Hydropower Engineering

Course objective- To make student acquainted with the hydropower development

issues starting from inception stage to the final design stage. After completion of this
course, the students will be able to design independently various components of
hydropower system with proper use of hydraulics.

Theory- 100 marks

Practical-25 marks

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Text books-
Water Power Engineering-M.M Dandeker

BE Civil Engineering/ M R Kafle

Water Power Engineering-T.K Sharma, S.K Sharma
Hydraulic structures – S.K Garg

Chapt-1 Introduction
Chapt-2 Planning of Hydropower Projects
Chapt-3 Power and Energy potential study
Chapt-4 Headworks of storage plants
Chapt-5 Headworks of RoR Plants
Chapt-6 Water conveyance structure
Chapt-7 Hydro-electric machines 1
Chapt-8 Power House
 1. Introduction

Humans have been harnessing water to perform work for thousands of years. The
Greeks used water wheels for grinding wheat into flour more than 2,000 years ago.
Besides grinding flour, the power of the water was used to saw wood and power
textile mills and manufacturing plants.

The world’s first hydroelectric project was used to power a single lamp in the

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Cragside country house in Northumberland, England, William Armstrong in 1878.
Four years later, the first plant to serve a system of private and commercial customers

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was opened in Wisconsin, USA, and within a decade, hundreds of hydropower plants
were in operation.

In North America, hydropower plants were installed at Grand Rapids, Michigan

(1880), Ottawa, Ontario (1881), Dolgeville, New York (1881), and Niagara Falls,
New York (1881). They were used to supply mills and light some local buildings.
The history of hydropower development in Nepal began on May 22, 1911 (9 Jestha
1968 BS) by installing 500 kW electricity at Pharping named as Chandra Jyoti.
After 25 years, long duration, Prime Minister Dev Shamsher initiated 640 kW,
Sundarijal Hydropower plant in 1936. 2
1. Introduction
Global hydropower scenario

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 https://youtu.be/q8HmRLCgDAI https://youtu.be/-hooifWJ1jY
Hydro-energy is known as traditional renewable energy source. It is based on
natural circulating water flow and its drop from higher to lower land surface that
constitutes the potential. In order to convert this potential to applicable electric
energy, water flow should be led to and drive a hydraulic turbine, transforming
hydroenergy into mechanical energy, the latter again drives a connected generator
transforming the mechanical energy into electric energy. As hydroenergy
exploitation and its utilization are completed at the same time. I.e. the exploitation
of first energy source and the conversion of secondary energy source occur

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simultaneously, unlike the coal power generation which should have two orders;
first order is exploitation of fuel, second order is generation, so hydropower has

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the advantages over thermal power generation.

http
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The potential electric power of the water in terms of flow and head can be
calculated from the following equation.

P = 9.81 x Q x H x η KW

Where,

P = electric power in kW

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Q = quantity of water flowing through the hydraulic turbine in cubic meters per
second. Discharge (quantity of water) flowing in a stream and available for

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power generation has daily and seasonal variation. Optimum discharge for power
generation is determined on the basis of energy generation cost.

H = Net available head in meters (gross head – losses)

η = overall efficiency of the hydro power plant. For general estimation purposes,
η is normally taken as 0.85

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Types Of Hydropower Project

Capacity, unit size and selection of Equipment, their Characteristics and Specifications
for design of hydro power station depends upon type of hydroelectric development and
classification with respect to head and size. There are three main types of hydropower
schemes that can be cateigorized in terms of how the flow at a given site is controlled or
modified. These are:

1. Run-of-river plants (no active storage);/PROR and

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2. Plants with significant storage

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3. Pumped storage

In a run-of-river project, the natural flow of the river is relatively uncontrolled. In a

storage project, the filling and emptying of the impounded storage along with the pattern
of the natural stream flow controls the flow in the river downstream from the storage
impoundment.

Storage reservoirs can be sized for storing water during wet years or wet seasons.
Alternatively, they can be sized to provide water for weekly or daily peak generation. A 4
storage reservoir allows using available energy that might otherwise be wasted as spill.

Plants with storage at both head and tailrace are pumped storage project.
Classification of Hydropower Plants
• Based on Hydraulic Characteristics

• Based on Head

• Based on Capacity

• Based on Turbine Characteristics

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• Based on Load Characteristics

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• Based on Interconnection
Hydropower Project based on Hydraulic
Characteristics

(i) Run off river plant (Diversion plant)

(ii) Storage plant (Impoundment plant)

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(iii) Pumped storage plant

(iv) Tidal plant

 Run off River Plant (Diversion Plant)

The water is utilized as it comes in the river. Practically, water is not stored during
flood periods as well as during low electricity demand periods, hence water is
wasted. Run off river plant may be without pondage or with pondage. The plants
with pondage are provided with a barrage to store the water, to take care of daily
variation.

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Storage Plant (Impoundment Plant)

A common type of hydro power plant. This plant has storage reservoir provided
by constructing a dam across the river. It is generally preferred in mountainous
regions. The storage of water takes care of fluctuations of water supply during
flood and draught period as well as during load fluctuations, hence it can supply
electricity more constantly than any other plants. Suitable for both base load and
peak load.

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Pumped Storage Plant

Water is utilized for generation of power during peak demand, while same water is
pumped back in the reservoir during off peak demand period, when excess power
is available for this purpose. If turbine is reversible, it can be used as a pump to
supply water back to reservoir, otherwise separate pump can be used.

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Pumped Storage Plant

Tidal Plant

Tide is a periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea due to gravitational attraction
between moon and earth and sun and earth. Regions which comes nearer to moon
are subjected to high tide and regions which are away from moon are subjected to
low tide.The level difference between high tide and low tide is called Range of Tide,
which is responsible for power generation.

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Rance tidal power station

 Based on Head

(i) Low head plant - ≤ 30 m

(ii) Medium head plant – 30m ≤ H ≤ 300 m

(iii) High head plant - >300 m

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Based on Load Characteristics

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Base load plant

Operates continuously and generate constant power throughout the year. e.g.
Storage plant, Run off river plant without pondage.

Peak load plant

Which supply the power during the peak hours only. e.g. Pumped storage plant,
Run off river plant with pondage.
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Investigations and planning parameters

Investigation Stages

The following stages of investigation are commonly used.

1. Reconnaissance level (Preliminary) - Pre feasibility report (PFR)

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2.Feasibility/Detailed Level (Pre-Investment) – (DPR)

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Reconnaissance Level (Preliminary) – Pre Feasibility Report

At this level of investigations following should be determined.

a. Technical feasibility of the project

b. Identification of critical issues and their possible solutions

c. First economic evaluation

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The purpose of the preliminary investigations is to provide sufficient information to
confirm the practicability of any proposed scheme of development to compare
between alternative schemes or arrangement so that preliminary design and
estimates can be prepared and recommendations made with reasonable confidence.
These preliminary investigations generally include the following studies:

a) Hydrological Studies: Overall rainfall, run off data, principal river flow data,
flood characteristic etc. from records of Govt. deptts. Establishment of approximate

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figures on minimum, average and flood discharges.

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b) Topographical Studies: Tachometric Surveys and survey required depending
upon the existing information and maps.

c) Geological Studies: Overall geological characteristics and local features and

some surface investigation, preliminary reconnaissance surveys for construction
material etc.

d) Power load demand assessment: Overall power demand scenario in the project
nearby area and existing facilities/infrastructure for power evacuation. 12

e) Environmental and Socio-economic study- Environmental impact, displacement

etc.
Feasibility/Detailed Level Investigations (Detailed Project Report)
The final investigations comprise the detailed exploration of the finally recommended
site (or sites) so as to establish beyond doubt their complete suitability and to enable
the final designs and contract documents to be prepared with the least chance of
serious alteration after the contract has been let. The final investigations will generally
be:

a) Hydrological: The most complete and detailed extension possible of the preliminary

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hydrological studies.

b) Topographical: Preparation of accurate large scale maps for the sites of all-

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important structures.

c) Geological: detailed sub-surface investigations by excavation, boring etc. rigorous

sampling and testing of materials, water tightness and grouting test etc.

d) Power load demand: For grid connected projects, the investigation on location and
facilities at the power evacuation project is required. For isolated projects the load
demand in nearby area is to be forecasted based on the population, type of industries,
distance from power house etc.
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Hydropower Development Cycle

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Early stage- Reconnaissance survey/ pre-feasibility study ( 1-2 years)

Preparation- Feasibility/ tendering process (2-3 years)

Implementation- Construction/ Installation/ Supervision (4-6 years)

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Operation- Project commissioning, operating (40-50 years)
 Processing of hydrological data
Design flood estimation is a major task for the design of hydraulic structures & river
training works. The estimation of runoff from a catchment is a very complex
problem. We generally estimate runoff in following different forms:

1. Annual, seasonal or monthly runoff

2. Extreme low flow or dry weather flow
3. Peak flow or flood flow

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There are different approaches available for estimation of runoff. Generally, Runoff

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estimation is done based on following methods:

1. Statistical or Probability Methods

2. Empirical & Regional Methods
3. Unit Hydrograph Method

Statistical or Probability methods, used when stream flow data of study area are
available, includes graphical methods or flood frequency analysis methods
( Gumbel’s Distribution, Log Pearson Type III, Log Normal Distribution etc ). When
rainfall data & catchment characteristics of study area are available, then we can use 1
empirical & regional methods. For Unit Hydrograph method to be used, Unit
hydrograph of known duration for a catchment, should be available.
 Processing of hydrological data
WECS/DHM method- In Nepalese context, Water and Energy Commission
Secretariat (WECS)/Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM)
developed empirical relationships for analyzing flood of different frequencies. It is
the modification of WESCS approach of 1982.
The formula for 2 year return period is given by

!! = 1.8767 !!""" + 1 !.!"#"

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The formula for 100 year return period is given by

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!!"" = 14.63 !!""" + 1 !.!"#$
For other return period, !! = ! !"!! !!!
!
ln ( !!"" )
S=Standard Normal Variate !
!=
2.32

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 Processing of hydrological data
DHM 2004
The DHM(2004) method is an update to the WESCS/DHM 1990 method.
The formula for 2 year retrun period is given by
!! = 2.29 (!!""" )!.!"

The formula for 100 year return period is given by

!!"" = 20.7 (!!""" )!.!"

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Rest procedures and formula including S and T table are same as WECHS/DHM 1990

Catchment correlation method

The MIP method is based upon measurement taken on an intermittent basis. The
measurement of lowest discharge usually April is used to predict the mean monthly
discharge of a particular location using a Unit Hydrograph (l/s per sq. Km) which was
used to develop Non-dimensional hydrograph for seven regions.

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Processing of hydrological data ( Estimation of Peak Flows)

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Numerical Example (Gumbel’s Method)

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The Flow Duration Curve is one of the most fundamental pieces of information
that feeds into the design of a hydropower project, so for anyone that wants to
understand the how's and why's of hydropower design, understanding the flow
duration curve is a good place to start. ... For this you need a Flow Duration Curve.

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 Mass curve

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Mass curve

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Numerical problem (Mass curve)
https://youtu.be/5Njmy80RSXM
 Optimization of installed capacity

Marginal cost/ Marginal benefit method

Marginal means ‘Additional’

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Important terms connected with Hydropower

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 Numericals in load factors

https://youtu.be/OQsk_4oqFmc Load Curve

https://youtu.be/XakCfIZn2cM

https://youtu.be/eTYaiWv9rKU

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Optimization of installed capacity

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 Reservoir and its regulation

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 Sediment deposition in reservoir

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 Sediment management
Catchment vegetation

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 Wooden barriers

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 Stepped watershed

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 Flushing sediments

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 Mechanical desilting

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 Sediment sluicing

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4. Head works of storage plants

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 4. Dam Engineering

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Classification of Dams
Dams can be classified as per their functions, material of construction, and
structural design:
(i) Classification based on function

(a) Storage (or impounding) dam is constructed across a river to create a reservoir for
storing water during the period when the flow in the river is excess. This stored
water is then used for irrigation, power generation and water supply when the
demand exceeds the flow in the river.

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(b) Detention dam is primarily constructed to detain all or part of the flood waters of a
river and released later in such a way that the region downstream of the dam is safe

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against flood damages. A dam can also serve both the functions of detention as well as
storage.

(c) Diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water into a canal. Such
a dam is usually called diversion weir.

(d) Coffer dam is a temporary dam constructed to keep water away from a specific
area to keep it dry for some specific purpose, such as construction of the main dam.
The coffer dam too acts like diversion dam.
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(e) Debris dam is constructed across a river to trap sediments of the river.
(ii) Classification based on material of construction

(a) Earth and rock fill dams are constructed of loose earth (ranging from fine
material to big rock pieces) without any binding material. An earth dam having its
major portion built of rocks is called rock fill dam. Such dams are also known as
non-rigid dams.

(b) Masonry dams are rigid dams constructed of either stone or brick masonry.

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(c) Concrete dams too are rigid dams constructed of concrete.

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(iii) Classification based on structural design

(a) Earth and rock fill dams are non-rigid dams constructed of loose earth material.
Shear strength of the soil used in the construction of these dams opposes the
forces exerted on the dam by water.

The difference between an earth and rock fill dam is that in case of rock fill dam
major portion of the dam is primarily made of rock pieces, whereas in case of the
earth dam it is the soil which is used for the construction of embankment.
b) Gravity Dam- Water pressure is resisted by weight of the dam itself. 4
c) Buttress Dam-
d) Arch Dam-
 Coffer Dam

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Earth dams are further divided into the following types

(i) Homogeneous earth dam

(ii) Zoned earth dam

Choice of the Type of Dam

The following are the important factors which affect the choice of the type of dam

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(i) Topography

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(ii) Geology and foundation conditions

(iii) Material available

(iv) Size and location of spillway

The topography of the site dictates the first choice of the type of dam. A Concreter
dam would be the obvious choice for a narrow stream flowing between high and
rocky abutments (i.e., deep gorges). Broad valleys in plains would suggest an
embankment dam with a separate spillway. 6
Geological and hydro-geological characteristics of the strata, which are to carry the
weight of the dam, determine the foundation conditions. Any type of dam can be
constructed on solid rock foundations. Well-compacted gravel foundations are
suitable for concrete gravity dams of small height, earth-fill and rock-fill dams.

However, effective water cutoffs are required to check the foundation seepage. Silt
or fine sand foundations can be used to support concrete dams of small height and
earth-fill dams. Problems of settlement, piping and the foundation seepage are

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associated with this type of founda-tion. Non-uniform foundations containing
different types of strata will usual-ly require special treatment before any type of
dam is constructed on such foundation.

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Selection of Site for a Dam
(i) Availability of suitable foundation
While an earth dam can be designed for and constructed on any type of foundation,
concrete dams require relatively stronger foundation. Foundations can be improved
to some extent by taking suitable steps for foundation treatment.

(ii) Considerable economy will be achieved if the dam is sited at the narrowest
section in the river valley subject to fulfillment of other requirements. 7
(iii) Spillway is an important component of a dam. In case of a concrete dam, it may
be accommodated in the main dam section. But, in case of earth dams, it has to be
away from the main dam and, hence, suitable site should be available for the spillway
too.

(iv) From economic considerations, it would be advantageous if the bulk of the

construction material is available close to the dam site. In case of earth dams, the
design is so made as to use locally available material as much as possible.

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(v) The area upstream of the dam must be suitable for the requirements of a reservoir.

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(vi) The environmental considerations, including displacement of local people, require
that there is minimum damage to the local environ-ment, and minimum hardship to
the local people. At times, these become governing factors in selecting the site of a
dam.

(vii) The selected site should be such that it results in overall economy in construction,
maintenance and operation of the water resource project.

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 Gravity Dam
A gravity dam is a dam constructed from concrete or stone masonry and designed to
hold back water by using only the weight of the material and its resistance against
the foundation to oppose the horizontal pressure of water pushing against it.

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Forces acting on a gravity dam
Gravity Dam Case-I Reservoir Full Case • When reservoir is full, the major forces
acting are weight of the dam, external water pressure, uplift pressure, and earthquake
forces in serious seismic zones. The minor forces are: Silt Pressure, Ice Pressure, and
wave Pressure

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https://youtu.be/hR1cbsOGK1M Overturning failure

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Elementary Profile of a Gravity Dam
The elementary profile of a dam, subjected only to the external water pressure on
the upstream side, will be right angled triangle, having zero width at the water level
and a base width (B) at bottom, i.e.. the point where the maximum hydrostatic water
pressure acts.

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Stability analysis of a gravity dam

https://youtu.be/3ebu3j2Zet0

https://youtu.be/bavlxW9qPnE

https://youtu.be/xyxUo_aGfNQ

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 Earth dam seepage

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Seepage in Earth Dam
Seepage in Earth Dams and seepage control are important aspects of dam design and
construction. Seepage flow in the dam is defined as the movement of water from the
upstream side of the dam to the downstream side through embankment of below the
foundation or base.

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The seepage problem is most commonly found in earthen embankment dams. This
will directly affect the stability of embankments, sloughing of slopes due to the rising 24
of pore water pressure, and also causes internal erosion which may further lead to
piping. Failure to prevent seepage in earthen dam could lead to Slide Failure of Earth
Dams.
Causes of Seepage in Earth Dam

The seepage in dams primarily depends on the properties of soil such as the plasticity
of soil, the gradation, the degree of compaction, etc. Plastic clay with a plasticity
index less than 15 mostly (for well compacted too) venerable to seepage.
Also, poorly graded soil most often shows less resistance to seepage. It is also
considered that the poor design practices will permit the seep of water through the
embankment and then leads to the discharge to the downstream side.

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Phreatic line
It is the top flow line of saturated soil mass is called the phreatic line. Below the
phreatic line, the seepage takes place. The hydrostatic pressure is acts below the
phreatic line. This is not an equipotential line. In the earth dam, the phreatic line
shapes like a parabola.

https://youtu.be/BNFQ1EJX4h0

Seepage control measures in Earth Dams

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Providing drainage filters is the best method to prevent seepage. Filters are

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provided for the free discharge of water and prevent piping and heaving. Drainages
are used to reduce the pore water pressure inside the embankment and
foundation soil.

A multi-layered drain system that consists of graded of both fine and coarse
materials is adopted in the earth dam in order to prevent the seepage of fine
materials from the embankment. Various kinds of drains which commonly used in
earth dams are given below:

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Rock Toe
In this arrangement stone size which varying from 15 cm to 20 cm is arranged in the
downstream toe end of the dam. It is arranged graded in layers which consist of fine
sand, coarse sand, and gravel as shown in the fig below. The height of the rock toe
usually kept between 15 to 30% of the reservoir height.

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Rock Toe to prevent Seepage in Earth Dam
Horizontal filter
Horizontal filter extends from downstream side of the dam to inside at a distance of
25% to 100% from toe to center line of the dam. In common case height equal to
three times the height of the dam is sufficient.

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Horizontal filters to control Seepage in Dams
Chimney Drain
The horizontal drainage is better in bringing down the phreatic line down and also
causes stratification in a horizontal direction. When large-scale stratification occurs
horizontal filters are efficient. To solve this issue a vertical filter is placed along with
the horizontal filter, which carries out the seeping water effectively as shown in the
figure. This arrangement is termed as chimney drain.

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Phreatic line in an earthen dam with and without filter
https://youtu.be/9SgLSi-3mzA 29
 Gravity dam seepage
Foundation treatment of the gravity dams
• The foundation of the gravity dam should be hard, strong, durable and
impervious.
• The imperviousness of the foundation is very important as uplift pressure
depends greatly upon the seepage.
• Uplift pressure is increase when seepage is more.

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https://youtu.be/5y96fD3dOaE
 5. Components of Hydropower Plants

Intake structures are used for collecting water from the surface sources such as
river, lake, and reservoir and conveying it further to the water treatment plant. These
structures are masonry or concrete structures and provides relatively clean water,
free from pollution, sand and objectionable floating material.

The basic function of intake structure is to help in safely withdrawing water from

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the source and then to discharge this water in to the withdrawal conduit, through
which it reaches the water treatment plant.

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While selecting a site for intakes, the points to be kept in mind are.

i) Intake work should provide good quality water so that its treatment may
become less exhaustive.

ii) Heavy water currents should not strike the structure directly.

iii) Approach to the intakes should be easy.

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Intake Under sluice Diversion weir

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Components of Headworks
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Selection of a site for intake construction

i) Intake work should provide good quality water so that its treatment may become
less exhaustive

ii) Heavy water currents should not strike the structure directly

iii) Approach to the intakes should be easy

iv) As far as possible intakes should not be selected in the vicinity of sewage

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disposal

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v) Selection of site should be nearer to the treatment plant so that it reduces the
cost of conveyance of water

vi) They should not be located in navigation channels

vii) In meandering rivers, the intakes should not be located on curves or at least on
sharp curves

viii) Intake must be located at a place from where it can draw water even during
the driest periods of the year. 3

ix) Site should be such as to permit greater withdrawal of water, if required of a future
date.
Design guidelines for intake structures
(i) The centre line of the intake and the size of inlet should be such that the intake
could draw the required amount of water at minimum reservoir level without
vortex formation and at a sufficiently low velocity.

(ii) The sill of the intake should be kept at the highest possible level in order to
reduce silt entry upto minimum extent.

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(iii) Looking from the river towards the bank, the intake, as far as possible should
be located on the concave side so as to reduce silt content.

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(iv) The inlet opening should be of bell mouth shape and transitions should be
hydraulically streamlined.

(v) A trash rack structure should be provided at the entrance and the velocity
through the trash racks should be limited to 0.75 m / sec., where manual cleaning
of racks is provided and 1.5 m/sec, where mechanical cleaning is adopted.

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Hydraulic Design of Intake Components
Bell mouth opening and transitions

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Types of Intakes
https://youtu.be/MgNM1OBSGNM

Typical small hydropower plant

https://youtu.be/RTnvTmWh8xM

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Desilting Basin

Intakes on rivers and streams are designed to eliminate floating debris and a large
amount of bed load. However, they can not prevent the entrance of suspended
sediment and the entire amount of bed load. Desilting devices are, therefore, required
to avoid sedimentation of the water conductor system and to limit the possible
damage of the turbine parts due to abrasion against the sediments.

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Desilting chamber / Basin or Settling basin is the most commonly used device, to
reduce silt load. Removal of silt is affected through reduction in flow velocity by

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increasing the flow area and thus letting the bigger size silt particles settle to the
bottom of the tank. The settled particles are removed continuously through a silt
flushing arrangement provided at the bottom of the chamber.

Silt flushing discharge The silt flushing discharge should be able to flush out the
pebbles of 30 to 50 mm size at a flushing velocity of 3 to 4 metres / sec. The silt
flushing discharge normally ranges from 20 to 25% of the intake discharge. As such,
if Q cumecs is the design discharge required for power generation, the intake should
draw a discharge of Q/0.8 to Q/0.75 cumecs to allow a flushing discharge of 20 to
25%. 7
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8

Schematic Arrangement of Desilting Chamber

Flow through velocity

The limiting flow through velocity can be determined by the relation

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Fall velocity Fall velocity of suspended sediment can be determined from the Table

9
Upstream and downstream transitions

The desilting chamber is joined with the water conductor system at its upstream and
downstream ends through gradual expansion and contraction transitions
respectively. These transitions should not be steeper than 1:6 in expansion transition
and 1:3 in contraction transition.

Data required for design

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The following data is required for the design of desilting chamber:

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(i) Design discharge ‘Q d ’ in cumecs at the outlet end of desilting chamber

(ii) Silt flushing discharge ‘Q f ’ in cumecs

(iii) Total discharge ‘Q’ in cumecs at inlet end = Q d + Q f

(iv) Minimum particle size ‘d’ to be removed in mm and corresponding fall velocity

(v) Type of flow i.e. free flow or pressure flow

10
(vi) Available width in metres for constructing the chamber
The design of desilting chamber involves following steps

(i) Determine flow through velocity in m/sec corresponding minimum particle size to
be removed.

(ii) Determine the area of the desilting area by dividing the total discharge ‘Q’ by
flow through velocity.

(iii) Fix the width ‘W’ of the desilting chamber in accordance with the space available

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at site. In case of underground desilting chamber, the width of the cavity will have to
be decided on the basis of geological considerations. A lesser width will result greater

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depth of desilting chamber and larger length and vice-versa

(iv) With area and width of the desilting chamber, determine the depth ‘D’ of the
chamber.

(v) Determine the fall velocity ‘V f ’ of silt particles from table.

(vi) Calculate moderated setting velocity ‘V fm ’ to take into account the turbulence at
the inlet transition by the following relation
11
(vii) Calculate the settling length ‘L’ of the chamber by the following relation

(viii) Divide the length of the chamber into a suitable number of hoppers, generally
the shape of hoppers is a square. In case the width of the desilting chamber is too
large, there can be two or more number of rows of hoppers along the length of the
chamber. The slope on all the four sides of the hoppers is kept at an angle of 45 o so

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that any silt that falls into the hopper slides down into the hole provided at the
bottom of the hopper. Alternatively instead of providing hoppers only side slopes

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of 45 o are provided at the bottom of desilting chamber. In this arrangement a slab
with holes segregates the desilting chamber from the silt flushing channel. The
sizes of holes varies from upstream to downstream, the upstream holes being
bigger and downstream holes being smaller.

(ix) The sizes of the holes provided at the bottom of the hoppers is fixed with the
following criteria:

(a) The first hole / the first row of holes, if there are more than one row of hoppers,
should be able to carry a minimum of 10% of the flushing discharge.
12
(b) The size of other holes / other row of holes shall be decided on the criteria of
passing equal discharge through each hole. It will be done by equalizing the head
losses from inlet of the hole upto the end of desilting chamber in the silt flushing
channel. As such the sizes of holes will go on reducing from upstream to
downstream.

(x) Determine the size of the silt flushing tunnel in such a way that the velocity in
the tunnel is never less than 3.0 m per sec.

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(ix) Silt flushing tunnel should preferably be lined with 10 to 12 mm thick steel
plate and it should discharge into the river at such a location that the invert of the

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tunnel remains at least 1.0 metre above the high flood level of the river at that
location.
Design of settlling basin
https://youtu.be/NAE_aVTGJRw
Flushing Upper Trishuli 3A
https://youtu.be/yhacOcqHpx8
Upper Marsyangdi A
https://youtu.be/Dcubt2yDdKY 13
Numerical problem
https://youtu.be/Epb9rzeCCjA
Tunnels
The initial portion of the tunnel from the intake up to the Surge-Tank is termed as the
Head Race Tunnel (HRT) and beyond that it houses the penstock or steel-conduits,
which sustains a larger pressure than the HRT. The HRT may either be unlined (in
case of quite good quality rocks) or may be lined with concrete. when the HRT runs
full, it is subjected to a much low pressure compared to the penstock. A tunnel should
also be designed for the empty condition, assuming the outside rock to be saturated
with water.

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Tunnel layout

The first aspect that needs to be decided for a tunnel is the alignment, that is, the
route layout of the tunnel in plan. Below figure shows the possible alignment for
the tunnel water conveyance system for a hydropower system using tunnel.

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15
The layout is usually governed by the geological features of the surrounding hills.
Complicated geological conditions and extraordinary geological occurrences such as
intra-thrust zones, very wide shear zones, geothermal zones of high temperature,
cold/hot water springs, water charged rock masses, intrusions, fault planes, etc.
should preferably be avoided. Sound, homogeneous isotropic and solid rock
formations are the most suitable for tunneling work.
Tunnel section

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The second aspect requires the determination of the size and shape of the tunnel. The
size or cross sectional area can be determined from the amount of water that is to be
conveyed under the given head difference. Regarding shape, the following types are

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generally provided for hydropower tunnels
Tunnel entrance and exits

It is also essential to design the entry and exit points of the tunnel very carefully.
Where the tunnel emerges out of the hill slope, a structure in the form of an arch is
usually provided, which is called the portal (see Figure 18). Since at these points the
water enters or leaves the tunnel, they are prone to hydraulic head loss and proper
transition shape has to be provided to keep the loss minimum and to avoid
cavitation. The length and slope of the transition depends upon the velocity and flow 16
conditions prevailing in the tunnel, economics, construction limitations, etc. It is
generally preferred that a hydraulic model study is conducted to arrive at an efficient
but economic transition.
1. Circular Section : The circular section is most suitable from structural
considerations. However, it is difficult for excavation, particularly where cross-
sectional area is small. For tunnels which are likely to resist heavy inward or outward
radial pressures, it is desirable to adopt a circular section. In case where the tunnel is
subjected to high internal pressure, but does not have good quality of rock and/or
adequate rock cover around it, circular section is considered to be the most suitable.

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17

Circular shaped section of tunnel

2. D section : This type of section would be found suitable in tunnels located in
massive igneous, hard, compacted, metamorphic and good quality sedimentary rocks
where the external pressures due to water or unsound strata upon the lining is slight
and also where the lining is not required to be designed against internal pressure.
The principal advantages of this section over horse-shoe section are the added width
of the invert which gives more working floor space in the heading during driving
and the flatter invert which helps to eliminate the tendency of wet concrete to slump
and draw away from the tunnel sides after it has been cast.

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18

D-Shaped section
3. Horse-Shoe and Modified Horse-Shoe Sections : These sections are a
compromise between circular and D sections. These sections are strong in their
resistance to external pressures. Quality of rock and adequate rock cover in terms of
the internal pressure to which the tunnel is subjected govern the use of these sections.
Modified horse-shoe section offers the advantage of flat base for constructional ease
and change over to circular section with minimum additional expenditure in reaches of
inadequate rock cover and poor rock formations.

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19
4. Egg Shaped and Egglipse Sections : Where the rock is stratified, soft and very
closely laminated (as laminated sand stones, slates, micaceous schists, etc) and
where the external pressures and tensile forces in the crown are likely to be high so
as to cause serious rock falls, egg shaped and egglipse sections should be
considered. In the case of these sections there is not much velocity reduction with
reduction in discharge. Therefore, these sections afford advantage in cases of sewage
tunnels and tunnels carrying sediments. Egglipse has advantage over egg shaped
section as it has a smoother curvature and is hydraulically more efficient.

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20
 Tunnel structural design

The geometric and hydraulic design of a tunnel is followed by the structural design,
which investigates the loads that are expected on the tunnel opening from the
surrounding rockmass and whether a support is required to hold it in place or a lining
is necessary to resist the pressure of the rock and water pressure from the saturated
joints and cracks of the surrounding rocks.

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Only some limited geological formations are so perfectly intact that they require no
external support for their stability. In general, most of the tunnels are driven through

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rocks with certain defects requiring provision of some form of support until a lining
can be completed. Thus, the basic philosophy of design of an underground excavation
(tunnelling, surge tanks, power houses etc.) is such as to utilise the rock mass itself as
the principal structural material, creating as little disturbance as possible during the
excavation process and adding as little as possible in the way of steel supports or
shotcrete (which is a wire mesh fixed to the tunnel wall by nails and sprayed with
cement slurry with or without steel fibre is used to form a layer, as explained further
on). The type of rock support that has to be provided for a tunnel depends upon the
type of rock quality, which is classified according to its behaviour when an opening is
made in the rock. 21
Concrete lining

This is a protective layer within the tunnel made of plain or reinforced concrete. Tunnels
may be completely lined, partially lined, or even unlined. Tunnels in good sound rock
may be kept unlined. However, lining is recommended when:

a) The internal water pressure exerted by water conveyed by the tunnel is high, say
above 100m of water head. For very good competent rock, tunnels may be kept unlined

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for pressures even up to 200m water head.

b) The rock strata through which the tunnel passes has low strength and where the rock

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is anisotropic.

Lining a tunnel increases the cost of a project and should be adopted considering the
advantages expected as given below:

a) Lining transmits part of the internal water pressure to the surrounding rock which, to
some extent, is balanced by the external rock pressure. In tunnel empty condition, it
helps to resist the external rock load together with the support system.

22
b) Lining may be carried together with the tunnel excavation work and hence
minimizes the danger of accidental rock falls within the tunnel.

c) Lining helps to reduce water loss through joints in rocks by seepage.

d) Lining is invariably provided at the inlet and outlet portals of a tunnel, even if
located within competent rock.

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Tunnels conveying water under free flow conditions may be un-reinforced. The
external rock load is expected to be carried by the steel supports. Usually, a tunnel

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lining has to be reinforced when the depth of rock cover (from the tunnel soffit up
to the free surface of the hill) is less than the internal water pressure.

The construction of tunnels could be by manual methods like drilling holes,

placement of explosive, blasting, and then removal of the muck from the head-face
or by competent rocks well. As soon as the tunnel face is excavated to a certain
depth, the temporary supports are provided to prevent any rock fall or squeezing.
At the same time, or later, permanent supports are also put in place.

23
Sequence of tunneling Tunnel RGHEP
https://youtu.be/tNzf0G6N30Q

Methods of tunnel construction

https://youtu.be/cosRhHnCkQQ

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Concrete lining

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https://youtu.be/jssHGTwOFBA

24
 Forebay Surge Tank, Penstock
Forebay
https://youtu.be/l5spJG8eslg

https://youtu.be/f8qZhOA9zog

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Surge Tank

https://youtu.be/r1J4tINkknw

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Penstock

https://youtu.be/AXry2vwQY3g

25
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26
Optimization of penstock

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27
 6. Spillways and Gates
A spillway is a hydraulic structure built at a dam site for diverting the surplus water
from a reservoir after it has been filled to its maximum capacity. Spillways are
classified into different types on the basis of the arrangement of the control
structure, a conveyance channel and a terminal structure.

Types of Spillways - Classification of Spillways

There are different types of spillways that can be provided depending on the

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suitability of site and other parameters. Generally a spillway consists of a control
structure, a conveyance channel and a terminal structure, but the former two may be

MR Kafle BE Civil
combined in the same for certain types. The more common types are briefly
described below:
1. Drop Spillway
2. Ogee Spillway
3. Siphon Spillway
4. Chute or Trough Spillway
5. Shaft Spillway
6. Side Channel Spillway

1
Drop Spillway
In a drop spillway, the over flowing water
falls freely and almost vertically on the
downstream side of the hydraulic
structure. This type of spillway is suitable
for weirs or low dams. The crest of the
spillway is provided with nose so that the
water jet may not strike the downstream
base of the structure.

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Ogee Spillway
The Ogee spillway is generally provided in

MR Kafle BE Civil
rigid dams and forms a part of the main
dam itself if sufficient length is available.
The crest of the spillway is shaped to
conform to the lower nappe of a water
sheet flowing over an aerated sharp crested
weir.
It is a modified form of drop spillway.
Here, the downstream profile of the
spillway is made to coincide with the
shape of the lower nappe of the free falling 2
water jet from a sharp crested weir.
Chute (Trough) Spillway
In this type of spillway, the water, after flowing
over a short crest or other kind of control
structure, is carried by an open channel (called
the "chute" or "trough") to the downstream side
of the river.

Side Channel Spillway

Side channel spillways are located just

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upstream and to the side of the dam. The
water after flowing over a crest enters a side

MR Kafle BE Civil
channel which is nearly parallel to the crest.
This is then carried by a chute to the
downstream side. Sometimes a tunnel may be
used instead of a chute.

Shaft (Morning Glory or Glory hole) Spillway

This type of spillway utilizes a crest circular in
plan, the flow over which is carried by a vertical
or sloping tunnel on to a horizontal tunnel nearly
at the stream bed level and eventually to the 3
downstream side. The diversion tunnels
constructed during the dam construction can be
used as the horizontal conduit in many cases.
Siphon Spillway
As the name indicates, this spillway works on
the principle of a siphon. A hood provided over
a conventional spillway forms a conduit. With
the rise in reservoir level water starts flowing
over the crest as in an "ogee" spillway. The
flowing water however, entrains air and once
all the air in the crest area is removed, siphon
action starts. Under this condition, the

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discharge takes place at a much larger head.
The spillway thus has a larger discharging

MR Kafle BE Civil
capacity. The inlet end of the hood is generally
kept below the reservoir level to prevent
floating debris from entering the conduit.
You tube- Spillways and its classifications
Types of Spillway Gates

Followings are the spillway gate types:

1. Dripping shutters or permanent flashboards
2. Stop logs and needles
4
3. Radial gate or tainter gates
4. Drum gates
5. Vertical lift gates or rectangle gates
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Stop logs Radial

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5

Flashboards Vertical lift gate

https://youtu.be/tZKzxCKgbcI
 Cavitation in dam https://youtu.be/5NIPil7NDDk

Cavitation occurs in high velocity flow, where. water pressure is reduced locally
because of an. irregularity in the flow surface. • As vapor cavities move into a zone of
higher. pressure, they collapse, sending out high.

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https://youtu.be/v98omCq1kRA

MR Kafle BE Civil
Energy dissipators
https://youtu.be/-0xQBPiSXoQ

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energy dissipator in hydraulic structure - SlideShare