Ethics and Public Relations

Shannon A. Bowen, Ph.D.

http://www.instituteforpr.org/essential_knowledge/detail/ethics_and_public_relatio
ns/

Executive Summary
The central purpose of this article is to provide an overview of ethics in public relations. I
review the evolution of public relations ethics, the current state of practice, and the
thoughts of ethicists. Definitions will be provided and key areas of evolution and debate
within the field will be addressed. Implications for practitioners are discussed, including
the research showing that a strong sense of ethics and of how to arrive at ethical decisions
can enhance the career prospects of public relations professionals. Recommendations for
public relations practitioners are made, including topics such as gaining access to an
organization’s top decision makers, promotion to an ethical counselor role, on-the-job
ethics training or ethics study, and approaches to ethical analyses. Finally, practical
guidelines for dealing with ethics will be offered, followed by an annotated bibliography
with suggestions for further reading.

Defining Ethics
The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy explains: “The field of ethics, also called moral
philosophy, involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and
wrong behavior” (http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/ethics.htm). Definitions of ethics normally
have in common the elements of requiring some form of systematic analysis,
distinguishing right from wrong, and determining the nature of what should be valued. In
the public relations discipline, ethics includes values such as honesty, openness, loyalty,
fair-mindedness, respect, integrity, and forthright communication. This definition of
public relations ethics goes far beyond the olden days of “flacking for space” or spinning
some persuasive message, but this view is not shared by everyone.

Is There Such a Thing as Public Relations Ethics?

Current research supports a historical trend of associating public relations with all things
unethical – lying, spin-doctoring, and even espionage. Many critics argue that there can
be no ethical public relations because the practice itself is akin to manipulation and
propaganda. An unfortunate belief among many journalists, policy makers, and laymen is
the belief that the term ‘public relations ethics’ is an oxymoron: either an unreal
possibility, or smoke and mirrors to hide deception.

Groups like the Center for Public Integrity criticize the public relations industry for a lack
of ethics, counting the influence of public relations and lobbying as one of the primary
threats to truthful journalism. Other groups like Corporate Watch
(http://www.corporatewatch.org.uk/?lid=1) are less restrained in their criticism and
consider public relations firms and professionals as deliberately unethical:

There is a considerable body of evidence emerging to suggest that modern public

relations practices are having a very significant deleterious impact on the democratic
process … by giving vested interests the opportunity to deliberately obfuscate, deceive,
and derail public debate on key issues the public relations industry reduces society’s
capacity to respond effectively to key social, environmental and political challenges.
(http://www.corporatewatch.org.uk/?lid=1570)

Are these critiques justified and warranted? Adding fuel to the fire are the actions of
some public relations firms themselves. One of the most notable headlines was the
representation of “Citizens for a Free Kuwait” by well-known public relations firm Hill
and Knowlton, who created false testimony delivered to the Congressional Human Rights
Caucus (http://www.corporatewatch.org.uk/?lid=377). News broke later that the Kuwaiti
government sponsored this front group in order to convince the US to enter the 1992 Gulf
War. Critics (Stauber & Rampton, 1995) charge that Hill and Knowlton was successful in
this effort because of its disregard for ethics. In the wake of this controversy, one Hill &
Knowlton executive notoriously reminded staff: “We’d represent Satan if he paid”
(http://backissues.cjrarchives.org/year/92/5/pr.asp).

Amid the scandal caused by the lack of honest and open communication during numerous
corporate crises, such as Enron (Bowen & Heath, 2005), and the ethical blunders of
public relations firms themselves, public relations faces an identity crisis. Is ethical public
relations even possible? Are public relations professionals really “the ‘invisible men’
who control our political debates and public opinion, twisting reality and protecting the
powerful from scrutiny” as charged by P.R. Watch
(http://www.prwatch.org/cmd/prwatch.html) and similar groups?

Evolution of Public Relations Ethics

In the US, early public relations practices introduced many ethical concerns because the
press agentry (J. E. Grunig & Hunt, 1984) approach prevalent then emphasized
hyperbole, sensationalism, and often lacked truth. The so-called “father of public
relations,” Edward Bernays, called this time period of 1850-1905 “the public be damned
era” (Cutlip et al., 2006). Press agents were concerned with generating publicity at almost
any cost, and this approach engendered the unethical reputation of modern-day public
relations. Ethics as a consideration entered the development of modern practice in about
1906, with prominent practitioner Ivy Lee’s declaration of principles. His declaration
moved the practice into “the public be informed” era with his emphasis on telling the
truth and providing accurate information.

One of the earliest public relations executives to argue for the role of acting as an ethical
counsel to management was John W. Hill (Heath & Bowen, 2002). Hill had a very
developed philosophy of corporate responsibility and issue management, and this recent
analysis found that ethics pervaded both his work as executive counsel and his books
about public relations (Hill, 1958, 1963). Hill’s grasp of the interaction between ethics,
issues management, and “far-reaching effects of corporate policy” (Hill, 1958, p. 16)
made him not only one of the most successful practitioners of his century. John W. Hill
was a progenitor of what scholars called public relations as the “corporate conscience”
(Ryan & Martinson, 1983, p. 22).
As the civil unrest of the 1960s called both government and businesses to a higher level
of accountability, their communication functions responded with the creation of more
open, ethical, and socially responsible forms of public relations. The function of issues
management (Chase, 1976) began to advise executives on ethically responsible policy
decisions, and symmetrical public relations (J. E. Grunig & Hunt, 1984) began to
incorporate the desires of publics for more fair and balanced decision making. Although
research (Bivins, 1989; Pratt & Rentner, 1989) showed that scant attention was given to
ethics in major public relations textbooks before this time, the last decade has shown an
improvement. This interest in teaching and discussing public relations ethics is good
news, especially for new practitioners so that they do not inadvertently limit their
prospects for promotion. As newer data (discussed below) reveals, job promotion options
may be constrained for practitioners who do not know ethics or feel prepared to advise on
ethical dilemmas.

Despite the strides made in modern public relations toward becoming ethical advisors in
management, the field holds “a tarnished history” in the words of one scholar (Parsons,
2004, p. 5). Like any young profession, the historical development of public relations
shows a progression toward more self-aware and ethical models of communication. By
reviewing this development, the historically negative reputation of public relations, as
well as its potential for encouraging ethical communication, we can see the maturation of
the profession from one engaged in simple dissemination of information to one involved
in the creation of ethical communication.

Current State of Ethics in Public Relations: Codes of Ethics

The current state of ethics in public relations practice depends heavily on codes of ethics
held by the major professional associations. Membership in these groups is voluntary,
meaning that one is not required to belong to such an association in order to practice
public relations. Members agree to abide by a code of ethics that is written for the entire
group. Some codes of ethics are written in terms that forbid a list of certain activities;
other codes of ethics espouse a set of ethical principles which should be followed.
Whether written in positive or negative terms, most of the professional associations in
public relations have a code of ethics.

• For example, refer to the ethics codes of a few of the major public relations
associations: the Global Alliance for Public Relations and Communication
Management (http://www.globalpr.org/knowledge/ethics/protocol.asp),
• the International Public Relations Association (IPRA) Code of Athens
(http://www.ipra.org/detail.asp?articleid=22) ,
• the European Public Relations Confederation, also endorsing the Code of Athens
along with its own code and the Code of Lisbon
(http://www.cerp.org/codes/european.asp),
• the Public Relations Institute of Australia
(http://www.pria.com.au/aboutus/cid/32/parent/0/t/aboutus)
• the Public Relations Society of America
(http://www.prssa.org/downloads/codeofethics.pdf ),
• the International Association of Business Communicators
(http://www.iabc.com/about/code.htm),
• the Chartered Institute of Public Relations
(http://www.cipr.co.uk/direct/about.asp?v1=who)
• or the Arthur W. Page Society of senior-level public relations executives.
(http://www.awpagesociety.com/site/resources/page_principles/)

These codes of ethics offered as examples above do not vary greatly by country but by
the professional organization; some codes strive to offer guidance of a practical,
professional nature toward agency practitioners (such as PRSA), while other codes
attempt to identify general moral principles of ethical behavior, such as the focus on
dignity, respect, and human rights, as seen in the IPRA and CERP endorsements of the
Code of Athens. Professions often develop codes of ethics, and an online collection of
more than 850 can be found at the Illinois Institute of Technology
(http://ethics.iit.edu/codes/Introduction.html).

That resource is a wonderful place to start if you are beginning to write or revise a code
of ethics for your organization or a client. When implemented with good intent, codes of
ethics can be useful tools for developing an organizational culture supporting ethical
decision making. Public relations codes of ethics generally hold as cross-cultural and
universal moral principles the concepts of honesty, fairness, and not harming others.

Although codes of ethics can be developed which satisfy universal conditions or

principles (Kruckeberg, 1993), they have been critiqued by scholars (Parkinson, 2001;
Wright, 1993) for falling short of the ideals espoused in the codes, or even in being
internally contradictory. Practitioners often state that codes of ethics are too vague to be
useful in their own careers or that they do not give enough specific guidance to be
anything other than rudimentary (Bowen et al., 2006). Research found that some
practitioners say they see a code of ethics once and then do not refer to it or read it again
(Bowen, 2002a).

Most codes of ethics provide no enforcement monitoring or recourse for their

infringement, leaving them impotent other than the occasional revocation of association
membership. These problems with codes of ethics are not new and they are not limited to
the field of public relations. Some scholars (Kruckeberg, 2000) of public relations argue
that if practitioners are ethical then no enforcement is needed for the codes of ethics.
Other scholars (Bowen, 2004a; Parkinson, 2001) go further, arguing that a simple ethics
statement is all that is necessary because good intention is a more stringent guideline than
a code of ethics. This debate mirrors the rationale of Plato, as quoted in Parsons (2004):
“Good people do not need laws to tell them to act responsibly, while bad people will find
a way around the laws” (p. 67).

Given the criticisms against codes of ethics, public relations scholars have worked to
create other methods of understanding, analyzing, and managing ethical dilemmas. These
approaches are based on varying schools of thought from philosophy to sociology.
Findings of Current Research on Public Relations Ethics
Suspicion of corporations, corporate executives, and a general mistrust of business in the
minds of the public grew in two waves. The first of these was the late 1960’s in which
issues management was formed in reaction to these pressures as a process in which
corporations could better understand, anticipate, and proactively manage issues of public
concern. The second wave of heightened mistrust was in the late 1990’s to early 2000s,
as a reaction to huge corporate scandals such as that of Enron. As thousands of former-
Enron employees lost their retirement funds in the collapse, Enron executives maintained
in the news media that they had done nothing wrong. Yet, as facts emerged, ethical
transgressions of the public trust were unearthed and criminal charges against many top
executives were filed; later convictions followed (for more discussion of this case, see
Bowen & Heath (2005) or Sims & Brinkman (2003). The shockwaves following Enron,
and other scandals of this period such as Tyco and WorldCom, resulted in new demands
for ethical responsibility and corporate governance. One result was the implementation of
the 2002 Sarbanes-Oxley Act in which the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
required new standards of financial compliance and record keeping. From these cases and
the new legislation, a renewed concern for corporate ethics, compliance, regulation,
governance, transparency, and honest financial reporting procedures resulted. Many of
these issues are the domain of the public relations function, and all of them are
communicated about by the public relations function.

Research conducted recently by the International Association of Business

Communicators (IABC) Research Foundation (http://www.iabc.com/rf/) studied public
relations ethics and reported survey results from 1,827 IABC members and other
professional communicators worldwide (Bowen & Heath, 2006). The study (Bowen et
al., 2006) revealed a number of surprising and interesting findings in public relations
ethics. Public relations practitioners around the world reported that 65% of them have
regular access to the “dominant coalition” or the decision-making executive level of their
organizations, or the Chief Officers level sometimes called the “C-suite”. This finding is
good news that public relations managers are involved in ethical advising at the highest
levels of their organizations, and often are involved in the strategic management and
planning process, as well. Of that 65% who said they had access to the dominant
coalition, 30 % said that they report directly to the CEO of their organization, with the
remaining 35% of that group reporting to a C-level executive.

Reporting directly to the CEO is the best possible case because the top communicator
does not have to rely on others to convey their advice and perspective to the CEO, who is
the final decision maker. These numbers mean that public relations professionals are
being heard at the highest levels of organizations, and are having input at the strategic
management and planning level. Public relations professionals can have a real impact on
organizational decision making and a real impact on the ethical decisions made in the C-
suite. To use the words of one public relations executive in this study (Bowen et al.,
2006), “We are there--where the rubber meets the road.”

With this relatively new and higher level of responsibility, public relations executives
must understand far more than media relations. To advise the top level of an organization,
professional communicators must become conversant with issues management, risk and
crisis management, leadership, organizational culture and policy, and ethics. Decisions at
the higher levels of the organizational system almost invariably include an ethical
component. Do the benefits outweigh the risks if we take a product with a mixed safety
record to market? Should we do business in countries where bribery or child labor is a
common practice? From matters of external publics and multinational relationships to
product standards or internal relationships with employee publics—all pose ethical
challenges. These challenges are matters not only of policy but also of communication.
IABC grant research (Bowen et al., 2006) showed that, although a large number of public
relations practitioners reported that they do advise their CEO (30%) or senior
management (35%), another 35% of public relations professionals who say they have no
access to the dominant coalition of their organizations. These practitioners are
implementing the strategic decisions of others rather than making their own contributions
in the areas of organization strategy, issues management, or – on ethics. Public relations
cannot contribute to organizational effectiveness without offering input on the views of
strategic publics to executive management—nor can it advise on the ethical issues and
dilemmas that stand to damage organization-public relationships, diminish credibility,
and tarnish reputation.

Counseling senior management on ethical decisions is happening in practice, and perhaps

more widely than one might estimate. Almost half (49.9%) of the IABC (Bowen et al.,
2006) sample reported that they counsel their senior management on ethical decisions,
indicating the managements are realizing the value of incorporating a strategic
communication perspective in their decisions, or of potentially incorporating the views,
ideas, or values of publics into organizational policy. Forward-thinking organizations are
already implementing this strategy, so that public relations professionals who aspire to
higher management roles must now pay attention to ethics, ethical advisement, and how
to analyze ethical dilemmas. Of our sample, 68% said that they felt well-prepared to
counsel management on ethical dilemmas, confirming that public relations practitioners
do see themselves in a “corporate conscience” role.

Ethics Study and Training: Troubling Findings

A few of the IABC study’s findings on ethics also warrant concern for those on an
upwardly-mobile career path. The majority of participants reported that they had little if
any academic training or study of ethics. 30% said they had no academic ethics study of
any kind, and another 40% of the practitioners in the study said they had “a few lectures
or reading on ethics,” as shown in the pie chart below. These figures mean that 70% of
the professional communicators we surveyed could be ill-prepared to face an ethical
dilemma if they have had no professional experience with ethics to support them.
Practitioners who advise on ethics reported that what they have learned about ethical
issues comes from professional experience rather than academic study. Professional
experience with ethics has to be earned over time, and younger practitioners are at a
disadvantage when faced with a dilemma, often having little prior experience with such
situations. These professionals might make mistakes even with the best of intentions due
to unforeseen consequences or duties.
Using one of the rigorous, analytical means of ethical analysis available in moral
philosophy allows decisions to be articulated to the media and others in defensible terms.
Further, those who had no ethics study could be unintentionally limiting their career
opportunities or their suitability to be promoted into senior management. The qualitative
data in this study revealed that practitioners saw advising on ethical dilemmas as a main
route to higher levels of responsibility within their organizations.
Source: IABC Research Foundation

The finding that little or no ethics training or study is held by public relations
practitioners with a university education is not a new concern. The Commission on Public
Relations Education, a group of experts who periodically examine public relations
curricula and recommend modifications, recognized the dearth of ethics study in their
2006 report (see: http://www.commpred.org/report/). The group recommended the
following actions at universities and colleges offering courses or majors in public
relations:

-A consideration of ethics should pervade all content of public relations professional

education.
-If a curriculum cannot accommodate a dedicated ethics course, short one-hour courses or
mini-seminars can provide a meaningful ethics forum for undergraduates. (p. 4)
The commission noted a need to elevate in importance “Particular issues and trends in the
public relations field such as ethics and transparency” (p. 43) in undergraduate education.
These experts argued that an education in public relations “can provide a body of
knowledge about the process of ethical decision-making that can help students not only to
recognize ethical dilemmas but to use appropriate critical thinking skills to help resolve
those dilemmas in a way that results in an ethical outcome”
(http://www.commpred.org/report/2006_Report_of_the_Commission_on_Public_Relatio
ns_Education.pdf, p. 22).

Public relations professionals need both experience managing ethical issues and academic
study of ethics. Studying ethics helps practitioners to advance professionally and to make
defensible judgments in the eyes of publics. Not preparing young practitioners to deal
with ethics disadvantages them in their career aspirations and harms the reputation of the
public relations profession itself.

In the IABC study, participants reported little on-the-job ethics training, professional
seminars, or continuing education workshops. 65% received no ethics training from an
employer, although our data showed that when practitioners report to senior or top level
vice presidents they received more additional ethics training than when reporting to
others. Of the 35% reporting some ethics training, the data from this study also reveals
that a proportionally greater number of men (43%) received training once hired than did
their female counterparts (32%). In summary, 50% of the IABC sample maintained that
they regularly counsel management on ethical decisions, yet about 70% of the sample
have never studied ethics and about 65% have no on-the-job ethics training.
The deficit in communication professionals who are thoroughly versed in ethics may pose
potential problems. Filling a necessary demand based on professional experience alone
leaves the communication professional open to failures to reasoning or oversights in
analysis which could be guarded against through formal ethics training or study. Those
who do not have training in ethical decision making may be unfamiliar with alternate
modes of analyses that could yield valuable input into the strategic decision-making
process. A lack of credibility results both for individual communication professionals and
for the public relations practice itself. Errors of omission in the analysis of an ethical
dilemma result from a lack of training rather than a lack of ethical intention on the part of
public relation counsel. Logical and consistent analyses allow a defensible argument to
be made and the media or publics can understand the decision-making process of the
organization. Rational decisions are easier to explain and defend to publics, and although
they may not agree they can usually understand. Therefore, attention to astute and
rigorous ethical analysis is essential not only for individual practitioners or the public
relations profession but also for organizational effectiveness in achieving long-term
financial success.

Pushing the Frontiers in Public Relations Ethics

To answer the demand for ethics training from the professional front, training in ethical
decision making is being offered by some employers, universities, and professional
associations. Only recently have public relations scholars incorporated a substantial
amount of moral philosophy into the body of knowledge we know as communication.
The inclusion of this scholarly literature in our own field can powerfully extend the
ethical reasoning capabilities of public relations professionals. These approaches, which
are reviewed below, offer substantive ethical guidelines for analyzing dilemmas.

Dialogical Ethics versus Advocacy Ethics

Dialogue as a philosophy began in ancient Greece, with the classical argumentation of
philosophers such as Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates. Dialogue is a natural inclusion in any
discussion of ethics because some scholars (J. E. Grunig, 2001; Habermas, 1984) argue
that dialogue is inherently ethical. They see dialogue as ethical because it engages in a
give and take discussion of public relations issues with the chance for all interested
parties to have input. The discussion is ultimately supposed to arrive at truth or to reveal
the underlying truth to which the parties can agree. Ideas are evaluated on merit alone
rather than on a positional basis. It should be noted that this distinction is a fine one that
separates advocacy from dialogue – true dialogue argues based on merits until truth is
reached. Advocacy argues positionally, meaning according to the arguments from the
side of the client or employer, rather than from any or all sides. The advocate’s position
may or may not be aligned with truth, but it starts with a bias in the discussion and thus
fails the test of being truly ethical. A dialogue can potentially reach a truth that could be
negative to an employer or client simply based on meritorious arguments, and is seen as
ethical since it does not favor any one party over the views of others.

Public relations scholars such as Heath (2006) see dialogue as the way in which a good
organization engages in open communication with its publics. The virtue or good
character of the organization is maintained through its efforts to communicate with
publics, discussing issues in a dialogue of give and take. This “wrangle in the
marketplace” (Heath, 2001) results in the best ideas rising to the top, regardless of their
origin. Heath (2006) explained, “What was needed. . .was not more articulate advocates,
but advocates who had achieved higher standards of corporate responsibility” (p. 72).
This higher standard is to engage in dialogue for the sake of achieving an understanding
of the truth, and truth can arise from any perspective. One note to keep in mind is that
dialogue must be entered into with good intentions; Kent and Taylor (2002) wisely noted
that “If one partner subverts the dialogic process through manipulation, disconfirmation,
or exclusion, then the end result will not be dialogic” (p. 24).

Pearson (1989a) explored the concept of dialogue as an ethical basis for public relations.
He thought that public relations was best defined as “the management of interpersonal
dialectic” (Pearson, 1989b, p. 177) emphasizing the personal relationship maintenance
and building functions of public relations with members of publics. An entire strain of
research (Ledingham & Bruning, 2001, 2000) has found that relationship building
functions are the most crucial aspect of public relations, and Pearson’s link to the
usefulness of dialogue in doing that makes perfect sense. Dialogue is best seen as an
ongoing process of seeking understanding and relationship, with the potential to resolve
ethical dilemmas through a mutual creation of truth. Kent and Taylor (2002) offer an
extensive list of factors to consider in engaging in the process of dialogue, and it is an
invaluable resource for public relations professionals seeking to build that process into
the communication of their organization.

Most people who think of public relations as advocacy would not agree with the
dialogical position because they believe that the organization can best define facts related
to an issue and persuade publics to understand or agree with those interpretations (Pfau &
Wan, 2006). These scholars (Fitzpatrick & Bronstein, 2006; Miller, 1989; Peters, 1987)
agree that the advocate role of public relations is similar to that of an attorney, in which
Pfau and Wan pointed out that “persuasion plays an integral role” (p. 102). However, this
approach lacks authenticity because it emphasizes one-sided persuasion and does not
allow for the validity of contrary facts emerging outside the organization or from other
publics.

Advocacy can sometimes be difficult because it can confuse loyalty to the client or
employer with loyalty to the truth. For instance, a long-term ethical approach might be to
help the client change or improve operations to ensure future viability, but this
perspective can be overlooked in favor of short-term success or loyalty to management’s
interpretation of issues. Although some advocates maintain that an ethically responsible
approach is enough (Fitzpatrick & Bronstein, 2006) many executive-level practitioners
explain that they need more powerful means of analyses in terms of ethical issue
resolution (Bowen, 2002b, 2006). Alternate views see public relations as the
organization’s objective or balanced advisory voice in strategic management, as
discussed below.

Strategic Management Approaches to Ethics

Strategic management seeks to maximize organizational efficiency and profitability by
making decisions that consistently strive toward that goal. Public relations executives
acting as strategy advisors and ethics counselors to senior management is a role that is
supported in research findings regarding the practice and in theory. How they can
implement this responsibility ethically and with reasoned approaches has been studied
from various strategic management perspectives.

J. E. Grunig (1992b) proposed that linkages with publics could be used to facilitate
organizational decision making in a balanced, symmetrical manner. Grunig’s idea of
symmetry is that organizations accomplish more of their long term goals when they
integrate some of what publics want, meaning that management engages in an ongoing
relationship of give-and-take with publics. Grunig and his colleagues (Dozier, L. A.
Grunig, & J. E. Grunig, 1995; L. A. Grunig, Grunig, & Dozier, 2002) in this line of
research maintained that symmetrical communication is inherently ethical. They
elucidated: “The two-way symmetrical model avoids the problem of ethical relativism
because it defines ethics as a process of public relations rather than an outcome” (J. E.
Grunig & L. A. Grunig, 1992, p. 308).

These researchers (J. E. Grunig & L. A. Grunig, 1996) maintained that a strategic
management approach is consistent with teleological moral philosophy, commonly
known as utilitarianism, because of its emphasis on consequences. Both utilitarian
philosophy and relationships with publics are seen in terms of their consequences and
potential outcomes. In utilitarianism the ethical decision is defined as that which
maximizes positive consequences and minimizes negative outcomes. In the utilitarian
approach to ethics, a weighing of potential decisions and their likely consequences is the
ethical analysis used to determine right or wrong. Strategic management also attempts to
predict potential consequences of management decisions and thus is a natural fit with
utilitarian ethics.

Also based on the strategic management approach, Bivins (1992) developed a systems
model for ethical decision making. General systems theory views the organization as an
open and interdependent system dependent on interactions with its environment for
survival. Publics are viewed as a vital part of the environment providing information
inputs and feedback to management. He argued that maintaining a process of ethical
decision making in management could help the organization have successful interactions
with its environment. As a routine part of the management system, ethical considerations
could receive more thorough and common examination than when left to chance. Along
similar lines, Tilley (2005) encouraged including ethical standards in the strategic
management of public relations campaigns including “formalizing ethics as part of
campaign measurement” (p. 317).

Building on a strategic management paradigm, Bowen’s (2004a) research sought to

strengthen ethical analyses by incorporating deontological philosophy into public
relations. She linked this philosophical approach to Grunig’s research on two-way
symmetrical communication described above. Deontological moral philosophy, based on
the work of German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) seeks to discover
underlying moral principles upon which any rational decision maker would make the
same choice. According to the useful Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(http://www.iep.utm.edu/k/kantmeta.htm), “Deontology is the study of duty” and deems
ethical only acts with a purely good motive. It is a valuable addition to the knowledge of
a public relations professional because it yields more rational, defensible, and enduring
decisions than less-rigorous analyses. To implement a deontological analysis of public
relations ethics one must attempt to be as autonomous, unbiased and objective as
possible. Potential decisions must be examined from all angles. Research (C. B. Pratt, Im,
& Montague, 1994) shows that public relations professionals employ this form of
analysis more frequently as they advance to higher levels in their careers. For a good
overview of implementing deontology see (Bowen, 2008).

Practical Recommendations and Guidelines for Practitioners

This review of current, cutting-edge, and historical research in public relations ethics is
worth little if public relations professionals do not implement ethical analyses in their
daily practice. We can contribute to more socially responsible and credible organizations,
but only if we take the steps necessary to make our voices heard in the dominant
coalition. Public relations professionals should be the ones to alert senior management
when ethical issues arise. Public relations counselors should also know the values of both
internal and external publics, and use these in astute analyses and ultimate resolutions of
ethical dilemmas. At any level of one’s career it is never too early or too late to
implement the following guidelines:

1. The first thing to be concluded from studying ethical cases is that communication
professionals must pay attention to ethics before they desperately need it. Once a
crisis of conflicting ethics or high media interest befalls the organization it is too late
to begin searching for ethical guidance. Professional communicators must be
conversant with the value systems of their organizations before these values are
publicly called into question. Advising the dominant coalition requires great attention
to research, input, organization values, knowledge of the values of strategic publics,
potential consequences, and an ability to apply rigorous forms of ethical analyses.
Public relations professionals should begin studying ethics now, before you “must”
address a problem, and as soon as possible. To do so will not only improve the
decisions made in your public relations department but also will allow and encourage
advancement in your career. You will find an annotated bibliography at the end of
this article, after its references, which can guide you in further reading on public
relations ethics.

2. Know your own values. Taking a thorough and systematic look at the values you hold
and espouse as a person and a public relations practitioner will help you when you are
“under the gun” being pressured by a supervisor, client, or someone else. Listing the
most important qualities of an admired person or mentor is a productive exercise, as
well as listing the values that you hold most dear. Researchers (Ladkin, 2006) call this
exercise “attending to one’s own values” and it is important to help you articulate
your beliefs and reasoning, as well as stand your ground when your reasoning is
challenged. Matching your own values to those espoused by your employer or client
 means that you have a solid relationship on which to build your professional practice.
Otherwise, you might have to become an “activist” for ethics in your organization or
seek employment in an environment more congruent with your own values (Berger &
Reber, 2006).
3. Spot and discuss ethical issues. Issues management (Heath, 1997), as the primary
function that seeks out and resolves problems before they become crises, is an area
with a natural propensity to identify perplexing ethical situations. Public relations
professionals should study the academic research and best practices of issues
management to best prepare themselves to engage ethical issues. Research (Bowen,
2002b) has found that identifying issues that will become ethical problems is one of
the most challenging aspects of issues management. Failing to identify an ethical
issue before it is acted upon can result in costly failures for the organization, both in
terms of operational cost in the resulting loss of reputation as an ethical organization.
Being hyper-vigilant on the early identification of ethical issues allows more time for
their analysis, research, discussion, and resolution than does waiting until one is
identified by a public or by the media. Early identification also allows the
organization to take a proactive stance to defining and managing the issue, rather than
a reactionary stance when it is defined by others. Additionally, self-vigilant
awareness of such issues is the ethically responsible approach for an organization,
showing a willingness to resolve problematic issues as a responsible organization and
morally good intentions.

4. Time and time again research finds that organizational culture has a significant
impact on ethical analyses and decision making (Bowen, 2004b; Goodpaster, 2007;
Sims, 1994; Sims & Brinkman, 2003). Public relations professionals should identify
the underlying values in the organization’s mission statement, code of ethics, or other
policy document. You should identify the approach in ethics closest to existing
organizational values. Those mentioning the greater good, benefit of society, or
consequences of operating are most likely utilitarian. Statements echoing duty,
justice, fairness, responsibility, or intention are deontological. Identifying these core
values of the organization is key in instilling a more widely ethical organizational
culture. They also indicate the means of ethical analysis that will be most effective in
resolving dilemmas for management since it is congruent with the values of the
organization. The public relations function can encourage ethical debate and
consideration through the organization by using internal communication to focus on
these issues. Leaders should strive to display and act on ethical values (Berger &
Reber, 2006; Goodpaster, 2007). Research (Bowen, 2004b) in this area shows that in
order to foster excellence in ethics, the internal communications of the public
relations function should teach employees what is to be considered when confronting
and ethical dilemma, reward ethical behavior, encourage the defining of issues in
ethical terms, and encourage an atmosphere of open ethical debate. Confronting
management with evidence that an organizational culture supporting ethics averts
disasters of the Enron variety might garner rekindled support for an organizational
ethics initiative.
5. Educating decision makers in the organization, specifically the CEO and dominant
coalition, of the abilities if the public relations function to engage in ethical
advisement by using issues management, research, relationships with publics, and
conflict resolution should be one of the primary responsibilities of communication
executives. Most chief executives originate from financial or engineering
backgrounds, and no little or nothing about the capabilities of public relations beyond
media relations. So, it is the responsibility of the public relations practitioner to
educate him or her about the many ways that public relations can contribute to the
success of the organization, including solving and preventing ethical dilemmas.
Educating the CEO and other dominant coalition members in the organization is one
of the primary routes through which practitioners in the IABC study said they
achieved membership in the strategic decision making core. Therefore, this
recommendation also serves to empower the public relations function within an
organization and to foster high-level career access for practitioners.

6. Engage in systematic and analytical means of contemplating ethical dilemmas. The

use of moral philosophy lends rigorous, systematic, and consistent methods of ethical
analyses and decisions in public relations. The measurement or “yard stick” for what
is value or good in the organization should be carefully defined before engaging in
ethical analyses. Mission statements are often the best guide to what is valued,
rewarded, or sought. A mission statement is normally the best place to begin defining
the ethical values present in the organization. These ethical values can then be
explicated in the form of an ethics statement, a code of conduct, an ethics code, a
credo, or other codified policies. To enhance the consistency of organizational
policies, issue resolutions, and increase the longevity of managerial decisions, ethical
analyses should always begin with the core values stated in the organization’s
mission. Ethical counsel of the dominant coalition often requires what ethicists call
‘moral courage’ (Parks, 1993) in the sense that you must be willing to argue for your
analysis even when it is unpopular with other organizational functions. Even if your
solution is not implemented, the counsel of public relations will be respected and
sought in the future. Unpopular solutions to ethical dilemmas often prove their
wisdom over the course of time, as well. Offering consistent reliable analyses is one
way to enhance both personal credibility and that of the public relations function
within the organization.

Conclusion
The ability to engage in ethical reasoning in public relations is growing in demand, in
responsibility, and in importance. Academic research, university and continuing
education, and professional practice are all attending more than ever to matters of ethics.
The public relations function stands at a critical and defining juncture: whether to become
an ethics counselor to top management or to remain outside the realm of the strategic
decision making core. How we choose to respond to the crisis of trust among our publics
will define the public relations of the future.

Although it is true that no single person or function can be the entire “ethical conscience”
of an organization, the public relations function is ideally informed to counsel top
management about ethical issues. Public relations professionals know the values of key
publics involved with ethical dilemmas, and can conduct rigorous ethical analyses to
guide the policies of their organizations, as well as in communications with publics and
the news media. Careful and consistent ethical analyses facilitate trust, which enhances
the building and maintenance of relationships – after all, that is the ultimate purpose of
the public relations function.

Author Note
This article was funded by the Institute for Public Relations. I would like to thank the
Institute for Public Relations and to specifically thank President & CEO Frank E. Ovaitt,
Jr., for his support and encouragement of ethics research.

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these elements are the cornerstones of effective public relations practice.

Parkinson, M. (2001). The prsa code of professional standards and member code of
ethics: Why they are neither professional or ethical. Public Relations Quarterly, 46(3),
27-31.
This article is good reading for all those in professional associations to encourage them to
think beyond the recommendations offered in codes of ethics. Parkinson points out that
often these codes become useless and discusses the flaws that make them so. Through his
superb reasoning we see the problems which we should make sure to consider when
resolving ethical dilemmas.

Parks, S. D. (1993). Professional ethics, moral courage, and the limits of personal virtue.
In B. Darling-Smith (Ed.), Can virtue be taught? Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre
Dame Press.
This edited book is pure applied philosophy. Although it might not seem relevant to
public relations at first glance, it provides in-dept discussion of concepts such as
leadership, character, honesty, and moral courage. It is recommended reading for those in
senior or executive positions in order to help them become stronger ethical counselors to
management.

Parsons, P. J. (2004). Ethics in public relations: A guide to best practice. London: Kogan
Page. This book takes a basic look at public relations ethics through a history of public
relations as a professional pursuit, truth telling, trust, rights, respect, and the issue of
propaganda versus persuasion. It uses many modern cases and examples to illustrate
concepts, and is a good beginning overview of ethics in public relations practice. There
are some brief but practical checklists and simple diagrams for helping to evaluate one’s
own ethics. It is written in a conversational manner and includes many interesting or
humorous examples to make it entertaining yet useful reading.

Ryan, M., & Martinson, D. L. (1983). The pr officer as corporate conscience. Public
Relations Quarterly, 28(2), 20-23.
Ryan and Martinson coined the term “public relations as corporate conscience” in this
landmarrk article. This is a short article, containing some data and opinion from the
authors.

Seib, P., & Fitzpatrick, K. (1995). Public relations ethics. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace
College Publishers.
The work by these two authors (a professor/attorney combination) takes a legalistic look
of public relations work and media relations ethics. An appendix containing the major
codes of ethics in public relations is a strength of this book. Although a bit dated, this
book is a good historical reference and is highly focused on codes of ethics and
professionalism, as well as litigation and the governmental process in public relations.

Stauber, J., & Rampton, S. (1995). Toxic sludge is good for you: Lies, damn lies, and the
public relations industry. Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press. This book takes a
scathing look at public relations ethics, discussing numerous scandals and transgressions.
Although the facts are here, they are interpreted with hyperbole. This work is useful to
those seeking reasoning for why ethics should be a part of public relations to identify the
problems that result when we ignore ethics.

Tilley, E. (2005). The ethics pyramid: Making ethics unavoidable in the public relations
process. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 20(4), 305-320. This article combines ethical
decision making frameworks from several approaches into one simple ethics pyramid.
Although it does not offer the rigor of traditional philosophical analyses, it is useful when
confronting fast or uncomplicated ethical issues, or designing a simple overview.

Wright, D. K. (1993). Enforcement dilemma: Voluntary nature of public relations codes.

Public Relations Review, 19(1), 13-20. This article takes a look at public relations codes
of ethics. It describes the common problems of codes of ethics and making them useful in
practice. This work is useful to those seeking an alternative to a code of ethics, such as
ethics statements or policies. It is also helpful for those with a code of ethics to identify
the problems one should guard against.