for modern units ranges from 7 to 9 m/s,
Fig. 6.33. Power station—using bulb turbines. representing from 2.7 to 4.8 m head. As the specific speed
(it is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine running
Runaway speed under a unit head and producing unit power) is increased
‘Runaway speed ’ is the maximum speed, governor and the head reduced, it becomes increasingly important
being disengaged, at which a turbine would run when there to have an efficient draft tube. Good practice limits the
is no external load but operating under design head and velocity at the discharge end of the tube from 1.5 to 2.1 m/s,
discharge. All the rotating parts including the rotor of representing less than 0.3 m velocity head loss.
alternator should be designed for the centrifugal stresses Draft tube theory : Consider a turbine fitted with
caused by this maximum speed. a draft tube (conical) as shown in Fig. 6.34.
The practical values of run away speeds for various
Turbine casing
turbines with respect to their rated speed N are as follows :
Pelton wheel ... 1.8 to 1.9 N
Francis turbine (mixed flow) ... 2.0 to 2.2 N 2 V2 2
Inlet of draft tube
Kaplan turbine (axial flow) ... 2.5 to 3.0 N
Hs Draft tube
Draft tube y2
Atmospheric
In the case of mixed and axial flow turbines only a pressure (pa)
part of available energy is converted into velocity energy Tailrace
at the inlet to the runner ; the rest is in the form of pressure
y
energy. This residual pressure is converted into velocity in
the runner, as a consequence of which the outlet velocity
increases. With the increase in the value of specific speed 3 V3 3
2
Outlet of draft tube
Ns, the exit velocity energy V2 increases compared with Fig. 6.34. Draft tube theory.
2g
H (the available energy). Let y = Distance of the bottom of draft tube from
In the Pelton Wheel all the available energy is tail race, and pa = atmospheric pressure at the surface of
converted into velocity energy before it strikes the wheel. tailrace.
As such it works under atmospheric conditions and the Applying Bernoulli’s equation to the section 2-2
wheel has to be placed above the maximum tail water level. (representing the runner exit or inlet of the draft tube)
The loss of energy due to exit velocity varies from 1 to 4%. and the section 3-3 (representing the draft tube exit) ;
In the case of mixed and axial flow turbines a large assuming section 3-3 as the datum line, we have:
portion of the energy is associated with the water as it p2 V22 p V2
  y2  3  3  0  hf ...(i)
leaves the runner. This exit energy varies from 4 to 25% w 2g w 2g
for mixed flow turbines and from 20 to 50% of the total where, hf = Loss of energy between sections 2-2 and 3-3.
p2
Rewriting the above expression (i) for , we obtain:
w
p2 p V 2  V32F I
w
 3  y2  2
w 2g GH
 hf JK ...(ii)
p3 p
Substituting  a + y in expression (ii), we get:
w w
p2 pa V 2  V32 F I
w

w
 ( y  y2 )  2
2g GH
 hf JK
The term (y2 – y) which represents the vertical
distance between the runner exit and the tail water level Fig. 6.35. Straight conical draft tube.
is called the suction head of draft tube and is denoted
V22  V32
by Hs. Correspondingly the factor is called the Vertical
2g leg
dynamic head.
p2 p F
V 2  V32 I

w
 a  Hs  2
w 2g GH hf JK ...[6.10 (a)]
Horizontal leg
p2
In eqn. [6.10 (a)], is less than atmospheric
w Fig. 6.36. Elbow type draft tube.
pressure.
The efficiency of a draft tube (d) is defined as 2. Elbow type. The elbow type of tube is used with
the ratio of net gain in pressure head to the velocity head at most turbine installations. This type of draft tube is
entrance of draft tube. Thus designed to turn the water from the vertical to the horizontal
direction with a minimum depth of excavation and at the
Net gain in pressure head same time having a high efficiency. The transition from a
d = circular section in the vertical leg to a rectangular section
Velocity head at entrance of draft tube
in the horizontal leg takes place in the bend. The horizontal
FV 2
 V32 I portion of the draft tube is generally inclined upwards to
GH 2
2g
 hf JK lead the water gradually to the level of the tail race and to
= ...(6.11) prevent entry of air from the exit end. The exit end of the
V22 draft tube must be totally immersed in water. Fig. 6.36
2g shows an elbow type draft tube. One or two vertical piers
where, V2 = Velocity of water at section 2-2 are placed in the horizontal portion of the tube, for
(inlet of draft tube). structural and hydraulic reasons.
V3 = Velocity of water at section 3-3 Moody spreading draft tube. Fig. 6.37 shows a
Moody’s spreading draft tube. It is provided with a solid
(outlet of draft tube).
central core of conical shape which reduces whirling action
V22  V32 V2 of discharge water. The efficiency of such a draft tube is
hf   d  2 ...[6.11 (a)]
2g 2g about 85%. It is suited particularly for helical flows which
Types of draft tubes : occur when the water leaves the runner with a whirl
component.
The following two types of draft tubes are commonly
used :
1. The straight conical or concentric tube ;
2. The elbow type.
Solid conical
Properly designed, the two types are about equally core
efficient, over 85 per cent.
1. Conical type. The conical type draft tube is
generally used on low-powered units for all specific speeds,
frequently, on large-head units. The side angle of flare
ranges from 4 to 6°, the length from 3 to 4 times the
diameter and the discharge area from four to five times Fig. 6.37. Moody’s spreading draft tube or ‘Hydrocone’.
the throat area. Fig. 6.35 shows a straight conical
draft tube.
Comparison of hydraulic turbines : P

 ...(i)
A. Francis turbine versus Pelton wheel wQ H
The Francis turbine claims the following advantages where, P = Shaft power (S.P.),
over Pelton wheel :
Q = Discharge through turbine,
1. In Francis turbine the variation in the operating
H = Head under which turbine is working,
head can be more easily controlled.
2. In Francis turbine the ratio of maximum and w = Weight density of water.
minimum operating head can be even two. From eqn. (i),
3. The operating head can be utilized even when P = o × w × Q × H
the variation in the tail water level is relatively  Q × H (as o and w are constants)
large when compared to the total head. ...(ii)
4. The mechanical efficiency of Pelton decreases Let, D = Diameter of actual turbine,
faster with wear than Francis. N = Speed of actual turbine,
5. The size of the runner, generator and power
Cbl = Tangential velocity of the turbine,
house required is small and economical if the
Francis turbine is used instead of Pelton wheel Ns = Specific speed of the turbine, and
for same power generation. C = Absolute velocity of water.
Drawbacks of Francis turbine The relation between C, Cbl and H is as given below:
As compared with Pelton wheel, the Francis turbine Cbl  C, where C  H
has the following drawbacks :
 H ...(iii)
1. Water which is not clean can cause very rapid
wear in high head Francis turbine. But the tangential velocity Cbl is given by:
2. The overhaul and inspection is much more DN
Cbl =  DN ...(iv)
difficult comparatively. 60
3. Cavitation is an ever-present danger.  From eqns. (iii) and (iv), we have:
4. The water hammer effect is more trouble some H
with Francis turbine. H  DN or D ...(v)
N
5. If Francis turbine is run below 50% head for a The discharge (Q) through the turbine is given by:
long period it will not only lose its efficiency but
Q = Area × velocity
also the cavitation danger will become more
serious. But Area  B × D (where B = width)
 D2 (∵ B  D)
B. Kaplan verses Francis turbine
Kaplan turbine claims the following advantages over F H I 2
Francis turbine :
 Q  D2 H  GH N JK H
1. For the same power developed Kaplan turbine
is more compact in construction and smaller in
LM∵ From eqn. (v), D 
H OP
size. MN N PQ
2. Part-load efficiency is considerably high. H H 3/ 2
3. Low frictional losses (because of small number  H 
N2 N2
of blades used).
Substituting the value of Q in eqn. (ii), we get:
6.7.3. Specific Speed of a Turbine
H 3/ 2 H5/2
The specific speed of a turbine is defined as the speed of a P 2
×H
N N2
turbine which is identical in shape, geometrical dimensions,
blade angles, gate opening etc., with the actual turbine but H5/2
 P=K
of such a size that it will develop unit horse power when N2
working under unit head. where, K = constant of proportionality.
The specific speed may be derived as follows : If P = 1 kW, H = 1 m, the speed N = specific speeds
The overall efficiency (o) of any turbine is given by Ns. Substituting these values in the above equation, we get:
Power available at the shaft of the turbine K  15 / 2
o = 1= or Ns2 = K
Power supplied at the inlet of the turbine N s2
H5/2 N2P If a runner of high specific speed is used for a given

 P = Ns2 or Ns2 = head horse power output, the overall cost of installation is
N2 H 5/2 lower. The selection of too high specific speed reaction
N2P N P runner would reduce the size of the runner to such an extent
 Ns = 5/ 2
 that the discharge velocity of water into the throat of draft
H H 5/4
tube would be excessive. This is objectionable because a
N P vacuum may be created in the extreme case.
i.e., Specific speed, Ns = ...(6.12)
H 5/4 The runner of too high specific speed with available
(where P is in kW and H in metres) head increases the cost of turbine on account of high
mechanical strength required. The runner of too low specific
[Ns (S.I. Units) = 0.86 Ns (metric)]
speed with low available head increases the cost of generator
Specific speed plays an important role for selecting due to the low turbine speed.
the type of the turbine. Also the performance of a turbine An increase in specific speed of turbine is
can be predicted by knowing the specific speed of the accompanied by lower maximum efficiency and greater
turbine. depth of excavation of the draft tube. In choosing a high
To compare the characteristics of machines of specific speed turbine, an increase in cost of excavation of
different types, it is necessary to know a characteristic of foundation and draft tube should be considered in addition
an imaginary machine identical in shape. The imaginary to the efficiency. The weighted efficiency over the operating
turbine is called a specific turbine. The specific speed range of turbine is more important in the selection of a
provides a means of comparing the speed of all types of turbine instead of maximum efficiency.
hydraulic turbines on the basis of head and horse power Table 6.1 gives the specific speeds for various
capacity. turbines.
Table 6.1. Specific speeds
Specific speed (Ns )

Type of turbine
M.K.S. Units S.I. Units
R| Slow 4–10 3.5–8.5

Impulse (Pelton) S| Normal 10–25 8.5–21.5
T Fast 25–60 21.5–51.5
Radial and mixed flow R| Slow 60–150 51.5–130

(Francis and Deriaz) S| Normal 150–250 130–215
T Fast 250–400 215–345
R| Slow 300–450 255–385

Axial flow (Kaplan) S| Normal 450–700 385–600
T Fast 700–1000 600–860
Unit Quantities : u V V H
Let us consider a single unit. When the head on the  r   ...(6.13)
u Vr  V  H
unit is changed/varied then the speed of an ungoverned If the discharges are Q and Q then
turbine changes. The velocities at various points do not
change direction but their magnitudes vary in proportion Q V N H
   ...(6.14)
to the square root of the head. Q V  N  H
At a given point in the turbine under a head H, let If the power outputs are P and P then
V = Absolute velocity, P QH H H FG IJ
H
3/ 2
Vr = Relative velocity,

P  Q H 

H

H

H K
H
...(6.15)
F∵ Q H I
u = Peripheral velocity, and
V, Vr, u = Corresponding values at a different head
GH Q
 J
H K
H, then as velocity is proportional to The hydraulic efficiency of the turbine under these
H , we have two heads may be considered to be nearly same, as the
velocity triangles at these heads are similar at a point.
If the various quantities are reduced to a theoretical H

one metre head the comparison of performance data and The parameter is called head co-efficient,
N 2 D2
computations of experimental values on a single unit are CH .
considerably simplified, (ii) Capacity or flow co-efficient, CQ :
N Discharge through the turbine,
Then Nu = ...(6.16)
H Q = Area × Velocity = A × Vf
Q But A  D2
Qu = ...(6.17)
H
and Vf = K f 2 gH  H
P
Pu = 3 / 2 ...(6.18)
H  Q  D2 H
The above quantities are called unit quantities of Substituting the value of Q in eqn. (6.22), we obtain
a turbine. Unit speed is the hypothetical speed of the turbine
operating under one metre head. Similarly other Q  D2 × ND  ND3
proportionality constants in eqns. (6.17) and (6.18) are Q
defined. or = constant ...(6.23)
ND3
For presenting the performance of geometrically
Q
similar turbines independent of the actual head, discharge The parameter, is called the capacity or flow
and power output the unit characteristics prove quite ND3
co-efficient, CQ.
helpful. Geometrically similar turbines will have the
same unit characteristics under similar operating (iii) Power co-efficient Cp :
conditions. Thus with the help of a model the performance The shaft power available from a turbine,
of a prototype can be predicted within certain limits. P = o × wQH  Q.H.
If a turbine is working under different heads the But Q  ND3
behaviour of the turbine can be easily known from the
values of the unit quantities as follows : and H  N 2D 2
Let H1, H2 = Heads under which a turbine works,  P  ND3 × N 2D2  N 3D5
N1, N2 = Corresponding speeds, P
or = constant ...(6.24)
Q1, Q2 = Corresponding discharges, and N 3 D5
P1, P2 = Corresponding power developed. P
The parameter 3 5 is called the power co-
Then using eqns. (6.16), (6.17), (6.18), respectively, N D
we obtain efficient, CP.
N1 N2 With the use of above relations it is possible to
Nu =  ...(6.19) present the behaviour of a prototype from the test runs
H1 H2
made on a geometrically similar model ; the model is
Q1 Q2 presumed to have the same values of speed ratio Ku , flow
Qu =  ...(6.20)
H1 H2 ratio Kf and specific speed Ns. A group of geometrically
similar machines are said to belong to a homologous series.
P1 P2
Pu = 3/ 2
 ...(6.21) All machines of such a series have the same value of CH,
H1 H23 / 2 CQ or CP or their combinations.
Model Relationship : 6.7.4. Efficiencies of a Turbine
(i) Head co-efficient, CH : The important efficiencies of a turbine are as under:
The tangential velocity of the runner, 1. Hydraulic efficiency, h
DN 2. Mechanical efficiency, m
u = Ku 2 gH =
60 3. Volumetric efficiency, v
60 Ku 2 gH H 4. Overall efficiency, o.
or N= or N 1. Hydraulic efficiency, (h). It is defined as the
D D
ratio of power developed by the runner of a turbine to the
 ND  H
power supplied by the water at the inlet of the turbine.
H
or = constant ...(6.22) Power developed by runner
N 2 D2 h = ...(6.25)
Power developed at inlet
2. Mechanical efficiency (m). It is defined as the in water hammer. The intense pressure is accompanied by
ratio of power available at the shaft of the turbine (known a considerable vibration and noise.
as S.H.P. or B.H.P.) to the power developed by the runner. Cavitation factor. Prof. Dietrich Thoma of Munich
Power available at the shaft of the turbine (Germany) suggested a cavitation factor  (sigma) to
m = determine the zone where turbine can work without being
Power developed by the runner
...(6.26) affected from cavitation. The critical value of cavitation
factor (c) is given by
3. Volumetric efficiency (v). The ratio of the
volume of the water actually striking the runner to the ( Ha  Hv )  h
c = ...(6.28)
volume of water supplied to the turbine is called volumetric H
efficiency. where, Ha = Atmospheric pressure head in metre of water,
Volume of water actually striking the runner Hv = Vapour pressure in metre of water
v = corresponding to the water temperature,
Volume of water supplied to the turbine
...(6.27) H = Working head of turbine (difference between
head race and tailrace level in metres), and
4. Overall efficiency (o). It is defined as the ratio
of power available at the shaft of the turbine to the power h = Height of turbine outlet above tailrace level
supplied by the water at the inlet of the turbine. in metres.
Power available at the shaft of the turbine The values of critical factor depends upon the
o = specific speed of the turbine (Refer to Table 6.2).
Power supplied at the inlet of the turbine
Shaft power P Methods to avoid cavitation :
= 
Water power wQH The following methods may be used to avoid
If g is the efficiency of a generator, then power cavitation :
output of a hydro-unit (turbine + hydro generators) 1. Runner/turbine may be kept under water. But it
= (wQH) × o × g. is not advisable as the inspection and repair of
the turbine is difficult. The other method to avoid
6.7.5. Cavitation cavitation zone without keeping the runner
It is known that when velocity of flow increases, the under water is to use the runner of low specific
pressure falls. In liquids, the pressure cannot fall below speed.
vapour pressure which depends upon the temperature and 2. The cavitation free runner may be designed to
height above mean sea level of the site. In any turbine part fulfil the given conditions with extensive
if the pressure drops below the evaporation pressure, the research.
liquid boils and a large number of small bubbles of vapour 3. It is possible to reduce the cavitation effect by
are formed. These bubbles mainly formed on account of selecting materials which can resist better the
low pressure are carried by the stream to higher pressure cavitation effect. The cast steel is better than cast
zones where the vapours condense and the bubbles iron and stainless steel or alloy steel is still better
suddenly collapse, as the vapours are condensed to liquid than cast steel.
again. This results in the formation of a cavity and the 4. The cavitation effect can be reduced by polishing
surrounding liquid rushes to fill it. The streams of liquid the surfaces. That is why the cast steel runners
coming from all directions collide at the centre of cavity and blades are coated with stainless steel.
giving rise to a very high local pressure whose magnitude 5. The ‘cavitation’ may be avoided by selecting a
may be as high as 7000 atmospheres. Formation of cavity runner of proper specific speed for given head.
and high pressure are repeated many thousand times a
second. This causes pitting on the metallic surface of runner Table 6.2. Cavitation factors
blades or draft tube. The material then fails by fatigue, Francis Kaplan
added perhaps by corrosion. During this process some parts
like runner blades may be torn away completely. Ns c Ns c
‘Cavitation’ may thus be defined as the 50 0.04 300 to 450 0.35 to 0.40
“phenomenon which manifests itself in the pitting of the 100 0.05 450 to 550 0.40 to 0.45
metallic surfaces of turbine parts because of formation of 150 0.07 550 to 600 0.46 to 0.6
cavities”.
200 0.1 650 to 700 0.85
During ‘cavitation’ the cavities may be formed on 250 0.14 700 to 800 1.05
the solid surface or near to it. In case it does not form on 300 0.2 – –
solid surface, the pressure generated in the cavity is
350 0.27 – –
propagated by the pressure waves similar to ones occurring
6.7.6. Performance of Hydraulic Turbines

In dimensional analysis we may arrive at the following
relations :
Performance parameters
gH
Head co-efficient or parameter, P
N 2 D2 2 3/2
Capacity or discharge parameter, rD H
h
Q Q
or
ND3 D2 H Q
2
Power co-efficient, D gH
P P
or
N 3 D5 D2 H 3 / 2
0 ND
Efficiency of operation, . gH
The laws of performance are stated as follows from (a) Dimensionless turbine curves
the fact that each of these parameters should remain
constant for the same machine or a family of similar
machines : Deriaz
For the same For a similar Kaplan

machine machine 90%
Discharge Q  N D3
Head H  N2 D2
Power P  N3 D5
Francis
h
60% Propeller
N P/
The specific speed, Ns =
( gH )5 / 4 Pelton (Impulse)
Which is the type number of fluid machines that

must also remain the same for a family of similar machines 0 50% 100% 130%
operating at the optimum efficiency? Load
The terms ‘unit speed’, ‘unit power’ and ‘unit (b) Comparison of turbines
discharge’ are frequently used to express the operational
features of hydraulic turbines. The unit quantities are Fig. 6.38. Performance of hydraulic turbines.
theoretical features for a head of 1 metre for the same
The characteristic curves for hydraulic reaction
turbine. Sometimes, the unit quantities are referred to a
turbines are usually plotted in terms of unit quantities vs
head of 1 metre for a turbine of 1 metre diameter.
‘unit’ speed. A set of performance curves are shown plotted
For unit For unit head in Fig. 6.38 (a). A comparative set of curves for different
head and unit types of turbines is shown in Fig. 6.38 (b). It can be seen
diameter that the Deriaz and Kaplan turbines have the highest
N efficiency in the entire load range. This is due to the fact
Unit speed Nu – that the runner blades of these two types of turbines are
H
adjustable during operation. Consequently the flow is
P P
Unit power Pu efficient and well-guided by the runner blades at all flow
H 3/2 D2 H 3 / 2
conditions unlike the other turbines where the rotor-vane
Q Q
Unit discharge Qu 2
adjustability is not provided. The guide vanes of each of
H D H reaction turbines are adjusted for varying the discharge.
These definitions follow from the definitions of the Fig. 6.39 and Fig. 6.40 shows the main characteristic
head, discharge and power coefficients respectively. curves for a Pelton wheel and reaction turbine respectively.
Full gate opening (G.O.)

3/4 G.O.
Unit discharge (Qu)
1/2 G.O.
1/4 G.O.
Unit speed (Nu)
H = Constant
Full G.O.
Unit power (Pu)
3/4 G.O.
1/2 G.O. H = Constant
1/4 G.O. Unit power (Pu)

Full G.O.
3/4 G.O.
Unit speed (Nu) 0.50 G.O.

0.25 G.O.
Unit speed (Nu)
H = Constant
Full G.O.
o
Fig. 6.39. Main characteristic curves for a Pelton wheel.
Unit speed (Nu)
Fig. 6.40 Main characteristic curves for Kaplans

turbine and Trancis turbine.
Efficiency load curves

The efficiency load curves of various types of reaction
turbines are shown in Fig. 6.41. The efficiency load curve
of a Pelton turbine is shown in Fig. 6.42. The efficiency
curve of a Pelton turbine remains slightly lower than that
of a Francis turbine but is less affected by variation of load.
100 Kaplan turbine 2. Deflector regulation. The deflector is generally

a plate connected to the oil pressure governor by means of
levers. When it is required to deflect the jet, the plate can
be brought in between the nozzle and buckets, thereby
Propeller diverting the water away from the runner and directing
Efficiency (%)
turbine into the tailrace. Deflector control is adopted when supply

50 Francis of water is constant but the load fluctuates. The spear
turbine position can be adjusted by hand. As the nozzle has always
a constant opening, it involves considerable wastage of
water and can be used only when supply of water is
abundant.
3. Combined spear and deflector regulation.
Since both the above methods have some disadvantages,
0 50 100 the modern turbines are provided with double regulation
Percentage of full load which is the combined spear and deflector control. Double
Fig. 6.41. Efficiency-load curves of reaction turbines. regulation means regulation of speed and pressure. The
speed is regulated by spear and the pressure is regulated by
100 deflector arrangement.
Fig. 6.43 shows an arrangement for governing of
Pelton turbine when the turbine is running at the normal
speed.
Efficiency (%)
When the load on the generator decreases, the speed

50 of the generator increases and consequently the speed of
the turbine and hence centrifugal governor increases
beyond the normal speed. Due to increased speed the fly-
ball of the centrifugal governor move outwards/upwards
(due to increased centrifugal force) causing upward
movement of the sleeve. As the sleeve moves up, the lever
0 50 100 (a horizontal lever, supported over a fulcrum, connects the
Percentage of full load
sleeve and the piston rod of control valve) turns about the
Fig. 6.42. Efficiency-load curve of a Pelton turbine. fulcrum and the piston rod of the control valve moves
downward. Subsequently the V1 closes and valve V2 opens
6.7.7. Governing of Hydraulic Turbines as shown in Fig. 6.43. The oil, pumped from the oil sump
Governing of a hydraulic turbine means speed regulation. to the control valve or relay valve, under pressure will flow
Under normal conditions the turbine should run at a through the valve V2 to the servomotor (or relay cylinder)
constant speed irrespective of changes in load. This is and will exert force on the face L of the piston of the relay
achieved by means of a governor called oil pressure cylinder. The piston along with piston rod and spear will
governor. move towards right. This will decrease the area of flow of
water at the outlet of the nozzle and as a consequence of
Governing of impulse turbine. The quantity of
this the flow rate to the turbine is reduced and the speed
water rejected from the turbine nozzle and from striking
of the turbine falls. After the speed of the turbine becomes
the buckets may be regulated in one of the following ways:
normal the fly balls, sleeve, lever etc. will come to normal
1. Spear regulation position.
2. Deflector regulation On the other hand, when the load on the generator
3. Combined spear and deflector regulation. increases, the speed of the generator and hence that of the
The spear and deflector in all cases are operated by turbine and the centrifugal governor decreases due to which
the servomotor mechanism. its (governor) balls move downward, the sleeve moves down
1. Spear regulation. To and fro movement of the and piston rod of the control valve moves in the upward
spear inside the nozzle alters the cross-sectional area of direction. Subsequently valve V1 opens and valve V2 closes.
stream, thus, making it possible to regulate the rate of The oil under pressure will move through valve V1 and
flow according to the load. Spear regulation is satisfactory exert a force on face M of the piston. This will make the
when a relatively large penstock feeds a small turbine and piston move towards left thereby increasing the area of
the fluctuation of load is small. With the sudden fall in flow of water at the outlet of the nozzle and hence increase
load, the turbine nozzle has to be closed suddenly which the rate of flow of water to the turbine. As a result, the
way create water hammer in the penstock. speed of the turbine will increase till it becomes normal.
Centrifugal
governor
Fly ball Fly ball
Lever
Piston rod of control valve
Sleeve
Fulcrum Relay or control valve
To turbine
main shaft
V1
Oil pump
V2
Piston rod
of relay
cylinder Spear
L
Oil sump M
Relay cylinder Nozzle

or servo-motor
Fig. 6.43. Governing of Pelton turbine.
Governing of reaction turbines valve better known as ‘Pressure Regulator’. When the guide
Refer to Fig. 6.44. The guide blades of a reaction vanes have to the suddenly closed, the relief valve opens
turbine are pivoted and connected by levers and links to and diverts the water direct to the tailrace. Its function is
the regulating ring. To the regulating ring are attached therefore, similar to that of deflector in Pelton turbines.
two long regulating rods connected to the regulating lever. Thus the double regulation, which is the simultaneous
The regulating lever is keyed to a regulating shaft which operation, of two elements is accomplished by moving the
is turned by a servomotor piston of oil pressure governor. guide vanes and relief valve in Francis turbines, by the
The penstock which feeds the turbine inlet, has a relief governor.
Connected to oil
pressure governor
Spiral casing
piping
Servomotor
Regulating Close
Regulating
rod
shaft Open
Regulating Regulating
lever ring
Turbine
Inlet
Fig. 6.44. Governing of reaction turbines.

Fig. 6.45 shows the speed governing systems for by hydraulic turbines schematically.
From pump To sump

Fly ball type
Power piston
or
or
External Impulse Reaction

Runner shaft power turbine turbine
Desired Power
Centrifugal Error Pilot Magnified Relay and Corrective Vane control or Flow output
speed
convernor signal valve signal servomotor action nozzle setting control Runner
Turbine Speed
speed Speed feedback for comparison with the desired speed
Fig. 6.45. Speed governing systems for hydraulic turbines.
6.7.8. Selection of Turbines value of cavitation factor also effects the design of turbine,
especially of Kaplan, propeller and bulb types.
The following points should be considered while selecting
the right type of hydraulic turbine : 6. Disposition of turbine shaft. Experience has
shown that the vertical shaft arrangement is better for
1. Specific speed. High specific speed is essential
large-sized reaction turbines, therefore it is almost
where head is low and output is large, because otherwise
universally adopted. In case of large size impulse turbine,
the rotational speed will be low which means cost of turbo- horizontal shaft arrangement is mostly employed.
generator and power house will be high. On the other hand
7. Head. (i) Very high heads (350 m and above). For
there is practically no need of choosing a high value of
heads greater than 350 m, Pelton turbine is generally
specific speed for high head installations, because even with employed and there is practically no choice except in very
low specific speed, high rotational speed can be attained special cases.
with medium capacity plants.
(ii) High heads (150 m to 350 m). In this range either
2. Rotational speed. Rotational speed depends on Pelton or Francis turbine may by employed. For higher
specific speed. Also the rotational speed of an electrical specific speeds Francis turbine is more compact and
generator with which the turbine is to be directly coupled, economical than the Pelton turbine which for the same
depends on the frequency and number of pair of poles. The working conditions would have to be much bigger and
value of specific speed adopted should be such that it will rather cumbersome.
give the synchronous speed of the generator.
(iii) Medium heads (60 m to 150 m). A Francis turbine
3. Efficiency. The turbine selected should be such is usually employed in this range. Whether a high or low
that it gives the highest overall efficiency for various specific speed unit would be used depends on the selection
operating conditions. of speed.
4. Part load operation. In general the efficiency (iv) Low heads (below 60 m). Between 30 to 60 m
at part-loads and overloads is less than normal. For the heads both Francis and Kaplan turbines may be used. The
sake of economy the turbine should always run with latter is more expensive but yields a higher efficiency at
maximum possible efficiency to get more revenue. part loads and overloads. It is therefore preferable for
When the turbine has to run at part or overload variable loads. Kaplan turbine is generally employed for
conditions Deriaz turbine is employed. Similarly, for low heads under 30 m. Propeller turbines are, however,
heads, Kaplan turbine will be useful for such purposes in commonly used for heads upto 15 m. They are adopted only
place of propeller turbine. when there is practically no load variation.
5. Cavitation. The installation of water turbines (v) Very low heads. For very low heads bulb turbines
of reaction type over the tailrace level is effected by are employed these days. Although Kaplan turbines can
cavitation. The critical value of cavitation factor must be also be used for heads from 2 m to 15 m but they are not
obtained to see that the turbine works in safe zone. Such a economical.
6.8. PL ANT L AYOUT turbine main shaft and sufficient pressure is usually
maintained in the oil tanks during the shut down, so that
The plant layout is considerably affected by the nature of the turbine can be started. A stand-by motor driven pump
project. is also installed for emergency service. The lubricating oil
In low head plants, the width of the dam is usually pumps may be driven from the turbine shaft and would
small and suitable space for fixing the turbines and work as soon as the unit starts. Sometimes a stand-by
generators is limited. On the other hand, in high head lubricating pump is also installed.
schemes the site for the power plants can be selected more During starting of hydro-plants the following
conveniently to give desired layouts. auxiliaries are not directly needed :
The size and type of units proposed to be installed (i) Coolant pumps
also affect the layout of the power station. (ii) Air compressors
For reaction machines with vertical single runner,
(iii) Drainage pumps
the arrangement with the machines in a line parallel to
(iv) Fans and cooling oil pumps
the length of the turbine house is usually preferred ; the
spacing between two units being controlled by the width of (v) Cranes
the flume or scroll case at entrance to the runner or the (vi) Gate hoists
width of the draft tube at its month, or sometimes by the (vii) Valves
overall diameter of the alternator. Horizontal machines of (viii) Battery charging units etc.
the reaction type are best located at right angles to the length
These auxiliaries are generally electrically driven.
of the turbine house while for impulse machines with
Water may be used to cool the bearings of the turbine and
horizontal setting the wheel shaft is placed parallel to the
generator and transformers and is circulated through water
longitudinal axis of the turbine house.
pumps. Air compressors maintain a supply of air under
Unlike the reaction machines, the spacing of the pressure for operation of generator brakes and other uses
impulse machines is fixed by the machine dimensions and in the power station. Unwatering of turbine pits may be
necessary clearances rather than by the penstock flume or required during repairs or check up for which water pumps
tailrace, as the amount of water discharged is are necessary. Fans are required for ventilation of the
comparatively small. For impulse machines with vertical turbine and switch gear room or for cooling transformers.
setting the arrangement with centres on a line parallel to Oil pumps handle transformer oil through the cleaning and
axis of turbine house is suggested. The use of such machines cooling system. Cranes are required during machinery
is rare. repairs and installations to lift heavy parts or place them
in position. The head works control gates with hoists which
6.9. HYDRO-PLANT AUXILIARIES may be manually or electrically operated. Storage batteries
The following auxiliaries are essential for starting the are needed to supply low voltage D.C. power for switch
generating unit : gear control. During failure of the main generators lighting
(i) Exciter and power for the station may also be obtained from the
batteries.
(ii) Governor oil system
Most of the station auxiliaries are electrically driven
(iii) Lubricating oil pump.
due to obvious advantages of using such drivers.
The station can start usually independent of
external power, but stand-by auxiliaries are needed for 6.10. COST OF HYDRO-PLANT
emergency service. Exciter for the main generator may be
direct connected, motor-generator type engine driven or The cost of hydro-plant varies from ` 850 to ` 950 per kW
auxiliary water turbine driven. Direct connected exciters of capacity. A typical subdivision of investment under
make the unit independent of auxiliary power and also have various items (e.g. as dam, tailrace, reservoir, turbines,
higher efficiency than the other types. Motor generator generators, land, building and foundations, switching and
exciters depend upon electric power for starting, whereas wiring, switchyard etc.) is as follows :
an engine driven exciter is an independent unit. The 1. Reservoir, dam, intake, tailrace 35%
efficiency of water turbine driven exciter is very low and 2. Turbines and generators 20%
this is not suited for any other use except during emergencies.
3. Land, building and foundations 30%
The exciter is an essential piece of equipment and it is
important to select a drive that is reliable and at the same 4. Switching and wiring 5%
time reasonably low in first cost and operation. The 5. Switchyard 5%
pressurised oil system for the governor is driven from the 6. Miscellaneous 5%
6.11. AVERAGE LIFE OF HYDRO-PLANT 4. Voltage control of generator and system. The
voltage regulators are employed to ensure that electric
COMPONENTS power is supplied at proper voltage.
The average life (approximate) of various components of 5. Machine protection. In a hydro-plant provision
hydro-electric power plant is given below : of protective devices should be made to guard against
Components Average life (years) breakdown of turbo-generator and auxiliary services, like
transformers, switchgears, overhead lines etc. Protection
1. Reservoirs 70–80
measures are also required to guard against incorrect
2. Dams operation and failure of control system.
(i) Earthen, concrete or masonry 150 Automatic controls are efficient, safe and reliable
(ii) Loose rock 60 The control room should be designed for convenience
3. Water ways of operation and the equipment should be so arranged/
(i) Canals, tunnels 50–100 spaced that it is easily accessible.
(ii) Penstocks
6.13. ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL
(a) Steel 40–50
EQUIPMENT IN A HYDRO-PLANT
(b) Concrete 25–50
4. Powerhouse and equipment In an hydro-electric power plant the electrical and
(i) Building 35–50 mechanical equipment comprise of the following :
(ii) Generators 25 A. Electrical equipment
(iii) Transformers 30 In electrical equipment the following elements items
are included :
(iv) Turbines (hydraulic) 5
(i) Generators
(v) Pumps 20–25
(ii) Exciters
(iii) Voltage regulators
6.12. HYDRO-PLANT CONTROLS
(iv) Transformers
The various controls which are provided in an hydro-electric (v) Switchgear
power plant are enumerated and discussed below : (vi) Control room equipment.
1. Hydraulic controls Generators. The generators employed in a hydro-
2. Machine controls—Starting and stopping plant are usually 3-phase synchronous machines and have
3. Machine controls—Loading and frequency either a vertical shaft arrangement or horizontal shaft
arrangement ; but vertical shaft arrangement is preferred.
4. Voltage control of generator and system
The generator cooling may be achieved by air
5. Machine protection. circulation through the stator ducts. Cooling by water
1. Hydraulic controls. In a hydro-plant the cooled heat exchangers is common.
following hydraulic controls are provided : The power output of a 3-phase alternator is given by:
(i) Storage level indicators—primary and secondary
P = 3 VI cos  ×10–6 MW
(ii) Flood control
where, P = Power output,
(iii) River flow control
V = Voltage (in volts),
(iv) Intake gate control. I = Current (in amperes), and
2. Machine controls—Starting and stopping. cos  = Power factor (varies from 0.9 to 0.95).
The control of water flowing to the turbine is exercised by
Transformers. These may be of single phase or
providing gates and valves in the supplying conduit and at
three phase type. They are oil filled for insulation and
the turbine inlet. The quantity of water flowing to the
cooling purposes. The generated voltage is stepped up by
turbine is regulated according to the load on the generator
means of step up transformers. Transformers may be of
by the use of a governor system. While starting the turbines
power or distribution type.
the casing should be filled gradually and to limit the rate
of water flow by-pass valves are provided. Switchgear. A switchgear consists of switches,
isolators, surge arrestors and circuit breakers. Its main
3. Machine controls—Loading and frequency.
function is to make and break the circuits.
The load on the machine is controlled as follows :
For generated voltage it is preferred to locate
(i) By adjusting the governor speed control
switchgear indoors whereas outdoor location is used for
(ii) By controlling system frequency. transmission voltage.
When switchgears and transformers are located The above objectives (unless a country/region is rich
outside they should be provided adequate lightening either in abundant supply of cheap fuel or ample water
protection. power resources which can be developed at suitable site)
Control room equipment. It performs the can be best realised by a judicious combination of both
following functions : (i) Machine starting and stopping, hydro and thermal power. Hydro-power represents a
(ii) Generator and system voltage control, (iii) Machine renewable source of energy which enjoys many intrinsic
loading control, (iv) Frequency control, (v) Hydraulic advantages as compared to thermal power. Although the
control, (vi) Machine running control. cost of construction of hydro power plant is nearly same as
B. Mechanical equipment that of a coal based steam power plant in terms of
investment for MW, but hydro-power plant uses water for
Mechanical equipment include the following :
power generation which is available in abundance in
(i) Compressors and air ducts nature.
(ii) Shaft, coupling, bearings etc. It is known as that hydro-plant can meet the
(iii) Braking equipment for the generator demands of load variations more rapidly and easily. Thus,
(iv) The oil circuits and pumps when the rate of flow of water is low, the steam plant can
(v) Cranes and other lifting equipment work at constant load producing a better efficiency and the
hydro-plant will work most effectively as peak load plant
(vi) Ventilation and cooling systems
and its output can be varied to meet the load fluctuations.
(vii) Equipment for water supply and drainage The steam and hydro-plants reverse their functions (steam
(viii) Equipment for power house lighting. plant providing the peak load and the hydro-plant providing
base load) when high rate of water flow is available. But
6.14. COMBINED HYDRO AND STEAM even under this condition, the steam plant output will
POWER PLANTS remain constant and the hydro-plant output will be varied
to meet the load fluctuations.
An electrical power system should fulfil the following
objectives : 6.15. COMPARISON OF HYDRO-POWER
1. To ensure an adequate and reliable electric power STATION WITH THERMAL POWER
supply at all loads and at all times.
STATIONS
2. The source of energy should be such as to give
the minimum overall cost of the system as a The comparison between hydro-power stations and thermal
whole. power stations is given below :
S. No. Aspects Hydro-power station Thermal power station

1. Raw material consumption Nil. Water power is in exhaustible and Huge quantity of coal consumed, thereby
perpetual and is continuously replenished by exhausting “fuel reserves”.
the direct agency of sun.
2. Cost of energy Cheaper Costlier
3. Cost of energy generation Immune to inflation. Very much influenced by the increase in
the cost of fuel.
4. Life of plant Long useful life. Not so long comparatively. The component
parts deteriorate and become obsolete at
a faster rate.
5. Pollution Free from problems of pollution. Causes pollution and sub-sequently create
health hazards.
6. Design, construction and Simple in design, robust in construction and Comparatively more complicated in
reliability reliable in operation. design, less robust in construction and less
reliable in operation.
7. Running below a certain Can be run Cannot be run
minimum load factor.
8. Reserve capacity and varia- Particularly suited to provide reserve capacity Comparatively not suited for the
tion in power demands. as well as meeting the exacting needs of daily mentioned requirements.
variation in power demands.
9. Employment potential More. Affords a relatively high employment Less

potential and better utilization of the available
local talent and resources.
10. Man power required Small Large
Labour problem Less More
11. Foreign exchange require- Less More
ments for equipment
12. Construction time required Almost same as thermal power station. Almost same as hydro-power station.
13. Overall capital expenditure Low High

requirements
6.16. UNDERGROUND HYDRO-PLANTS In the tail development the power house is placed
at the surge end of the low pressure tunnel. This requires
The conventional hydro-plant is usually located overground a short tailrace. Access tunnels and shafts are necessary
at the foot of a dam or a hill slope on the banks of a river. in both types. Between these two extreme layouts there is
The first of these plants was set up in U.S.A as far back as a wide range of intermediate possibilities for plant location.
1898. Since then several underground stations have been Before taking a decision in favour of the
set up in Germany, France, Sweden, Switzerland and other underground station, thorough geological investigations of
countries. the site are essential. Rock should be properly tested to devise
Consideration supporting the construction of economical tunneling method which may considerably affect
underground hydro-plants the cost of construction of the power station.
1. A suitable site for a conventional surface station/ Advantages of the underground Powerhouse/
plant and good slope for penstock not available. Station
2. There may be danger of falling rocks and snow 1. Better rock bearing properties.
avalanches particularly in narrow valleys. 2. Foundation difficulties are easier to come.
3. Availability of underground sound rock and 3. In planning the design and location of the
avoidance of a long pressure tunnel and facility principal works surface topography does not
for a convenient tailrace outlet. interfere at all.
4. Possibility of elimination of surge tank required 4. There is greater freedom in positioning stations.
for surface station due to long pressure channel. 5. Maintenance cost of power station including
5. The rugged topographical features and the painting, heating etc. are practically eliminated.
difficulties in finding a suitable short and steep 6. These stations are safer from defence point of
slope for pipe lines make it more economical to view and are immune to bombardment. They are
install the water conduit, the machine, also protected against such natural hazards as
transformer hall and tailrace system rain, wind, loose rocks etc.
underground. 7. There is saving in cost of land.
Types of layouts for underground hydro-plant 8. Land acquisition problem is minimum.
The following are two distinctly different types of 9. There is greater uniformity in climatic conditions
layouts for underground hydro-power stations : during all seasons.
(i) The head development 10. In steep and rugged countryside, the site
selection for an outdoor plant may cause
(ii) The tail development.
difficulties due to the risk of avalanches and land
In the head development the powerhouse is located slips. At some places there might be added
at the intake and provides a long unlined tailrace tunnel. hazard due to forest fire.
The necessity of surge shafts and penstocks is eliminated 11. Uninterrupted construction work in adverse
and quicker opening and closing of the turbine is possible. weather.
The same crew can operate the power house and headworks
12. Shorter conduit lengths and therefore smaller
which gives an operational advantage.
surge tanks.
13. A tailrace tunnel may be easier to design and The float switch works with the change in level of
construct compared to the headrace pressure water in the reservoir, so that if the water level rises the
tunnel. generator output is increased and vice versa. Thus the
14. The useful life of the structures excavated in the station shares the load in interconnected system according
rock is considerably longer than that of concrete to availability of water in the reservoir.
and reinforced concrete structures. The load sensitive device is actuated by the demand
15. It is possible to improve the governing of the for power in the area served by the plant, so that increase
turbines with the construction of underground in power demand would increase the output of the
power station. generators automatically. In case of any trouble arising
16. The construction period is reduced mainly due anywhere in the system, the plant is automatically shut-
to the possibility of full-scale construction work down till such time as the source of trouble is removed.
in winter. 2. Partly automatic plant. In partly automatic
17. At places, where there is extreme difference in system the units are manually started and synchronised,
climate of winter and summer, a uniform but in case of a fault shutdown automatically. The partly
temperature can be maintained inside the plant automatic system is cheaper than fully automatic control
with adequate control of ventilation regardless system.
of outside weather. 3. Remote control plant. When the control on a
Disadvantages : power system is exercised from a distance, usually from
another generating station or control centre, the automatic
1. The cost of construction of power station and
control system becomes a remote controlled one. In such a
accessories is more.
system the operator at the control point transmits a signal
2. Increased cost of lighting, special ventilation and to the controlled station and this actuates the automatic
air conditioning. system at the station to perform the desired effect such as
3. The tailrace tunnels and additional surge starting and stopping of the units and load distribution
chambers are costly. among the sets in operation. The automatic remote control
4. Additional cost of underground location of system also receives from the controlled stations all
transformers etc. necessary information such as water level in the reservoir,
share of load supplied by each unit etc.
6.17. AUTOMATIC AND REMOTE Small hydro-plants which are not justified to be
CONTROL OF HYDRO-STATION developed for manual control, can usually be justified by
the application of remote automatic control.
Some automatic controlling devices such as relays,
governors, voltage regulators etc. are employed in every 6.18. SAFETY MEASURES IN HYDRO-
hydro-station, big or small. However, a few operations may
still be needed to start or stop the units and distribute load
ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
on two or more units in operation at a time. For stations Following safety measures need to be taken for the safe
where full shift operation is not required, the services of operation of an hydro-electric power plant :
the operators are not fully utilized. A saving in working 1. Surge tanks 2. Screens
cost of plant can be effected if the functions of the operators
are derived from an automatic control system. 3. Sand traps 4. Jet dispersers
An automatic system is more safe, efficient and 5. Pressure regulator.
reliable and usually works through the governor and the Surge tanks. A surge tank is used to prevent
voltage regulator. Due to these reasons automatic hydro- sudden increase of pressure in the supply line or the
stations have been developed. Automatic plants may be penstock. It is placed as near as possible to the turbine.
divided into following three classes : The tank may be open at the top or closed. In case it is
1. Fully automatic plant open at the top, it must not be lower than the level of the
2. Partly automatic plant water in the reservoir.
3. Remote controlled plant. Screens. These are provided to prevent logs, fishes,
1. Fully automatic plant. This type of plant may ice blocks and other obstructive elements from entering
be controlled by : the pipe lines and turbines.
(i) A time switch (ii) A float switch Sand traps. Sand traps are provided to prevent the
(iii) A load sensitive device. sand flowing with water in pipes since sand blast action of
The time switch may start and stop the power station solid matter in the water causes rapid wear of nozzles,
at preset clock timings. spears, blades etc. of the turbine.
Jet dispersers. The discharged water at the bottom 6.20. CALCULATION OF AVAILABLE
of the high dams possesses large amount of energy which
is likely to cause scouring of the channel below the dam
HYDRO-POWER
and consequent damage to the dam foundation unless some The theoretical power available from falling water can be
means are provided to dissipate it. The possible remedies calculated using the following formula :
for this are either to discharge water into a cushion pool or
to provide a jet dispersers at the end of outlet pipe so that wQH
Pth = kW ...(6.29)
the end of the outlet pipe is such that the jet is broken up 1000
into a conical shower of drops and their energy is absorbed where, Pth = Theoretical output in kW,
by air. w = Weight density of water in N/m3,
Pressure regulator. It is usually operated by a Q = Flow through turbine (or quantity of water
governor of the turbine. It is provided on the pipeline near available for hydro-power generation) in
the turbine inlet so that when the turbine gates are m3/s, and
suddenly closed, pressure surges so produced are kept H = Head available in metres.
within the safe limits of the pipeline. The water discharged
The actual useful or effective output depends upon
from the regulator is passed on to tailrace through a
the efficiency of the various parts of the installation.
separate pipeline.
If 1 = Efficiency of pipelines, intake etc., and
6.19. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE OF 2 = Efficiency of hydraulic turbine,
HYDRO-PLANT Then overall efficiency o = 1 × 2.
Since the turbine and the generator are directly
The purpose of preventive maintenance is to minimise
coupled on common shaft the hydro-electrical power
breakdown and excessive depreciation resulting from
available will be given by the equation :
neglect. In a hydro-plant (using reaction turbines) monthly,
quarterly, half yearly and yearly inspection and Pactual = Pth × o ...(6.30)
maintenance are carried out on the following parts : wQH
Inspection/ Parts or Pactual = × o kW ...(6.31)
1000
Maintenance
Monthly Turbine cover parts (e.g. leakage unit, 6.21. COST OF HYDRO-POWER
drainage holes, servomotor connections,
turbine shaft and cover, oil pump etc.) The initial cost of any hydro-plant is very high but the
power produced by it is the cheapest. The following costs
Operating ring of turbines
are included in development of a hydro-plant :
Guide vane mechanism
1. Cost of land and riparian rights
Quarterly Servomotor
2. Cost of railways and highway required for the
Governor oil system
construction work
Ejector cabinet
Feedback system 3. Cost of construction
Half yearly Governor mechanism 4. Cost of engineering supervision of the project
Gauges 5. Cost of building etc.
Grease pumps for guide vanes and guide 6. Cost of equipment
bearings 7. Cost of equipment used for power transmission.
Grease pipes connected to grease pumps
Yearly Turbine auxiliaries (e.g. oil pressure 6.22. HYDROLOGY
tank, turbine guide bearing, turbine
instruments) 6.22.1. Introduction
Scroll casing runner with guide vanes
Hydrology may be defined as the science which deals with
Emergency slide valve the depletion and replenishment of water resources. It deals
Pit liner with the surface water as well as the ground water. It is
Draft tube also concerned with the transportation of water from one
Runner blades checked for cavitational place to another, and from one form to another. It helps us
effects, cracks and wearing out. in determining the occurrence and availability of water.
Hydrology aims at answering the following major Run-off can, therefore, also be named as Discharge
questions : or Stream flow. Rainfall duration, its intensity and a real
(i) How is the water going to precipitate ? distribution influence the rate and volume of run-off.
(ii) How is water going to behave ? Evaporation. Transfer of water from liquid to
vapour state is called evaporation.
(iii) What will happen to water after precipitation ?
Transpiration. The process by which water is
The basic knowledge of this science is a must for released to the atmosphere by the plants is called
every civil engineer, particularly the one who is engaged transpiration.
in the design, planning or construction of irrigation
structures, bridges and highway culverts, or flood control 6.22.3. Measurement of Run-off
works, etc. Run-off can be measured daily, monthly, seasonal or yearly.
6.22.2. The Hydrologic Cycle It can be measured by the following methods :
1. From rainfall records.
Most of the earth’s water sources, such as rivers, lakes,
oceans and underground sources, etc. get their supplies 2. Empirical formulae.
from rains, while the rain water itself is the evaporation 3. Run-off curves and tables.
from these sources. Water is lost to the atmosphere as 4. Discharge observation method.
vapour from earth, which is then precipitated back in the
1. From rainfall records. In this method
form of rain, snow, hail, dew, sleet or frost, etc. This
consistent rainfall record for a sufficiently long period is
evaporation and precipitation continues for ever, and
taken and then average depth of rainfall over the catchment
thereby, a balance is maintained between the two. This
is determined. Then considering all the factors which affect
process is known as Hydrologic Cycle. It can be represented
run-off process, a coefficient is arrived at for that catchment.
graphically as shown in Fig. 6.46. Hydrologic equation is
Now a simple equation can be used to find out the run-off
expressed as follows :
over the catchment.
P=R+E ...(6.32)
Run-off = Rainfall × coefficient ...(6.33)
2. Empirical formulae. In this method an attempt
Precipitation or is made to derive a direct relationship between the rainfall
SUN
(Rain, Snow, Hail, Sleet etc.) and subsequent run-off. For this purpose some constants
Transpiration Evaporation are established which give fairly accurate result for a
Sn from vegetations specified region. Some important formulae are given below:
ow
etc (a) Khosla’s formula :
. R = P – 4.811 T
Evaporation
W.T. where, R = Annual run-off in mm,
Ocean P = Annual rainfall in mm, and
Pe
rco T = Mean temperature in °C.
lat
ion (b) Inglis formulae for hilly and plain areas of
Maharashtra :
Fig. 6.46. Hydrologic cycle. For Ghat region
where, P = Precipitation, R = 0.88 P – 304.8
R = Run-off, and For plain region
E = Evaporation. ( P  177.8)  P
R=
Precipitation. It includes all the water that falls 2540
from atmosphere to earth surface. Precipitation is of two (c) Lacey’s formula :
types : (i) Liquid precipitation (rain fall), (ii) Solid
P
precipitation (snow, hail). R=
3084 F
Run-off and surface run-off. Run-off and surface 1
PS
run-off are two different terms and should not be confused.
Run-off includes all the water flowing in the stream channel where, R = Monsoon run-off in mm,
at any given section. While the surface run-off includes P = Monsoon rainfall in mm,
only the water that reaches the stream channel without S = Catchment area factor, and
first percolating down to the water table.
F = Monsoon duration factor.
Values of S for various types of catchment are given Hydrograph of stream of river will depend on the
below : characteristics of the catchment and precipitation over the
Type of catchment Value of S catchment. Hydrograph will access the flood flow of rivers
hence it is essential that anticipated hydrograph could be
Flat, cultivated and black cotton soils 0.25
drawn for river for a given storm.
Flat, partly cultivated, various soils 0.6
Hydrograph indicates the power available from the
Average catchment 1.00 stream at different times of day, week or year.
Hills and places with little cultivation 1.70 Typical hydrographs are shown in Figs. 6.47 and 6.48.
Very hilly and steep, with hardly any 3.45
cultivation
Values of F for various durations of monsoon are
given below : C
Class of monsoon Value of F
Discharge
Accession Recession
Very short 0.50
side side
Standard length 1.00
Very long 1.50 A B
D
3. Run-off curves and tables. Each region has its E
own catchment area and rainfall characteristics. Thus
formulae given above and coefficients derived there in
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
April
June
May
July
cannot be applied universally. However, for the same region
the characteristics mostly remain unchanged. Based on this Time
fact the run-off coefficients are derived once for all. Then a
graph is plotted in which one axis represents rainfall and Fig. 6.47. Typical hydrograph.
the other run-off. The curves obtained are called run-off
curves. Alternatively a table can be prepared to give the
run-off for a certain value of rainfall for a particular region. Peak flow
4. Discharge observation method. By actual
Discharge in the river
measurement of discharge at an outlet of a drainage basin

run-off over a catchment can be computed. The complication Recessional
in this method is that the discharge of the stream at the curve of the
outlet comprises surface run-off as well as sub-surface flow. hydrograph
To find out the sub-surface run-off it is essential to separate
the sub-surface flow from the total flow. The separation
can be done on an approximate basis but with correct
analysis.
Factors affecting the run-off
Time in secs. or hours
The following factors affect run-off :
1. Rainfall pattern Fig. 6.48. Typical hydrograph.
2. Character of catchment area The Unit Hydrograph
3. Topography The peak flow represents a momentary value.
4. Shape and size of the catchment area Therefore the peak flow alone does give sufficient
5. Vegetation information about the run-off. It is necessary to understand
6. Geology of the area the full hydrograph of flow. Introduction of unit hydrograph
7. Weather conditions. theory in 1932 made it possible to predict a run-off
hydrograph corresponding to an observed or hypothetical
6.22.4. Hydrograph storm. The basic concept of unit hydrograph is that the
Hydrograph is defined as a graph showing discharge (run- hydrographs of run-off from two identical storms would be
off) of flowing water with respect to time for a specified time. the same. In practice identical storms occur very rarely.
Discharge graphs are known as flood or run-off graphs. The rainfall generally varies in duration, amount and areal
Each hydrograph has a reference to a particular river site. distribution. This makes it necessary to construct a typical
The time period for discharge hydrograph may be hour, hydrograph for a basin which could be used as a unit of
day, week or month. measurement of run-off.
A unit hydrograph may be defined as a Limitations to the use of unit hydrographs :

hydrograph which represents unit run-off resulted from an 1. Its use is limited to areas about 5000 sq.
intense rainfall of unit duration and specific areal kilometres since similar rainfall distribution
distribution. over a large area from storm to storm is rarely
The following steps are used for the construction of possible.
unit hydrograph :
2. The odd-shaped basins (particularly long and
1. Choose an isolated intense rainfall of unit narrow) have very uneven rainfall distribution,
duration from past records. therefore, unit hydrograph method is not
2. Plot the discharge hydrograph for outlet from adopted to such basins.
the rainfall records.
3. In mountain areas, the areal distribution is very
3. Deduct the base flow from stream discharge uneven, even then unit hydrograph method is
hydrograph to get hydrograph of surface run-off. used because the distribution pattern remains
4. Find out the volume of surface run-off and same from storm to storm.
convert this volume into cm of run-off over the
catchment area. 6.22.5. Flow Duration Curve
5. Measure the ordinates of surface run-off Refer to Fig. 6.50. Flow duration curve is another useful
hydrograph. form to represent the run-off data for the given time. This
6. Divide these ordinates by obtained run-off in cm curve is plotted between flow available during a period
to get ordinates of unit hydrograph. versus the fraction of time. If the magnitude on the ordinate
Thus for any catchment unit hydrograph can be is the potential power contained in the stream flow, then
prepared once. Then whenever peak flow is to be found the curve is known as “power duration curve”. This curve
out, multiply the maximum ordinate of unit hydrograph is a very useful tool in the analysis for the development of
by the run-off value expressed in cm. Similarly to obtain water power.
run-off hydrograph of the storm of same unit duration The flow duration curve is drawn with the help of a
multiply the ordinates of the unit hydrograph by the run- hydrograph from the available run-off data and, here it is
off value expressed in cm. If the storm is of longer duration necessary to find out the length of time duration which
calculate the run-off in each unit duration of the storm. certain flows are available. This information either from
Then super-impose the run-off hydrographs in the same run-off data or from hydrograph is tabulated. Now the flow
order giving a lag of unit period between each of them.
duration curve taking 100 per cent time on X-axis and run-
Finally draw a summation hydrograph by adding all the
off on Y-axis can be drawn.
overlapping ordinates. Generally the computations are
done in a tabular form before the hydrograph is plotted. The area under the flow duration curve (Fig. 6.50)
gives the total quantity of run-off during that period as the
Fig. 6.49 is self explanatory and shows how a run-
flow duration curve is representation of graph with its flows
off hydrograph is constructed from a unit hydrograph.
arranged in order of descending magnitude.
Effective duration = 6 hour
Storm
rainfall Run-off hydrograph
Surface Run-off (m3/sec.)
Discharge (m3/sec.)
Flow duration
curve
Peak
flow
Unit
hydrograph 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (%)
Run-off time (Hours)
Fig. 6.50. Flow duration curve.
Fig. 6.49
If the head of discharge is known, the possible power Shortcomings/Defects of Flow Duration Curve
developed from water in kW can be determined from the 1. It does not present the flows in natural source of
following equation : occurrence.
wQH 2. It is also not possible to tell from flow duration
Power (kW) = × o
1000 curve whether the lowest flows occurred in consecutive
3
where, Q = Discharge, m /sec., periods or were scattered throughout the considered period.
H = Head available, m, 6.22.6. Mass Curve
w = Weight density of water, N/m3, and
A ‘mass curve’ is the graph of the cumulative values of
o = Overall efficiency. water quantity (run-off) against time. A mass curve
Thus the flow duration curve can be converted to a (Fig. 6.51) is an integral curve of the hydrograph which
power duration with some other scale on the same graph. expresses the area under the hydrograph from one time to
Flow duration curves are most useful in the another.
following cases :
(i) For preliminary studies
(ii) For comparison between streams.
Uses of flow duration curve
1. A flow duration curve allows the evaluation of
low level flows.
2. It is highly useful in the planning and design of Cumulative discharge
water resources projects. In particular, for hydro-power
studies, the flow duration curve serves to determine the
potential for firm power generation. In the case of a run-
of-the-river plant, with no storage facilities, the firm power
is usually computed on the basis of flow available 90 to
97% of the time. The firm power is also known as the
primary power. Secondary power is the power generated
at the plant utilising water other than that used for the
generation of firm power.
3. If a sediment rating curve is available for the given
stream, the flow duration curve can be converted into
Time
cumulative sediment transport curve by multiplying each
flow rate by its rate of sediment transport. The area under Fig. 6.51. Mass curve.
this curve represents the total amount of sediment
transported. It is a convenient device to determine storage
4. The flow duration curve also finds use in the requirement that is needed to produce a certain dependable
design of drainage systems and in flood control studies. flow from fluctuating discharge of a river by a reservoir.
5. A flow duration curve plotted on a log-log paper Mass curve can also be used to solve the reserve
provides a qualitative description of the run-off variability problem of determining the maximum demand rate that
in the stream. If the curve is having steep slope throughout, can be maintained by a given storage volume. However, it
it indicates a stream with highly variable discharge. This is a trial and error procedure.
is typical of the conditions where the flow is mainly from The mass curve will always have a positive shape
surface run-off. A flat slope indicates small variability but of a greater or less degree depending upon the
which is a characteristic of the streams receiving both variations in the quantity of inflow water available. The
surface run-off and ground water run-off. A flat portion at negative inclination of mass curve would show that the
the lower end of the curve indicates substantial contribution amount of water flowing in the reservoir was less than the
from ground water run-off, while the flat portion at the loss due to evaporation and seepage.
upper end of the curve is characteristic of streams with
large flood plain storage, such as lakes and swaps, or where 6.23. HYDRO-POWER DEVELOPMENT IN
the high flows are mainly derived from snowmelt. INDIA
6. The shape of the flow duration curve may change
with the length of record. This aspect of the flow duration Hydro-power is a renewable source of energy which entails
curve can be utilised for extrapolation of short records. many intrinsic advantages. In India the scope of water
power development is tremendous. The first hydro-power
station in India dates back to year 1897 when a small power Kerala
station of 200 kW capacity was constructed at Darjeeling. Parambikulam-Aliyar 185
Since then many big and small hydro-power stations have Sabarigiri 300
been installed in the country. Total hydro-potential in our
Idikki (Stage I) 390
country is estimated to be equivalent to about 75000 MW
at 60 per cent load factor of which only 12 to 14 per cent Maharashtra
has been exploited so far. Koyna (stages I, II and III) 860
Manipur
Important hydro-plants in India
Loktak 70
State/Name of Installed Odisha
power plant capacity (MW) Hirakud (stages I and II) 270
Andhra Pradesh Balimela 480
Machkand (stage I and II) 114 Punjab
Upper silern 120 Bhakra Nangal 1084
Lower silern 600 Beas-Sutlej link 780
Srisailam 770 Rajasthan
Nagarjun sagar pumped storage 100 Chambal 287
Assam Uttar Pradesh
Umiam 54 Rihand 300
Gujarat Yamuna (stage I and II) 424
Ukai 300 Tamil Nadu
Himachal Pradesh Kundah (stages I, II and III) 425
Baira suil 200 Kodiar 100
Jammu and Kashmir Although the present utilization of hydro-power in
Salal 270 over country is relatively small with the present tempo of
Karnataka development and need for power resources it would not be
long before the available potential is fully harnessed.
Tungabhadra 72
Hydro-field provides immense scope for sophisticated study
Sharavati 890 requiring application of modern mathematical and
Kailindi 396 operational research techniques with the help of computers.
WORKED EXAMPLES
Penstock pd 2.06  2.4
or, t= 
Example 6.1. A penstock is working under a water head of 2 f 2  105  0.82
210 metres. Its diameter is 2.4 metres. Find its thickness if = 0.0287 m or 28.7 mm
the joint efficiency is 82 per cent and allowable stress in the Hence thickness of the penstock = 28.7 mm. (Ans.)
material is 105 MN/m2.
Solution. Working head, H = 210 m Hydraulic Turbines
Diameter of the penstock, d = 2.4 m Example 6.2. A Pelton wheel is receiving water from a
Efficiency of the joint,  = 82% penstock with a gross head of 510 m. One-third of gross
head is lost in friction in the penstock. The rate of flow
Allowable stress in the material, f = 105 MN/m2 through the nozzle fitted at the end of the penstock is
Thickness, t : 2.2 m3/sec. The angle of deflection of the jet is 165°.
Pressure, p = wH Determine:
(w = weight density of water = 9810 N/m3) (i) The horse power given by the water to the runner
9810  210 (ii) Hydraulic efficiency of the Pelton wheel.
i.e., p= = 2.06 MN/m2
106 Take Cv (co-efficient of velocity = 1.0) and speed ratio
Using the relation = 0.45.
pd Solution. Gross head, Hg = 510 m
f= Hg
2t 510
Head lost in friction, hf =  = 170 m
3 3
 Net head, H = Hg – hf = 510 – 170 = 340 m (ii) Hydraulic efficiency of the turbine,
Discharge, Q = 2.2 m3/s 2(Cw1  Cw2 )  Cbl 2(81.67  6.64)  36.75
h  
Angle of deflection = 165° C12 (81.67)2
 Angle  = 180 – 165° = 15° = 0.973 or 97.3%. (Ans.)
Coefficient of velocity, Cv = 1.0 Example 6.3. A Pelton wheel is to be designed for the
Speed ratio = 0.45 following specifications :
Power 9650 kW
Cbl Cw Head 350 metres
2 2
f Speed 750 r.p.m.
b
Outlet
C2 Cf Overall efficiency 85%
triangle 2
Cr
2 Jet diameter not to exceed 61 th of the
wheel diameter
Cbl Cr Determine the following :
1 1 165°
(i) The wheel diameter,
C1 = C w
1 Bucket/vane (ii) Diameter of the jet,
(iii) The number of jets required.
Take Cv = 0.985, speed ratio = 0.45.
Fig. 6.52 Solution. Shaft or brake power,
= 9650 kW
Velocity of jet, C1 = Cv 2 gH
Head, H = 350 m
= 1.0 2  9.81  340 Speed, N = 750 r.p.m.
Overall efficiency,
= 81.67 m/s
o = 85%
Velocity of wheel, d
Ratio of jet dia. to wheel dia. = = 1/6
Cbl = Speed ratio × 2 gH D
Cbl = Cbl1  Cbl2 Coefficient of velocity,
Cv = 0.985
= 0.45 × 2  9.81  340 Speed ratio = 0.45
= 36.75 m/s (i) Wheel diameter, D :
Cr1 = C1 – Cbl1 Velocity of jet, C1 = Cv 2 gH
= 81.67 – 36.75 = 44.92 m/s = 0.985 2  9.81  350
Also, Cw1 = C1 = 81.67 m/s = 81.62 m/s
From outlet velocity triangle, we have The velocity of wheel,
Cbl = Cbl  Cbl
Cr  Cr = 44.92 m/s
2 1
1 2
= Speed ratio × 2 gH
Also, Cr2 cos  = Cbl2  Cw2
= 0.45 × 2  9.81  350
44.92 cos 15° = 36.75 + Cw2
= 37.3 m/s
or Cw2 = 44.92 cos 15° – 36.75 DN
But Cbl =
= 6.64 m/s 60
Work done by the jet on the runner per second is   D  750
or 37.3 =
given by the equation 60
= Q (Cw  Cw ) × Cbl 37.3  60
1 2  D= = 0.95 m. (Ans.)
= 1000 × 2.2 (81.67 + 6.64) × 36.75   750
= 7139863 Nm/s (ii) Diameter of the jet, d :
(i) Power given by the water to the runner d
= 1/6 (Given)
= 7139863 J/s or D
 d = 1/6D = 1/6 × 0.95
W~  7139.8 kW. (Ans.) = 0.158 m. (Ans.)
(iii) The number of jets required : Hydraulic efficiency is given as

Discharge of one jet, Total head at inlet  Hydraulic losses
h 
q = Area of jet × velocity of jet Head at inlet
 2 H  0.2 H
= d × C1 = /4 × (0.158)2 × 81.62 = = 0.8
4 H
= 1.6 m3/s Cw1 Cbl1
Now, overall efficiency But h =
gH
Shaft power 9560 Cw1  3.13
o =   0.8 =
Water power wQH 9.81  8
9560 0.8  9.81  8
or 0.85 = (∵ w = 9.81 kN/m3) or Cw1  = 20 m/s
9.81  Q  350 3.13
9560
or Q= = 3.27 m3/s
9.81  350  0.85
 Number of jets
Total discharge Q
= 
Discharge of one jet q
3.27
= = 2 jets. (Ans.)
1.6
Example 6.4. A Francis turbine with an overall efficiency
of 76% is required to produce 150 kW. It is working under a
head of 8 m. The peripheral velocity = 0.25 2gH and the
radial velocity of flow at inlet is 0.95 2gH . The wheel
runs at 150 r.p.m. and the hydraulic losses in the turbine
are 20% of the available energy. Assuming radial discharge,
determine :
(i) The guide blade angle,
(ii) The wheel angle at inlet,
Fig. 6.53
(iii) Diameter of the wheel at inlet, and
(iv) Width of the wheel at inlet. (i) The guide blade angle,  :
Solution. Overall efficiency, From inlet velocity triangle (Fig. 6.53),
o = 76% Cf1 11.9
tan  =  = 0.595
Shaft power produced, Cw1 20
P = 150 kW   = tan–1 (0.595) = 30°45. (Ans.)
Head, H=8m (ii) The wheel vane angle at inlet,  :
Peripheral velocity, Cf1 11.9
tan  = 
Cbl = 0.25 2 gH Cw1  Cbl1 20  3.13
Radial velocity of flow at inlet, = 0.705
Cf1  0.95 2 gH   = tan–1 (0.705) = 35° 11. (Ans.)
(iii) Diameter of the wheel at inlet, D1 :
Wheel speed, N = 150 r.p.m.
Using the relation,
Since discharge at the outlet is radial,
D1N
 Cw2 = 0 and Cf2 = C2 Cbl1 
60
Hydraulic losses in the turbine = 20% of available Cbl1  60 3.13  60
energy or D1 = 
N   150
Now, Cbl1 = 0.25 2  9.81  8 = 3.13 m/s = 0.398 m. (Ans.)
Cf1 = 0.95 2  9.81  8 = 11.9 m/s
(iv) Width of the wheel at inlet, B1 : or Cf1 = 0.22 × 2 gH

Shaft power P
o =  = 0.22 × 2  9.81  70 = 8.15 m/s
Water power wQH
Actual area of flow
or 0.76 =
150
FG 6 IJ
9.81  Q  8 = 1
H100 K
D1B1 = 0.94  D1B1
150 Since discharge at outlet is radial
 Q= = 2.515 m3/s
0.76  9.81  8 Cw2 = 0 and Cf2 = C2
Also, Q =  D1B1 Cf1 Using relation,
or 2.515 =  × 0.398 × B1 × 11.9 Shaft power
o =
2.515 Water power
 B1 =
  0.398  11.9 330 330 330
0.85 =  
= 0.169 m. (Ans.) wQH wQH 9.81  Q  70
Example 6.5. The following data relate to a Francis 330
or Q= = 0.565 m3/s.
turbine: 0.85  9.81  70
Net head 70 m But Q = Actual area of flow × velocity of flow
Speed 700 r.p.m. = 0.94 D1B1 × Cf1
Shaft power 330 kW 0.565 = 0.94  × D1 × 0.1 D1 × 8.15
Overall efficiency 85%
F∵ B1 I
Hydraulic efficiency 92% GH D1
 0.1 ... Given JK
Flow ratio 0.22
FG I 1/ 2
H 0.94    0.1  8.15 JK

Breadth ratio 0.1 0.565
 D1 = = 0.484 m
Outer diameter of = 2 × inner diameter
the runner of runner
Velocity of flow constant
Outlet discharge radial
The thickness of vanes occupy 6 per cent of
circumferential area of the runner. Determine :
(i) Guide blade angle,
(ii) Runner vane angles at inlet and outlet,
(iii) Diameters of runner at inlet and outlet, and
(iv) Width of the wheel at inlet.
Solution. Net head, H = 70 m ;
Speed, N = 700 r.p.m.
Shaft power = 330 kW
Overall efficiency, o = 85% ;
Hydraulic efficiency, h = 92%
Flow ratio = 0.22 ;
Fig. 6.54
B
Breadth ratio, 1 = 0.1 ; D1 (= outer dia.) B1
D1 But = 0.1
= 2D2 (inner dia.) D1
Thickness of vanes = 6% of circumferential  B1 = 0.1 D1 = 0.1 × 0.484
area of runner = 0.0484 m = 4.84 cm
Tangential speed of the runner at inlet
Cf1  Cf2
D1N   0.484  700
Cf1 Cbl1 = 
Now, flow ratio = 0.22 = 60 60
2 gH = 17.74 m/s
Using relation for hydraulic efficiency,

Cw1 Cbl1
h = (∵ Cw2  0)
gH
Cw1  17.74
0.92 =
9.81  70
0.92  9.81  70
 Cw1 = = 35.6 m/s
17.74 Runner
(i) Guide blade angle,  :
From inlet velocity triangle,
Boss
Cf1 8.15 Db
tan  =  = 0.229
Cw1 35.6 D0
  = tan–1 (0.229) = 12.9°. (Ans.)
Fig. 6.55. Kaplan turbine runner.
(ii) Runner vane angles at inlet and outlet ,
=? Speed ratio,
Cf1 Cbl1
8.15 = 2.0
tan  =  = 0.456 2 gH
Cw1  Cbl1 35.6  17.74
  = tan–1 (0.459) = 24.5°. (Ans.) Cbl1 = 2  2 gH = 2 × 2  9.81  35
From outlet velocity triangle, = 52.4 m/s
Flow ratio,
Cf2 Cf1
tan  =  ...(i) Cf1
Cbl2 Cbl2 = 0.6
2 gH
D2 N   D1 N
But Cbl2   
60 2 60 Cf1 = 0.6 2 gH = 0.6  2  9.81  35
LM∵ D1 OP = 15.7 m/s
N D2 
2
(given)
Q Diameter of boss
  0.484  700 = 0.35 × diameter of the runner
= = 8.87 m/s
2  60  Db = 0.35 D0
Putting the value of Cbl in eqn. (i), we get Overall efficiency,
2
o = 88%.
8.15
tan  = = 0.9188 (i) Diameter of the runner, D0 :
8.87
Using the relation,
or  = tan–1 (0.9188) = 42.58°. (Ans.)
Shaft power (P) 22000
(iii) Diameters of the runner at inlet and outlet, o  
D1, D2 : Water power wQH
D1 = 0.484 m. (Ans.) 22000 22000
 0.88 = 
w  Q  H 9.81  Q  35
0.484
D2 = = 0.242 m. (Ans.) 22000
2 or Q= = 72.8 m3/s
(iv) Width of the wheel at inlet, 0.88  9.81  35
B1 = 4.84 cm. (Ans.) Also, Q = /4 (D02 – Db2) × Cf1
Example 6.6. A Kaplan turbine develops 22,000 kW at an  72.8 = /4 [D02 – (0.35 D0)2] × 15.7
average head of 35 metres. Assuming a speed ratio of 2,
[∵ Db = 0.35 D0]
flow ratio of 0.6, diameter of the boss equal to 0.35 times 2
the diameter of the runner and an overall efficiency of 88%, = /4 D0 × 0.8775 × 15.7
calculate the diameter, speed and specific speed of the 72.8  4
turbine.  D02 =
  0.8775  15.7
Solution. Shaft power, P = 22,000 kW and D0 = 2.6 m/s. (Ans.)
Head, H = 35 m  Db = 0.35 × 2.6 = 0.91 m/s. (Ans.)
(ii) Speed of the turbine, N :  Efficiency of draft tube,

D0 N 0.6 0.6
Cbl1  d = 2

60 V2 4.3972
  2.6  N 2g 2  9.81
 52.4 =
60 = 0.6088 or 60.88%. (Ans.)
52.4  60 Reading of suction gauge :
or N= = 384.9 r.p.m. (Ans.)
  2.6 For reduced output of 750 kW assuming constant
(iii) Specific speed of the turbine, Ns : efficiency, we have
N Pt Discharge
Ns = Q 31.08
H 5/ 4 Q1 == = 15.54 m3/ s
(where Pt = power output of the turbine) 2 2
15.54
384.9  22000 Also, V2 = = 2.198 m/s
= 
 32
(35)5/ 4 4
= 670.6 r.p.m. (Ans.) Head gained in draft tube
Draft Tube 2.1982
= d ×
2g
Example 6.7. A Kaplan turbine develops 1500 kW under a
head of 6 m. The turbine is set 2.5 m above the tail race 2.1982 ~
= 0.6088 ×  0.15 m
level. A vacuum gauge inserted at the turbine outlet records 2  9.81
a suction head of 3.1 m. If the hydraulic efficiency is 82 per  Reading of gauge
cent, what would be the efficiency of draft tube having inlet = 2.5 + 0.15 = 2.65 m. (Ans.)
diameter of 3 m ? Example 6.8. Determine the overall efficiency of a Kaplan
What will be the reading of suction gauge if power turbine developing 2850 kW under a head of 5.2 m. It is
developed is reduced to 750 kW, the head and speed provided with a draft tube with its inlet (diameter 3 m) set
remaining constant ? 1.8 m above the tailrace level. A vacuum gauge connected
to the draft tube indicates a reading of 5.2 m of water.
Solution. Power developed = 1500 kW ;
Assume draft tube efficiency as 75 per cent.
Head, H = 6 m Solution. Power developed = 2850 kW; Head, H = 5.2 m
Height of turbine above tailrace level = 2.5 m ; Height of draft inlet tube above tailrace level,
Hydraulic efficiency, h = 82% Hs = 1.8 m
Draft tube inlet diameter, di = 3 m Reading of the gauge = – 5.2 m
Efficiency of draft tube, d : Draft tube efficiency, d = 75%
Hydraulic efficiency, Overall efficiency of the turbine, o :
Power developed p2 p F
V 2  V32 I
h =
Water power w
 a  Hs  2
w 2g GH  hf JK ...[Eqn. 6.10(a)]
Power developed FV 2
 V32I
=
wQH – 5.2 = 0 – 1.8 – GH 2
2g JK
,
 Power developed = wQH × h
neglecting hf (head loss in draft tube)
1500 = 9.81 × Q × 6 × 0.82
2 2
V2  V3
1500 or = 3.4
or Q= = 31.08 m3/s 2g
9.81  6  0.82
Velocity of water at inlet of draft tube, (V22  V32 ) / 2 g
Also, d = ...[Eqn. 6.11]
Q 31.08 (V22 / 2 g)
V2 =  = 4.397 m/s
 2  3.4 V22 3.4
di  32 or 0.75 = or  = 4.533
4 4 2
(V2 / 2 g) 2 g 0.75
Pressure head required
= 3.1 – 2.5 = 0.6 m  V2 = 4.533  2 g  4.533  2  9.81
= 9.43 m/s
Discharge p2
(i) Pressure head at inlet, :
 w
Q= × 32 × 9.43 = 66.65 m3/s
4 Discharge through the draft tube,
 Overall efficiency, 
Power developed 2850 Q = A3V3 = × d02 × V3
 4
o =
Water power wQH 
=× 1.82 × 3 = 7.634 m/s
2850 4
= Velocity of inlet,
9.81  66.65  5.2
= 0.8382 or 83.82%. (Ans.) Q 7.634 7.634

V2 =  = 6.75 m/s
Example 6.9. A conical draft tube having inlet and outlet A2  2 
di  1.22
diameters 1.2 m and 1.8 m discharges water at outlet with 4 4
a velocity of 3 m/s. The total length of the draft tube is 7.2 m Using eqn. (6.10)
and 1.44 m of the length of draft tube is immersed in water.
p2 p ⎛ V 2  V32 ⎞
If the atmospheric pressure head is 10.3 m of water and = a  Hs  ⎜ 2  hf ⎟
loss of head due to friction in the draft tube is equal to 0.2 × w w ⎜ 2g ⎟
⎝ ⎠
velocity head at outlet of the tube, determine :
pa ⎛ V 2  V32 V 2⎞
(i) Pressure head at inlet, and =  Hs  ⎜ 2  0.2 3 ⎟
w ⎜ 2g 2 g ⎟⎠
(ii) Efficiency of the draft tube. ⎝
Solution. Inlet diameter of the draft tube, F 6.75  3
2 2
32 I
di = 1.2 m = 10.3 – 5.76 – GH 2  9.81  0.2 
2  9.81 JK
Outlet diameter,
p2
d0 = 1.8 m or = 4.54 – (1.863 – 0.092)
w
Velocity at outlet = 2.769 m (abs). (Ans.)
V3 = 3 m/s
(ii) Efficiency of the draft tube, d :
Total length of draft tube,
Hs + y = 7.2 m ⎛ V22  V32 ⎞ V22  V32 V32
⎜⎜  hf ⎟  0.2
Length of draft tube in water, 2g ⎟ 2g 2g
 d = ⎝ ⎠ =
y = 1.44 m V2 2 V22
 Hs = 7.2 – 1.44 = 5.76 m 2g 2g
Atmospheric pressure head,
pa V22 ⎛ V32 V 2⎞
= 10.3 m ⎜  0.2 3 ⎟
w 2 g ⎜⎝ 2 g 2 g ⎟⎠
Loss of head due to friction, =
V22
hf = 0.2 × velocity head at outlet
2g
V32
= 0.2
2g FV I
= 1 – 1.2 G J
2
F 3 IJ
= 1 – 1.2 G
2
H 6.75 K
3
di
Inlet of draft tube HV K
2
2 = 0.763 or 76.3%. (Ans.)

V2 Example 6.10. Give the range of specific speed of values of
Hs Draft tube the Kaplan, Francis turbines and Pelton Wheels. What
factors decide whether Kaplan, Francis or a Pelton wheel
7.2 m pa type turbine would be used in a hydro-electric project ?
(UPSC)
Tail
y (= 1.44 m) race Solution. The specific speed of a turbine is defined as
3
V3 the speed of a turbine which is identical in shape,
d0 geometrical dimensions, blade angles, gate opening etc.
which would develop unit power when working under a
Outlet of draft tube unit head.
Fig. 6.56
2000 150 P
Pelton wheel 460 =
(18)5 / 4
500
Francis turbine (where P is in kW and H is in metres)
or Power available at turbine shaft,
Head (m)
100
L 460  (18) OP
5/ 4 2
P= M
1 jet Kaplan turbine
20
2 jets
3 jets
MN 150 PQ = 12927.5 kW
Power available from turbines

= wQH × o
0 100 300 500 700 = 9.81 × 175 × 18 × 0.82
Specific speed (Ns) = 25339.23 kW
No. of turbines required
Fig. 6.57
25339.23

Based on specific speed, the turbines for the = = 1.96 say 2. (Ans.)
12927.5
project are selected as shown in Fig. 6.57.
Example 6.13. The turbine is to operate under a head of
 In general, the selection of a turbine for hydro-
24 m at 200 r.p.m. The discharge is 8.5 m3/s. If the overall
electric project is based on the following
efficiency is 88%, determine :
considerations :
(i) Power generated,
1. For high heads, Pelton wheels are invariably
selected. (ii) Specific speed of the turbine,
2. For intermediate heads, Francis turbines are (iii) Type of turbine.
selected. Solution. Head, H = 24 m
3. For low head and high discharge, Kaplan Speed, N = 200 r.p.m.
turbines are selected. Discharge, Q = 8.5 m3/s
Example 6.11. A turbine develops 6620 kW under a head Overall efficiency, o = 88%
of 20 metres at 130 r.p.m. Calculate the specific speed of the (i) Power generated, P :
turbine and state the type of the turbine.
Power developed P
Solution. Power developed,  = 
Water power wQH
P = 6620 kW
 P = o × wQH = 0.88 × 9.81 × 8.5 × 24
Head, H = 20 metres
or P = 1761 kW. (Ans.)
Speed, N = 130 r.p.m.
(ii) Specific speed of the turbine, Ns :
Specific speed of the turbine,
N P 200  1761
N P 130  6620 Ns  
Ns =
5/4 = H 5/ 4 (24)5 / 4
H (20)5 / 4
= 158 r.p.m. (Ans.)
= 250 r.p.m. (Ans.)
(iii) Type of turbine :
Since for specific speeds between 50 and 350 (SI
units) the type of turbine is Francis, therefore as the specific As the specific speed lies between 50 and 350, the
speed lies in this range, the turbine in question is turbine is a Francis turbine. (Ans.)
Francis. (Ans.) Example 6.14. Calculate the specific speed of a turbine
Example 6.12. In a hydro-electric station, water is available and suggest the type of turbine required for a river having
at the rate of 175 m3/s under a head of 18 m. The turbines a discharge of 240 litres/sec with a available head of
run at a speed of 150 r.p.m. with overall efficiency of 82%. 45 metres.
Find the number of turbines required if they have the Take the efficiency of the turbine = 82% and speed
maximum specific speed of 460. (GATE) = 450 r.p.m.
3
Solution. Given : Q = 175 m /s ; H = 18 m ; N = 150 r.p.m.; Solution. Discharge,
o = 82% ; Ns = 460. FG  240  0.24 m /sIJ
H 1000 K
Q = 240 litres/s 3
Number of turbines required :
Specific speed of the turbine, Head, H = 45 m
N P Turbine efficiency,
Ns = ...[Eqn. (6.12)]
H 5/4  = 82%
Speed, N = 450 r.p.m. Example 6.16. The quantity of water available for hydro-
P electric station is 250 m3/sec. under a head of 1.6 m. If the
Now, = speed of the turbine is 50 r.p.m. and efficiency 82% determine
wQH
the number of turbine units required. Take specific speed
 Power developed, as 740.
P =  × wQH Solution. Quantity of water available,
= 0.82 × 9.81 × 0.24 × 45 = 86.88 kW Q = 250 m3/s
Specific speed, Head, H = 1.6 m
N P 450  86.88 Speed, N = 50 r.p.m.
Ns = 
H 5/4 (45)5/4 Efficiency,  = 82%
3.6 r.p.m. (Ans.) Specific speed, Ns = 740
For this specific speed Pelton turbine is suitable. Number of turbine units required :
(Ans.) Total power (Ptotal) to be developed can be calculated
Example 6.15. A hydro-electric power station is desired to using the following equation,
be built across a river having a discharge of 28000 litres/s Ptotal =  wQH
at a head of 11 m. Assuming turbine efficiency 78% and = 0.82 × 9.81 × 250 × 1.6
speed ratio as 0.82, determine : = 3217.7 kW
(i) Can we use two turbines with a speed not less The power developed by each turbine can be
than 120 r.p.m. and specific speed more than 350 r.p.m. ? calculated be using the following equation :
(ii) Specify the type of turbine/runner that can be
N P
used. Also calculate the runner diameter. Ns =
Solution. Discharge, H 5/ 4
FG 28000 IJ 740 =
50  P
Q = 28000 litres/sec. 
H 1000
 28 m3 /s
K (1.6)5 / 4
Turbine efficiency,  = 78% 740  (1.6)5 / 4
P
Speed ratio = 0.82 50
Head, H = 11 m L 740  (1.6) OP
P= M
5/4 2
(i) Power developed, 

MN 50 PQ
P =  × wQH = 0.78 × 9.81 × 28 × 11 or P = 709.3 kW
= 2356.7 kW  Number of turbine units required
Using two turbines each of capacity 1200 kW, the
Ptotal 3217.7
specific speed of the turbine is calculated as follows : = 
P 7093
N P 120 1200 = 4.54  5. (Ans.)
Ns = 
H 5/4 (11)5 / 4 + Example 6.17. At a proposed site of hydro-electric power
= 207.5 r.p.m. plant the available discharge and head is 330 m3/s and 28 m
(ii) For the specific speed calculated above Francis respectively. The turbine efficiency is 86%. The generator is
turbine is suitable. directly coupled to the turbine. The frequency of generator
Diameter of the runner, D : is 50 Hz and number of poles used are 24. Find the least
Tangential velocity of the runner, number of machines required if,
(i) A Francis turbine with a specific speed of 260 is used.
Cbl = Speed ratio × 2 gH
(ii) A Kaplan turbine with a specific speed of 700 is used.
= 0.82 × 2  9.81  11 = 12.05 m/s Solution. Available discharge,
DN Q = 330 m3/s
But Cbl =
60 Head, H = 28 m
D  120 Turbine efficiency,
 12.05 =
60
 = 86%
12.05  60
 D= = 1.92 m. (Ans.) Frequency of generation,
  120
f = 50 Hz
Number of poles used, Performance of turbine under a head of 20 m ;

p = 24 N2, Q2, P2 :
Performance of turbine under a head, H2 = 20 m
As the generator is directly coupled to the turbine,
means to find speed (N2), discharge (Q2), and power
the speed of turbine used must be equal to the synchronous
generated (P2) by the turbine when working under a head
speed of the generator. of 20 m.
120 f 120  50 Overall efficiency,
 N= 
p 24 Shaft power P P1
= 250 r.p.m. o =  
Water power wQH wQ1H1
P =  × wQH = 0.86 × 9.81 × 330 × 28  P1 = o × wQ1H1 = 0.9 × 9.81 × 9 × 25
= 77954.2 kW. = 1986.5 kW
(i) The power capacity of each Francis turbine (P1) N1 N2
Now,  ...[Eqn. (6.19)]
can be calculated by using the following formula : H1 H2
N P1 N 1 H2
Ns = 200  20
H 5/ 4  N2 = 
H1 25
250 P1 = 178.88 r.p.m. (Ans.)
260 =
(28)5 / 4 Q1 Q2
 P1
L 260  (28) OP
= M
5/ 4 2
= 4487 kW
and
H1

H2
...[Eqn. (6.20)]
MN 250 PQ  Q2 =
Q1 H2

9  20
 Number of Francis turbines required H1 25
P 77954.2 = 8.05 m3/s (Ans.)
=  = 17.4  18. (Ans.)
P1 4487 P1 P2
and  ...[Eqn. (6.21)]
(ii) The power capacity of each Kaplan turbine can H13/2
( H2 )3 / 2
be calculated by using the following formula :
P1  ( H2 )3 / 2 1986.5  (20)3 / 2
N P1  P2 = 
Ns = ( H1)3 / 2 (25)3 / 2
H 5/ 4 = 1421.4 kW. (Ans.)
250 P2 Example 6.19. A hydro-turbine is required to give 25 MW
770 =
(28)5 / 4 at 50 m head and 90 r.p.m. runner speed. The laboratory
 P2
L 700  (28)
= M
OP
5/ 4 2
= 32524.5 kW
facilities available, permit testing of 20 kW model at 5 m
head. What should be the model runner speed and model
MN 250 PQ to prototype scale ratio? (GATE)
 Number of Kaplan turbines required Solution. Given : Pp = 25 MW ; Hp = 50 m ; Np = 90 r.p.m.;
Pm = 20 kW ; Hm = 5 m
P 77954.2

 = 2.4  3. (Ans.) Dp
P2 32524.5 Nm ; (= Lr) :
Example 6.18. A turbine is to operate under a head of 25 m Dm
at 200 r.p.m. The discharge is 9 m3/s. If the efficiency is Prototype specific speed,
90 per cent determine the performance of turbine under a N p Pp
head of 20 m. (M.U.) (Ns)p = (where P is in kW)
( H p )5 / 4
Solution. Head under which turbine works,
H1 = 25 m 90  25  103
= = 107
Speed of the turbine, (50)5 / 4
For model,
N1 = 200 r.p.m.
Nm Pm
Discharge through the turbine, 107 = [∵ ( N s ) p  ( N s ) m ]
( Hm ) 5 / 4
Q1 = 9 m3 /s
107  ( Hm )5 / 4 107  (5)5 / 4
Efficiency (overall), or Nm = 
Pm 20
o = 90%
= 178.89 r.p.m. (Ans.)
P Example 6.21. A hydraulic turbine is to develop 1015 kW

For similar turbines 3/ 2 2
should be equal. when running at 120 r.p.m. under a net head of 12 m. Work
H D
out the maximum flow rate and specific speed for the turbine
P Pm
  if the overall efficiency at the best operating point is 92 per
H p3 / 2 D p 2 Hm3 / 2 Dm2 cent. In order to predict its performance, a 1 : 10 scale model
3/2 is tested under a head of 7.2 m. What would be the speed,
Dp Pp ⎛H ⎞ power output and water consumption of the model if it runs
or (= Lr) = ⎜ m ⎟
Dm Pm ⎜⎝ H p ⎟⎠ under the conditions similar to the prototype ?
Solution. Shaft power,
3/2
25  103 ⎛ 5 ⎞ P = 1015 kW ;
= ⎜ ⎟
20 ⎝ 50 ⎠ Speed, N = 120 r.p.m.
= 6.287. (Ans.) Overall efficiency,
Example 6.20. A water turbine delivering 10 MW power is o = 92% ;
to be tested with the help of a geometrically similar 1 : 8 Head, H = 12 m
model, which runs as the same speed as the prototype. Flow rate (Q), Specific speed (Ns) :
(i) Find the power developed by the model assuming Shaft power P
the efficiencies of the model and the prototype are equal. o =  ;
Water power wQH
(ii) Find the ratio of the heads and the ratio of mass
P
flow rates between the prototype and the model. (GATE) Q=
Solution. Given : Pp = 10 MW ; owH
1015
Lm Dm 1 or Flow rate, Q =
Np = Nm, ;   ; p = m. 0.92  9.81  12
Lp Dp 8
= 9.372 m3 /s. (Ans.)
(i) Power developed by the model, Pm :
Specific speed,
We know that,
N P 120 1015
P  N 3 × D5 ...[Eqn. (6.24)] Ns = 
H 5/4 (12)5 / 4
(where N is the speed and D is the diameter)
= 171.2 r.p.m. (Ans.)
 Pp  Np3 Dp5 and Pm  Nm3 Dm5
Model scale = 1 : 10 (Given)
Pp
G
F N I F D I 3 5
H N JK GH D JK
or p p Head under which model is tested,
Pm m m Hm = 7.2 m (Given)
F 8I
= (1) × G J = 8
5 Nm , Pm, Qm :
H 1K
3 5 (∵ Np = Nm) For similar turbines each of the following parameters
must be same for both model and prototype.
Pp 10  106
 Pm =  = 305.2 W. (Ans.) H
(8) 5
(8)5 (i) Head co-efficient, CH = ;
N 2 D2
(ii) Ratio of heads and ratio of mass flow Q
(ii) Flow co-efficient, CQ =
ND3
P
rates : (iii) Power co-efficient, Cp = 3 5
N D
We know that H  N 2 D2 ...[Eq. (6.22)] FG H IJ FG H IJ Hm Hp
Hp F N I F D I 2 2
(i)
H 2 2
N D m K H 2 2
N D p K or 2
Nm Dm 2

N p2 Dp2

Hm
= GH N JK GH D JK
p
m
p
m or Nm2 = Np2
D p2

Hm
= ×(1)2= 64. (Ans.) (8)2 Dm2 Hp
Also, Discharge, Q  ND3 ...[Eqn. (6.23)] FH I
Dp
G
1/2
H H JK
m
 Ratio of mass flow rates,  Model speed, Nm =N × p
D
Qp mp FN IFD I
G
3 m p
H N JK GH D JK F 7.2 IJ
p p
 1/2
= 120 × 10 × G
Qm mm m m
= 1 × (8)3 = 512. (Ans.)
H 12 K
= 929.5 r.p.m. (Ans.)
FG Q IJ  FG Q IJ Qm Qp 120f 120 f
(ii)
H ND K H ND K
3
m
3
p
or
Nm Dm3

N p Dp3
Again, N=
p
or p =
N
 Discharge in the model, (where p = Number of poles)
120  50
F I
Nm Dm
3  p= = 8.07  8 (say)
Qm = Qp × GH JK
Np

Dp Corrected speed
743.3
929.5 F 1 I
3 120 f 120  50
G J = 
= 9.372 ×
120 H 10 K p 8
= 750 r.p.m. (Ans.)
= 0.0726 m3/s. (Ans.)
Example 6.23. A flow of 75 m3/s under a head of 110 m is
FG P IJ  FG P IJ Pm Pp available at a site for a hydro-power station. If the efficiency
(iii)
HN D K HN D K
3 5
m
3 5
p
or 3
Nm Dm5

N p3 Dp5 of the turbine is 88% and generator efficiency is 92%,
 Power produced by the model, determine :
(i) Power developed,
FN I FD I 3 5
Pm = Pp × GH N JK GH D JK
m
p
m
p
(ii) Number of units required and their capacities.
Solution. Discharge, Q = 75 m3/s
= 1015 × G
F 929.5 IJ  FG 1 IJ 3 5 Head, H = 110 m
H 120 K H 10 K Turbine efficiency, t = 88%
Generator efficiency, g = 92%
= 4.72 kW. (Ans.)
(i) Power developed, P :
Hydro-electric Power Station P = t × wQH
Example 6.22. The following data relate to a hydro-electric or P = 0.88 × 9.81 × 75 × 110
power station : = 71220 kW. (Ans.)
Head = 400 m ; Discharge = 4.5 m3/s ; Turbine 71220
efficiency = 8.2% ; Generator frequency = 50 Hz. Determine: (ii) Two turbines each of = 35610 kW
2
(i) Power developed, (ii) Type of the turbine, capacity may be used. (Ans.)
(iii) Speed of the turbine. Generator capacity of each unit
Solution. Head, H = 400 m = g × 35610
Discharge, Q = 4.5 m3/s = 0.92 × 35610 = 32761 kW
Turbine efficiency,  = 82% Total power generated by the generators
Generator frequency, f = 50 Hz = 32761 × 2
(i) Power developed, P : = 65522 kW or 65.5 MW. (Ans.)
P =  × wQH Example 6.24. A proposed hydro-electric station has an
available head of 120 metres, a catchment area of
= 0.82 × 9.81 × 4.5 × 400
200 sq. km, the rainfall of which is 120 cm per annum. If
= 14479 kW. (Ans.) 62% of the total rainfall can be collected, calculate the power
(ii) Type of turbine : that could be generated. Suggest suitable ratings of
Pelton turbine should be used for a head of 400 m. generators.
(Ans.) Solution. Available head, H = 120 m
(iii) Speed of the turbine, N : Catchment area,
N = Actual speed of the turbine A = 200 sq. km (= 200 × 106 m2)
Ns = Specific speed of the turbine. Rainfall = 120 cm per annum (= 1.2 m)
Rainfall collected/annum,
Choosing an approximate speed of about 50.
h = 62% of the total rainfall
N P = (0.62 × 1.2) m.
Also, Ns =
H 5/4 Power developed, P :
N s  ( H )5 / 4 50  (400)5 / 4 Total quantity of water available for power
 N= =
P 14479 generation
= 743.3 r.p.m. = A × h = 200 × 106 × (0.62 × 1.2)
= 148.8 × 106 m3/year
Hence quantity of water available per second (ii) Machines to be used :

148.8  106 2186
= Total ratings of generators = = 4968 kW
(365  24)  60  60 0.44
Providing two machines of equal rating,
148.8  106 4968
= = 4.7 m3/s Capacity of each unit = = 2957 each.
8760  3600 2  0.84
Now, P = o × wQH As the available head is low, Kaplan turbines
= 0.95 × 9.81 × 4.7 × 120 (propeller type) are suggested, each having a generating
(Assuming o = 0.95) capacity of 2957 kW. (Ans.)
= 5256 kW. (Ans.) +Example 6.26. The following data is available for a
Suitable ratings of generators : hydro-power plant :
Two generators of 2800 kW capacity each may be Available head = 140 m ; catchment area =
installed. However, ratings of generators may need upward 2000 sq. km ; annual average rainfall = 145 cm ; turbine
revision if various efficiencies and load factors are taken efficiency = 85% ; generator efficiency = 90% ; percolation
into account. and evaporation losses = 16%.
+ Example 6.25. The following data relate to a proposed Determine the following :
hydro-electric station : (i) Power developed.
Available head = 28 m ; Catchment area = 420 (ii) Suggest type of turbine to be used if runner speed
sq. km ; rainfall = 140 cm/year ; percentage of total rainfall is to be kept below 240 r.p.m.
utilized = 68% ; Penstock efficiency = 94% ; turbine efficiency Solution. Head available, H = 140 m
= 80% ; generator efficiency = 84% and load factor = 44%.
Catchment area, A = 200 sq. km
(i) Calculate the power developed.
(= 200 × 106 m2)
(ii) Suggest suitable machines and specify the same.
Annual average rainfall, h = 145 cm (= 1.45 m)
Solution. Head available, H = 28 m
Turbine efficiency, t = 85%
Catchment area, A = 420 sq. km
Generator efficiency, g = 90%
(= 420 × 106 m2)
Percolation and evaporation losses,
Rainfall = 140 cm/year (= 1.4 m)
z = 16% = 0.16
Rainfall utilized, h = 68% of the total rainfall
(i) Power developed, P :
= (0.68 × 1.4) m per year
Quantity of water available for power generation
Penstock efficiency, p = 94% per year
Turbine efficiency, t = 80% = A × h × (1 – z)
Generator efficiency, g = 84% = 200 × 106 × 1.45 × (1 – 0.16)
Load factor = 44%. = 2.436 × 108 m3/year
(i) Power developed, P : Hence, quantity of water available per second,
Quantity of water available per year 2.436  108
= A × h = (420 × 106) × (0.68 × 1.4) Q= = 7.72 m3/s
(365  24)  3600
= 399.84 × 106 m3  P = o × wQH
Hence the quantity of water available per second, = t × g × wQH
399.84  106 = 0.85 × 0.9 × 9.81 × 7.72 × 140
Q= = 12.6 m3
(365  24)  3600 = 8111 kW or 8.111 MW. (Ans.)
 P = o × wQH (ii) Type of turbine to be used :
(where o = Overall efficiency = p × t × g) Specific speed,
or P = p × t × g × wQH N P 240 8111
Ns =  = 44.28 r.p.m.
= 0.94 × 0.8 × 0.84 × 9.81 × 12.6 × 28 H 5/4 (140)5 / 4
= 2186 kW Single Pelton turbine with 4 jets can be used. Further
Hence average output of generating units since head available is large and discharge is low, Pelton
= 2186 kW. (Ans.) turbine will work satisfactorily. (Ans.)
Example 6.27. From the investigation of a hydro-site the (i) Type of turbine :
following data is available : P = o × wQH
Available head 45 m 20 × 103 = 0.72 × 9.81 × Q × 15
Total catchment area 60 sq. km
20  103
Rainfall per annum 140 cm  Q= = 188.8 m3/s
0.72  9.81  15
Percentage of rainfall utilized 68%
As the head is low and discharge is high so a
Turbine efficiency 82%
propeller type of turbine should be used. (Ans.)
Generator efficiency 90%
(ii) Synchronous speed of the generator, Nsyn :
Percentage efficiency 74%
1150
Calculate the suitable capacity of a turbo-generator. Specific speed, Ns = (approx.)
H 1/ 4
1150
Catchment area, A = 60 sq. km = = 584.3 r.p.m.
(15)1/4
(= 60 × 106 m2)
Ns  H 5 / 4 F∵ N N P I
Available rainfall,
Turbine efficiency,
h = (0.68 × 1.4) m
t = 82%
Speed of rotation, N =
P
GH s 
H 5/ 4
JK
Generator efficiency, g = 90% 584.3  (15)5 / 4
Penstock efficiency, p = 74%
=
F 20  10 I3 1/2
Quantity of water available per annum GH 0.7355 JK

= A × h = 60 × 106 × (0.68 × 1.4) = 104.6 r.p.m.
= 57.12 × 106 m3/annum
120f
Hence, quantity of water available per second, For generator, N=
p
57.12  106
Q= = 1.81 m3/s 120  50
(365  24)  3600 104.6 =
p
Now overall efficiency,
[where f = frequency (= 50 Hz)]
o = p × t × g
120  50
= 0.74 × 0.82 × 0.9 = 0.546  p= = 57.36 = 60 (say)
104.6
 Power developed,
(as the number of poles is necessarily an even
P = o × wQH number)
= 0.546 × 9.81 × 1.81 × 45 = 436 kW
120 f 120  50
If a load factor of 55 per cent is assumed, then Again, Nsyn = 
p 60
436
Maximum kW = = 793 kW = 100 r.p.m. (Ans.)
0.55
So a generator of 800 kW maximum rating can be +Example 6.29. Calculate the power developed in MW
selected. (Ans.) from a hydro-electric power plant with the following data :
793 Available head 50 m
 Power of the turbine = = 967 kW. (Ans.)
0.82 Catchment area 250 sq. km
For a head of 45 m, which is low, a vertical shaft Average annual rainfall 120 cm
Francis or Kaplan turbine may be employed. Rainfall lost due to evaporation 20%
Example 6.28. A hydro-electric power plant produces Turbine efficiency 82%
20 MW under a head of 15 metres. If the overall efficiency Generator efficiency 84%
of the plant is 72%, determine :
Head lost in penstock 4%
(i) Type of turbine
(ii) Synchronous speed of the generator. Catchment area, A = 250 sq. km
Solution. Power developed, P = 20 MW
(= 250 × 106 m2)
(= 20 × 103 kW) Average annual rainfall = 120 cm (= 1.2 m)
Head, H = 15 m Evaporation loss = 20%
Overall efficiency, o = 72%
 Average annual rainfall available, 3247.6

h = (1 – 0.2) × 1.2 = 0.96 m = = 7216.9 kW
0.45
Turbine efficiency, t = 82% The capacity of the plant can be taken equal to
Generator efficiency, g = 84% maximum demand.
Penstock efficiency, p = 100 – 4 = 96%  Capacity = 7216.9 kW. (Ans.)
Quantity of water available per annum +Example 6.31. In a hydro-electric power plant the
= A × h = 250 × 106 × 0.96 reservoir is 225 m above the turbine house. The annual
= 2.4 × 108 m3 replenishment of reservoir is 3.5 × 1012 N. Calculate the
Hence, quantity of water available per second, energy available at the generating station bus bars if the
loss of head in the hydraulic system is 25 m and the overall
2.4  108 efficiency of the system is 85%.
Q= = 7.61 m3/s
(365  24)  3600 If maximum demand of 45 MW is to be supplied
Overall efficiency, determine the diameter of two steel penstocks.
o = p × t × g Solution. Actual head available, H = 225 – 25 = 200 m
= 0.96 × 0.82 × 0.84 = 0.66 Overall efficiency, o = 85%
Power developed, Annual replenishment, W = 3.5 × 1012 N
P = o × wQH (i) Energy output :
= 0.66 × 9.81 × 7.61 × 50 kW E = Energy available at the turbine
= 2463.6 kW or 2.463 MW house
Hence power developed = 2.463 MW. (Ans.) = WH = 3.5 × 1012 × 200
Example 6.30. The following data is supplied for a hydro- = 7 × 1014 Nm or J
electric power station :
7  1014
Catchment area 100 sq. km = = 1.944 × 108 kWh
36  105
Annual rainfall 1200 mm [∵ 1 kWh = 36 × 105 J]
Available head 220 m Energy output = o × E
Load factor 45% = 0.85 × 1.944 × 108
Yield factor to allow for run-off 55% = 1.652 × 108 kWh. (Ans.)
and evaporation loss (ii) Diameter of steel penstock, D :
Power plant efficiency 72% Kinetic energy of water
Calculate the following : = Loss of potential energy
(i) Average power produced 1
 mC2 = mgH
(ii) Capacity of the power plant. 2
Solution. Volume of water available per annum  C = 2 gH  2  9.81  200
= Catchment area × annual rainfall × yield factor = 62.64 m/s
= 100 × 106 × 1.2 × 0.55 = 6.6 × 107 m3 (where C = Velocity water in each penstock, m
Hence, quantity of water available per second = mass of water in kg)
6.6  107 1
= = 2.09 m3/s Now, mC2 = Energy to be supplied
(365  24)  60  60 2
(i) Average power produced, P : 1
m × (62.64)2 = 45 × 106 W
P =  × wQH kW 2
= 0.72 × 9.81 × 2.09 × 220 kW 45  106  2
 m= = 22937 kg
= 3247.6 kW. (Ans.) (62.64)2
(ii) Capacity of the power plant : Let A = Area of two penstocks, m2,
Average power A
Load factor = A1 = Area of each penstock = ,
Maximum demand 2
 Maximum demand D = Diameter of each penstock,
Average power Then, m=A×C×
=
Load factor (where  = Mass density of water)
22973 = A × 62.64 × 1000 Power developed when stream flow is 15 m3/s,

FG   w  9810  1000 kg/m IJ
3
P1 = 134.98 × 15 = 2024.7 kW
H g 9.81 K Energy generated per day,
E2 = P1 × time = 2024.7 × 24
22973
A= = 0.366 m2 = 48592.8 kWh
62.64  1000
 Daily load factor
A 0.366
and A1 =  = 0.183 m2 Average load 48592.8
2 2 = =
 2 Maximum load 10000  24
Now, 0.183 = D = 0.2025 or 20.25%. (Ans.)
4
FG 0.183  4 IJ 1/2 Example 6.33. Calculate the firm capacity of a run-of-river
 D=
H  K hydro-power plant to be used as 8 hours peaking plant
assuming daily flow in a river to be constant at 15 m3/s.
= 0.483 m. (Ans.) Also calculate pondage factor and pondage if the head of
Example 6.32. It is observed that a run-of-river plant the plant is 11 m and overall efficiency is 85%.
operates as peak load plant with a weekly load factor of Solution. Discharge, Q = 15 m3/s
25% all this capacity being firm capacity. Determine the Plant head, H = 11 m
minimum flow in river so that power plant may act as a Overall efficiency, o = 85%
base load plant. The following data is supplied : Rated
Specific weight of water, w = 9.81 kN/m3
installed capacity of generating plant = 10 MW, operating
head = 16 m. Plant efficiency = 86%. P = Firm capacity without pondage
If the stream flow is 15 m3/s, find the daily load factor = o × wQH = 0.85 × 9.81 × 15 × 11
of the plant. = 1375.8 kW
Solution. Weekly load factor = 25% t1
PF = Pondage factor =
Rated installed capacity of generating plant = t2
10 MW (= 10000 kW) where, t1 = Total hours in one day = 24, and
Operating head, H = 16 m t2 = Number of hours for which plant runs = 8
Plant efficiency, o = 86% [Pondage factor is the ratio of total inflow hours
Minimum flow in river in m3/sec, Q : in a given period to the total number of hours for which
Average load plant runs during the same period.]
∵ Load factor =
Maximum demand 24
 Average load = Load factor PF = = 3. (Ans.)
8
× Maximum demand Q1 = 15 × 3 = 45 m3/s
= 0.25 × 10000 = 2500 kW P1 = Firm power with pondage
E = Total energy generated in = 1375.8 × 3 = 4127.4 kW
one week Pondage (magnitude)
= 2500 × 24 × 7 = 42 × 104 kWh = (24 – 8) = 16 hours flow
Now, Power developed, = 16 × 60 × 60 × 15
P = o wQH kW = 8.64 × 105 m3. (Ans.)
= 0.86 × 9.81 × Q × 16 kW Example 6.34. The following data relate to a pump storage
= 134.98 Q kW power plant :
 E1 = Total energy generated in Gross head 280 m
one week Dia. of headrace tunnel 4.0 m
= 134.98 Q × 24 × 7 Length of headrace tunnel 620 m
= 22676.6 Q kWh Flow velocity 6.5 m/s
Now, E = E1 Friction factor 0.018
42 × 104 = 22676.6 Q
Pumping efficiency 85%
42  104 Generation efficiency 90%
 Q= = 18.52 m3/s
22676.6 If the power plant discharges directly in the lower
Hence minimum flow rate = 18.52 m3/s. (Ans.) reservoir determine the plant efficiency.
Solution. Head, H = 280 m Discharge, Length of time, %age time

Dia. of headrace tunnel, D = 4.0 m m3/s months
Length of headrace tunnel, L = 620 m 100 (and more) 12 100
Flow velocity, C = 6.5 m/s 200 (and more) 11 91.7
Friction factor, f = 0.018 225 (and more) 10 83.3
300 (and more) 9 75.0
Pumping efficiency, p = 85%
400 (and more) 8 66.7
Generation efficiency, g = 90%
600 (and more) 7 58.3
Plant efficiency, plant : 750 (and more) 5 41.7
Loss of head due to friction (hf) is given by the 800 (and more) 4 33.3
equation : 900 (and more) 3 25.0
fLC 2 0.018  620  6.52 1000 (and more) 2 16.7
hf =  1200 (and more) 1 8.3
2 gD 2  9.81  4.0
= 6.0 m
Now, hf = xH
6 = x × 280
6
 x= = 0.0214
280
1 x
 plant = × p × g
1 x
(1  0.0214)
= × 0.85 × 0.9
(1  0.0214)
= 0.7329 or 73.29%. (Ans.)
Hydrology
Example 6.35. At a particular site the mean monthly
discharge is as follows :
Month Discharge, Month Discharge,

Fig. 6.58. Hydrograph.
m3/s m3/s
January 100 July 1000

February 225 August 1200
March 300 September 900
April 600 October 600
May 750 November 400
June 800 December 200
Draw the following :

(i) Hydrograph (ii) Flow duration curve.
Solution. (i) The hydrograph is plotted between
discharge (m3/sec) and time (months) as shown in Fig. 6.58.
(ii) Flow duration curve :
In order to draw flow duration curve it is essential
to find the length of time during which certain flows are
available, e.g. 100 m3/s is available for all 12 months, flow
of 200 m3/s for 11 months, 225 m3/s for 10 months and so
on. This information is indicated in the table.
The flow duration curve is then plotted as shown in The mean discharge for the given data
Fig. 6.59. 40  25  20  10  0  50  75
 100  110  60  50  40
Note. When selecting a suitable site for a hydro-power =
plant the flow data for a number of years is collected and 12
hydrographs and flow duration curves and the various 580
periods are determined. = = 48.33 millions of m3/month.
12
Example 6.36. The runoff data of a river at a particular (ii) Flow duration curve :
site is tabulated below : To obtain the flow duration curve it is necessary to
find the lengths of time during which certain flows are
Month Mean discharge per month
available. This information is tabulated, using the
(millions of cu m)
hydrograph, in the table below :
January 40
February 25 Discharge Total number of Percentage
March 20 per month months during time
(millions of m3) which flow is
April 10
available
May 0
June 50 0 12 100
July 75 10 11 91.7
August 100 20 10 83.3
September 110 25 9 75
October 60 40 8 66.7
November 50 50 6 50
December 40 60 4 33.3
75 3 25.0
(i) Draw a hydrograph and find the mean flow,
100 2 16.7
(ii) Also draw the flow duration curve, 110 1 8.3
(iii) Find the power in MW available at mean flow if
the head available is 80 m and overall efficiency of The flow duration curve can be drawn using the data
generation is 85%. tabulated as shown in Fig. 6.61.
Take each month of 30 days.
Solution. (i) Hydrograph :
The hydrograph for the given data is drawn as
shown in Fig. 6.60.
130
120
110 110
110
100 100
Discharge (millions of cu. m) / month
90
80 Hydrograph
75
70
60
60
50 50 50 Mean flow
40 (48.33)
40 40
30
25
20 20
10 10
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Months
(iii) Average MW energy available : The energy used from the thermal plant to pump the
1 water of pump storage plant during off-peak period must
= o wQH × MW be equal to the energy supplied by the pump-storage plant
1000
(where w = 9.81 kN/m3) during peak period.
LMwhere Q (discharge in m /s)  48.33  10 OP
3
6 120
N 30  24  3600 Q 110
6
9.81  48.33  10  80 1 100
= 0.85 ×  MW Load curve
(30  24  3600) 1000 90
= 12.4 MW. (Ans.)
80
Example 6.37. The nature of load required for 24 hours
and thermal efficiencies of the plant at the respective loads 70
are given in the table below :
Load, MW
Base load
60 thermal plant
Time period Load Thermal efficiency 50
of 71.67 MW
capacity
(MW) (% age)
40
10 A.M. to 6 P.M. 120 32%
6 P.M. to 8 P.M. 60 24% 30
8 P.M. to 12 A.M. 30 15% 20
12 A.M. to 6 A.M. 15 10%
10
6 A.M. to 10 A.M. 75 25%
(i) Find the total input to the thermal plant if the 6 A.M. 12 P.M. 6 P.M. 12 A.M. 6 A.M.
load is supplied by the single thermal plant only. Time period
(ii) If the above load is taken by combined thermal Fig. 6.62. Load curve.
and pump storage plant, then find the percentage saving
in the input to the plant. Thermal efficiency at full load = From the Fig. 6.62, we have:
32%. [(x – 60) × 2 + (x – 30) × 4 + (x – 15) × 6] × 0.7544
(iii) The overall efficiencies in both cases. = (75 – x) × 4 + (120 – x) × 8
In pump storage plant, the pump and turbine are or [(2x – 120) + (4x – 120) + (6x – 90) ] × 0.7544
separate. The efficiency of pump is 82% and water turbine = (300 – 4x) + (960 – 8x)
is 92%. or (12x – 330) × 0.7544 = 1260 – 12x
Solution. The load curve, drawn as per the data given, is or 9.053x – 248.95 = 1260 – 12x
shown in Fig. 6.62.
1260  248.95
Total output per day  x= = 71.67 MW
(9.053  12)
= 75 × 4 + 120 × 8 + 60 × 2 + 30 × 4 + 15 × 6
The energy supplied in the second case
= 300 + 960 + 120 + 120 + 90 = 1590 MWh
71.67  24
(i) Total input to the thermal plant : == 5375 MWh
0.32
The input to the thermal plant
The percentage saving in input if the load is taken
75  4 120  8 60  2 30  4 15  6 by combined thermal and pump storage plant.
=    
0.25 0.32 0.24 0.15 0.1 6400  5375
= 1200 + 3000 + 500 + 800 + 900 =
6400
= 6400 MWh. (Ans.) = 0.16 or 16%. (Ans.)
(ii) Percentage saving in the input to plant : (iii) The overall efficiency in the first case
The overall efficiency of the pump storage plant 1590
= = 0.2484
= 0.82 × 0.92 6400
= 0.7544 or 75.44%. = 24.84%. (Ans.)
Assume that the capacity of the thermal plant is x The overall efficiency in the second case
MW when it is working in combination with pump-storage 1590
=
plant. 5375
= 0.2958 or 29.58%. (Ans.)
Example 6.38. At a particular site of a river, the mean 1500

monthly discharge for 12 months is tabulated below :
1400
Month Discharge
(millions of m3 per month) 1300
April 250 1200

Flow duration
Discharge, millions of m /month

May 100 1100
curve
June 750 1000
3
July 1250 900
Aug. 1500 800
Sep. 1200 700
Oct. 1000 600
Nov. 750 500
Dec. 750
400
Jan. 500
300
Feb. 400
200
Mar. 300
100
(i) Draw hydrograph for the given discharges and
find the average monthly flow. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage of time
(ii) Also draw the flow duration curve.
(iii) The power available at mean flow of water if Fig. 6.64. Flow duration curve.
available head is 90 metres at the site and overall efficiency
The average monthly flow (Refer to Fig. 6.63)
of the generation is 82 per cent.
250  100  750  1250  1500  1200
Take 30 days in a month.
 1000  750  750  500  400  300
Solution. (i) Hydrograph : =
12
The hydrograph, drawn as per data given, is shown = 729.2 millions of m3/month.
in Fig. 6.63. (ii) Flow duration curve :
In order to obtain the flow duration curve it is
1600 necessary to find the lengths of time during which certain
flows are available.This information is tabulated, using the
hydrograph, in the following table :
1400
Hydrograph
Discharge Total number of Percentage
per month months during time during
Discharge, millions of m /month
1200
million of m3 which flow is which flow is
available available
3
1000
100 12 100
250 11 91.8
800
300 10 83.40
400 9 76.00
600
Mean flow 729.2 500 8 66.60
3
millions of m /month 750 7 58.40
400
1000 4 33.30
200 1200 3 25.00

1250 2 16.65
1500 1 8.325
A M J J A S O N D J F M
By using the above tabulated data, the flow duration
curve can be drawn as shown in Fig. 6.64.
(iii) Power available at mean flow of water : Week Weekly flow Weekly flow in Cumulative
The mean/average flow available per second (a) in m3/s (b) day-sec-metre volume in day-
(c) = (b) × 7 sec-metres
729.2  106 (d)
= = 281.3 m3/s
30  24  3600
1 3000 21000 21000
Average kW available at the site 2 2000 14000 35000
wQH 3 2700 18900 53900
= ×g MW
1000 4 1000 7000 60900
(∵ w = g = 1000 × 9.81 = 9.81 kN/m3)
5 750 5250 66150
9.81  281.3  90 6 500 3500 69650
= × 0.82
1000 7 600 4200 73850
= 203.6 MW. (Ans.)
8 2250 15750 89600
Example 6.39. The data for a weekly flow at a particular
9 4000 28000 117600
site is given below for 12 weeks :
10 2000 14000 131600
Week Weekly flow, Week Weekly flow,
11 1500 10500 142100
m3/s m3/s
12 1000 7000 149100
1 3000 7 600
2 2000 8 2250 If the mean flow is available in the week at the
3 2700 9 4000 given rate, then the total flow in the week = 7 × day × m3/sec
4 1000 10 2000 = 7 × day-sec-metres.
5 750 11 1500 By using the above tabulated data, the mass curve
6 500 12 1000 can be drawn as shown in Fig. 6.65.
 Draw the tangent at the highest point on the
With the help of mass curve, find the size of the
mass curve from ‘p’ and measure the highest
reservoir and the possible rate of available flow after the
distance between the tangent drawn and mass
reservoir has been built.
curve which gives the capacity of the reservoir.
Solution. In order to draw mass curve, we need to find the
In this capacity of the reservior = 18 × 103
cumulative volume of water that can be stored week after
day-sec-metres. (Ans.)
week. This is done as tabulated in the table.
 The slope of the line ‘pq’ gives the flow rate
150 available for the given capacity reservoir.
140  Flow rate available
130 qr 54  103 (day - sec - metres)
= =
120 pr 5.5  7(days)
q
110 Storage capacity
= 1402.6 m3/s. (Ans.)
Flow in thousands of day-sec-metres
18 thousands Example 6.40. The following run-off data is collected for

100
day-sec-metres twelve months at a particular site :
90
Month Flow per month, Month Flow per month,
80 millions of m3 millions of m3
70 1 50 7 95
60 2 25 8 20
p r 3 10 9 15
50
4 40 10 100
40 5 5 11 85
30 6 5 12 40
20 Determine the following :

10 (i) The required capacity for the uniform flow of
25 millions m3 per month throughout the year.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 (ii) Spill-way capacity.
Weeks
(iii) Average flow capacity if whole water is used and
Fig. 6.65 required capacity of the reservoir for this condition.
Solution. In order to draw the mass curve, we need to find the cumulative volume of water that can be stored month
after month. This is done as shown in the following table :
Month Flow per month (millions of m3) Cumulative volume, (millions of m3)
1 50 50
2 25 75
3 10 85
4 40 125
5 5 130
6 5 135
7 95 230
8 20 250
9 15 265
10 100 365
11 85 450
12 40 490
By using the above tabulated data, the mass curve can be drawn as shown in Fig. 6.66.
500
b
450
6 3
107.5 × 10 m
400 d
350
300
3
Millions of m
250
g
6 3
Spill = 36 × 10 m
200 f
6 3
35 × 10 m
150
e j
100
p
50 q r
c
a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Months
Fig. 6.66. Mass curve.
(i) Required capacity for the uniform flow of (iii) Average flow capacity
25 millions m3 per month :  Join points a and b, then the slope of the line ab
 For finding the capacity of the reservoir for represents the uniform discharge throughout the
uniform flow of 25 millions m3 per month, year,
construct the pqr as shown in Fig. 6.66. qr
490
repersents one month and pr represents = × 106
25 millions m3. 12
 Now draw the parallel lines to the line pq = 40.83 × 106 m3/month. (Ans.)
through the points e and g which are apex of  Draw the line cd parallel to ab which touches
mass curve. The greatest departure of the mass the mass curve to its lowest point ‘j’. The
curve from these lines represents the storage maximum departure of the line cd from the mass
capacity. curve represents the required storage capacity
 Storage capacity = 35 × 106 m3. (Ans.) for the uniform supply of 40.83 × 106 m3/month.
(ii) Spillway capacity : In this case, storage capacity required
Spillway capacity required (Fig. 6.66) = 107.5 × 106 m3. (Ans.)
= 36 × 103 m3. (Ans.)
HIGHLIGHTS
1. A dam is a barrier to confine or raise water for storage or 9. The modern Francis water turbine is an inward mixed
diversion to create a hydraulic head. flow reaction turbine. It operates under medium heads
2. A canal is an open waterway excavated in natural ground. and also requires medium quantity of water.
A flume is an open channel excavated on the surface or 10. In the propeller turbine the runner blades are fixed and
supported above ground on a trestle. A tunnel is a closed non-adjustable. In Kaplan turbine, which is a modification
channel excavated through a natural obstruction such as of propeller turbine the runner blades are adjustable and
a ridge of higher land between the dam and the can be rotated about the pivots fixed to the boss of the
powerhouse. runner.
3. A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank in which the 11. ‘Cavitation’ may be defined as the phenomenon which
water level rises or falls to reduce the pressure swings so manifests itself in the pitting of the metallic surfaces of
that they are not transmitted in full to a closed circuit. turbine parts because of formation of cavities.
4. A draft tube serves the following two purposes : 12. ‘Hydrology’ may be defined as the science which deals with
(i) It allows the turbine to be set above tail-water level, the depletion and replenishment of water resources.
without loss of head, to facilitate inspection and 13. Run-off includes all the water flowing in the stream
maintenance. channel at any given section. It can be measured by the
(ii) It regains, by diffuser action, the major portion of the following methods :
kinetic energy delivered to it from the runner. (i) From rainfall records
5. The plants which cater for the base load of the system are (ii) Empirical formulae
called ‘base load plants’ whereas the plants which can (iii) Run-off curves and tables
supply the power during peak loads are known as peak (iv) Discharge observation method.
load plants.
14. Hydrograph is defined as a graph showing discharge (run-
6. Microhydel plants (microstations) make use of off) of flowing water with respect to time for a specified
standardized bulb sets with unit output ranging from 100 time. It indicates the power available from the stream at
to 1000 kW working under heads between 1.5 to 10 metres. different times of day, week or year.
7. The specific speed of a turbine is defined as the speed of a 15. Flow duration curve represents the run-off data for the
geometrically similar turbine that would develop one given time. It is plotted between flow available during a
brake horse power under a head of one metre. period versus the fraction of time.
8. The Pelton turbine is a tangential flow impulse turbine. 16. Mass curve is the graph of the cumulative values of water
The pressure over the Pelton wheel is constant and equal quantity (run-off) against time. It is an integral curve of
to atmosphere, so that energy transfer occurs due to purely the hydrograph which expresses the area under the
impulse action. hydrograph from one time to another.
THEORETICAL QUESTIONS
1. Give the application of hydro-electric plants. 19. With the help of a schematic diagram explain the working
2. Enumerate advantages and disadvantages of hydro- of the modern Francis turbine.
plants. 20. What is a Kaplan turbine ? How does it differ from a
3. Enumerate and explain briefly the factors which should propeller turbine ?
be considered while selecting the site for hydro-electric 21. What are tubular or bulb turbines ?
plant. 22. What do you mean by ‘specific speed’ of a turbine ?
4. Enumerate essential elements of hydro-electric power 23. What is cavitation ? How can it be avoided/checked ?
plant. 24. Describe briefly the methods of governing an impulse
5. What is a catchment area ? turbine ?
6. What is a reservoir ? 25. What points should be considered while selecting a right
7. What is a dam ? What are its various types ? type of turbine ?
8. Explain briefly any two of the following dams : 26. Enumerate the various controls which are provided in an
(i) Rockfill dams hydro-electric power plant.
(ii) Buttress dams 27. Explain the advantages of combined operation of hydro-
electric station and thermal station.
(iii) Timber dams.
28. Compare hydro and thermal power plants.
9. What is a spillway ? Explain any two types of spillways.
29. List the advantages and disadvantages of underground
10. What is the difference between canal, flume and tunnel ? power house/station.
11. What is a surge tank ? 30. What safety measures need to be taken for the safe
12. Explain with a neat diagram any one of the following surge operation of an hydro-electric plant ?
tanks : 31. What do you mean by ‘preventive maintenance’ of hydro-
(i) Inclined surge tank plant ?
(ii) Restricted orifice surge tank 32. Define hydrology.
(iii) Differential surge tank. 33. Draw and explain the hydrologic cycle.
13. What are the functions of a draft tube ? 34. Define run-off. How is it measured ?
14. How are hydro-electric power plants classified ? 35. List the factors which affect run-off.
15. Explain a high head power plant giving its layout clearly. 36. What is a hydrograph ?
16. Explain with a neat sketch a pumped storage plant. 37. What is a unit hydrograph ? What are the limitations to
17. What is the function of a hydraulic turbine ? How are the the use of unit hydrographs ?
turbines classified ? 38. What is a flow duration curve ?
18. Explain the working of a ‘Pelton turbine’ with the help of 39. What is a mass curve ?
a neat diagram. 40. Write a short note on hydropower development in India.
UNSOLVED EXAMPLES
1. A penstock is working under a water head of 200 metres. Take Cv (coefficient of velocity) = 0.985 and speed rated
Its diameter is 2.5 metres. Find its thickness if the = 0.45. [Ans. (i) 0.989 m, (ii) 2, (iii) 0.165 m]
efficiency of the joint is 80% and allowable stress in the 4. A Francis turbine with an overall efficiency of 75% is
material is 1100 kgf/cm2. [Ans. 2.8 cm] required to produce 203 H.P. It is working under a head
2. A Pelton wheel has a mean bucket speed of 10 metres per of 7.62 m. The peripheral velocity = 0.26 2gH and the
second with a jet of water flowing at the rate of 700 litres/
sec. under a head of 30 metres. The buckets deflect the jet radial velocity of flow at inlet is 0.96 2gH . The wheel
through an angle of 160°. Calculate : runs at 150 r.p.m. and the hydraulic losses in the turbine
are 22% of the available energy. Assuming radial
(i) The horse power (ii) Efficiency of the turbine
discharge, determine :
Assume coefficient of velocity as 0.98.
(i) The guide blade angle,
[Ans. (i) 254.12 H.P., (ii) h = 94.54%] (ii) The wheel vane angle at inlet,
3. A Pelton wheel is to be designed for the following (iii) Diameter of the wheel at the inlet, and
specifications : (iv) Width of the wheel at inlet.
Power = 16000 B.H.P. ; Head = 380 metres ; Speed = 750 [Ans. (i) 37° 37 (ii) 37° 44.4 (iii) 0.4047 m, (iv) 0.177 m]
r.p.m. ; Overall efficiency = 86% ; Jet diameter is not to
5. The following data is given for a Francis turbine. Net head
exceed one-sixth of the wheel diameter.
H = 60 m ; Speed N = 700 r.p.m. ; Shaft horse power = 400
Determine : (i) The wheel diameter, (ii) The number of H.P. ; o = 84% ; h = 93% ; Flow ratio = 0.20 ; breadth
jets required, and (iii) Diameter of the jet. ratio n = 0.1 ; Outer diameter of the runner = 2 × inner
diameter of runner. The thickness of vanes occupy 5% of 14. At a particular hydro-electric power plant site, the
circumferential area of the runner, velocity of flow is discharge of water is 400 m3/sec and the head is 25 m.
constant at inlet and outlet and discharge is radial at The turbine efficiency is 88%. The generator is directly
outlet. Determine : coupled to the turbine having frequency of generation of
(i) Guide blade angles, 50 Hz, and number of poles as 24. Calculate the least
(ii) Runner vane angles at inlet and outlet, number of turbines required if,
(iii) Diameters of runner of inlet and outlet, and (i) A Francis turbine is used with a specific speed of 300,
(iv) Width of wheel at inlet. (ii) A Kaplan turbine is used with a specific speed of 750.
[Ans. (i) 13° 55.7 (ii) 41° 5.4 (iii) 34° 44.4 (iv) 5.4 cm] [Ans. (i) 26, (ii) 5]
6. A Kaplan turbine develops 33500 H.P. at an average head 15. A flow of 80 m3/sec. under a head of 120 m is available at
of 39 metres. Assuming a speed ratio of 2, flow ratio of a site for a hydro-power plant. If the turbine efficiency is
0.6, diameter of the boss equal to 0.35 times the diameter 90% and generator efficiency is 94% determine the
of the runner and an overall efficiency of 90%, calculate following :
the diameter, speed and specific speed of the turbine. (i) Power developed
[Ans. 0.875 m, 422.61 r.p.m., 7963.65 r.p.m.] (ii) Number of units required and their capacities.
7. A turbine develops 10000 H.P. under a head of 25 metres [Ans. (i) 115200 H.P. ; (ii) Two, 39.85 mW (each generator)]
at 135 r.p.m. Calculate the specific speed of the turbine 16. A proposed hydro-electric station has an available head
and state the type of the turbine. [Ans. 241.49, Francis] of 100 metres, a catchment area of 225 sq. km, the rainfall
8. A turbine is to operate under a head of 25 m at 200 r.p.m. of which is 140 cm per annum. If 60% of the total rainfall
The discharge is 9 m3/sec. If the efficiency is 90%, deter- can be collected, calculate the power that could be
mine : generated. Suggest suitable ratings of generators.
(i) Specific speed of the machine [Ans. 5880 kW, 3000 kW capacity]
(ii) Power generated, and 17. The following data is available for a hydro-power plant :
(iii) Type of turbine. Available head = 130 m ; catchment area = 2200 sq. km. ;
[Ans. (i) 185.89 r.p.m., (ii) 2700 H.P., (iii) Francis] annual average rainfall = 150 cm ; turbine efficiency
= 86% ; generator efficiency = 91% , percolation and
9. Calculate the specific speed of a turbine and suggest the evaporation losses = 18%.
type of turbine required for a river having a discharge of
250 litres/sec. with a available head of 50 metres. Assume Determine power developed in MW taking load factor as
efficiency of turbine as 80% and speed 450 r.p.m. unity. [Ans. 8.546 MW]
[Ans. 39.9, Pelton turbine] 18. From the investigation of a hydrosite the following data
is available :
10. The quantity of water available for hydro-electric station
is 260 m3/sec. under a head of 1.7 m. Assuming the speed Available head = 50 m ; catchment area = 50 sq. km. ;
of the turbine 50 r.p.m. and its efficiency of 82.5%, rainfall = 150 cm per year ; 70% of rainfall can be utilized;
determine the number of turbine units required. Assume turbine efficiency = 80% ; generator efficiency = 91% ;
the specific speed of 890. [Ans. 4] penstock efficiency = 75% ; load factor = 60%.
11. A run-off rate of 400 m3/sec and head of 45 m is available Determine the suitable capacity of a turbo-generator.
at a site proposed for hydro-electric power plant. Assuming [Ans. 750 kW (maximum rating), Francis
the turbine efficiency of 90% and speed of 250 r.p.m., find or Kaplan turbine]
the least number of machines all of equal size required if 19. Calculate the power that can be developed from a hydro-
(i) Francis turbine not greater than 200 specific speed or electric power station having the following data :
(ii) Kaplan turbine not greater than 600 specific speed is Catchment area = 100 sq. km. ; average value of annual
used. [Ans. (i) 16, (ii) 3] rainfall = 120 cm ; Run-off = 80% ; available head = 300 m;
12. At a proposed site of hydro-electric power plant the overall efficiency of the power station = 75%.
available discharge and head is 340 m3/sec. and 30 m [Ans. 7.48 MW]
respectively. The turbine efficiency is 88%. The generator 20. In a hydro-electric power plant the reservoir is 200 m above
is directly coupled to the turbine. The frequency of the turbine house. The annual replenishment of reservoir
generation is 50 Hz and number of poles used are 24. Find is 40 × 1010 kg. Calculate the energy available at the
least number of machines required if (i) A Francis turbine generating station bus bars if the loss of head in the
with a specific speed of 300 is used, (ii) A Kaplan turbine hydraulic system is 20 m and the overall efficiency of the
with a specific speed of 800 is used. [Ans. (i) 17, (ii) 2] station is 80%.
13. The following data relates to a hydro-electric power In the maximum demand of 40 MW is to the supplied
station : determine the diameter of two steel penstocks.
Head = 380 m ; Discharge = 4 m3/sec ; Turbine efficiency [Ans. 13.48 × 107 kWh ; 0.49 m]
= 80% ; Generator frequency = 50 Hz.
21. It is observed that a run-of-river power plant operates as
Determine : (i) Output, (ii) Type of turbine, (iii) Speed of peak load point with a weekly load factor of 24% all this
turbine. capacity being firm capacity. Determine the minimum flow
[Ans. (i) 16200 H.P., (ii) Pelton, (iii) 333 r.p.m., (corrected)] in river so that power plant may act as base load point.
The following data is supplied : Rated installed capacity and generation are 84% and 89% respectively, determine
of generating plant = 12 MW ; Operating head = 18 m ; the plant efficiency. The power plant discharges directly
Plant efficiency = 85%. in the lower reservoir. [Ans. 71.2%]
If the stream flow is 17 m3/sec, calculate the daily load 24. At a particular site the mean discharge (in millions of m3)
factor of the plant. [Ans. 19.36 m3/sec. ; 21.2%] of a river in 12 months from January to December is
22. Find the firm capacity of a run-of-river hydropower plant respectively 80, 50, 40, 20, 0, 100, 150, 200, 220, 120, 100,
to be used as 9 hours peaking plant assuming daily flow 80.
in a river to be constant at 16 m3/sec. Also calculate (i) Draw a hydrograph and find the mean flow
pondage factor and pondage if the head of the plant is (ii) Also draw the flow duration curve
12 m and overall efficiency is 80%.
(iii) Find the power in MW available at mean flow if the
[Ans. 2048 H.P. ; 2.67 ; 5468 H.P. ; 8.64 × 105 m3]
head available is 100 m and overall efficiency of
23. The gross head of a pump storage power plant is 300 m. generation is 80%.
The diameter and length of the headrace tunnel are 3.8 m
Take the each month of 30 days.
and 650 m respectively. The flow velocity is 7 m/sec. and
friction factor is 0.017. If the overall efficiency of pumping [Ans. (i) 96.67 millions of m3/month, (iii) 29.2 MW]
COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS QUESTIONS

1. (a) Name the types of dam used for hydro-electric power If the total load is 300 MW, what will be the economic
plants. sharing of load between the units ? If the load is shared
(b) With the help of diagram explain the functions of the equally for 1000 hours, what will be the loss in comparison
following parts of a hydro-electric power station : to the case when the load is shared economically ?
(i) Spillway ; (ii) Forebay ; (iii) Penstock. 3. (a) What is the function of surge tank in a hydro-electric
(c) The mean weekly discharge for 12 weeks of a river is plant ? Explain with the help of neat diagram.
given below : (b) Explain the governing system of a modern Pelton
turbine with the help of a neat sketch.
Week Discharge m3/sec
(c) What is the significance of specific speed in the
1st 100 selection of hydro-electric turbines ? Derive the
2nd 200 equation for the specific speed of the turbine.
3rd 300 4. (a) Explain a method of drawing flow duration curves and
4th 1200 explain their use in selecting the site for hydro-electric
5th 600 plant.
6th 900 (b) What are the different types of spillways used in
7th 800 practice ? Discuss the advantages of one over the other.
8th 600 5. (a) Explain the construction of flow duration curve and
discuss its importance in comparing the power
9th 1000
potentiality of different storages used for power
10th 600
generation.
11th 400
(b) It is proposed to develop 2000 H.P. at a site where 150 m
12th 200 of head is available. What type of turbine would be
Calculate the average power in kW that can be employed if it had to run at 300 r.p.m. ? If the same
generated by a hydro-electric station with the above turbine is now used under a head of 30 m, find the
mentioned discharge characteristic and a head of power developed and its r.p.m.
100 m. The overall efficiency of the plant may be 6. (a) What do you understand by hydrology ? How does the
assumed to be 60%. study of hydrology help in selecting the site for a hydro-
2. (a) Why is it necessary to have combined operation of electric plant ?
different types of power stations ? (b) Describe briefly the working of a pumped storage
(b) Explain how the operations of hydro-electric and plant. Where can such type of plants be installed ?
thermal power plants in a power system can be 7. (a) Explain the working of combined hydro and steam
combined economically. plants. Under what circumstances will you classify
(c) Two units, each of 200 MW, in a steam power station them as peak load and base load plants ?
are operating in parallel and have their fuel (b) A run-off rate of 400 m3/sec and head of 45 m is
incremental cost characteristics as,
available at a site proposed for hydro-electric power
dF2 plant. Assuming the turbine efficiency of 90% and
= ` (0.08 P1 + 15)/MWh ; and
dF1 speed of 50 r.p.m., find out the least number of
dF1 machines, all of equal size required, if Francis turbine
= ` (0.1 P2 + 13)/MWh. not greater than 200 specific speed is used.
dF2
8. Write in brief on the following : 14. (a) Sketch a layout of a hydraulic power plant suitable
(a) Type of hydro-electric plants and their field of use for high heads. Label the various parts and explain
(b) Solar power and its uses their functions.
(b) At a potential hydraulic plant site the average
(c) Function of surge tanks in hydro-electric plants.
elevations of head water and tail water levels are
9. (a) Explain the combined working of hydro and steam 605 m and 520 m respectively. The average annual
plants. water flow was determined to be equal to that volume
(b) Write a note on geo-thermal energy for power flowing through a rectangular channel 10 m wide and
generation. a depth of 0.12 m and an average velocity of 5 m/s.
10. (a) Discuss the differences between Kaplan, Francis and Find the annual electric energy in kWh that the site
Pelton turbines and state the types of power plants can produce with turbine efficiency of 85% and
they are suitable for. generator efficiency of 95%. Take the loss of head
(b) At a particular hydro-electric power plant site the works equal to 3% of the available head.
discharge of water is 400 m3/sec and the head is 25 m. 15. (a) What is a flow duration curve ? Explain its utility.
The turbine efficiency is 88%. The generator is directly (b) Define the specific speed of a hydraulic turbine. A
coupled to the turbine having frequency of generation hydro-electric power plant site is capable of developing
50 cycles/sec and number of poles as 24. Calculate the 101250 h.p. If the turbine has to work under a head of
least number of turbines required if (i) a Francis 29.5 m and at a speed of 166.7 r.p.m., find out the
turbine is used with a specific speed of 300, and (ii) a number of turbine units required.
Kaplan turbine with a specific speed of 750 is used. (c) Explain the governing method adopted for a large
11. (a) Draw a layout of a medium head hydro-electric plant Pelton wheel giving functions of each component of
using Francis turbines. the governor.
(b) A hydroplant operates under a mean head of 40 m. 16. (a) How is the cost of electrical energy generated
The reservoir has a catchment area of 480 square km. determined ? Explain the effect of load factor of an
Find the capacity of the plant in kW if the average electric power station on the cost per kWh generated.
annual rainfall in the area is 1100 mm and 20% of the (b) Discuss the advantages of operating storage type
rainfall is lost due to evaporation etc. The loss of head hydro-electric plant in combination with steam plant.
in the penstock is estimated to be 10%. The turbine 17. (a) Sketch hydrograph, flow duration curve and mass
efficiency is 85% and the generator efficiency is 92%. duration curves. Discuss the utility of each.
12. (a) Define hydrograph. How is the run-off measured in (b) Draw a pumped storage scheme and discuss how this
practice ? scheme results in overall economy in the case of inter-
(b) From the following table of the mean monthly connected station.
discharge for 12 months of a river at a site, draw (i) the (c) A hydro-electric scheme has a catchment area of
hydrograph and find the average monthly flow ; (ii) 120 sq. km. The available run-off is 50% with annual
the power available at mean flow of water for head 90 m rainfall of 100 cm. A head of 250 m is available on the
and overall efficiency of generation 90%. Take 30 days average. Efficiency of the power plant is 70%. Find (i)
in a month. average power produced, and (ii) capacity of the power
plant.
Month Q-m3 × 106
18. (a) Show schematically the layout of a hydro-plant. What
April 500 are the safety devices used in these plants ? Discuss
May 200 briefly the function of each.
June 1500 (b) The available quantity of water and head at a
July 2500 proposed site of hydro-electric power plant is
Aug. 3000 400 m3/sec and 30 m respectively. Assuming the
turbine efficiency of 90% and speed of 250 r.p.m., find
Sept. 2400
the least number of turbines required if (i) Francis
Oct. 2000 turbine with a specific speed of 300 is used, and (ii)
Nov. 1500 Kaplan turbine with a specific speed of 800 is used.
Dec. 1500 19. (a) Explain the construction of flow duration curve and
Jan. 1000 discuss its significance.
Feb. 800 (b) What do you understand by ‘pump storage power
Mar. 600 plant’ ? What are the advantages and limitation of this
plant ? Where should such plants be best applied ?
13. (a) Why is governing of hydraulic turbines necessary ? (c) Define specific speed as applied to water turbines.
Explain the governing mechanism of a Kaplan turbine. What information does specific speed give and how is
(b) Derive an expression for the specific speed of a it used in practice ?
hydraulic turbine and calculate it for a turbine 20. (a) What different methods are used to measure the
operating under a head of 24 m and running at 400 rainfall ? Explain any one of them.
r.p.m. The rate of discharge is 9 m3/sec and turbine  (b) Define hydrograph and explain its importance in the
is 90%. design of storage type hydro electric power plants.
(c) A run-off rate of 400 m/s and head of 45 m is available (b) Compare steam and hydro plants as regards fixed and
at a site proposed for hydro-electric power plant. operating costs.
Assuming the turbine efficiency of 90% and speed of (c) The yearly duration curve of a certain plant can be
250 r.p.m. find the least number of machines all of considered as a straight line from 20000 to 3000 kW.
equal size required if (i) Francis turbine not greater To meet this load three turbo-generator units, two
than 200 specific speed or (ii) Kaplan turbine not rated at 10000 kW each and one at 5000 kW, are
greater than 600 specific speed is used. installed. Determine installed capacity, capacity factor
21. (a) What different methods are used to find the average load factor and utilization factor.
rainfall ? Discuss the relative merits. Explain the 27. (a) What are the advantages and disadvantages of a
methods. hydroelectric power plant over a thermal one ?
(b) A test is conducted on a model of 41 size of prototype (b) What do you mean by ‘specific speed’ of a water turbine
? State its significance.
under the head of 36 m to find the performance of
prototype. The head available for the prototype is (c) Describe a method of governing a Pelton wheel with a
100 m and it has to run at 428 r.p.m. Find the power neat sketch.
developed by the prototype. The H.P. developed by the 28. (a) Name the different types of hydraulic turbines used
model is 135 H.P. when the water supplied is in hydel power stations. Also discuss briefly the
0.324 m3/s. Assume the efficiency of the prototype 3% suitability of each type for a particular range of net
greater than the efficiency of the model. State the type heads.
of runner used. (b) Classify hydro plants and explain the use of each plant.
22. Write short notes on the following (5 × 4) : (c) Describe briefly the working of a pumped storage
(i) Governing of water turbines ; plant. Where can each type of plant be installed ?
(ii) Circuit breakers ; 29. (a) Explain the importance of hydrograph and flow
(iii) Magneto hydrodynamics (MHD) ; duration curve on the selection of reservoir storage
(iv) Moderators in nuclear power plants. capacity. What do you understand by a ‘pump storage
23. (a) Explain the various methods used for calculating the plant’ ?
average of rainfall depending upon the area of basin. (b) The table below provides data on the load requirement
(b) What are the different factors to be considered while during 24-hour period at a certain location :
selecting the site for hydro-electric power plant ? Time period Load in mW
(c) A turbine is to run at 200 r.p.m. under the
available head of 25 m. The flow rate available is 12 mid-night to 6 am 20
9 m3/sec. If the turbine efficiency is 90%, calculate (i) 6 am to 10 am 100
the specific speed, (ii) power developed, and (iii) speed 10 am to 6 pm 160
and power, if the head is reduced to 15 m. 6 pm to 8 pm 80
24. (a) Describe the function of surge tank and penstock used 8 pm to 12 mid-night 40
in the storage type hydro-electric plant. If the load is shared by a combination of thermal and ‘pump
(b) Explain briefly with line sketch a typical high pressure storage hydroplant’ with the thermal plant carrying the
intake head works for a hydro-electric power station. base load lying somewhere between 80 MW, 100 MW,
(c) A model is to be designed to find the performance of a estimate the energy supplied to the thermal plant in MWh
prototype Francis runner. The prototype turbine has during 24 hours and the overall efficiency of the combined
to develop 50,000 hp under a head of 225 m. The plant.
available head and flow in the laboratory for model Assume thermal at full load = 35%
testing are 36 m and 0.17 m3/sec. The prototype runner pump = 80%
runs at 600 r.p.m. and assuming overall efficiency of hydraulic turbine = 90%.
90%, calculate (i) suitable scale ratio for the model,
30. (a) Enumerate the factors that you would consider while
(ii) power developed by the model, and (iii) the speed
installing a hydropower plant.
of the model runner.
(b) A turbine developing 7353 kW at a head of 27.4 with
25. (a) What are the factors to be taken into consideration an overall efficiency of 80%, is to be supplied from a
for the selection of a hydro-electric plant ? reservoir. The estimated run-off in m3/month for 12
(b) Draw line sketch of a small medium head hydroplant consecutive months of 30 days is given below :
showing dam, headworks, penstock and powerhouse. 107 × (9.64, 10.2, 8.64, 7.51, 6.8, 8.08, 11.34, 9.07, 8.64,
(c) A hydro-electric station is to be designed for a 11.35, 9.92, 8.93)
catchment area of 102.5 sq. km, run-off 70 per cent Assuming that the reservoir is full at the beginning
and the average rain as 127 cm. The head available is determine (i) the minimum capacity of the reservoir to
381 metres. What power in MW can be developed if assure the required demand, and (ii) the quantity that is
the overall efficiency of the plant is 80 per cent ? wasted during the year.
26. (a) What are the principal factors that make up the unit 31. Write notes on any two of the following :
cost of power generation in a power plant ? Explain in (i) Surge tanks ; (ii) Storage and pondage ;
brief how each affects the output cost. (iii) Electrostatic precipitators.
Nuclear Power Plant 7
7.1. General aspects of nuclear engineering—Atomic structure—Atomic mass unit—Isotopes— Radioactivity—Nuclear radiation—
Binding energy—Radioactive decay—Nuclear reactions—Nuclear cross-sections—Fertile materials—Fission of nuclear fuel—Nuclear
Fusion—Comparison of fission and fusion processes. 7.2. Nuclear power systems. 7.3. Nuclear reactors—Introduction—
Classification of nuclear reactors—Essential components of a nuclear reactor—Power of a nuclear reactor. 7.4. Main components
of a nuclear power plant. 7.5. Description of reactors—Pressurised water reactor (PWR)—Boiling water reactor (BWR)—CANDU
(Canadian-Deuterium-Uranium) reactor—Gas-cooled reactor—Liquid metal cooled reactors—Breeder reactor. 7.6. Selection of
materials for reactor components. 7.7. Metals for nuclear energy. 7.8. Advantages of nuclear power plants. 7.9. Nuclear-plant
site selection. 7.10. Application of nuclear power plants. 7.11. Economics of nuclear power plants. 7.12. Safety measures for
nuclear power plants. 7.13. Nuclear power plants in India. 7.14. Future of nuclear power. 7.15. Useful by-products of nuclear
power generation and their uses—Worked Examples—Highlights—Theoretical Questions—Unsolved Examples—Competitive
Examinations Questions.
7.1. GENERAL ASPECTS OF NUCLEAR — The electrons carry negative charge and circulate
about the nucleus. As the positive charge on
ENGINEERING proton particle is equal to the negative charge
on electron particle, and the number of electrons
7.1.1. Atomic Structure is equal to the number of protons, atom is a
— Atomic model. An element is defined as a neutral element. Any addition of the number of
substance which cannot be decomposed into electrons to the neutral atom will make it
other substances. The smallest particle of an negatively charged. Similarly any subtraction
element which takes part in chemical reaction of the electrons will make it positively charged.
is known as an ‘atom’. The word atom is derived Such an atom is known as ion and the process
from Greek word ‘Atom’ which means indivisible of charging the atom is termed an ionisation.
and for a long time the atom was considered as — The nuclear power engineering is specially
such. Dalton’s atomic theory states that (i) all connected with variation of nucleons in nucleus.
the atoms of one element are precisely alike, Protons and neutrons are the particles having
have the same mass but differs from the atoms the mass of about 1837 times and 1839 times
of other elements, (ii) the chemical combination the mass of an electron.
consists of the union of a small fixed number of
— The modern atomic theory tells that the atom
atoms of one element with a small fixed number
has a diameter of about 10–7 mm. In a neutral
of other elements.
atom the electrons are bound to the nucleus by
Various atomic models proposed by scientists the electrostatic forces, which follows the
over the last few decades are : 1. Thompson’s Coloumb’s law of forces, i.e., like charges repel
plum puddling model, 2. Rutherford’s nuclear and unlike charges attract each other. The
model, 3. Bohr’s model, 4. Sommerfeld’s model, function of electrostatic force is similar to the
5. Vector model, 6. Wave-mechanical model.
gravitational force.
— The complex structure of atom can be classified
— The atomic spectrum study has revealed that
into electrons and nucleus. The nucleus consists
every electron in an atom is in one group of
of protons and neutrons both being referred as
specific states of motion which is corresponding
nucleons. Protons are positively charged and
to its total energy. In an atom the electrons are
neutrons are neutral, thus making complete
spinning around the nucleus in orbits. These
nucleus as positively charged.
395
orbits are called shells, which represent the required number of electrons from the adjacent
energy levels for the electrons. All the electrons atom in a matter. The binding force between
having very nearly the same total energy are said the electron and nucleus is the electrostatic force
to be in the same shell. The shells have been of attraction. To emit one electron energy
named as K, L, M, N etc. Each shell consists of required is more than the electrostatic force of
the specific maximum number of electrons. The attraction. When the energy is supplied, the
K shell (inner shell) contains 2 electrons, L shell electron jumps from one discrete energy level to
has 8 electrons, M shell is limited to 18 and the another permissible level. The process starts from
N shell possesses 32 electrons. In fact, the outer shell. The electron possesses the energy
number of electrons in any orbit is equal to 2n2 in two forms, i.e., kinetic energy due to its
where n is the serial number of the orbit taking motion and potential energy due to its position
first orbit nearest to the nucleus, with the with respect to the nucleus. It is obvious that
exception that the outermost orbit cannot have electrons cannot exist in between the permissible
more than eight electrons . In a given atom all orbits.
orbits may not be complete. It is obvious from — The charge of nucleus is represented by the
the study that amplitude difference in energy number of protons present. This number is
between two shells is much more than the known as atomic number and designated by the
difference in between energy levels in one shell. letter Z. It also shows the position of atom in
In a shell less than the specified number of the periodic table. Hydrogen has only one
electrons may exist but not a large number. The number but natural uranium has ninety two.
inner shell is filled up first and then the other The atoms having higher atomic number have
successive shells are completed. been developed artificially ranging from 93 to
— The chemical properties of the atom varies with 102. These are einsteinium (Z = 99), Ferinium
composition of number of electrons in various (Z = 100), and mendelevium (Z = 101).
shells and the state of energies within the shells Platonium (Z = 94) is an important element to
determine the electrical characteristics of the the nuclear power field.
atom. For example, Hydrogen (H2) consists of The mass number (A) is the sum of total number of
one electron in the first shell, Helium (He) has protons and neutrons in a nucleus. The number of electrons
two electrons in the first shell, Lithium (Li) has is represented by the letter N, i.e., N = (A – Z).
two electrons in first shell and one is second
shell, Carbon (C) consists of two electrons in first 7.1.2. Atomic Mass Unit
and four in second shell. The mass of the atom is expressed in terms of the mass of
1
Nucleus the electron. The unit of mass has been considered as th
16
Electron of the mass of neutral oxygen atom which contains 8 protons
Shell and 8 neutrons. The atomic mass unit (a.m.u.) is equal to
1
th the mass of oxygen neutral atom.
+1 K +2 K
16
One a.m.u. = 1.66 × 10–24 g
1837  9.1  10 28

Mass of proton = 1837 me =
1.66  10 24
= 1.00758 a.m.u.
+3 +6 1839  9.1  10 28

K L K L Mass of neutron = 1839 me =
1.66  10 24
= 1.00893 a.m.u.
It has been concluded that the density of matter in
a nucleus is enormous. It has been investigated that the
Fig. 7.1 (a). Atomic structure of H2, He, Li and C. radius of nucleus is equal to 1.57 × 10–3 × 3 A , where A is
— The electrons lying in the outermost shell are the number of nucleons in nucleus.
termed valence electrons. If the outermost shell The density of uranium by calculations comes to 1.65
is completely filled, the atom is stable and will × 1014 g/cm3. It has been found by calculations that natural
not take any electron to fill up the gap. However, substance has density millions of times lower than that of
the incomplete outer shell will try to snatch the nuclear matter.
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 397
Electron volt. The energy is expressed in electron method. Thus, for any isotope, the quantity of radiation
volt unit. An electron volt = work done in moving an electron per unit time can be determined easily.
by a potential difference of one volt. Or it is the amount of
energy acquired by any particle with one electronic charge, 7.1.4. Radioactivity
when it falls through a potential of one volt. Radioactivity was originally discovered by Becquerel in
One electron volt = 1.602 × 10–19 joule. 1896. This phenomenon is confined almost entirely to the
heaviest element from 83 to 106 in the periodic table.
7.1.3. Isotopes The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of powerful
In any atom, the number of electrons = number of protons. radiations exhibited by heavy elements is called
This is independent of neutrons in the nucleus. Atoms ‘radioactivity’. Radioactivity is essentially a nuclear
having different number of neutrons than the number of phenomenon and is a drastic process because the element
protons are known as ‘Isotopes.’ changes its kind. It is spontaneous and an irreversible self-
Example. Isotopes of hydrogen are shown in Fig. 7.1 (b). disintegrating activity because the element breaks itself up
for good. Those elements which exhibit this activity are called
radioactive elements. Examples are : Uranium, polonium,
radium, radon, ionium, thorium, actinium and mesothorium.
+ + n + n
The radioactive radiations emitted by the
n radioactive elements are found to consist of the following :
(i) Alpha () rays or -particles
H1 – Hydrogen H2 – Heavy hydrogen H3 – Heavy hydrogen
(ii)  rays or -particles
(No Neutron) or Deuterium – D or Tritium – T
(iii) -rays or photons.
Fig. 7.1 (b) The radioactivity may be natural or artificial.
These isotopes have the same chemical properties Natural radioactivity. It is that which is exhibited
and have the same atomic number and occupy the same by elements as found in Nature. It is always found in heavier
place in the periodic table. But the nuclear properties of elements in the periodic table.
each of the isotopes are different because of the different Artificial or induced radioactivity. The modern
number of neutrons in the nucleus. techniques of artifical transmutation of elements have
The isotopes of oxygen vary from O14 to O19. The made it possible to produce radioactivity in many other
change of number of neutrons in nucleus affect the mass of elements much lighter than those that occur in Nature.
atom. Such type of radioactivity is known as artificial or induced
radioactivity.
Example. Weight of heavy hydrogen is twice the weight
of simple hydrogen. This means a volume of H2O weighs The general properties of radioactive radiations are :
less than the same volume of D2O. 1. These radiations are highly penetrating, they affect
The isotopes can be represented with mass number photographic plates, ionise gases, cause scintillations on
(A) as subscript and atomic number (Z) as subscript like fluorescent screen, develop heat and produce chemical changes.
A 2. As radiations are given out, new elements are
ZH .
Example. Hydrogen isotopes are represented as 1H2 formed in an irreversible process—the new elements
(Deuterium), 1H3 (Tritium) and Uranium isotopes as U234, themselves being usually radioactive.
U235, U238. 3. The emission of radiations is spontaneous and is
— The isotopes are not stable and disintegrate at not affected by external agents.
a certain rate. The isotope which disintegrates 4. The emission is not instantaneous but is prolonged
at a fixed rate is called Radioactive isotope or i.e., it is extented over a period of time otherwise it would
Radio isotope. not have been discovered at all.
The instability of the nucleus can be either by the 5. Except for radioactivity, there is nothing
separation of parent nucleus into 2 or more nuclei or by abnormal about the radioactivity elements as regards their
the rearrangement of nucleons in the matter so that there physical and chemical properties.
is an emission of particles or energy in the form of rays or 7.1.5. Nuclear Radiation
by rearrangement of electrons. During this transformation
there is emission of particles at a very high velocity. This In nuclear power technology there are only five types of
is known as radiation. radiation of interest, but there many mechanisms by which
We must note that for any specific isotope, the rate these five are produced in reactor systems. The five types
of radiation from a unit mass and also the energy of radiation (with electrical charges indicated as + or – for
distribution are fixed and cannot be changed by any positive or negative, respectively, and mass in atomic mass
units) are : Delayed neutrons. These are emitted from several

1. Gamma rays (or photons) : electromagnetic ra- of the fission products with apparent half-lives of upto about
diation. 2 min. Although half-lives are usually ascribed to the
2. Neutrons : uncharged particles, mass approxi- production of delayed neutrons, they are actually emitted
mately 1. within less than a microsecond after the formation of a
highly excited nucleus. The half-life actually describes the
3. Protons : + 1 charged particles, mass approxi-
decay of a fission fragment to the highly excited fission
mately 1.
product.
4. Alpha particles : helium nuclei, charge + 2,
Photoneutrons. These are produced when a
mass 4.
photon with energy greater than the binding energy of a
5. Beta particles : electrons (charge – 1), positrons neutron (the energy required to bind a neutron to the
(charge + 1), mass very small. nucleus) interacts with a nucleus and ejects a neutron. This
1. Gamma rays process is generally not important, since most isotopes have
Prompt-fission gamma rays. These are produced a high threshold for the reaction and a low probability of
as a result of the fissioning of a U235 (or other fissile- occurence above the threshold. Two isotopes used in some
material) nucleus. The gamma rays are emitted within a reactor systems which have low thresholds and a fairly
fraction of a microsecond after fission takes place and are significant probability of photoneutron interaction are
considered to be coincident with the fission process. Prompt- hydrogen 2 (deuterium) and beryllium 9.
fission gamma rays carry off about 7 MeV/fission, with Activation neutrons. Neutron decay of an
individual photon energies ranging from less than 0.5 MeV activated material occurs occasionally in cases other than
to greater than 1.5 MeV. delayed neutron decay of fission products. The only case
Fission-product-decay gamma rays. These are which is of some interest in nuclear-reactor technology is
emitted from the fragments resulting from the fission the neutron decay of nitrogen 17, formed by fast-neutron
process and their decay products. These radioactive fission irridiation of oxygen 17.
products have half lives (the time it takes for one-half the Reaction neutrons. These are the neutrons ejected
atoms originally present to decay) from a fraction of a from a nucleus by interaction with one of several particles.
second to million of years. In most cases, they emit soft There are known cases of neutron emission resulting from
(low-energy) gamma rays and beta particles with energies a nucleus interacting with a neutron, proton, or alpha
lower than 1 MeV. particle. Important use is made of this process in producing
neutron sources for reactor start-up.
Capture gamma rays. These are emitted by
nucleus of an atom instantaneously upon the capture of a 3. Protons
neutron. The energy of these gamma rays is generally Protons are produced in a few radioactive-decay
higher than those released by fission or decay. Many processes and more frequently by neutron-proton reactions
elements yield capture gamma rays in the 6 to 8 MeV range. in which an incident neutron causes a proton to be emitted
from the nucleus.
Activation-decay gamma rays. These are often
omitted from the nucleus after a neutron-capture process, 4. Alpha particles
if the new nucleus formed is unstable. Most decays of this Alpha particles are produced by the decay of several
type are accomplished by electron emission accompanied fission products and a few activated materials as well as
by one or more gamma-rays photons. Each unstable by a few neutron-alpha reactions in which an incident
(radioactive) isotope has a specific half-life and mode of neutron interacts with and causes an alpha particle to be
decay which is an intrinsic property. emitted from the nucleus.
5. Beta particles
Inelastic-scattering gamma rays. These are
emitted from a nucleus that has been excited to level above Beta particles (electrons and positrons) are produced
its ground state by interaction with an energetic neutron. by several mechanisms, such as radioactive decay and pair
These are emitted within an extremely short time after production (in which a photon of high energy is converted
into an electron-positron pair).
the interaction takes place, and the total energy carried
off by these photons is less than or equal to the kinetic Effects of nuclear radiation on matter
energy of the incident neutron. Nuclear radiation, when it interacts with any
2. Neutrons material, deposits energy in the material and can have
various effects. In chemical components the chemical form
Prompt-fission neutrons. These are produced as will be changed, in solids the crystalline structure may be
a result of the fissioning of a fissile material and, as in the altered, in any case heat will be generated. For charged
case of prompt gamma rays, are considered to be emitted particles and gamma rays the mechanisms of energy
coincidentally with the fission process. transfer is ionisation of the material traversed by the
radiation. Ionization is the production of electrically of atom. In nuclear physics, the first even or odd represents
charged particles by stripping orbital electrons from the the even or odd number of protons respectively and second
electrically neutral atoms. In the case of neutrons, the one represents the even or odd mass number. This is
primary energy-transfer process is a kinetic-energy obvious from the practical data that the U235 is fissionable
exchange caused by collision of neutrons with nuclei of the with slow neutrons (neutrons having less energy) but U238
matter traversed. is fissionable only when the neutrons are having energy
more than 1 MeV.
7.1.6. Binding Energy
The nucleus of an atom is formed when the nucleons come 9
closer to each other and this distance between the two Ni58
nucleons is of the order of nearly 10–12 mm. At the moment 8
Binding energy per nucleon (MeV)

of combination there is a release of energy and is known as U238
‘binding energy’. Further if it is required to separate out or 7
to disintegrate two nucleons the equivalent amount of
binding energy is to be supplied from the external source 6
to overcome the force of attraction. The binding energy can
also be defined as the energy required to overcome the 5
binding forces of nucleus.
4
When two nuclear particles are combined to form a
nucleus, it is observed that, there is a difference in the 3
mass of the resultant nucleus and the sum of the masses H2
of two parent nuclear particles. This decrement of mass is 2
known as ‘mass defect’. The amount of mass defect is directly 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
proportional to the amount of energy released. Mass number
The nuclear binding energy per nucleon increases Fig. 7.2. Variation of average binding energy per nucleon with
with the increase of the number of nucleons in the nucleus. mass number.
Example : The binding energy per nucleon for H2 is 1.109
MeV and for He4 it is 28.2  4  7.05 MeV. A curve 7.1.7. Radioactive Decay
representing the variation of nuclear binding energy per
If has been observed that the emission of the particles in
nucleon with the mass number is shown in Fig. 7.2. Here
the form of alpha, beta or gamma radiations is not an
the average value of binding energy per nucleon has been
instantaneous process. For various elements the decay time
considered. The curve indicates that the average binding
is different, which follows a certain law. Obviously the
energy per nucleon increases as the mass number increases
process is independent of the physical and chemical
initially with the peak value of about 8.8 MeV at nearly 60
properties of the given isotope at a particular temperature
mass number. The elements falling in this region are nickel
and pressure.
and iron. As the mass number increases still further, the
binding energy curve falls gradually to 7.6 MeV for U238. The law states that the small amount of
For U235 from the Fig. 7.2 the binding energy per nucleon disintegration of the isotope in a small period is directly
is 7.7 MeV. At the point where mass number is 117, binding proportional to the total number of radioactive nuclei and
energy per nucleon is nearly 8.6 MeV. proportionality constant.
If, N = Number of radioactive nuclei present at any
U235 nucleus is splitted into two approximately equal time t,
nuclei. The formation of two nuclei will release the energy
N0 = Initial number of such nuclei,
of about 0.9 MeV per nucleon. There is a release of energy
as the mass number decreases within the range of 60 to   = Proportionality constant (also known as
250 mass number. This release of energy is corresponding disintegration constant or the radioactive decay constant
to the increase of mass defect. In fission process, the U235 of the material),
nuclei is splitted to two other nuclei and energy is liberated. Then the above law can be stated in the form of
It is evident from the above discussion that the equation as follows :
nuclear transformations of other nucleus is also possible N = – Nt ...(7.1)
such as U235, U233 and Pu239 (these are the important fuels dN
used in the production of nuclear power). or = – N ...(7.2)
dt
An atom with even number of protons of mass The negative sign represents that during
number is more stable because of the pairing of protons disintegration the number of the nuclei is decreasing.
and neutrons. This type of atom also possesses higher Integrating the above equation (7.2) after proper
binding energy per nucleon and is represented as even type arrangement within the proper limits, we get
zN0
N dN
N

z t
0
dt ...(7.3)
Now integrating by parts, we get
L
T = M t e
 t

e  t OP 

1
...(7.9)
or loge N – loge N0 = – t or loge
N
N0
= –t MN  PQ 0

0.693
N But t1/2 =
or = e–t or N = N0 e–t ...(7.4) 
N0
From the above eqns. it is clear that mean life is
dN 1.445 times greater than half-life.
= – N = – N0 e–t ...(7.5)
dt
Note. Number of disintegrations per second is the unit
The eqn. (7.5) represents that the decay scheme
of radioactivity and is termed curie, as this phenomenon
follows the exponential law. was first discovered by Curie.
Activity :
The intensity of emitted radiation is termed activity. 7.1.8. Nuclear Reactions
This is directly dependent on the rate of During a nuclear reaction, the change in the mass of the
disintegration of the element. particle represents the release or an absorption of energy. If
If, A = activity at time t, the total mass of the particle after the reaction is reduced,
A1 = initial activity, the process releases the energy, consequently, the increase
k = detection coefficient, in the mass of the resultant particle, will cause the
dNFG IJ absorption of energy.
Then, A=k 
dtH = kN
K The equations of nuclear reactions are connected with
the resettlement of protons and neutrons within the atom.
= kN0 e–t = A1 e–t ...(7.6) The equations are much similar to chemical reactions. The
Half-life : energy variation is also of the order of MeV. In simple term
Half-life represents the rate of decay of the radioactive the equation shows the balance of neutron and proton.
isotopes. The half-life is the time required for half of the A nuclear reaction is written as follows :
parent nuclei to decay or to disintegrate.
(i) The bombarded nuclei or the target nuclei is
N0 written first from left hand side.
Putting N = and t = t1/2 in eqn. (7.6), we get
2 (ii) In the middle within brackets, first is the
N0 incident particle and second one the ejected.
= N0 e t1/ 2  e t1/ 2 = 1/2
2 (iii) On the right hand side, the resultant nucleus is
0.693 placed.
 t1/2 = loge 2 = 0.693  t1/2 = ...(7.7)
 A neutron is written as : 0n1 because it has unit mass
Here t1/2 is the half-life of radioactive nuclei. After and it does not have any charge.
passing every half-life the number of nuclei is reduced to half An electron is written as : –1e0 because its mass is
and so is the activity. This process is repeated for the several negligible as compared to proton or neutron and its charge
half lives till the activity becomes negligible. The variation of is equal but opposite to the charge of proton.
half-life is from fraction of seconds to million of years.
Some of the examples of reactions are given below :
Half-life of some of the metals is given below :
(i) When 11Na23 is bombarded with protons
Metal Half-life
possessing high energy, it is converted to 12Mg23
Po-214 170  sec 23 + H1  Mg23 + n1 + q
I-137 25 sec 11Na 1 12 0 ...(7.10)
Carbon-14 5100 years (where q = release or absorption of energy in the reaction)
Th-232 1.4 × 1010 years (ii) When 13Al27 is bombarded with high energy
Uranium-238 4.525 × 109 years protons it is transformed to 14Si27.
27 + H1  Si27 + n1 + q
Average (mean) life : 13Al 1 14 0 ...(7.11)
This indicates the average of total time for which (iii) When 13Al27 is bombarded with deutrons, Al28
the radioactive nuclei has disintegrated for several half and proton may be produced.
lives. Hence this is greater than half-life. This is obtained 27 + H2  28 + H1
13Al 1 13Al 1 ...(7.12)
by taking the sum of the decay time of the radioactive nuclei
The eqns. (7.10), (7.11) and (7.12) may be written in
and then it is divided by the initial number of nuclei.
the equation form as given below :
If T is the time of average life, then
z z
Na23(p, n)Mg23 ...(7.13)
 
27 27
 t dN N0 t e t dt 13Al (p, n)Si ...(7.14)
0 0
T=  ...(7.8) Al27(d, p)Al28 ...(7.15)
N0 N0
It is evident from the above mentioned reactions possibilities of producing the stable and unstable nucleus
that the nuclear reaction is followed by capturing a particle, and may result in (n, ) or (p, ) reactions. This
resulting in a compound excited nucleus, which undergoes transformation may take place with elastic scattering.
further transformation in a short period of time. When a neutron interacts with light hydrogen, it forms
The transformation may adopt the following five heavy hydrogen, deuterium. The mass of deuterium is less
main different paths : than its components. This mass defect is corresponding to
1. Elastic scattering. The neutron interacts with the release of gamma quantum.
the nucleus and after transformation the compound nucleus 4. In this reaction, the impinging particle is trapped
emits a particle which is identical to the captured one. in the nucleus but the ejected particle is a different one. The
There is also no change in the resultant nucleus. The total composition of the resultant nucleus is also different from
internal energy of the bombarded nucleus and the restriking the parent nucleus.
particle will not change at all. The process is known as 5. Fission. When the nucleus is excited too much, it
elastic scattering. Elastic scattering is also termed as elastic splits into two mostly equal masses. This particular reaction
collision. When the neutron strikes the nucleus, it imparts is suited only to the heavy nucleus such as U233, U235, Pu239
the part of initial kinetic energy and momentum to the etc. The transformation is known as fission. The produced
nucleus which causes the displacement of the nucleus in two nuclei are lighter nuclei ; they have more binding
the crystal lattice by a significant distance and can change energies per nucleon and hence this reaction always releases
the structural properties of the material. the energy (Fig. 7.2).
In elastic scattering process the kinetic energy of
7.1.9. Nuclear Cross-Sections
neutron is reduced and is beneficial to slow down the
neutron is reactor. In this transformation, there is neither Cross-sections (or attenuation coefficients) are measures of
release nor absorption of energy but as a result of collision, the probability that a given reaction will take place between
redistribution of kinetic energy takes place. a nucleus or nuclei and incident radiation.
Example of elastic scattering. When a neutron Cross-sections are called either microscopic or
strikes a light nucleus (e.g. hydrogen nucleus), the velocity macroscopic, depending on whether the reference is to a
of the neutron is very much reduced and the energy is single nucleus or to the nuclei contained in a unit volume
transferred to the proton. Here most of the energy is of material.
transferred because both the particles are having nearly Microscopic cross-section
the same masses. It has been observed that in such a single
It is a measure of the probability that a given reaction
collision, the loss of energy of the proton is nearly 70 to 75
will take place between a single nucleus and an incident
per cent. In case the neutron impacts with the heavy
particle. Microscopic cross-section is usually denoted by the
nucleus, the energy loss in single collision is less. With
symbol  and is expressed in terms of the effective area that
carbon nucleus this loss amounts to nearly 12 to 17 per cent
a single nucleus presents for the specified reaction. Since these
of the initial value. The reaction is written as C12(n, n)C12.
cross-sections are usually quite small, in the range of 10–22
2. Inelastic scattering. The composition of the to 10–26 cm2/nucleus it is general practice to express them in
incident particle and ejected particle remains unchanged. terms of a unit called the barn, which is 10–24 cm2/nucleus.
When the particle interacts with the nuclei it loses its
kinetic energy and the target nucleus is excited. The energy Macroscopic cross-sections
is released in the form of gamma emission. This These are the products of microscopic cross-sections
transformation is known as inelastic scattering or collision. and the atomic density in nuclei per cubic centimeter and
The process is limited to the condition that the neutron are equivalent to the total cross-section, for a specific
should have minimum energy sufficient to excite the target reaction of, all the nuclei in 1 cm3 of material. Macroscopic
nucleus. The reaction is completed with the absorption or cross-sections are denoted by the symbol  for neutrons
release of energy. The neutron energy loss is of the order and  for gamma rays and have the units cm–1.
of 10 to 20 per cent of the initial value.
Gamma ray cross-sections
When a fast moving neutron hits the U238 nucleus,
the nucleus is excited and there is an emission of gamma Although there are a large number of interaction
quantum [U238 (n, ) U238]. processes that take place between gamma rays and matter,
the most commonly used are the energy-absorption cross-
3. Capture. In this process the incident particle may
section (used to determine gamma heating and dose rates)
be captured or absorbed by the nucleus and may raise the
and the total attenuation cross-section (used to determine
mass number by unity. The nucleus is excited and the
material gamma-ray attenuation and for shielding design).
energy is emitted in the form of gamma quantum. The
artificial radioactive materials are produced by this process. Neutron cross-sections
In a reactor, Co-60 isotope is produced by bombarding the Neutrons undergo a large number of different
natural Co-59 with neutrons. The reaction has both the interaction processes with matter, and, unlike gamma rays,
many of these individual interactions must be evaluated. The nuclear transformations to convert 232
90Th to
Neutron cross-sections of general use are : U233 are given below :
(i) Fission (ii) Gamma-ray production 232 + n1   233 + 
90Th 0 90Th ...(7.19)
(iii) Activation (iv) Elastic scattering 23.3 min.
233  233 0
(v) Inelastic scattering 90Th 91Pa + –1e ...(7.20)
(vi) Reaction particle production 27.4 days
233  233 + –1e0
(vii) Total absorption (viii) Total attenuation. 91Pu 92U ...(7.21)
Both neutron and gamma-ray cross-sections are U235 is the source of neutrons required to derive
energy-dependent properties. Plots of gamma-ray cross- Pu239 and U233 from Th232 and U238 respectively. This
section vs photon energy for all materials are, over the process of conversion is performed in the breeder reactors.
energy range of interest, smooth curves, whereas for Other fissionable materials : Th227, Pa232, U231,
Np 238 and Pu241 are the other nuclides which are having
neutron cross-sections the curves of many materials show
gross variations from a smooth curve. The variations in high cross-sections for neutron thermal fission. Pu241 is the
neutron cross-sections show up as peaks and valleys on important nuclide which is used in plutonium fueled power
the cross- section plot ; these peaks are called resonances. reactors.
When a material has a large number of resonance peaks
over a portion of the energy range, this portion of the cross- 7.1.11. Fission of Nuclear Fuel
section plot is called a resonance region. The resonance Fission is the process that occurs when a neutron collides
region can have a significant effect on reactor design, since with the nucleus of certain of the heavy atoms, causing the
the material U238 which is present in most fuels has a original nucleus to split into two or more unequal fragments
relatively wide resonance region which can cause extensive which carry off most of the energy of fission as kinetic energy.
neutron absorption during the slowing down of neutrons This process is accompanied by the emission of neutron and
to thermal energy. gamma rays.
The known cross-sections for materials potentially Fig. 7.3 is a representation of the fission of uranium
useful in reactor systems are used as primary criteria in 235. The energy released as a result of fission is the basis
materials selection. For example, high-neutron-absorption for nuclear-power generation. The release of about 2.5
cross-section materials would not normally be used as neutrons/fission makes it possible to produce sustained
materials of construction in the vicinity of a reactor core to fissioning.
prevent competition for the neutrons required to sustain
the fission process ; and high activation cross-section Prompt gamma rays
materials would not be chosen, if they can be avoided, in a
region exposed to a high neutron flux during operation, if Fission fragment
that region is to be accessible after reactor shut-down.
U-235 Prompt neutron
7.1.10. Fertile Materials
Incident
It has been found that some materials are not fissionable neutron Fission fragment
by themselves but they can be converted to the fissionable
materials, these are known as fertile materials.
Prompt neutron
Pu239 and U233 are not found in nature but U238 and
Th can produce them by nuclear reactions. When U238 is
232
Fig. 7.3. Fission of uranium 235. Incident neutron, upon
bombarded with slow neutrons it produces 92U239 with half- colliding with U235 nucleus, causes fission to take place, resulting
life of 23.5 days which is unstable and undergoes two beta in the production of fission fragments, prompt neutrons and
disintegrations. The resultant Pu239 has half-life of 2.44 × prompt gamma rays.
104 yrs and is a good alpha emitter. The fission fragments that result from the fission
238 + n1   239 + 
92U 0 92U ...(7.16) process are radioactive and decay by emission of beta
23.5 min. particles, gamma rays and to a lesser extent alpha particles
239 0 231
92U  – –1e + 91Np ...(7.17)
and neutrons. The neutrons that are emitted after fission,
2.3 days by decay of some of the fission fragments, are called delayed
239
93Np  –1e0 + 94Pu239 ...(7.18)
neutrons. These are of the utmost importance, since they
During conversion the above noted reactions will
permit the fission chain reaction to be easily controlled.
take place. The other isotopes of neptunium such as 2.1
day Np238 and plutonium can also be produced by the The total detectable energy released owing to the
bombardment of heavy particles accelerated by the fission of a single nucleus of uranium 235 is 193 MeV (milli
cyclotron. electron volts), distributed as shown follows :
Distribution of Fission Energy

No. of neutrons in any particular generation
MeV K=
No. of neutrons in the preceding generation
Instantaneous energy release :
Kinetic energy of fission fragments 168 If K > 1, chain reaction will continue and if K < 1,
Prompt-gamma-ray energy 7 chain reaction cannot be maintained.
Kinetic energy of prompt neutrons 5 Fig. 7.4 shows schematically a chain reaction which
Instantaneous total 180 when set off ultimately leads to a rapidly growing avalanche
having the characteristic of an explosion. The rate of growth
Delayed energy release :
of the chain process is shown in Fig. 7.5.
Beta particle decay of fission products 7
Gamma-ray decay of fission products 6 Neutron
Delayed total 13
235
As is shown above, the neutron emitted as a result U
of fission of a uranium 235 nucleus carry off 5 MeV of kinetic
energy. Since on average there are about 2.5 neutrons
emitted/U235 fission, the average neutron energy is 2 MeV.
Actually fission neutrons are emitted with an energy speed
of from nearly zero energy to approximately 16 MeV, the
bulk of the them being in the 1- to 2-MeV energy region.
Note. Although not strictly a result of the fission process,
there is an additional 5 to 8 MeV emitted per fission as a
result of the capture of neutrons not used in the fission
chain reaction. About 1 MeV of this total is emitted over a
period of time owing to decay of activation products, and
the remainder is emitted immediately upon neutron
capture.
Most of the reactors in existence today or planned

for the near future are called thermal reactors, since they
depend on neutrons which are in or near thermal
equilibrium with their surroundings to cause the bulk of
fissions. These reactors make use of the fact that the
Fig. 7.4. Chain reaction.
probability for fission is highest at low energy by slowing
down the neutrons emitted as a result of fissioning to
enhance fission captures in the fuel. Loss of neutrons to 50
non-fission-capture processes is lessened by minimising the
quantity of non-fissile material in or near the reactor core.
The materials used to decelerate fast neutrons to thermal 40
energy levels are called moderators. Effective and efficient
3
moderators must slow the fission neutrons, in the 1- to 2-

No. of atoms split × 10
MeV range to thermal energy at about 0.025 eV to less

30
that 0.1 eV. This effect must be produced in a small volume
and with very little absorption.
The Chain reaction
20
A chain reaction is that process in which the number
of neutrons keeps on multiplying rapidly (in geometrical
progression) during fission till whole of the fissionable
10
material is disintegrated. The chain reaction will become
self-sustaining or self propagating only if, for every neutron
absorbed, at least one fission neutron becomes available 0
for causing fission of another nucleus. This condition can 0 1 2 3
be conveniently expressed in the form of multiplication
Time (ms)
factor or reproduction factor of the system which may be
Fig. 7.5. The rate of growth of the chain process.
definded as
Requirements of fission process natural uranium requires a large critical mass (and size)
The requirements of fission process may be summed and the use of moderator and materials of construction
up as follows : which have very low absorption cross-sections. To reduce
1. The neutrons emitted in fission must have the critical mass required and permit more flexibility in
adequate energy to cause fission of another nuclei. material and design choice, uranium fuel is frequently
enriched in U235 content, thereby increasing the fraction of
2. The produced number of neutrons must be able
neutron captures that occur in U235 and cause fission.
not only to sustain the fission process but also to increase
the rate of fission. Certain loss of neutrons during the 7.1.12. Nuclear Fusion
process is also to be accounted.
‘Nuclear Fusion’ is the process of combining or fusing two
3. The process must be followed by the liberation of lighter nuclei into a stable and heavier nuclide. In this case
energy. also, large amount of energy is released because mass of
4. It must be possible to control the rate of energy the product nucleus is less than the masses of the two nuclei
liberation i.e., the rate of fission by some means. which are fused.
Since the chain reaction requires that one neutron Several reactions between nuclei of low mass
from each fission cause another fission, it is worth noting numbers have been brought about by accelerating one or
that there are several processes competing for the neutrons the other nucleus in a suitable manner. These are often
produced. These processes are non-fission capture in the fusion processes accompanied by release of energy.
fuel material, capture in the fuel container (cladding), core However, reactions involving artificially-accelerated
structural materials, moderator and coolant, and leakage particles cannot be regarded as of much significance for
of neutrons from the core. To permit a chain reaction to the utilisation of nuclear energy. To have practical value,
take place, it is necessary to design a system in which, after fusion reactions must occur in such a manner as to make
accounting for all neutron losses due to non-fission them self-sustaining, i.e., more energy must be released than
absorption and leakage, there is still at least one neutron is consumed in initiating the reaction.
remaining to produce another fission. It is thought the energy liberated in the sun and
The minimum quantity of fuel required for any other stars of the main sequence type is due to the nuclear
specific reactor system is called the ‘critical mass’ and the fusion reactions occurring at the very high stellar
size associated with this mass is called the ‘critical size’. temperature of 30 million K. Such processes are called
When nuclear fuel is assembled just to the point of a critical thermonuclear reactions because they are temperature-
mass, the reactor is said to “go critical” i.e., to reach the dependent.
point of just sustaining a chain reaction. Natural uranium
contains only about 0.7% of the fissile isotope U235. Since 7.1.13. Comparison of Fission and Fusion Processes
U238 which makes up the balance absorbs neutrons, a The comparison between ‘Fission’ and ‘Fusion’ processes
nuclear reactor which will sustain a chain reaction with is given below :
Fission Fusion
1. When heavy unstable nucleon is bombarded with 1. Some light elements fuse together with the release of
neutrons, the nucleus splits into fragments of equal mass energy.
and energy is released.
2. About one thousandth of the mass is converted into energy. 2. It is possible to have four thousandths of mass converted
into energy.
3. Nuclear reaction residual problem is great. 3. Residual problem is much less.

4. Amount of radioactive material in a fission reactor is high. 4. A possible advantage is that the total amount of radioactive
material in a working fusion reactor is likely to be very
much less than that in a fission reactor.
5. Because of higher radioactive material, health hazards is 5. Because of lesser radioactive material, health hazards is
high in case of accidents. much less.
6. It is possible to construct self-sustained fission reactors 6. It is extremely difficult to construct controlled fusion
and have positive energy release. reactors.
7. Manageable temperatures are obtained. 7. Needs unmanageable temperatures like 30 million degrees
for fusion process to occur.
8. Raw fissionable material is not available in plenty. 8. Reserves of deuterium, the fusion element, is available in
great quantity.
7.2. NUCLEAR POWER SYSTEMS the power- conversion cycle or indirectly to heat another
fluid to be used as the working fluid.
A nuclear-fueled power-producing system consists In some cases an intermediate heat-transfer loop is
essentially of the following : inserted between the reactor coolant and the working fluid,
(i) A controlled fission heat source. to increase isolation of the radioactive reactor coolant from
(ii) A coolant system to remove and transfer the heat the conventional power-producing equipment. The working
produced. fluid is then used to drive a turbo-generator set to produce
electrical power.
(iii) Equipment to convert the thermal energy
Though several other methods are feasible for direct
contained in the hot coolant to electric power. conversion of fission energy to electric power (i.e.,
Regardless of the type of fission heat source used, thermoelectric, thermionic, photoelectric, etc.), these
the basic mechanism is fission of nuclear fuel to produce methods are not at present suitable for the production of
thermal energy. This thermal energy is removed from the large quantities of power.
heat source (reactor core) by contacting the fuel with a Schematic representations of nuclear power systems
coolant which can be used directly as the working fluid in using the direct, indirect, and indirect with intermediate
heat-transfer approaches are shown in Fig. 7.6.
Working fluid
Reactor
Turbine Generator
Condenser
Cold reactor coolant
Pump
(a)
Hot reactor coolant Hot working

fluid
Heat
Reactor
excha- Turbine Generator

nger
Cold Condenser
Cold reactor working
Pump
coolant fluid
(b) Pump
Hot reactor Intermediate Hot working

coolant coolant fluid
Heat Heat
Reactor
excha- excha- Turbine Generator

nger nger
Cold
working Condenser
Cold fluid
reactor Pump
coolant Cold intermediate coolant
Pump
(c)
Fig. 7.6. Schematics of nuclear power systems. (a) Direct cycle, reactor coolant used as the working fluid ; (b) Indirect cycle,
reactor coolant transfers heat to separate working fluid ; (c) Indirect cycle with intermediate loop, reactor coolant transfers heat
through intermediate heat-transfer loop to working fluid.
Nuclear power systems differ in a number of respects 1. Neutron energies at which the fission occurs
from fossil-fuel systems. Some of the more important (i) Fast fission is caused Fast reactors
considerations that differentiate nuclear-fueled plants from by high energy neutrons
fossil-fueled plants are listed below : (ii) Intermediate or epithermal Intermediate
1. Nuclear fuel is charged to a power plant reactors
infrequently and has a relatively long life, usually
(iii) Low energy i.e., thermal Slow reactors
measured in months or years, as compared with the
continuous fuel-feed requirements for fossil-fueled plants. On the basis of the energy of the neutrons to cause
fission the reactors have been divided into three groups—
2. Burned nuclear fuel is radioactive ; it requires
remote handling and special processing and disposal. fast, intermediate and thermal. (a) In fast reactors the
high velocity neutrons produced by fission are utilised
3. Major portions of a nuclear plant are radioactive
directly to cause fission of the fuel in the reactor. The
during and after operation, requiring special precautions
velocity of the neutrons is not reduced deliberately. (b) If in
for maintenance of much of the plant.
a reactor the fission process is maintained due to the slow
4. Special system designs are required to prevent
neutrons capture, the reactor is known as slow reactor.
radioactivity release during normal operation or due to
The minimum velocity to which neutrons are slowed down
accidents.
before the fission is equal to the thermal velocity which
5. Control and instrumentation requirements are the slow neutrons may acquire in a state of thermal
strongly influenced by safety requirements and are related
equilibrium with the medium. This velocity is of the order
to reactor stability, load-following requirements, and the
of 2150 m/s at room temperature which is equivalent to
capability of a reactor to increase power output with no
additional fuel input. 1
eV or neutron energy. The neutrons associated with
6. Nuclear fuel is highly processed material 40
generally used in a precise fabricated form, as opposed the energy of this order are known as thermal neutrons
to fossil fuels, which are essentially raw materials used and the reactor as thermal reactors. With the moderator
with only minimal rough processing. the neutrons are slowed down. The main advantage is that
7. The use of nuclear fuel does not require the probability of reaction increases. (c) If the velocity of
combustion air, thus obviating thermal stack losses and neutrons is kept between both the above noted limits, the
related problems. reactors are termed as ‘intermediate reactors’.
These considerations give rise to the general 2. Fuel-moderator assembly
requirements, complexities, and problems of nuclear systems. (i) Homogeneous reactors
(ii) Heterogeneous reactors.
7.3. NUCLEAR REAC TORS
In ‘homogeneous reactor’ the fuel and moderator are
7.3.1. Introduction mixed to form a homogeneous material, i.e., uranium fuel
salt forms a homogeneous solution in water which is a
Definition. A nuclear reactor is an apparatus in which moderator or fine particles of uranium and carbon gives a
nuclear fission is produced in the form of a controlled self- mechanical mixture.
sustaining chain reaction. In other words, it is a controlled
In ‘heterogeneous reactor’ the fuel is used in the form
chain-reacting system supplying nuclear energy. It may
be looked upon as a sort of nuclear furnace which burns of rods, plates, lamps or wires and the moderator surrounds
fuels like U235, U233 or Pu239 and, in turn, produces many the each fuel element in the reactor core.
useful products like heat, neutrons and radioisotopes. 3. Fuel state
Mechanism of heat production. Most of the (i) Solid (ii) Liquid
energy is imparted to the two fission fragments into which (iii) Gas
the nucleus divides causing them to move at high speed. The nuclear fuel is available in three states—solid,
However, because they have taken birth in a dense mass liquid and gas. In reactors the fuel is mostly used in solid
of metal, they are rapidly slowed down and brought to rest state or in the form of solution dissolved in water. The liquid
by colliding with other atoms of the metal. In so doing,
metal reactors are in practical use.
their energy is converted into heat in much the same way
as energy given up by a slowing motor can be converted 4. Fuel material
into heat in the brake lining. In this way, the mass of (i) Natural uranium with U235 contents (occurs in
uranium metal gets heated up. nature)
(ii) Enriched uranium with more than 0.71 of U235
7.3.2. Classification of Nuclear Reactors
(iii) Pu239, Pu241 or Pu239 (man made)
Nuclear reactors are classified according to the chain
reacting system, use, coolants, fuel material etc. (iv) U–233 (man made)
Considering the necessary requirement of fission material. By-products are the same as those of power
process and its availability economically the fuels used in reactors.
reactors are uranium, plutonium and thorium. U235 is easily Production reactors. The output of such reactors
available in natural uranium (i.e., 0.7%) and its content is radioactive materials which are used as sources of
increases upto 90% in enriched uranium. radiation and tracers in research in all areas of science.
5. Moderator By-products are the same as those of power reactors.
(i) Water (H2O) 7. Coolant
(ii) Heavy water (D2O) (i) Air, carbon or helium cooled reactors
(iii) Graphite (ii) Water or other liquid cooled reactors
(iv) Beryllium or beryllium oxide (iii) Liquid metal cooled reactors.
(v) Hydrocarbons or hydrides. In gas-cooled reactors the amount of gas required to
A moderator’s function is to absorbs the part of the extract the heat is too much and therefore these reactors
kinetic energy of the neutrons. The neutrons collide directly are expensive. Gases have poor heat carrying capacity. CO2
with the moderator and thus slowed down. No ideal and He have been used in the early reactors. Mostly water
moderator is available in nature or has been produced is used as a coolant.
artificially. The light weight nuclei materials are not suited Liquid metal cooled reactors are also suitable as the
at all as a moderator because they do not possess the metal is having high boiling point and low steam pressure.
property of absorption of neutrons. These are the power reactors.
Light water, heavy water and graphite are the most 8. Construction of core
common moderators used in reactors. (i) Cubical (ii) Cylindrical
6. Principal product (iii) Octagonal (iv) Spherical
(i) Research features to produce Research reactors (v) Slab (vi) Annulus.
neutrons The proper shape to the core is given on the practical
(ii) Power reactor to produce heat Power reactors consideration and can have cubical, cylindrical or ring type
(iii) Breeder reactors to produce Breeder reactors construction.
fissionable materials 7.3.3. Essential Components of a Nuclear Reactor
(iv) Production reactors to Production reactors
The essential components of a nuclear reactor are as
produce isotopes follows :
Research reactors. These are designed to produce 1. Reactor core
the high neutron flux for research work and these neutrons 2. Reflector
are used to determine the neutron properties of interaction
3. Control mechanism
with the nuclei and the effect of bombardment of neutrons
4. Moderator
on the materials. The reactors are operated at high neutron
flux and low power level otherwise the cooling will be a 5. Coolants
problem. The unit is cooled constantly during operation. 6. Measuring instruments
The by-products are heat and fission products which are 7. Shielding.
removed during operation. 1. Reactor core :
Power reactors. In these reactors the energy is The reactor core is that part of a nuclear power
produced in heat form which is carried away to the heat plant where fission chain reaction is made to occur and
exchanger by circulating the coolant through the reactor where fission energy is liberated in the form of heat for
and heat exchanger. In the heat exchanger the coolant operating power conversion equipment. The core of the
converts the water into steam to run the turbine. The by- reactor consists of an assemblage of fuel elements, control
products are fission products, neutrons and other radiation rods, coolant and moderator. Reactor cores generally have
particles. a shape approximating to a right circular cylinder with
These reactors are useful to produce huge amount diameters ranging from 0.5 m to 15 m. The pressure
of power and are widely used in power plant stations. In vessels which houses the reactor core is also considered
such reactors consumption is very low. a part of the core (Fig. 7.7). The fuel elements are made
of plates or rods of uranium metal. These plates or rods
Breeder reactors. A breeder reactor converts fertile
are usually clod in a thin sheath of stainless steel,
materials into fissionable materials such as U238 and Th232
zirconium or aluminium to provide corrosion resistance,
to Pu239 and U233 respectively besides the power production. retention of radioactivity and in some cases, structural
It is worth noting that the amount of fissionable material support. Enough space is provided between individual
produced is more than its consumption of fissionable plates or rods to allow free passage of the coolant.
power level, these control rods serve to keep the value of

K = 1 so that there is no further increase in the number of
neutrons from one generation to another. If, at some stage,
it is desired to increase the neutron flux density and hence
the power level, the rods are partially pulled out thereby
allowing K to exceed unity. For shutting down the reactor,
the control rods are inserted to a considerable depth so
that K becomes less than unity and the chain-reaction can
no longer be maintained. To start up the reactor, all that
is necessary is to carefully withdraw the control rods and
then adjust them till required output level is attained.
Movement of control rods can be manual or made
automatic with the help of carefully designed
servomechanism.
4. Moderator :
In a nuclear reactor the function of a moderator is :
(i) To slow down the neutrons from the high
velocities and hence high energy level, which they have on
Fig. 7.7. Nuclear reactor.
being released from the fission process. Neutrons are
2. Reflector : slowed down most effectively in scattering collisions with
A reflector is usually placed round the core to reflect nuclei of the light elements, such as hydrogen, graphite,
back some of the neutrons that leak out from the surface beryllium etc.
of the core. It is generally made of the same material as (ii) To slow down the neutrons but not absorb them
the moderator. The desirable properties of a moderator in a reactor
3. Control mechanism : are :
It is an essential part of a reactor and serves the 1. High slowing down power.
following purposes :
2. Low parasite capture.
(i) For starting the reactor i.e., to bring the reactor
3. Non-corrosiveness (or corrosiveness resistance).
up to its normal operating level.
4. Machinability (if solid).
(ii) For maintaining at that level i.e., keep power
production at a steady state. 5. High melting point for solids and low melting
(iii) For shutting the reactor down under normal or point for liquids.
emergency conditions. 6. Chemical and radiation stability.
The control system is also necessary to prevent the 7. High thermal conductivity.
chain reaction from becoming violent and consequently 8. Abundance in pure form.
damaging the reactor. The effective multiplication factor H2O, D2O (heavy water), He (gas), Be and C
of the reactor is always kept greater than unity in order (graphite) are the commonly used moderators.
that the number of neutrons keeps on increasing in
As a moderator D2O is the best material available
successive generations. As the number of neutrons and
(moderating ratio of D2O is 12000 as compared to 72 for
hence the neutron flux density increases, the temperature
also increases. Unless the growth is checked at some point, H2O and 170 for carbon) because (i) it has excellent neutron
the reactor is likely to be damaged as a result of too rapid slowing properties, (ii) it has very small cross-section for
liberation of energy. neutron capture, (iii) it can be used as a coolant as well. Its
disadvantages are : (i) it has low boiling point so that it
Note. The control system works on the simple principle necessitates pressurisation, (ii) it is very expensive. But, the
of absorbing the excess neutrons with the help of control
advantages of D2O as moderator or moderator coolant
rods either made of boron steel or cadmium strips. Both
these materials have very large cross-section for thermal outweigh its high cost.
neutrons i.e., they are very good absorbers of slow neutrons 5. Coolants :
and also have the advantage of not becoming radioactive The function of a coolant is to remove the intense
due to neutron capture. By pushing these rods deeper into
heat produced in the reactor and to bring out for being
the central core, any amount of excess neutrons can be
absorbed. Once the reactor has reached pre-determined utilised.
The desirable characteristics for a reactor coolant Water Fuel elements

are :
1. Low parasite capture.
2. Low melting point.
3. High boiling point.
4. Chemical and radiation stability.
5. Low viscosity. (a)
6. Non-toxicity.
7. Non-corrosiveness. Pressurised water
8. Minimum induced activity (short half lives, low
energy emission). Steam
Reactor core
Turbine
9. High specific heat (reduces pumping power and Heat
thermal stresses). exchanger
10. High density (reduces pumping power and
physical plant size).
Commonly used coolants : Santiwax R (organic, Hg,
He, CO2) (b)
The most widely-used gaseous coolant is CO2 Steam
particularly in large-power reactors. It is (i) cheap, (ii) does
not attack metals at reasonable temperatures, and (iii) has
small cross-section for neutron capture. Reactor Turbine
core
Some possible reactor cooling systems :
Some possible reactor cooling systems are illustrated
schematically in Figs. 7.8, 7.9 and 7.10.
Coolant
(c)
Steam
Fig. 7.9. Water cooled reactors : (a) Swimming-pool
reactor ; (b) Pressurised-water reactor ; (c) Boiling water reactor.
Liquid metal
Biological
Steam
shield
Water
Reactor core Heat exchanger
(Solid fuel)
(a)
Water
Liquid fuel
Steam
Reactor core Primary Secondary
heat exchanger heat exchanger
Fig. 7.10. Liquid-metal-cooled reactor.

6. Measuring instruments :
Water Main instrument required is for the purpose of
measuring thermal neutron flux which determines the
Heat power developed by the reactor.
exchanger
7. Shielding :
(b)
Shielding is necessary in order to :
Fig. 7.8. Cooling systems : (a) Indirect cooling ; (i) protect the walls of the reactor vessel from
(b) Direct cooling. radiation damage, and also to
(ii) protect operating personnel from exposure to Now, NV = Total number of fissile nuclei in the
radiation. reactor fuel
The first known as thermal shield is provided = m × 6.02 × 1026/235
through the steel lining, while the other called external or where m is the mass of the U235 fuel. It is known that fission
biological shield is generally made of thick concrete cross-section  of U235 for thermal neutrons is 582 barns =
surrounding the reactor installation. 582 × 10–28 m2.
Among the nuclear radiations produced in a reactor
3.2  1011  nu  582  1028  m  6.02  1026
the alpha and beta particles, thermal (slow) neutrons, fast  P=
neutrons and gamma rays are harmful ones and must be 235
–12
= 4.77 × 10 m nu watt
shielded against. Of these only the fast neutrons and
gamma rays present some serious difficulty in designing ~ –12
 4.8 × 10 mnC watt.
the reactor shielding, since alpha and beta particles can
be stopped by a fraction of an inch of a solid substance, 7.4. MAIN COMPONENTS OF A
while thermal neutrons can be automatically guarded NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
against with a shield thick enough to provide protection
Fig. 7.11 shows schematically a nuclear power plant.
against fast neutrons and gamma rays.
The effectiveness of a nuclear shield against gamma Hot coolant Steam
rays approximately depends upon its mass. A heavy material Reactor Steam
Generator
like lead will be a more effective shield per unit weight, core Turbine
than a light element such as carbon. On the other hand, Steam
Reactor
light elements, particularly hydrogen are much more Steam Cooling

effective per unit weight than heavy elements for fast neutron generator
water
shielding. Concrete is a material that offers a compromise Water Water
between these two extreme characteristics of shielding Coolant
material for both gamma rays and fast neutrons. It is a Coolant pump Feed pump
material which has low cost and is easily available.
The actual design of the shield, however, involves Fig. 7.11. Nuclear power plant.
the following considerations : The main components of a nuclear power plant are :
(i) The total amount of radiation produced in the 1. Nuclear reactor
reactor. 2. Heat exchanger (steam generator)
(ii) The amount of radiation that can be permitted 3. Steam turbine
to leak through the shield. 4. Condenser
(iii) The shielding properties of material. 5. Electric generator.
In a nuclear power plant the reactor performs the
7.3.4. Power of a Nuclear Reactor same function as that of the furnace of steam power plant
The fission rate of a reactor i.e., total number of nuclei (i.e., produces heat). The heat liberated in the reactor as a
undergoing fission per second in a reactor is result of the nuclear fission of the fuel is taken up by the
coolant circulating through the reactor core. Hot coolant
= nCNV = nu NV leaves the reactor at the top and then flows through the
where, n = Average neutron density i.e., number per m3, tubes of steam generator and passes on it heat to the feed
C = Average speed in m/s, water. The steam so produced expands in the steam
turbine, producing work and thereafter is condensed in the
nu = nC = Average neutron flux,
condenser. The steam turbine in turn runs an electric
N = Number of fissile nuclei /m3, generator thereby producing electrical energy. In order to
 = Fission cross-section in m2, and maintain the flow of coolant, condensate and feed water
V = Volume of the nuclear fuel. pumps are provided as shown in Fig. 7.11.
Since 3.1 × 1010 fission per second generate a power
of one watt, the power P of a nuclear reactor is given by
7.5. DESCRIPTION OF REACTORS
nCNV 7.5.1. Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR)
P= watt
3.1  1010 A pressurised water reactor, in its simplest form, is a light
–11
= 3.2 × 10 nC NV watt water cooled and moderated thermal reactor having an
= 3.2 × 10–11 nu  NV watt
unusual core design, using both natural and highly 5. There is a complete freedom to inspect and
enriched fuel. The principal parts of the reactor are : maintain the turbine, feed heaters and condenser
1. Pressure vessel during operation.
2. Reactor thermal shield 6. This reactor allows to reduce the fuel cost
3. Fuel elements extracting more energy per unit weight of fuel
as it is ideally suited to the utilisation of fuel
4. Control rods
designed for higher burn-ups.
5. Reactor containment
6. Reactor pressuriser. Disadvantages :
The components of the secondary system of 1. Capital cost is high as high primary circuit
pressurised water plant are similar to those in a normal requires strong pressure vessel.
steam station. 2. In the secondary circuit the thermodynamic
Refer to Fig. 7.12. In PWR, there are two circuits of efficiency of this plant is quite low.
water, one primary circuit which passes through the fuel 3. Fuel suffers radiation damage and, therefore its
core and is radioactive. This primary circuit then produces reprocessing is difficult.
steam in a secondary circuit which consists of heat 4. Severe corrosion problems.
exchanger or the boiler and the turbine. As such the steam 5. It is imperative to shut down the reactor for fuel
in the turbine is not radioactive and need not be shielded. charging which requires a couple of month’s time.
The pressure in the primary circuit should be high so that 6. Low volume ratio of moderator to fuel makes fuel
the boiling of water takes place at high pressure. A element design and insertion of control rods
pressuring tank keeps the water at about 100 kgf/cm2 so difficult.
that is will not boil. Electric heating coils in the pressuriser
7. Fuel element fabrication is expensive.
boil some of the water to form steam that collects in the
dome. As more steam is forced into the dome by boiling, its 7.5.2. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
pressure rises and pressurises the entire circuit. The
In a boiling water reactor enriched fuel is used. As compared
pressure may be reduced by providing cooling coils or
to PWR, the arrangement of BWR plant is simple. The plant
spraying water on the steam.
can be safely operated using natural convection within the
Pressuriser core or forced circulation as shown in Fig. 7.13. For the
Steam safe operation of the reactor the pressure in the forced
Water Generator circulation must be maintained constant irrespective of the
(Primary Turbine load. In case of part load operation of the turbine some steam
circuit) is by-passed.
Reactor
Heat exchanger
or boiler Condenser
Cooling Generator
Water water
Turbine
Water (Secondary circuit) Forced Steam
Reactor
circulating by pass
Circulating pump Feed pump Condenser
pump
Fig. 7.12. Pressurised water reactor. Cooling
water
Water acts both as coolant as well as moderator.
Either heavy water or the light water may be used for the
above purpose. Feed pump
A pressurised water reactor can produce only
saturated steam. By providing a separate furnace, the steam Fig. 7.13. Boiling water reactor.
formed from the reactor could be super-heated.
Advantages of BWR :
Advantages of PWR : 1. Heat exchanger circuit is eliminated and
1. Water used in reactor (as coolant, moderator and consequently there is gain in thermal efficiency
reflector) is cheap and easily available. and gain in cost.
2. The reactor is compact and power density is high. 2. There is use of a lower pressure vessel for the
3. Fission products remain contained in the reactor reactor which further reduces cost and simplifies
and are not circulated. containment problems.
4. A small number of control rods is required. 3. The metal temperature remains low for given
output conditions.
4. The cycle for BWR is more efficient than PWR company. A few CANDU reactors are operating or under
for given containment pressure, the outlet construction in some other countries as well.
temperature of steam is appreciably higher in In this type of reactor the natural uranium (0.7%
BWR. U235) is used as fuel and heavy water as moderator. There
5. The pressure inside the pressure vessel is not reactors are more economical to those countries which do
high so a thicker vessel is not required. not produce enriched uranium, as the enrichment of
uranium is very costly.
Disadvantages :
CANDU (heavy water) reactor, differs basically from
1. Possibility of radioactive contamination in the light-water reactors (LWRS) in that in the latter the same
turbine mechanism, should there be any failure water serves as both moderator and coolant, whereas in the
of fuel elements. CANDU reactor the moderator and coolant are kept separate.
2. More elaborate safety precautions needed which Consequently unlike the pressure vessel of a LWR, the
are costly. CANDU reactor vessel, which contains the relatively cool
3. Wastage of steam resulting in lowering of heavy water moderator, does not have to withstand a high
thermal efficiency on part load operation. pressure. Only the heavy water coolant circuit has to be
pressurised to inhibit boiling in the reactor core.
4. Boiling limits power density ; only 3 to 5% by
Description of CANDU reactor
mass can be converted to steam per pass through
the boiler. Fig. 7.14 shows the schematic arrangement of a
CANDU reactor.
5. The possibility of “burn out” of fuel is more in
Reactor vessel and core. The reactor vessel is a
this reactor than PWR as boiling of water on the
steel cylinder with a horizontal axis ; the length and
surface of the fuel is allowed.
diameter of a typical cylinder being 6 m and 8 m
7.5.3. CANDU (Canadian-Deuterium-Uranium) respectively. The vessel is penetrated by some 380
Reactor horizontal channels called pressure tubes because they are
designed to withstand a high internal pressure. The
CANDU is a thermal nuclear power reactor in which heavy channels contain the fuel elements and the pressurised
water (99.8% deuterium oxide D2O) is the moderator and coolant flows along the channels and around the fuel
coolant as well as the neutron reflector. This reactor was elements to remove the heat generated by fission. Coolant
developed in Canada and is being extensively used in this flows in the opposite directions in adjacent channels.
Steam
turbine
Steam Feed water

generator (from condenser)
Reactor Controls
vessel
Heavy water
coolant
Fuel charging
machine
Pressure Fuel bundles

tubes
Heavy water
moderator
Moderator heat
exchanger
Fig. 7.14. CANDU reactor.

The high pressure (10 MPa) and high temperature Advantages of CANDU reactor :
(370C) coolant leaving the reactor core enters the steam 1. Heavy water is used as moderator, which has
generator. About 5% of fission heat is generated by fast higher multiplication factor and low fuel
neutrons escaping into the moderator, and this is removed consumption.
by circulation through a separate heat exchanger. 2. Enriched fuel is not required.
Fuel. In a CANDU reactor the fuel is normal (i.e., 3. The cost of the vessel is less as it has not to
unenriched) uranium oxide as small cylinder pellets. The withstand a high pressure.
pellets are packed in a corrosion resistance zirconium alloy 4. Less time is needed (as compared to PWR and
tube, nearly 0.5 long and 1.3 cm diameter, to form a fuel BWR) to construct the reactor.
rod. The relatively short rods are combined in bundles of 5. The moderator can be kept at low temperature
37 rods, and 12 bundles are placed end to end in each which increases its effectiveness in slowing down
pressure tube. The total mass of fuel in the core is about neutrons.
97,000 kg. The CANDU reactor is unusual in that refueling Disadvantages :
is conducted while the reactor is operating.
1. It requires a very high standard of design,
Control and protection system manufacture and maintenance.
There are the various types of vertical control system 2. The cost of heavy water is very high.
incorporated in the CANDU reactor : 3. There are leakage problems.
— A number of strong neutron absorber rods of 4. The size of the reactor is extremely large as
cadmium which are used mainly for reactor power density is low as compared with PWR and
shut-down and start-up. BWR.
— In addition to above there are other less strongly, 7.5.4. Gas-Cooled Reactor
absorbing rods to control power variations
during reactor operation and to produce an In such a type of reactor, the coolant used can be air,
hydrogen, helium or carbon dioxide. Generally inert gases
approximately uniform heat (power) distribution
are used such as helium and carbon dioxide. The moderator
throughout the core.
used is graphite. The problem of corrosion is reduced much
In an emergency situation, the shut-down rods in such reactors. This type of reactor is more safe specially
would immediately drop into the core, followed, if necessary in case of accidents and the failure of circulating pumps.
by the injection of a gadolinium nitrate solution into the The thickness of gas cooled reactor shield is much reduced
moderator. as compared to the other type of reactor.
Steam system. Steam system is discussed below : There are two principal types of gas cooled reactors
— The respective ends of the pressure tubes are developed for centre station service and these are :
all connected into inlet and outlet headers. (i) The gas cooled, graphite moderator reactor
— The high temperature coolant leaving the (GCGM)
reactor passes out the outlet header to a steam (ii) The high temperature gas cooled reactor
generator of the conventional inverted U-tube (HTGC).
and is then pumped back into the reactor by Both types are graphite moderated. The former
way of the inlet header. (GCGM) uses natural uranium fuel while the latter (HTGC)
— Steam is generated at a temperature of about employs highly enriched uranium carbide mixed with
265C. thorium carbide and clad with graphite.
There are two coolant outlet (and two inlet) headers, The coolant pressure and temperature in GCGM are
one at each end of the reactor vessel, corresponding to the about 7 bar 336C respectively, for HTGC, there figures
opposite directions of coolant flow through the core. Each are 15 to 30 bar and 700C to 800C.
inlet (and outlet) header is connected to a separate steam Arrangement of high temperature, gas cooled
generator and pump loop. A single pressurizer (of the type reactor is shown in Fig. 7.15.
used in pressurised water reactors) maintains an Advantages of gas-cooled reactor :
essentially constant coolant system pressure. 1. The processing of the fuel is simpler.
The reactor vessel and the steam generator system 2. No corrosion problem.
are enclosed by a concrete containment structure. A water 3. As a result of low parasitic absorption it gives
spray in the containment would condense the steam and better neutron economy.
reduce the pressure that would result from a large break 4. Graphite remains stable under irradiation at
in the coolant circuit. high temperatures.
5. The use of carbon dioxide as coolant completely 7.5.5. Liquid Metal Cooled Reactors
eliminates the possibility of explosion in the
Sodium-graphite reactor (SGR) is one of the typical liquid
reactor which is always present in water-cooled
plants. metal reactors. In this reactor sodium works as a coolant
and graphite works as moderator.
6. The uranium carbide and graphite are able to
resist high temperatures, and, therefore, the Sodium boils at 880C under atmospheric pressure
problem of limiting the fuel element temperature and freezes at 95C. Hence sodium is first melted by electric
is not as serious as in other reactors. heating system and be pressurised to about 7 bar. The
liquid sodium is then circulated by the circulation pump.
Primary circuit Steam circuit The reactor will have two coolant circuits or loops :
Generator (i) The primary circuit has liquid sodium which
Turbine circulates through the fuel core and gets heated by the
fissioning of the fuel. This liquid sodium gets cooled in the
Reactor
Heat
Condenser intermediate heat exchanger and goes back to the reactor
exchanger
vessel.
Cooling
water (ii) The secondary circuit has an alloy of sodium and
potassium in liquid form. This coolant takes heat from the
intermediate heat exchanger and gets heat from liquid
Condenser pump sodium of primary circuit. The liquid sodium-potassium
then passes through a boiler which is once through type
Fig. 7.15. Gas-cooled reactor.
having tubes only. The steam generated from this boiler
Disadvantages : will be superheated. Feed water from the condenser enters
1. Fuel loading is more elaborate and costly. the boiler, the heated sodium-potassium passing through
2. Power density is very low (due to low heat the tubes gives it heat to the water thus converting it into
transfer coefficient), therefore, large vessel is steam. The sodium-potassium liquid in the second circuit
required. is then pumped back to the intermediate heat exchanger
3. Since the critical mass is high therefore, large thus making it a closed circuit.
amount of fuel loading is initially required. The reactor vessel, primary loop and the
4. If helium is used in stead of carbon dioxide, the intermediate heat exchanger is to be shielded for radio-
leakage of gas is a major problem. activity. The liquid metal be handled under the cover of an
5. More power is required for coolant circulation inert gas, such as helium, to prevent contact with air while
(as compared with water-cooled reactors). charging or draining the primary or secondary circuit/loop.
6. The control is more complicated due to low The arrangement of a sodium-graphite reactor
negative coefficient as helium does not absorb (SGR) is shown in Fig. 7.16.
neutrons.
Primary circuit Secondary circuit Steam circuit
Generator
Turbine
Heat
Reactor exchanger Condenser
Cooling
water
Pump Pump Pump
Fig. 7.16. Liquid metal cooled reactor.

Advantages of SGR : 4. Heat exchanger must be leak proof.

1. The sodium as a coolant need not be pressurised. 5. It is necessary to shield the primary and
2. High thermal efficiency at low cost. secondary cooling systems with concrete blocks
3. The low cost graphite moderator can be used as as sodium becomes highly radioactive.
it can retain its mechanical strength and purity 6. The leak of sodium is very dangerous as
at high temperatures. compared with other coolants.
4. Excellent heat removal. 7.5.6. Breeder Reactor
5. High conversion ratio.
In its simplest form a fast breeder reactor is a small
6. Superheating of steam is possible. vessel in which necessary amount of enriched plutonium
7. The size of the reactor is comparatively small. is kept without using moderator. A fissible material, which
8. The neutron absorption cross-section of sodium absorbs neutrons, surrounds the vessel. The reactor core
is low and, therefore, it is best suited to thermal is cooled by liquid metal. Necessary neutron shielding is
reactor with slightly enriched fuel. provided by the use of light water, oil or graphite. Additional
shielding is also provided for gamma rays. (It is worth
Disadvantages :
noting that when U235 is fissioned, it produces heat and
1. Sodium reacts violently with water and actively additional neutrons. If some U238 is kept in the same
with air. reactor, part of the additional neutrons available, after
2. Thermal stresses are a problem. reaction with U235, convert U238 into fissible plutonium).
3. Intermediate system is necessary to separate Fig. 7.17 shows a schematic diagram of a breeder
active sodium from water. reactor.
Sodium Sodium Steam

(Radio active) (Non-radio active) circuit
Generator
Turbine
Reactor
Primary Secondary Condenser

circuit circuit
Cooling
water
Low pressure High pressure
Pump Pump Pump
Fig. 7.17. Breeder reactor.
Advantages of a breeder reactor : 3. Neutron flux is high at the centre of the core.
1. The moderator is not required. 4. The specific power of the reactor is low.
2. High breeding is possible. 5. There is a major problem of handling sodium as
3. Small core is sufficient (since it gives high power it becomes hot and radioactive.
density than any other reactor).
4. The parasite absorption of fuel is achievable. 7.6. SELEC TION OF MATERIALS FOR
5. High burn-up of fuel is achievable. REAC TOR COMPONENTS
6. Absorption of neutrons is low.
Some of the factors governing the selection of materials
Disadvantages : for the various reactor components are considered below :
1. Requires highly enriched (15 per cent) fuel. 1. Structural material :
2. It is necessary to provide safety against melt- The structural units implied are :
down. (i) The cladding material for fuel elements.
(ii) Fuel element assemblies. Air has been used in some research reactors operating on
(iii) Containers for coolants, ducts, etc., in the core. open cycle with discharge to the atmosphere at a high level
(iv) Any general structure in the reaction zone. to minimise the effect of Ar. Helium is attractive but is
expensive. Gases involve high pumping cost.
Obviously the purely mechanical properties must be
adequate at the normal working temperature, and the Water. Water has better thermal properties than
material must be capable of the necessary fabrication and 1
gases and the pumping power is roughly th that for
working. 10
In case where liquids are involved, corrosion or gases operated at ten atmospheres pressure. Its moderating
erosion problems may be present. These may be especially properties may be usefully utilised when used as a coolant.
troublesome in aqueous homogeneous reactors or in It has a fairly large absorption cross-section, and undergoes
reactors employing liquid metals. decomposition by radiation. It is subjected to induced
radioactivity, and it has a corrosive action on metals, and a
From the standpoint of the nuclear physics the basic
low boiling point. Degasification may be necessary.
requirement is low neutron absorption cross-section. Since
For efficient power production high pressure
absorption cross-sections are less at high than at low
operation is necessary. This necessitates the use of a
neutron energy levels, a material which is entirely
pressure vessel to enclose the reactor. Boiling water
unsuitable at thermal energies may be acceptable in fast
reactors (BWR) in which the coolant serves also as a
reactors. In addition to the effect on the neutron economy
moderator show promise.
of the system, structural materials may become dangerous
Heavy water has a lower absorption cross-section
to handle due to induced radioactivity.
than natural water and its use leads to economy in fissile
Some structural materials are discussed below : material. If it were cheaper it would be attractive for use
Aluminium. In a very pure state it is being in boiling water type reactor.
extensively used as a cladding material for fuel elements. Liquid metals are of special interest in relation to
Magnesium. It is more costly and is difficult to reactors operating at high thermal flux. Their main
work. disadvantage is in difficulty of handling, and in their
Beryllium. It offers advantages in that it would corrosive properties. Their heat transfer properties are better
serve also as a moderator but it is again costly and difficult than those of water, but their volumetric heat capacity is
to work. not as good, so that the pumping power may be greater or
less than that of water. Sodium is the most favoured at
Zirconium. It is a comparatively new material
present, for if free from oxygen it does not attack stainless
commercially, but offers considerable promise. It is steel, nickel and nickel alloys, beryllium or graphite at
extremely corrosion resistant at low temperatures, but less temperatures below 600°C.
so above 400C. Its mechanical properties are also impaired
3. Moderators and reflectors :
above this temperature. In the intermediate cross-section
Possible materials for use as moderator and
range titanium has a very good strength/weight ratio from
reflectors are :
100 to 450C and is corrosion resistant to aqueous solutions
of high temperatures. (i) Ordinary and heavy water
Alloys. Silicon steels may be used in some fast (ii) Beryllium
reactors, but considerable care is needed in their heat (iii) Beryllia
treatment. (iv) Graphite.
A number of nickel alloys are of interest and offer Ordinary water has excellent slowing down
considerable resistance to attack by fused salts and alkali properties for neutrons, but unfortunately, neutron capture
hydroxide. is also high. This means that enriched uranium fuel is
required in ordinary water moderated reactors, but the
Silicon, of absorption cross-section 0.1 barn and tin,
small migration length still permits a reactor of relatively
absorption cross-section 0.6 barn, might prove useful for
small size. Some of disadvantages of water are (i) attendant
alloying with other material.
corrosion problems, (ii) its relatively low boiling point, and
2. Reactor coolants : (iii) decomposition by nuclear radiations, resulting in the
Gaseous coolants. There coolants have much to liberation of oxygen and hydrogen which may require to
recommend them from the standpoint of general radiation be recombined in ancillary plant. The low boiling point
and thermal stability and ease of handling. Gases are poor, requires the use of a pressure vessel when high
however, from the standpoint of heat transfer and at high temperatures are involved.
temperatures some of them, for example oxygen and Heavy water is an excellent moderator and has a high
hydrogen, may attack other materials present in the core. moderating ratio compared with the other materials.
Beryllium. The nuclear properties of beryllium are Thermal shield. Every absorption in a shield is
eminently suitable, but it is expensive, brittle and difficult roughly exponential. Thus 90% of the radiation is absorbed
to fabricate and is corroded by water. in the first 10% of the thickness. This results in considerable
Graphite. It has been used most extensively as a liberation of heat. For this reason that part of the shield
reactor moderator despite the fact that its moderating nearest to the core is usually of iron in thickness 5 to
properties are not as good as heavy water or beryllium. 10 cm which may be air-cooled. This part of the shield is
However, (i) it is reasonably cheap, even when the necessary referred to as the ‘thermal shield’.
high degree of purity is achieved, (ii) it has good mechanical Summary of Materials for Nuclear Power Reactors
properties and thermal stability, and (iii) is a good conductor Structural :
of heat. (i) Aluminium (ii) Stainless steel
Its chief disadvantages are the possibility of reaction (iii) Nickel alloys (iv) Zirconium
with air at high temperatures and its relatively low
(v) Magnesium
mechanical strength.
Fuel :
4. Fuel :
(i) Uranium (ii) Uranium ceramics
The proportion of the fissile material in the fuel is
of considerable importance in determining the critical size (iii) Thorium (iv) Thorium oxide
of the reactor. This is because the ratio of fissile to non- Coolant :
fissile material in the fuel determines the neutron economy (i) Water (ii) Liquid metals
at the source. The following table gives the average number (iii) Sodium, potassium (iv) Mercury
of neutrons liberated per neutron absorbed in the fuel. (v) Lead bismuth (vi) Gases
Neutron type U235 Pu239 Natural uranium
(vii) Helium (viii) Nitrogen
Thermal 2.11 1.95 1.32
(ix) Carbon dioxide
Fast 2 2 1
Control :
5. Shielding and radiation protection :
(i) Boron steel (ii) Cadmium
Protection of personnel is achieved partly by the use
(iii) Samarium oxide (iv) Gadolinium oxide
of remote control and, in some cases, the provision of a
pressure vessel to contain the fission products which might Mederator reflector :
result from an accident. However, shielding of the reactor (i) Water (ii) Heavy water
itself is invariably required. (iii) Beryllium (iv) Beryllium oxide
A biological shield must slow down the fast neutrons (v) Graphite (vi) Metal hydrides
leaving the core of the reactor, must capture the slowed Shielding :
down neutrons and must absorb all gamma and similar (i) Water (ii) Cement and concrete
radiation produced. It must be borne in mind that neutron
(iii) Iron (iv) Lead
capture in the shield itself may give rise to further gamma
radiation. A combination of light (moderating or slowing (v) Tantalum (vi) Bismuth
down) and heavy elements is the best. The latter reduces (vii) Boron.
the energy of very fast neutrons by inelastic scattering.
The incorporation of a good neutron absorber (e.g. boron 7.7. METALS FOR NUCLEAR ENERGY
10) is beneficial. Cadmium is not particularly suitable since Several metals such as uranium, thorium and plutonium
it emits high energy photons, with energies of the order are used for nuclear energy. The most important among
7.5 MeV. The heavy elements may be metallic iron or lead, them is Uranium. These metals are discussed below :
or iron oxide or barytes. The light element is usually
1. Uranium :
hydrogen in the form of water, often combined in concrete,
but in research reactors in particular, possibly as water. A Occurrence :
homogeneous arrangement of heavy and light elements is The following are the important ores :
best, for example, the use of a laminated construction or (i) Uranite UO2 (contains Th, rare earths)
the use of iron concrete. The latter consists of iron mixed in (ii) Pitchblende UO2+x
barytes concrete, or alternatively limonite (iron ore) is used (iii) Carnotite K2 (UO2)2(VO4)2x . H2O.
partially to replace barytes in the mix.
The flow sheet for recovery of Uranium from Mechanical properties :

Pitchblende is given below : Annealed Cold-drawn
Pitchblende Concentrate Hardness (BHN) 92 112
 Oxidation and corrosion resistance. Uranium
(Air roast, salt roast and sulphuric acid leach) is not chemically stable in air ; it reacts slowly in cold water
and more rapidly in hot water.

Special properties. Uranium is the element
Filtration
having the largest number and atomic weight that is native
 in earth’s crust ; hence it is a logical material for making
  heavier atoms by adding neutrons to the nucleus of
Residue Filtrate uranium in atomic energy piles, and these by acquiring
(Crude sulphates) (Crude uranium sulphate) energy and radio active elements by fusion of relatively
  + Na2 CO3 unstable transuranic elements which form.
Radium Filtration Fabricating characteristics
 (i) Pure uranium is malleable and very ductile
  however, small amounts of aluminium and iron embrittle it.
Residue Filtrate (ii) It dissolves oxygen and hydrogen readily ;
(Metallic impurities) (Sodium uranium) consequently it is usually vacuum-annealed between cold-
carbonate working operations.
 (iii) Above 1400C it is worked as a body-centered
+ H2SO4 cubic metal.
(iv) It acquires distinct directional properties on cold

working.
Add NaOH
(v) The metal may be welded by resistance welding

or inert gas arc welding processes.
Precipitate of sodium
(vi) Uranium is usually processed by powder
uranate metallurgical methods, or melted with inert arc process or
 high frequency furnaces using beryllia or thoria crucibles.
Fuse with NaCl 2. Thorium :
and carbon Thorium is one of the many metals which have
 become available as engineering materials as a result of
Leach the programme of the Atomic Energy Commission. The
 metal is difficult to prepare in the pure state because of its
Residue high melting pointing, 1690C and its chemical reactivity
 with both gases and refractories. Once obtained, the silvery
white metal is soft and ductile.
Uranium
How to produce thorium ?
Extraction of Uranium :
Metallic thorium can be produced by the reduction
The uranium can be produced by numerous
of the oxide or halides with alkali and alkaline-earth metals,
processing treatments. In general, one of the two leaching
by thermal decomposition of thorium iodide, and by the
treatments is used at the initial step in chemical electrolysis of thorium compounds in fused salts. Marden
concentration. One of those is the acid leaching and the and other produced powdered metal by reduction of thoria
other carbonate leaching. The choice depends upon the with calcium. This powdered metal is pressed and sintered
nature of the ore. The concentrate is treated chemically to into solid bars of good ductility and purity. Methods similar
give a uranyl nitrate solution than can be further purified to those used for uranium are used to obtain thorium and
by solvent extraction. The impurities remain in the the metal is now available in tonne quantities.
acqueous phase while uranium is extracted from organic Physical constants of thorium. The principal
phase. The pure uranium is then stripped from organic physical constants are given below :
phase and recovered as nitrate crystals or precipitated from Density, g/cm3
the solution. The largest tonnage of uranium metal of good (a) Theoretical 11.71
quality have been prepared from UF4 by reduction with (b) Typical casting 11.63
calcium or magnesium. Melting point 1690 ± 10C
Boiling point 3000C
Electrical resistivity, 18 × 10–6 3. Plutonium :

ohm-cm (20C) (i) It is very reactive.
Crystallography : (ii) It is easily oxidised.
(a) Structure Face-centered cube (iii) It is highly toxic.
(b) Atomic diameter 3.59 (iv) Its low temperature phases are very complex.
(c) Transformation 1400C ± 25 In general it exists in six allotropic forms.
temperature
Mechanical properties. Thorium is a soft material 7.8. ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER
having a 75 to 80 VPN (Vickers Pyramid Number) and an PLANTS
annealed strength of 2600 kg/cm2 nearly. The mechanical
Some of the major advantages of nuclear power plants are :
properties of thorium are grossly affected by small amounts
1. A nuclear power plant needs less space as
of impurities. Carbon in particular tends to increase the
compared to other conventional power plant of
hardness and strength of high-purity iodide metal.
equal size.
Poisson’s ratio averages 0.265 in both tension and
2. Nuclear power plants are well suited to meet
compression. The metal work hardens rapidly. In impact
large power demands. They give better
thorium exhibits a transition from brittle to ductile
performance at high load factors (80 to 90%).
behaviour in temperature range (100 to 200C).
3. Since the fuel consumption is very small as
Corrosion and oxidation resistance. Thorium is
compared to conventional type of power plants,
stable in air if the oxide content of the metal is low. The
therefore, there is saving in cost of the fuel
metal becomes covered with a stable oxide film which transportation.
prevents further attack. It is stable in water and acqueous
4. The nuclear power plants, besides producing
alkali solutions but is attacked by sulphuric or hydrochloric
large amount of power, produce valuable fissible
acids, halogen gases, and fused alkali.
material which is produced when the fuel is
Fine thorium powder may burn spontaneously ; wire renewed.
or solid metal deoxidizes slowly in air. On heating in air, it 5. The operation of a nuclear power plant is more
will ignite and burn with great brilliancy. reliable.
Special properties. All thorium is radio active ; it 6. Nuclear power plants are not affected by adverse
is a potential source of nuclear fuel. It has good electron weather conditions.
emission, and hence it is used in filaments and electric arc 7. Bigger capacity of a nuclear power plant is an
electrodes. additional advantage.
Fabricating characteristics. Thorium is very 8. The expenditure on metal structures piping,
malleable metal and is ductile after some cold work, being storage mechanisms is much lower for a nuclear
much like lead. It may be rolled and swaged easily, and it power plant than a coal burning power plant.
can be cold-drawn after annealing and some swaging to
Disadvantages/Limitations
work-harden it sufficiently, for the wire has a very low
tensile strength in the annealed state. By cladding with 1. The capital cost of a nuclear power station is
copper or iron, it may be drawn to extremely fine wire. always high.
Thorium is easy to machine and shape and may be 2. The danger of radioactivity always persists in
the nuclear stations (inspite of utmost
welded by resistance-welding or inert arc welding methods.
precautions and care).
Health hazards. Thorium like uranium, is an
3. These plants cannot be operated at varying load
alpha emitter and the parent element of radio active
efficiently.
thorium series. Highly radio active products may be
4. The maintenance cost is always high (due to lack
released in grinding the ores and during the reduction and
of standardisation and high salaries of the
casting of the primary metal. The processed metal has a
trained personnel in this field of specialisation).
relatively low activity level and is handled without
protective clothing or shielding. Competent medical 5. The disposal of fission products is a big problem.
authorities should be consulted regarding the handling of 6. Working conditions in nuclear power station are
and tolerances for thorium. always detrimental to the health of the workers.
Comparative Ratings of 10 MW Nuclear and Coal-burning Power Plant
S. No. Ratings Nuclear plant Coal-burning

plant
1. Weight of machines and mechanisms, tons 700 2700

2. Weight of metal structures, tons 900 1250
3. Weight of pipes and fittings, tons 200 300
4. Weight of masonary/graphite assembly, tons 500 1500
5. Weight of fuel storage mechanism, tons – 2500
6. Weight of rolling stock, tons – 300
7. Volume of plain and reinforced concrete work, cum 9000 4000
8. Capacity of buildings (without turbine room and
electrical facilities), cum 50000 75000
9. Area of construction site, hectares 5 15
10. Internal power consumption, kW 5000 8000
7.9. NUCLEAR-PLANT SITE SELECTION unparalleled nuclear plant safety record. Most plants built
to date have not been in or near heavily populated areas.
Nuclear power plants must meet all the economic and 2. Population distribution :
technical and most of the legal criteria that apply to the Since power reactors must be located reasonably
siting of conventional fossil-fuel-fired power plants. In close to load centers, the population distribution around
addition, the importance of site characteristics in the the site is a necessary consideration in the evaluation of a
assessment of public safety results in greater concern in nuclear power-plant site. The distances, the site
siting nuclear plants than with any other type of industrial meteorological conditions and the amount of radioactive
facility. Of particular concern are the population material which could be released from the plant during a
distribution with respect to the site and the natural factors major accident are used to evaluate the suitability of the
which could affect the transport of radioactive material to site from the standpoint of safety to the public. In addition
the public, under normal operating conditions and in the to the permanent population surrounding a site, it is also
highly unlikely event of an accident which could release necessary to consider part-time peaks in population, such
radioactive material to the environment. as during the day or on weekends in recreational areas,
The various factors to be considered while selecting and seasonal variation in population, particularly in resort
the site for a nuclear power plant are enumerated and areas. Consideration also should be given to estimates of
described in detail below : future increases or changes in population distribution.
1. Proximity to load centre To permit placing nuclear plants in desirable
2. Population distribution locations, it is necessary to provide effective engineered
3. Land use 4. Meteorology safeguard features to offset, at least in part, the present
5. Geology 6. Seismology requirement for large distances from population centers.
The trade-off between distance requirements and
7. Hydrology.
engineered safeguards is qualitative, and there are no
1. Proximity to load center : established rules or principles by which such a trade-off
Electrical power can be transmitted over can be factored into the evaluation of possible sites for a
considerable distances by power-transmission lines, but, nuclear power plant. Such a trade-off can, at present, be
because of the capital cost of the lines and rights-of-way based only on engineering judgement and on precedents
and transmission losses, an economic penalty is incurred established in the siting of other nuclear plants having
which increases with increasing distance between the different degrees of safeguards and located at various
generating station and the load center. It is apparent, distances from population centers.
therefore, that the closer the power-plant site can be located 3. Land use :
to the load center (while meeting other requirements such
The use to which the land surrounding a nuclear-
as reasonable land cost, adequate cooling water, local zone
plant site is being put, even though it may not be densely
restrictions, accessibility for fuel shipment, etc.), the lower
populated, may have an effect on the suitability of the site
can be the cost of power delivered to the consumer. Although
for a nuclear plant. For example, if land is used for
nuclear plants should be built close to their load centers,
agriculture, ingestion of food which has been contaminated
regulatory bodies have been very cautious, despite the
by fallout after an accident might conceivably result in a
greater radiation dose to the public than might be received for nuclear plants, because of the implications for public
from direct exposure to radioactive materials transported safety, is the possibility of sudden earth movement which
downwind from the plants. Of similar concern, but possible could severely damage the plant. Earth slides due to soil
as a result of normal operation, is the chance that certain instability, subsidence due to consolidation of subsurface
marine life, stationary shellfish in particular, can materials or to removal of oil or water from subsurface
concentrate the small quantities of radioactivity normally formations, and ground displacements during earthquakes
released into the cooling water discharged from the plant. along geologic faults traversing the site—each receives very
Over a long period of time, the concentration of radioactivity careful consideration.
conceivable could build up to levels approaching maximum If the possibility exists for releasing radioactive
permissible concentrations. liquids from the plant, the ion-exchange and filtering
4. Meteorology : characteristics of the surrounding soil may be important.
Because the atmosphere is the principal means by If the soil could reliably retain any radioactivity released
which radioactivity released from a nuclear plant might and prevent it from entering water sources or otherwise
be transported to the public, site meteorological conditions coming in contact with persons or animals, the site would
are considered in selecting a nuclear plant site. Meteorology be that much more favourable.
is of concern both for normal discharges of gaseous 6. Seismology :
radioactive wastes and for the much less likely releases of Seismology is of particular concern is areas of high
larger quantities of airborne radioactive material which seismic activity because of the possibility that the forces
might result from an accident. A number of meteorological which can be produced by earthquakes could be sufficient
variables are normally evaluated for the site to determine to damage the reactor system and rupture the containment
appropriate atmospheric dilution factors. Among these structure. Careful consideration is given to the general
variables are : wind-direction frequencies, in conjunction seismic history of the area, including a description of all
with the population distribution ; wind velocities and the earthquakes which have been observed at the site, their
frequencies of each velocity increment ; frequency and magnitude or intensity, and the frequency spectrum for
duration of calms ; atmospheric lapse rate ; frequency and which structures should be analyzed. The proximity of the
duration of inversion conditions. Atmospheric dilution is site to known active faults must be determined, and any
increased, and thus the meteorological conditions are more significant faulting at or near the plant site must be
favourable, the more unstable the atmosphere and the evaluated. Conservative earthquake design factors, usually
greater the wind velocity. substantially greater than those required by the Uniform
Other meteorological conditions of concern are the Building Code, are used for critical equipment and
following : precipitation, since it may significantly increase structures in areas of high seismic activity.
deposition of radioactive materials from the atmosphere, In coastal areas the possibility of tsunamis may have
i.e., “rain-out” ; possible effects of topography on the local to be considered. These earthquake-generated sea waves
meteorology ; seasonal variations in meteorological may travel long distances very rapidly and, under certain
conditions ; and the frequency and severity of storms, shore conditions, can build up to substantial heights.
particularly tornadoes and hurricanes, which could severely Standard seismic design is generally adequate to meet the
damage the plant. Meteorological information collected at design criteria based on the factors described above, and
the plant site provides the greatest assurance that it is with the conservative design factors ordinarily used, reactor
representative of actual site conditions, provided that systems are adequate for even worse conditions than could
sufficiently accurate instrumentation is used and the data be realistically expected to occur.
are collected over a long enough period of time to be 7. Hydrology :
statistically valid. Usually the only meteorological
An important consideration is selecting a site for
information available during selection and evaluation of a
any power plant is the local hydrology. Present-day type of
site is data collected at the locations in the same general
nuclear plants require substantially greater quantities of
area, over a long period of time.
cooling water than do modern fossil steam plants because
At sites where meteorological conditions are of their higher turbine heat rates. In areas of limited water
particularly favourable or unfavourable, more careful supply, cooling towers can be used but at some cost penalty.
consideration would be given to meteorological An additional consideration for nuclear plants is that there
characteristics. be sufficient water flow for the discharge of low-level
5. Geology : radioactive liquid wastes. This usually imposes no
Investigation of the site geology is necessary to limitation because of the small quantities of wastes to be
determine the bearing capacity of the soil and the types of discharged and because it is possible to dilute or clean up
foundations which must be used for the major portions of the wastes to nearly any required concentration. If
the plant. Test borings are usually made for this purpose, necessary, it is possible to collect and ship these wastes off
just as for any other large structures. Of particular concern site.
Another area of concern is the possibility of flooding, redetermination of total system costs. Simplified analysis
which could cause damage to the plant and equipment and requires the assumption of an immediate load availability
cause plant shutdown. Seismic sea waves and hurricanes to the new plant at the expense of load availability to the
may increase the possibility of flooding at coastal sites. older existing plants. Although more complicated, a system
Seiches (Periodic surface oscillations) could result in analysis using the lowest system incremental loading cost
flooding adjacent to large, enclosed bodies of water. The will provide a more accurate picture of real annual unit
flooding history of the site must be determined to permit costs for the various alternatives considered.
adequate site evaluation and plant design. 1. Capital costs :
The characteristics of the ground water and the level Capital costs are those costs which occur only once
of the water table at the site must be evaluated to ensure and are usually limited to the costs of procurement and
that contamination of local water sources by the discharge construction of the facilities prior to the time of commercial
of liquid radioactive wastes does not occur. It there is any operation. These are normally “capitalized” ; i.e., they are
possibility of significant discharge of radioactive treated as an investment which is depreciated over the useful
contamination to ground water, the absorption life of the plant rather than being treated as an annual or
characteristics of the soil and the drainage characteristics other shorter-term operating cost.
of the ground water, including its depth and estimated Determination of those costs which may be allowed
direction of flow, and the characteristics of wells in the within the capital-cost structure often depends on review
area may have to be determined as part of the site by the appropriate public-utility commission or other
evaluation. regulatory body and on corporate accounting policies.
Allocation of the capital-cost items over the life of the plant
7.10. APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR POWER is normally accomplished by applying factors, or percentage
PLANTS rates, which will account for depreciation, return on
investment, and taxes applied to income and property value.
A nuclear power station is ideally suited under the following The product of the total of these factors and the allowable
situations : capital costs gives the annual fixed charge per year for the
(i) In an area with potential for industrial capitalized investment. Within this structure, several
development, but limited conventional power resources, different depreciation methods are used, such as sinking
nuclear power generation appears as an only alternative. fund, straight-line depreciation, etc., depending upon the
(ii) If the existing power grid is to be firmed up or accounting structure already in existence.
additional power demand is to be met while all available 2. Fuel costs :
hydro power resource have been exploited, and coal is scarce
Fuel cycle. An understanding of nuclear-fuel costs
or expensive to transport, a nuclear power station may be
requires an understanding of the nuclear-fuel cycle, since
used with advantage.
the fuel-management programmes are significantly
different from those used for fossil-fueled plants.
7.11. ECONOMICS OF NUCLEAR POWER
Fig. 7.18 shows the basic fuel cycle. The word “cycle”
PLANTS
is intentionally used, for, unlike fossil fuels, a single pass
Typically, all costs of nuclear power plants are broken down through the reactor does not consume all the nuclear fuel.
into the following categories : Further, a valuable new fuel, plutonium, is generated
1. Capital costs (total). during power production.
2. Fuel costs (per year). Fuel costs are affected by the number of functional
3. Other operating and maintenance costs (per year). services which must be performed on the uranium fuel to
With a knowledge of these total and annual costs, prepare if for use, the additional services which must be
and a knowledge of the pertinent factors relating to performed to recover the “ash” value of the spent fuel, and
production, anticipated plant life, and the costs of invested the variation in the design data for each batch of fuel
money, unit costs may be determined for any time period employed.
desired. The calculation of nuclear-fuel costs using various
Although such unit costs may be determined on a data is particularly complex if a high degree of
single plant basis, it should be noted that the addition of
sophistication is desired, such as in the evaluation of
any new plant will normally provide excess capacity in the
competitive fixed-price bids or in the determination of
system under study. Thus, a more valuable analysis
involves the inclusion of the additional costs incurred by minimum incremental operating costs between two or more
the new plant in the total system cost pattern and the plants. However, for project scoping purposes and general
1 Uranium ore
Mining 2 Uranium concentrate
3 Refined uranium as UF6
1 4 Slightly enriched uranium as UF6
Ore extraction Atomic power plant 5 Slightly enriched uranium dioxide
in powder or pellet form
2 6 Fabricated fuel assemblies
Conversion to 7 Spent fuel
enrichment 6 7
chemical form 8 Recovered uranium and plutonium
fuel materials
3
Chemical 9 Recycled uranium as UF6
Enrichment Fabrication recovery 10 Recycled plutonium and possibly
uranium in fuel chemical form
5 10 8
9 X Depleted uranium
4
Conversion to "tails" to storage
X fuel chemical form Y Z Reconversion
Y Radioactive waste con-
10
9 centrates to storage
Z Useful radio isotopes
other than fuels
Fig. 7.18. Nuclear fuel cycle (based on water-cooled reactors).
familiarization with the principles involved, the following 8. Divide item 6 by item 7 to give the unit costs.
simplified method may be used to determine equilibrium The results of such simplified calculations are likely
fuel-cycle costs : to be somewhat low, since they do not recognize the various
1. Determine the initial uranium-procurement unit minor material losses. However, they are also not likely
cost in rupees per kilogram of uranium. This cost will vary accurately to reflect the true investment costs, since the
with the price of uranium yellow cake, the cost of converting investment value is a complex value varying with energy
it to uranium hexafluoride, and the cost of toll enrichment. production.
This latter item is, in turn, dependent upon the enrichment The complications inherent in a complete fuel-cycle
required (which determines the amount of separative work cost, coupled with the need to compute costs over an
required) and the unit cost of separative work. extended period involving changing cost patterns and also
2. Determine the fabrication unit cost, in terms of over the several fuel loadings required to reach an
rupees per kilogram, of combined uranium. equilibrium fuel-flow requirement, have led to the
3. Determine the spent-fuel-element shipping, development of computerized calculational methods.
reprocessing, and reconversion costs in terms of rupees per 3. Operations and maintenance costs :
kilogram of contained uranium. Operating and maintenance costs categories fall in
4. Determine the credit available for the recovered the following groups :
uranium and plutonium. (i) Labour
5. Determine the indirect costs, i.e., return on (ii) Materials, supplies and services
investment and provision for applicable taxes, by
(iii) Insurance
determining the average investment level throughout the
(iv) Fuel management
procurement period, energy-production period, and spent-
fuel recovery period and multiplying by the appropriate (v) Working capital.
interest of fixed-charge rates. (i) The plant staff required is relatively independent
6. Sum items 1 through 5 to give the total unit costs, of plant size, typically running 60 to 70 men, including all
in terms of rupees per kilogram of uranium. supervision, technical assistance, operations, maintenance
and miscellaneous supporting services. The costs for this
7. Determine the unit energy production, based upon
staff may vary substantially, being highly dependent upon
the average fuel energy production (usually given in terms
the local labour market and the labour costs.
of megawatt-days thermal per metric ton of uranium) and
the thermal efficiency of the plant. (ii) Materials, supplies, and services are also
relatively insensitive to plant size, although certain items
are directly proportional to the thermal power level and shall have to be extremely careful in designing, constructing
the frequency and extent of power-level changes. and operating the nuclear power plants. The disaster in
(iii) Insurance costs may be divided into two Russia and elsewhere cannot be ignored easily.
component parts, property insurance and liability
insurance. Property insurance is normally a direct function 7.12. SAFETY MEASURES FOR NUCLEAR
of the capital value. POWER PL ANTS
(iv) Fuel-management services may be provided
In case of nuclear power plants the three main sources of
either by contracting for external services or by adding staff
radioactive contamination of the air are : (i) Fission of nuclei
to that already discussed. This cost is also essentially
of nuclear fuels, (ii) The effect of neutron fluxes on the heat
independent of plant size.
carries in the primary cooling system and on the ambient
Total Energy Costs. The total unit cost of energy
air, (iii) Damage of shells of fuel elements.
delivered at the bus bar is the sum of all of the preceding
cost components which are related to the energy-production The above, mentioned contamination of air can
period divided by the energy produced during the same cause health hazard to workers and community and
period. If escalation is disregarded, technological negative effect on surrounding forests. This calls for safety
improvements and lower fuel costs will tend to reduce this measures for a nuclear power plant, some of them are listed
value. below :
— From economical considerations, the Nuclear 1. A nuclear power plant should be constructed away
Power Plant are designed for 75% of the base from human habitation. An exclusion zone of 106 km radius
load. Fig. 7.19 shows the comparison of cost of around the plant should be provided where no public
production of power by thermal plants with the habitation is permitted.
cost of production by nuclear plants. 2. The materials to be used for the construction of a
nuclear power plant should be of required standards.
3. Waste water from nuclear power plant should be
purified.
4. The nuclear power plant must be provided with
such a safety system which should safely shut down the
plant as and when necessity arises.
Narora Atomic Power Project (NAPP) design entails
the following significant design improvements : (i) An
integral reactor vessel and end shield assemblies, (ii) Two
independent shut down systems, (iii) Total double
containment with suppression pool.
5. There must be periodic checks to ensure that
radioactivity does not exceed the permissible value is the
environment.
6. While disposing off the wastes from the nuclear
plants it should be ensured that there is no pollution of
Fig. 7.19. Comparison of costs between nuclear and thermal water of river or sea where these wastes are disposed.
power plants.
As can be seen, at low installed capacities, both the 7.13. NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS IN INDIA
capital investment and the energy cost per unit are less The various nuclear power plants situated in India are as
for thermal power plants. But when the installed capacity follows :
reaches 1000 MW, both the plants become comparable. 1. Tarapur power plant
Further, the increased cost of coal production and also the
2. Rana-Partap Sagar power plant
far flung coal mines will eventually make the nuclear power
3. Kalpakkam power plant
a cheaper one.
4. Narora power plant
In spite of the inevitability of our option to go nuclear
5. Kakrapar power plant.
for power production, the hazards are enormous and we
The particulars of these plants are given in tabular form below :
Power plants
Particulars
Tarapur Rana-Partap Kalpakkam Narora Kakrapar
Sagar
1. Location Maharashtra Near Kota in Near Chennai U.P Surat district,

(65 miles north Rajasthan in Tamil Nadu Gujarat
Mumbai) state
2. Capacity 380 MW 400 MW 470 MW 2 × 235 MW 4 × 235 MW
(2 × 200 MW) (2 × 235 MW) (under (proposed)
construction)
40 bar at 250°C
3. Steam pres- 35 bar at 240°C 40 bar at 250°C – – –
sure and
temperature
7.14. FUTURE OF NUCLEAR POWER (iii) Safety of the nuclear plants. If the nuclear plants
are designed in such a way that they do not explode like a
India has hydro-power potential, and some coal reserves ; nuclear bomb they can give a safe operation, since they
unfortunately these are not very well distributed contain only a small amount of fissionable material
throughout the country. Moreover, most of the economically (as compared to 90% fissionable fuel in the atomic bomb
feasible hydropower schemes have already been developed. core).
The quality of Indian coal is not very good, and the reserves
are concentrated in one or two parts of the country. These 7.15. USEFUL BY-PRODUCTS OF NUCLEAR
reserves are also being depleted at a fast rate, the railways POWER GENERATION AND THEIR
consuming a large quantity. On the other hand, India has
adequate deposits of fissionable material-thorium, which USES
can eventually be used for generation of power. Therefore, The Nuclear plants supply many by-products like isotopes
development of nuclear power, to supply the growing which have many useful applications in our day-to-day life.
electricity demand of the country is quite logical and The fission products consist of Beta and Gamma
necessary. Thus the future of nuclear power is quite bright. emiting radioactive isotopes with different half-lives. Only a
The following three factors, however, need discussion : very small percentage of nucleon waste is used for industrial
(i) Cost of power generation. Although cost of power purposes. 90% of the nucleon wastes have short half-lives
generation in a nuclear power plant is comparatively more, and decay in a few years. It is the remaining 10% who have
yet with research in the nuclear technology the cost is bound centuries as half-lives which pose disposal problems.
to come down to a value comparable with that for Industrial isotopes must satisfy the following two
conventional plant. conditions :
(ii) Availability of nuclear fuel. The problem of (1) Yield of the isotope should be quite high.
availability of large amount of nuclear fuel can be overcome (2) The half-life should neither be too short nor too
to a great extent by switching over to breeder reactor in long.
which fissionable fuel is produced at the same time they Some of the Isotopes and their characteristics are
are consuming it. shown below :
Isotopes %Yield Half-life Type of Radiation
Beta MeV Gamma MeV
Cesium—137 6.22 33 years 0.5, 1.2 None

Barium—137 6.22 2.6 mins. None 0.658
Strontium—90 5.3 28 years 0.605 None
Cerium—144 5.28 285 days 0.351 None
Praseodymium—144 5.28 17.3 minutes 3.02 0.2
Zirconium—95 6.39 65 days 0.391, 1.0 0.915
Niobium—95 6.39 35 days 0.15 0.76
Technetium—99 6.19 2.1 × 10 years 0.295 None
Promethium—147 2.61 2.5 years 0.219 None
The radioactive isotopes are widely used in Biology, (9) Application in chemistry :
Medicine, Agriculture and Industries. Substances deteriorate when exposed to radiation
Industrial Applications : and the destroyed molecules are rejoined chemically to yield
new materials. This technique has been exploited in the
(1) Position location : Buried pipelines can be traced fields of polymerization, oxidation and halogenation
by using portable geiger Counters. processes.
(2) Flow patterns in pipes can be detected by In polymerization process, used in the
injecting radioactive isotopes into the flow. The radiation manufacturing of synthetic rubber and plastics, the
will be different for laminar and turbulent flows. elements react at high temperature and pressures. But by
irradiating the ingredients by Gamma radiation, the
(3) Leakage detection can be done by injecting
process can be carried out at 202C and atmospheric
isotopes into fluid in pipes. The reactivity will be different
pressure. This has helped in revolutionizing the polythene
at leakage points. industry.
(4) Ground water path is detected by mixing short (10) Sterilization of foods and drugs :
lived radioactive material with water (to avoid Bacteria are produced in food-stuffs and vegetables
contamination). and cause fermentation. Heating process can help in
(5) Thickness gauges. sterilization (complete destruction of Bacteria) and
pasteurization (90% destruction of Bacteria). But this
(6) Liquid level gauges.
heating process cannot be done for fruits, vegetables and
(7) Radiography (Flaw detection). drugs. For these items, irradiation is the process adopted
X-rays, which are having a high penetrating power to kill the bacteria. In this process, the materials are kept
are made to pass through castings, welds etc. and on the in an air-tight container and are subjected to Gamma
other side, the photographic plate receives the radiation. Radiation. After irradiation, these materials can be stored
at room temperature for longer durations.
The attenuation (reduced intensity) is a function of the
thickness of the test material and its density. Thus the (11) Direct electrical power generation :
film is exposed to varying intensities of radiation which Direct electrical power generation can be done in
devices called atomic battery.
help in detecting internal flaws of welds and castings.
(12) Tracer applications :
Co60 is a good source of Gamma rays and is cheaper
In this method, small dozes of isotopes of small half-
than X-ray tube and has a longer life. But this needs
lives are injected into reactants and then traced. This helps
constant heavy shielding whereas X-ray tube needs to trace the elements and their functions in the reactions.
shielding only during operation. Determining the role of sulphur in the vulcanization is one
(8) Density and content gauges : such example.
The Through Gauge is used for this purpose. If the In circuit breakers, the transfer of small amount of
reactivity is a function of density of the material and thus materials between the contact points can be detected by
this methods. Similarly, flows in the bonding of two
the density of the content can be measured. This method
materials and the flaws can be detected, as in the case of
is used in cigarette packing line and a relay arrangement
bonding between asphalt and stone.
is made to reject the faulty cigarettes.
WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 7.1. Calculate the following : Hence, fission rate for producing one watt of power
(i) The fission rate of U235 for producing a power of 1
one watt. = = 3.1 × 1010 fission/second. (Ans.)
3.2  1011
(ii) The energy released in the complete fissioning of (ii) One kg-atom of U235 i.e., a mass of 235 kg of U235
1 kg of U235. contains 6.02 × 1026 atoms (nuclides). Hence, energy
Assume that 200 MeV are released per fission of the released by 1 kg-atom of U235 is
uranium nucleus. = 200 × 6.02 × 1026 MeV
Solution. (i) Energy released per fission of U235 nuclide  Energy released per kg of U235 is
= 200 MeV = 200 × 1.6 × 10–13 J
200  6.02  1026
= 3.2 × 10–11 J or W-s = MeV
235
200  6.02  1026  1.6  1013 Now, 6.02 × 1026 atoms are contained in 235 kg of
= J U235.
235
= 8.2 × 1013 J. (Ans.) Hence, the mass which contains 7.5 × 1021 atoms is
Example 7.2. A nuclear reactor consumes 10 kg of U235 235  7.5  1021
per day. Calculate its power output if the average energy m= = 2.928 × 10–3 kg
6.02  1026
released per U-235 fission is 200 MeV. = 2.928 gm. (Ans.)
Solution. Quantity of U235 consumed per day = 10 kg Example 7.4. A power of 6 MW is being developed in a
Average energy released per U235 fission = 200 MeV nuclear reactor.
Number of atoms in 235 kg of U235 (i) How many atoms of U235 undergo fission per
= 6.02 × 1026 (Avogadro’s number) second ?
Hence, number of atoms contained in 10 kg of U235 (ii) How many kg of U235 would be used in 1000
6.02  1026 hours.
= × 10 = 2.56 × 1025 Assume that on an average 200 MeV is released per
235
Fission energy produced by these atoms fission.
= 200 × 2.56 × 1025 MeV Solution. Power being developed in the reactor = 6 MW =
6 × 106 W
= 200 × 2.56 × 1025 × 1.6 × 10–13 J
Average energy released per fission = 200 MeV
= 819.2 × 1012 J
(i) Number of atoms which undergo fission :
Time taken to consume 10 kg of U235
The fission rate for producing 1 watt = 3.1 × 1010
= one day = 24 × 3600 seconds
fissions/second (Refer to Example 7.1)
819.2  1012 Hence, fission rate for 6 × 106 W is
 Power produced =
24  3600 = 3.1 × 1010 × 6 × 106 = 18.6 × 1016. (Ans.)
= 9.48 × 109 W. (Ans.) (ii) Mass of U235 consumed :
Example 7.3. During a 10-hour run from one station to Number of atoms (or nuclides) which would undergo
another, a railway engine develops an average power of fission in 1000 hours
1200 kW. If the engine is driven by an atomic power plant of
= 18.6 × 1016 × (1000 × 3600) = 6.696 × 1023
20% efficiency, how much U235 would be consumed on the
run ? Each U235 atom on fission releases 180 MeV of energy. Now, 1 kg-atom of U235 i.e., 235 kg of U235 contains
6.02 × 1026 nuclides, hence
Solution. Duration of the run between two stations =
10 hour Mass of U235 consumed
Average power developed by the railway engine = 235  6.696  1023
= = 0.2614 kg. (Ans.)
1200 kW 6.02  1026
Efficiency of the atomic power plant,  = 20% Example 7.5. 200 MW of electrical power (average) is
Energy released by each atom of U235 = 180 MeV required for a city. If this is to be supplied by a nuclear
Mass of U235 consumed, m : reactor of efficiency 20 per cent, using U235 as the nuclear
fuel, calculate the amount of fuel required for one day’s
Energy consumed by the engine for the run
operation.
= 1200 × 10 = 12000 kWh
Assume that energy released per fission of U235
Since 1 kWh = 36 × 105 J nuclide = 200 MeV.
 Energy consumed Solution. Average electrical power required by a city =
= 12000 × 36 × 105 = 432 × 108 J 200 MW = 200 × 106 W
Since the efficiency of atomic power plant is only Efficiency of the nuclear reactor,  = 20%.
20%, energy required to produce it Amount of fuel required for one day’s
432  108 432  108 operation :
=  = 216 × 109 J
 0.2 Energy consumed by the city in one day
Energy produced per disintegration of U235 atom is = 200 × 106 × 24 × 3600 = 1728 × 1010 J
= 180 MeV = 180 × 1.6 × 10–13 J Since efficiency is 20%, energy required to be
Hence number of U235 atoms which must produced by the nuclear reactor is
disintegrate for producing 216 × 109 J is 1728  1010
= = 864 × 1011 J
216  109 0.2
= = 7.5 × 1021
180  1.6  10 13
Energy released/atom (i) Fuel consumption of the reactor :

= 200 × 1.6 × 10–13 = 32 × 10–12 J Power output = 30000 × 1000 = 3 × 107 W or J/s
 Number of atoms to be fissioned Daily output = 3 × 107 × 24 × 3600
864  1011 = 25.92 × 1011 J
= = 27 × 1023 Since efficiency is = 22%, the daily energy input
32  10 12
Now, 6.02 × 1026 atoms are contained in 235 kg of 25.92  1011
U , hence 27 × 1023 atoms are contained in a mass
235 = = 11.78 × 1012 J
0.22
235  27  1023 Now, as seen from Ex. 7.1, 1 kg of U235 provides 8.2
m= = 1.054 kg. (Ans.) × 1013 J of energy,
6.02  1026
Example 7.6. A city requires 1500 MWh of electric energy 11.78  1012
 Daily fuel consumption =
per day. It is to be supplied by a reactor which converts 8.2  1013
nuclear energy into electric energy with an efficiency of = 0.1436 kg. (Ans.)
20 per cent. If reactor used nuclear fuel of U235, calculate (ii) Coal required per day :
the mass of U235 needed for one day’s operation. With an efficiency of 78%, daily energy input is
Solution. Amount of electric energy required per day =
1500 MWh 25.92  1011
= = 33.23 × 1011 J or 33.23 × 108 kJ
Efficiency of the nuclear plant = 20%. 0.78
Mass of U235 needed : 33.23  108
 Coal required per day =
Electrical output 29300  1000
Nuclear energy input = = 113.4 tonnes. (Ans.)
Efficiency
Example 7.8. What is the energy equivalence of 1 atomic
1500 mass unit ?
= = 7500 MWh
0.2 Solution. 1 atomic mass unit (a.m.u.) = 1.66 × 10–24 g
Now, 1 kWh = 36 × 108 J
Using Einstein’s equation
 Nuclear energy input per day
E = mC2
= 7500 × 36 × 108 = 2.7 × 1013 J
where, E = energy ; m = mass ; C = velocity of light (= 3 ×
Now, energy released per fission of U235 nuclide 108 m/s)
= 200 × 1.6 × 10–13 J = 3.2 × 10–11 J Substituting the values, we get:
 Number of U235 nuclides required per day E = (1.66 × 10–24) × (3 × 108 × 102)2
2.7  1013 = 1.494 × 10–3 ergs
= = 0.844 × 1024
3.2  10 11 Now, 1 erg = 0.625 × 106 MeV
Since, 235 kg of U235 contains 6.02 × 1026 number of  E = 1.494 × 10–3 × 0.625 × 106 = 933.75 MeV
atoms, the mass of U235 required for 0.844 × 1024 atoms is Hence energy equivalence of 1 a.m.u.
235  0.844  1024 = 933.75 MeV. (Ans.)
= = 0.329 kg
6.02  1026 Example 7.9. Calculate the total binding energy and the
Hence mass of U235 needed for one day’s operation binding energy per nucleon for the 8O16 isotope.
= 0.329 kg. (Ans.) Solution. The atomic weight of 8O16, by definition, is 16.000
Example 7.7. The motors of an atomic ice-breaker deliver a.m.u.
30000 kW. Calculate the fuel consumption of reactor per The predicted mass of 8O16 is given as under :
day if its efficiency is 22%. Average fission energy release of Mass of 8 protons = 1.00759 × 8 = 8.06072 a.m.u.
U235 nuclide is 200 MeV. Mass of 8 neutrons = 1.00898 × 8 = 8.07184 a.m.u.
What would be the daily amount of 29300 kJ/kg coal Mass of 8 electrons = 0.00055 × 8 = 0.00440 a.m.u.
needed to obtain the same power if the efficiency now is
Total = 16.13696 a.m.u.
78%.
Isotopic mass = 16.00000 a.m.u.
Solution. Electric power delivered by atomic ice-breaker
= 30000 kW  Mass defect = 16.13696 – 16.00000
Efficiency of the nuclear reactor = 22% = 0.13696 a.m.u.
Average fission energy release of U235 = 200 MeV. But energy equivalent of 1 a.m.u. = 933.75 MeV
Calorific value of coal = 29300 kJ/kg  Total binding energy = 933.75 × 0.13696
Efficiency = 78% = 127.88 MeV. (Ans.)
Binding energy per nucleon Example 7.11. A U235 nucleus is bombarded by a neutron,
127.88 resulting in its fission into Barium 137 and Krypton
= = 7.99 MeV. (Ans.)
16 97 nuclei. Write the complete nuclear equation and find the
Example 7.10. The half-life of Radon gas is 3.83 days. What amount of energy liberated in the reaction.
is its radioactive decay constant ? Solution. The nuclear reaction can be written as :
What percentage of the radon atoms originally 235 + 0n1  137 97
92U 56Ba + 36Kr +x
present will decay in a period of 45 days.
In a nuclear reaction, since the atomic numbers and
Solution. Let t1/2 = Half-life of radioactive nuclei,
mass numbers must balance on both sides of the equation
N = Number of radioactive nuclei present at any
therefore, the above equation is balanced with the addition
time t,
of a particle or particles having combined Z = 0 and A = 2
N0 = Initial number of such nuclei, and
to the products. Thus
 = Proportionality constant (also known as
x = 20n1
radioactive decay constant).
From eqn. (7.7), the half-life is given as  The complete nuclear equation becomes as :
235 + 0n1 = 56Ba137 + 36Kr97 + 2 0n1
0.693 92U
t1/2 = Mass before the reaction

= Mass of 235 + mass of 0n1
But t1/2 = 3.83 days ...(given) 92U
 Radioactive decay constant, = 235.116 + 1.00898 = 236.125 a.m.u.
0.693 Mass after the reaction = Mass of Ba137 + mass of
 = = 0.181 day–1
3.83 Kr97 + mass of two 0n1
From eqn. (7.4), = 136.9514 + 96.9520 + 2 × 1.00898
N = N0 e–t = 235.9214 a.m.u.
Here t = 45 days Thus, there is decrease in the mass after the reaction,
 N = N0 × e–(0.181×45) = 0.00029 N0 so energy will be liberated.
%age of radon atoms those will decay in a period of The mass defect = 236.125 – 235.9214
45 days
= 0.2036 a.m.u.
N0  N N0  0.00029 N0
= × 100 = × 100  Energy released = 0.2036 × 933.75
N0 N0
= 99.971%. (Ans.) = 190.11 MeV. (Ans.)
HIGHLIGHTS
1. Those pairs of atoms which have the same atomic number (iv) Alpha particles : helium nuclei, charge + 2, mass 4.
and hence similar chemical properties but different atomic (v) Beta particles : electrons (charge – 1), positrons (charge
mass number are called isotopes. + 1), mass very small.
2. Those atoms which have the same mass number but
7. Half life represents the rate of decay of the radioactive
different atomic numbers are called isobars. Obviously,
isotopes. The half life is the time required for half of the
these atoms belong to different chemical elements.
parent nuclei to decay or to disintegrate.
3. Those pairs of atoms (nuclides) which have the same
atomic number and atomic mass number but have 8. Nuclear cross-sections (or attenuation co-efficients) are
different radioactive properties are called isomers and their measures of the probability that a given reaction will take
existence is referred to as nuclear isomerism. place between a nucleus or nuclei and incident rediation.
4. Those atoms whose nuclei have the same number of 9. It has been found that some materials are not fissionable
neutrons are called isotones. by themselves but they can be converted to the fissionable
5. The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of powerful materials, these are known as fertile materials.
radiations exhibited by heavy elements is called 10. Fission is the process that occurs when a neutron collides
radioactivity. The radioactivity may be natural or with the nucleus of certain of the heavy atoms, causing
artificial. the original nucleus to split into two or more unequal
6. The five types of nuclear radiations are : fragments which carry off most of the energy of fission as
(i) Gamma rays (or photons) : electromagnetic radiation. kinetic energy. This process is accompanied by the
(ii) Neutrons : uncharged particles, mass approximately 1. emission of neutrons and gamma rays.
(iii) Protons : + 1 charged particles, mass approximately 1.
11. A chain reaction is that process in which the number of 15. The main components of a nuclear power plant are :
neutrons keeps on multiplying rapidly (in geometrical (i) Nuclear reactor
progression) during fission till whole the fissionable (ii) Heat exchanger (steam generator)
material is disintegrated. The multiplication or (iii) Steam turbine
reproduction factor (K) is given by : (iv) Condenser
No. of neutrons in any particular generation (v) Electric generator.
K=
No. of neutrons in the preceding generation 16. Some important reactors are :
If K > 1, chain reaction will continue and if K < 1, chain (i) Pressurised water reactor (PWR)
reaction cannot be maintained. (ii) Boiling water reactor (BWR)
12. Nuclear fusion is the process of combining or fusing two (iii) Gas cooled reactor
lighter nuclei into a stable and heavier nuclide. In this (iv) Liquid metal cooled reactor
case large amount of energy is released because mass of (v) Breeder reactor.
the product nucleus is less than the masses of the two 17. Following factors should be considered while selecting the
nuclei which are fused. site for a nuclear power plant :
13. A nuclear reactor is an apparatus in which nuclear fission (i) Proximity to load centre
is produced is the form of a controlled self-sustaining chain (ii) Population distribution
reaction. (iii) Land use (iv) Meteorology
14. Essential components of a nuclear reactor are : (v) Geology (vi) Seismology
(i) Reactor core (ii) Reflector (vii) Hydrology.
(iii) Control mechanism (iv) Moderator 18. Typically, all costs of nuclear power plants are broken
(v) Coolants (vi) Measuring instruments down into the following categories :
(vii) Shielding. (i) Capital costs (total) (ii) Fuel costs (per year)
(iii) Other operating and maintenance cost (per year).
THEORETICAL QUESTIONS
1. Explain the following terms : 10. Write a short note on ‘Fertile materials’.
(i) Atomic model (ii) Atomic mass unit 11. What do you mean by ‘Fission of nuclear fuel’ ?
(iii) Isotopes (iv) Isobars 12. What is a chain reaction ?
(v) Isomers (vi) Isotones. 13. What are the requirement of fission process?
2. What do you mean by the term ‘Radioactivity’ ? 14. How are the following defined ?
3. What is the difference between ‘Artificial radioactivity’ (i) Critical mass (ii) Critical size.
and ‘Natural radioactivity’ ? 15. What is ‘nuclear fusion’ ? How does it differ from ‘nuclear
4. Name five types of radiation of interest, in nuclear power fission’ ?
technology. 16. What is a nuclear reactor ?
5. Explain briefly the following : 17. How are nuclear reactors classified ?
(i) Prompt-fission gamma rays 18. Enumerate and explain essential components of a nuclear
(ii) Fission-product-decay gamma rays reactor.
(iii) Capture gamma rays 19. Explain with help of neat diagram the construction and
working of a nuclear power plant.
(iv) Activation gamma rays
20. What is a moderator ? Name common moderators and
(v) Inelastic scattering gamma rays. discuss their advantages and limitations.
6. Explain briefly the following types of neutrons : 21. Give the functions and materials for the following :
(i) Prompt-fission neutrons (i) Reflector (ii) Control rods
(ii) Delayed neutrons (iii) Biological shield.
(iii) Photoneutrons 22. Describe with the help of a neat sketch the construction
(iv) Activation neutrons working of a Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR). What are
(v) Reaction neutrons. its advantages and disadvantages ?
7. What do you mean by ‘Binding Energy’ ? What are the 23. What is ‘Boiling Water Reactor’ (BWR) ? How does it differ
total binding energy and binding energy per nucleon for from ‘Pressurised Water Reactor’ (PWR) ?
the 6C12 nucleus ? 24. Give the construction and working of a ‘Gas cooled reactor’.
8. Explain briefly the following terms relating radioactive What are its advantages and disadvantages ?
decay : 25. What is a ‘Liquid Metal cooled Reactor’ ? Explain briefly
(i) Activity (ii) Half life a typical liquid metal reactor.
(iii) Average (mean) life. 26. Describe a breeder reactor. What are its advantages and
9. What do you mean by the following : disadvantages ?
(i) Elastic scattering (ii) Inelastic scattering 27. What factors must be considered while selecting materials
(iii) Capture (iv) Fission. for the various reactor components ?
28. List the advantages and disadvantages/limitations of 30. Give the application of nuclear power plants.
nuclear power plants. 31. What do you mean by ‘Economics of nuclear power plants’ ?
29. Discuss the various factors which must be considered 32. List down some safety measures for nuclear power plants.
while selecting a site for a nuclear power plant. 33. What is the future of nuclear power ?
UNSOLVED EXAMPLES
1. A nuclear reactor is developing a power of 3 MW. How 3. Mumbai requires 3000 MWh of electric energy per day. It
many atoms of U235 undergo fission per second ? How many is to be supplied by a reactor which converts nuclear energy
kg of U235 would be used in 1000 hours of operation into electric energy with an efficiency of 20 per cent. If
assuming that on an average 200 MeV is released per reactor uses nuclear fuel of U235, calculate the mass of
fission. [Ans. 9.3 × 106 ; 0.132 kg] U235 needed for one day’s operation. [Ans. 0.66 kg]
2. A city requires 100 MW of electric power on an average. If 4. The motors of an atomic ice breaker deliver 32824 kW.
this is to be supplied by a nuclear reactor of efficiency Calculate the fuel consumption of reactor per day if its
20 per cent, using U235 as the nuclear fuel, calculate the efficiency is 20 per cent. Average fission energy release of
amount of fuel required for one day’s operation. Given that U235 nuclide is 200 MeV. What would be the daily amount
energy released per fission of U235 nuclide = 200 MeV. of 7000 kcal/kg coal needed to obtain the same power if
[Ans. 0.53 kg] the efficiency now is 80%. [Ans. 0.173 kg ; 12100 tonnes]
COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS QUESTIONS

1. (a) With the help of a sketch show all the important parts 9. (a) Describe in brief giving neat sketch, the working of a
of a nuclear reactor, describing briefly the functions pressurised water reactor plant.
of each part. (b) Draw a line diagram of a diesel power plant and
Under what circumstances would a nuclear power describe briefly the cooling system and the lubrication
station be recommended for installation ? system.
(b) Give a brief comparison, between a nuclear and a 10. (a) What is a moderator in nuclear reactor ? Explain the
conventional thermal power station, in respect of desirable properties of good moderator.
(i) capital cost, (ii) fuel cost, and (iii) operating and (b) Draw a neat diagram of CANDU type reactor and
overhead cost, as a percentage of the total cost given explain its working principle and give its advantages
by the sum of (i), (ii), and (iii). over the other types.
2. (a) What are the principal parts of a nuclear reactor ? 11. (a) Draw a neat diagram of nuclear reactor and explain
Explain each part in brief. the functions of different components.
(b) Why are nuclear power stations not so popular and (b) Explain the working principle of a closed cycle gas
successful in this country ? turbine plant.
3. (a) “The source of future power generation will be only 12. (a) Draw a neat diagram of nuclear reactor and explain
nuclear fuel”. Write your comments. the functions of different components.
(b) Explain the working of a reactor in a nuclear power (b) Explain the working principle of a closed cycle gas
station. turbine plant.
4. (a) Why is shielding of a reactor necessary ? What do you 13. (a) How are nuclear reactors classified ? Explain with neat
understand by thermal shielding ? sketch the working of a pressurised water reactor.
(b) Explain the working of a reactor in a nuclear power (b) What different methods are used to thermal efficiency
station. of the open cycle gas turbine plant ? Explain any one
5. (a) Explain the generation of nuclear energy in a nuclear of them.
power plant. 14. (a) Using neat sketches explain the construction and
(b) Describe a boiling water reactor with diagram. working of an air preheater.
6. (a) What are the principal parts of a nuclear reactor ? (b) Explain the layout of any one type of nuclear power
Explain each part in brief. plant system used in India.
(b) Explain the working of a steam surface condenser. (c) Clearly bring out the differences in the constructional
7. (a) What do you understand by the following terms : features of steam turbines of 500 MW rating used in
(i) binding energy, (ii) half life, conventional coal fired steam power plant and PWR
(iii) isotope, and (iv) moderator. plant.
(b) Discuss the boiling water reactor with the help of 15. (a) Explain the following terms with reference to a nuclear
a neat sketch and write down its chief reactor :
characteristics. (i) Moderator (ii) Coolant
8. (a) How are nuclear power plants classified ? Explain how (iii) Control rods (iv) Reflector.
fission reaction takes place and how the chain reaction (b) Give the layout of a fast breeder reactor power plant
is controlled. and explain its salient features.
(b) Discuss briefly boiling water reactor plant. (c) Give a brief account of nuclear waste disposal.

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Hydro-Electric Power Plant 6

6.3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 6.4. SELECTION OF SITE FOR A HYDRO-

2. Water storage : Since there is a wide variation 1. Catchment area

2. For safe and cheap construction good foundation

catchment area should not be easily erodable otherwise

Top of dam Saddle spillway site

6.5.4.2. Chute or Trough spillway Free reservoir level

Fig. 6.10. Combination of tunnel, flume and penstocks at a high-head development.

Fig. 6.11. Surge tank on ground level.

Fig. 6.13. The expansion chamber surge tank.

Fig. 6.15. Differential surge tank.

6.5.7. Prime Movers

Inlet sluice gate

Fig. 6.19. Medium head power plant layout.

6.6.3. Low Head Power Plants

Sluice gate Powerhouse

Fig. 6.20. Low head power plant layout.

Fig. 6.21. Pumped storage plant.

large quantities of flow.

Impulse turbine—Pelton turbine

Kaplan — 300 to 1000

Turbine Turbines with low specific speeds work under a high

turbine efficiency would fall to low values. Hence, in T

Fig. 6.24. Section through horizontal-impulse turbine.

Velocity triangles  = Angle between the direction of the jet and

To be fixed and Cw2 = Cr2 cos  – Cbl2

Cf2 is also called velocity of flow at outlet.  Cr2 (= Cr1 ) = C1 – Cbl

LM OP LM D  Pitch diameter of the Pelton wheelOP

water making, thus, the entire water passage, right from

2.5 to D Fig. 6.27. The inlet and outlet triangles.

Guide wheel = Q( Cw Cbl )

And work done per second per unit weight of water

CL of turbine Tail water

Fig. 6.29. Propeller turbine.

The propeller turbine (Fig. 6.29) consists of an axial-

Fig. 6.30. Schematic diagram of a Kaplan turbine.

Important Kaplan Turbine Installations in India

S. No. Scheme/Project Location (State) Source of water

1. Bhakra-Nangal project Gangwal and Kota (Punjab) Nangal hydel

Differences between Francis Turbine and Kaplan Turbine

S. No. Aspect Francis turbine Kaplan turbine

1. Type of turbine Radially inward or mixed flow Partially axial flow

Working proportions : The expressions for work

where, D0 = Outside diameter of the runner, and

Comparison of hydraulic turbines : P

H5/2 N2P If a runner of high specific speed is used for a given

Specific speed (Ns )

R| Slow 4–10 3.5–8.5

Radial and mixed flow R| Slow 60–150 51.5–130

R| Slow 300–450 255–385

If the various quantities are reduced to a theoretical H

6.7.6. Performance of Hydraulic Turbines

For the same For a similar Kaplan

Which is the type number of fluid machines that

Full gate opening (G.O.)

Unit speed (Nu)

1/4 G.O. Unit power (Pu)

Unit speed (Nu) 0.50 G.O.

Unit speed (Nu)