See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/277726820

Bridging the gap: Mapping the relationship between activism and public
relations

Article in Public Relations Review · May 2015

DOI: 10.1016/j.pubrev.2015.05.016

CITATIONS READS
60 1,803

1 author:

Erica Ciszek
University of Houston
17 PUBLICATIONS 0 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Erica Ciszek on 23 March 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Public Relations Journal Vol. 4, No. 4, Fall 2010
ISSN 1942-4604
© 2010 Public Relations Society of America

Public Relations in Advocacy:

Stem Cell Research Organizations’ Use of the Internet in
Resource Mobilization
Maureen Taylor, Ph.D., and Shuktara Sen Das

The public relations efforts of advocacy organizations and social movements are
emerging as an important topic in the public relations literature. The Internet is one tool
for these groups as they communicate their messages to the public and legislative
representatives. This article is a case study of how the Internet is used by the advocacy
organizations participating in the stem cell research debate. Activist organizations such
as those campaigning on embryonic stem cell research (ESCR) policy promote their
cause through information subsidies and resource mobilization via their Web sites. This
research examines 54 ESCR Web sites as advocacy tools in respect to their information
subsidies to the media and resource mobilization for members. The findings suggest
that the Internet has untapped potential to provide both tangible and intangible
resources to organizations that advocate for social issues. Based on these findings, the
article provides recommendations for public relations practitioners who work in
advocacy on ways to use their Web sites for resource mobilization and information
subsidies.

The Internet is a unique space for organization-public interaction. For public relations
practitioners, the Internet is one more tool to reach the media and publics. For public
relations scholars, its potential to enable personal and organizational communication
makes it a valuable area for understanding relationships. One area of current interest to
both public relations practitioners and scholars is the effective use of the Internet for
advocacy. Advocacy involves a variety of public relations practices: media relations,
issues management, strategic communication, coalition building, and organization-
public interactions that build relationships.

The purpose of this article is to continue the study of Internet advocacy. It presents a
case study of how stem cell advocacy organizations use their Web sites to participate in
issues management. This research will help those public relations practitioners who
work in advocacy organizations better understand how to use their Web sites as
resource mobilization tools. The first section of the paper reviews the public relations
literature about advocacy, the Internet, and issues management. The second part
details the methodology of a case study (Stake, 1995) that examined a collective of
stem cell research organizations as they competed for public attention, media coverage,
and the opportunity to influence public policy formation. The third section reports the
results of an analysis of 54 advocacy Web sites representing three perspectives of the
stem cell research issue. The final section provides specific recommendations for public
relations practitioners as they integrate the Internet into their advocacy efforts.

1
 Taylor and Das – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

Evolving Perspectives about Activism and Public Relations

A lot has changed in the last 20 years in the ways in which the field of public relations
views activism. L. Grunig (1992) originally defined an activist public as ―a group of two
or more individuals who organize in order to influence another public or publics through
action that may include education, compromise, persuasion, pressure tactics or force‖
(p. 504). Grunig noted that ―activist pressure is an extensive problem for organizations‖
(1992, p. 513). Grunig’s perspective on activists has evolved and she has
acknowledged that activists can push an organization toward Excellence. Today,
activists are no longer considered as impediments to organizational public relations
efforts. Indeed, Holtzhausen (2007) has noted that Excellence theory has improved
specifically because it has evolved to become more relevant for activists groups.

Dozier and Lauzen explored activism and advocacy organizations as practitioners of

public relations in a special issue of Journal of Public Relations Research. They
encouraged scholars to consider the uniqueness of activist groups and social
movements as practitioners of public relations and for us to ―discover and theorize
about the differences‖ between activists and corporations (Dozier & Lauzen, 2000, p.
19). Additionally, a chapter of the Handbook of Public Relations was devoted to
activism. Smith and Ferguson (2001) reviewed the major perspectives that explain how
activist organizations form and develop. Smith and Ferguson (2001) and Dozier and
Lauzen’s (2000) articles have called upon researchers to consider the public relations
needs of activist organizations. This paper answers that call and provides public
relations practitioners working in advocacy organizations with research findings to refine
how they integrate the Internet into their communication efforts.

Internet Activism and Social Movement Advocacy

In a democracy, ideas compete when individuals, corporations, activists, and social

movements advocate for their positions in the public sphere. This competition is what
Robert Heath has called a fully functioning society (2006). Yet, Dozier and Lauzen
(2000) noted that activists groups do not necessarily use the same tactics, share the
same values, or have the same resources as corporations when they seek to
accomplish their advocacy goals. Activist organizations attempt to raise awareness,
change attitudes, and encourage or discourage certain behaviors. Activist groups are
often member organizations of a larger social movement in society. For instance,
Greenpeace, the Sierra Club, and the Nature Conservatory are individual activist
organizations. They act alone on some issues and they act together on other issues.
With other organizations across the U.S. and the world, they comprise the
environmentalist social movement. Social movements, according to Dozier and Lauzen
(2000), ―are not adequately accommodated by existing public relations theory‖ (p. 9).

2
Public Relations in Advocacy – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

What makes theorizing about social movements so different from theorizing about other
organizations? Diani (1992) defined social movements as:
(a) networks of informal interaction;
(b) sharing beliefs and solidarity;
(c) engaging in collective action on conflictual issues; and
(d) acting outside of the institutional sphere and routine aspects of social life.

Social movements emerge as advocacy networks. They gather like-minded people and
organizations together to advocate for a social goal. The major issues of advocacy
organizations are communicated through the network and this helps social movements
to achieve some of their goals. Networks operate at both a micro and macro level
(Dozier & Lauzen, 2000).

Advocacy can help people and institutions achieve understanding and agreement
(Heath, 2007). While advocacy movements rely on committed individuals, they also
need to communicate their issues to wider publics. Social movements need a variety of
resources to disseminate their message to encourage non-members, and eventually
public policy makers, to act on behalf of their issue (McCarthy & Zald, 1977). Today, the
Internet is one such resource.

The Internet as an advocacy tool is not a new topic for public relations scholars. As
early as 1998, Coombs (1998) and Heath (1998) argued for the Internet’s use as a tool
for activists. The Internet has most often been used as a one-way communication tool.
In this model, organizations place information on their Web sites and hope that publics
will read it or the media will include their information in a news story. The intended
outcome is that people will be persuaded to agree with the organization’s position on a
topic. The Internet has the potential to transcend the dichotomous one-way formulation
of most communication channels. It can also be a relationship builder where the
organization engages the visitor in two-way communication. Internet features including
listservs, Blogs, social media, and discussion groups enable communication between
dispersed people with similar interests. The focus thus far in public relations research is
that activists use the Web as a resource for relationship building and information
subsidies to the media (Kent, Taylor, & White, 2003; Reber & Kim, 2006, Taylor, Kent, &
White, 2001).

Organizational Resources of Advocacy Groups

McCarthy and Zald (1977) noted that social movements need to accomplish certain
internal organizational goals before they can accomplish external advocacy goals. In
other words, the movement needs to have certain resources in place before it can begin
and then sustain an advocacy effort. Tesh (2002) extended this conclusion and showed
that social movements flourish under certain conditions. One of the most important
conditions is the availability of resources. The Internet is a valuable resource because it
provides information to a variety of publics and also links different groups together.
Coombs (1998) described the Internet as a low cost and controllable channel for all
types activists. Furthermore, the Internet allows direct communication between

3
 Taylor and Das – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

organizations and publics. Activists can control the quantity and quality of information
and organize their information in many different formats. The key benefit is that activists
can get their messages across as they want it. The Internet helps to increase an activist
group’s network density by increasing communication and relationships with other
stakeholders (Tesh, 2002).

This relationship-building function is what Kent and Taylor (1998) put forward as a set of
principles for striking a dialogic relationship with the Internet audience. They argued that
Web site design can facilitate relationship building. Web sites need to be more than
merely information repositories or online brochures. Activist Web sites are influential
only when stakeholders, including the media and policy makers, are persuaded by the
content (Coombs, 1998). Yet, activists must also continue to work to make their issue
salient in the broader print and electronic media. Jacobs and Glass (2002) noted that
publicity is important for non-profit organizations to gain legitimacy in the eyes of the
public and to gain the attention of policy makers. For a social movement, the Internet
also offers the opportunity to ―transform sets of geographically dispersed aggrieved
individuals into a densely connected aggrieved population, thus solving one key
problem of mobilization‖ (Diani, 2000, p. 388).

Challenges for advocacy organizations include mobilizing people and resources.

Freeman (1979) proposed that activist organizations need a variety of tangible and
intangible mobilizing resources to accomplish their goals. Tangible resources are things
that bring monetary resources into the organizations. Intangible resources bring
awareness of the organization, its issue and help the organization to reach new
members. Jenkins (1983) extended the discussion of mobilizing resources to include
human assets that are the core power of activist groups.

As per Freeman (1979) and Jenkins’ (1983) classification, the Internet can also be
considered as a mobilizing resource. The question is how the Internet can be used by
organizations to mobilize both tangible and intangible resources. Taylor et al. (2001)
and Kent et al. (2003) identified 16 Web site features that may serve this need. Tangible
resources include opportunities to make donations, participate in fundraising, or shop at
online stores. Intangible Web site resources include news releases, volunteering
opportunities, action alerts, chat rooms, and the opportunity to contact institutions etc.
Reber and Kim (2006) studied the pressrooms of 72 activist organizations. They found
that the environmental activists organizations rarely incorporate these features.

Advocacy organizations want people who are interested in their topic to visit their Web
site. Public relations practitioners who represent these organizations also want to
extend their reach beyond individual visitors to reach multiple publics through media
coverage. Activists need to influence the public discussion of the issue. They need to
manage the issue.

4
Public Relations in Advocacy – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

Issues Management through Information Subsidies

Issues management involves both corporate and activist advocacy. It is strategic

participation in public policy matters (e.g., Ansoff, 1980; Bartha, 1984; Chase, 1977,
1984; Crable & Vibbert, 1985; Hainsworth, 1990; Heath, 2006; Heath & Cousino, 1990;
Heath & Nelson, 1986; Marx, 1986; O’Connor, 2006; Veil & Kent, 2009; Wartick &
Rude, 1986). Advocacy organizations seek a role in the public policy process and they
can participate in the public sphere by managing their issue. They need journalists and
media representatives to visit their Web sites. When the media use an advocacy
organization’s information in their news coverage of the issue, that particular
organization’s interpretation of the issue becomes part of the public debate. Web sites
have become a valuable tool for journalists—they can provide what Gandy (1982)
termed the information subsidy.

The information subsidy occurs when organizations, usually businesses or

governments, provide information to the media. This information lowers the cost of
newsgathering. Gandy warned that it could corrupt the entire news process because
groups with resources have more opportunities to provide this subsidy than groups or
organizations without resources. Thus, well-established groups such as businesses,
government agencies, or experts can be more influential in issues management.

Callison (2003), Hachigian and Hallahan (2003), Ryan (2003), and Reber and Kim
(2006) have reported how organizational Web sites provide journalists this information
subsidy. Providing the information subsidy, however, is not only for profit seeking
businesses. Gandy was critical of corporations, government agencies, and large
industry groups wielding this power. However, advocacy organizations can also
participate in this process. Advocacy groups can conduct research in support of their
position on issues. They can also identify experts who can speak on behalf of the
organization’s position to the media. Becoming an organizational authority on the issue
is an important outcome of media relations. Issues management tells us that the
organizations that get to define the issue also get the opportunity to define the desired
resolution of the issue. Activist organizations should strive for being the source that
media regularly consult when writing about an issue.

Ross (2005) found that third party sources such as non-government organizations (such
as activist groups) are some of the most preferred sources for journalists. Activist
organizations use their Web sites to provide the information subsidy. However, little is
known about the success of these organizations as they attempt to influence the public
policy agenda.

Based on the literature review, a few key points emerge about activist organizations’
use of the Internet. Advocacy organizations need their cause to be heard and need to
build relationships with other stakeholders. The Internet can be a low cost, multi-
faceted, and controllable resource that can help build relationships and provide
information to the media. However, success depends on how best an organization can
avoid having their Web site merely serve as an online brochure. The next section

5
 Taylor and Das – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

provides a case study to illustrate the opportunities and challenges of advocacy

organizations’ Web sites as resource mobilization tools.

THE EMBRYONIC STEM CELL RESEARCH DEBATE

Background on the Issue

According to the National Institutes of Health, stem cells are undifferentiated cells that
have the potential to turn into many different types of tissues. They can repair damaged
parts of the human body. Stem cells are found in some parts of the adult body such as
bone marrow, liver, fat tissue, fetal tissue, umbilical cord blood, and in embryonic tissue.
They can divide and form specialized cells. Stem cells have been the basis of bone
marrow transplant therapy for leukemia since the 1960s. Stem cell research involves
isolating and studying these stem cells to understand cell biology. It seeks to unlock the
mysteries of several genetic and degenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s, Paralysis,
ALS, Alzheimer’s, and Diabetes.

What is controversial is not stem cell research per se but rather, embryonic stem cell
research (ESCR). This is because it involves isolating cells from the blastocyst – a cell
mass that is four to five days old post fertilization. Indeed, many worry that even if
embryonic stem cell research may be promising, it might lead the way to ―a slippery
slope of dehumanizing practices‖ (Sandel, 2004, p. 207).

Lobbying by pro and anti ESCR advocates began in 1994 when the National institutes
of Health and the Department of Health and Human Services devised guidelines and
regulations. Initial media attention (as well as public interest in the issue) was limited
(Nesbitt, 2003). The issue became ―current‖ (Crable & Vibbert, 1987) in 2001 when
President George W. Bush declared that he would allow federal funding of ESCR based
on the date of derivation, (i.e., the embryos would have had to have been derived
before August 9, 2001).

Defining and Linking the ESCR Issue

Jones and Chase (1977) and Crable and Vibbert (1987) first explicated the nature of
issues. Advocacy efforts need to take into account the reality that for issues related to
reproductive genetics, there is no social consensus on potential harms and benefits.
ESCR is not just an isolated issue. It is associated with other issues that are
controversial by themselves. These are cloning (therapeutic / reproductive), assisted
reproductive technology, and abortion. Cloning involves transferring stem cells from an
embryo to a denucleated cell to help that tissue divide and grow (somatic cell nuclear
transfer - SCNT). Because both ESCR and SCNT are linked so it is difficult to think of
one without the other. Tauer’s (2004) arguments about how this complicates legislation
have demonstrated the difficulty that an advocacy organization may have in targeting
audiences. The proximity of the ESCR debate to the abortion debate is that opponents
argue about the moral equivalency of embryonic and human life. The arguments
surrounding abortion deal with the ability of an embryo / fetus to survive without the

6
Public Relations in Advocacy – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

mother’s body and on the moral equivalency of the mother and the embryo/fetus.
However, as Davis (2002) pointed out, the abortion and ESCR debates are not parallel
all of the time. Davis argued that the moral arguments for abortion and ESCR can be
different (2002). For instance, a pro-choice individual may be opposed to ESCR
because it involves destruction of extracorporeal embryos while a pro-life person can be
in favor of it because of its promise in finding cures for diseases.

The Legal and Regulatory Process

Advocacy organizations on both sides of this issue have tried to influence legislation.
Therefore, it can be expected that the Web sites would mention issues related to
legislation. Nisbet (2004) and Brodsky (2002) summarized the current state of stem cell
research legislation in the U.S. There is only one federal stem cell policy. It applies to
research using cell lines derived before August 2001. Regulation of reproductive
technologies is left for individual states to decide.

By early 2006, a total of 24 pro ESCR bills had been introduced to Congress. Some bills
seek to allow embryonic stem cell research regardless of date of derivation. Other
proposals seek to ensure that embryos used for research are in excess of in-vitro
fertilization needs, that guidelines be prepared for research, and racial and minority
diversity is ensured when deriving stem cells for research. On the other side of the
issue, there are bills opposing stem cell research that link stem cell research to cloning.
These bills propose that both therapeutic and reproductive cloning be banned and that
civil and criminal penalties be imposed on those who violate these bans. Embryonic
stem cell research is an issue that requires different advocacy organizations to mobilize
resources and provide information subsidies to the media.

METHODOLOGY
This research employed case study methodology (Stake, 1995; Yin, 1994) to identify,
describe and analyze the data. A review of the ESCR advocacy groups showed that in
late 2005 (4 years after President Bush’s decision), there were 128 organizations that
had Web sites addressing the issue of stem cell research. The Internet is a valuable
resource for these organizations as they attempt to mobilize resources, provide
information subsidies, and manage the issue. In order to understand how these
organizations have used the Internet as a resource, the following research questions
were asked:

RQ1: How are stem cell advocacy groups using their Web sites to
mobilize tangible and intangible resources?

RQ2: What kinds of information subsidies are provided to the media and
policy makers on these Web sites?

RQ3: Which stem cell organizations are emerging as media authorities

on the issue?

7
 Taylor and Das – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

SAMPLE
Our descriptive case study (Yin, 1994) is bounded by the Bush Administration’s 2001
decision and the pending legislation considered before the 2006 presidential election. A
population of 128 Web sites was identified through the Google search engine. Twenty
Web sites that were under construction or were one-page shells with little content were
eliminated from the sample (N =108). Using a table of random numbers, the
researchers selected 54 Web sites for analysis (50% of all of the ESCR sites that met
the parameters of the study). Pro stem cell research organizations (n = 32) constituted
about 59 % of the sample. For the purposes of the rest of this study, these
organizations will be identified as PRO. Anti stem cell research organizations (n = 11)
constituted approximately 20% of the sample. These organizations are identified as
ANTI.

The researchers expected two roughly equivalent groups (PRO and ANTI). However, as
in many case studies, upon closer inspection of the Web sites selected in the random
sample, we realized that a third group emerged that was distinct from the other two
groups. This third group encompassed stem cell focused research organizations. Given
the important role of these groups in adding a research-based perspective to the ESCR
policy debate, the researchers created a third category to examine their use of resource
mobilization features. The third group, stem cell focused informational organizations (n
= 11), constituted the remaining 20 % of the sample. These organizations will be
identified as RES in the study. The distinction between PRO stem cell research
organizations and RES stem cell research organizations was made in terms of the key
cause each group pursued. The PRO organizations were concerned about stem cell
research in relation to how it affects their cause. For instance, groups dedicated to
diabetes research or Alzheimer’s research have specific positions about stem cell
research and advocate for passage of legislation. They have the ability to reach a
broader audience since people visit their sites for disease specific information. While on
the Web site, visitors can learn about stem cell research through the lens of that
disease. The organizations labeled RES were singularly devoted to stem cell research.
RES organizations include hospitals, universities, or research centers. They seek to
increase funds for the research and call for legislation that will increase the available
number of stem cells lines for research.

The 54 Web sites were examined by two coders for evidence of resource mobilization
and information subsidies. Intercoder reliability was calculated and the percentage of
agreement met accepted standards of 70% and higher for all categories. It is important
to note that the breakdown of the sample into three groups created categories too small
(n = 11) to provide the statistical power necessary to make meaningful claims of
difference. Thus, the researchers did not test hypothesizes of difference. Instead, the
researchers will report percentages of features to each group to describe the
prevalence of resource mobilization features on these advocacy Web sites. Thus, the
descriptive nature of the findings will assist public relations practitioners to revise their
Web sites and follows research by Reber and Kim (2006) that reported frequencies of

8
Public Relations in Advocacy – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

Web site design features as a first step to theory development in Internet-facilitated

public relations.

Variables of Interest

Resource mobilization. RQ1 inquired how stem cell research advocacy groups use
their Web sites to mobilize resources. Freeman (1979) identified tangible resources
such as money and facilities. Tangible Web site resources asked visitors to make a
donation, participate in fundraising, become a corporate sponsor, or shop at the on-line
store. These Web site feature brought financial resources into the organization.
Intangible Web site features focus on human skills and building levels of support for the
organization. Intangible resources considered data in this study included Web site
options that asked visitors to: become a member, sign up email updates, sign up to
receive a newsletter, join message boards/ chat rooms, volunteer, tell a friend, fill out an
action alert, contact Congress, contact the media, login, apply for an internship/job
opportunity, and look at the past voting records of political leaders. To answer RQ 1, the
researchers assessed each Web site for the presence or absence of the tangible and
intangible mobilizing features. The perfect score would be 100% if all organizations in
that group incorporated that particular resource-mobilizing feature into their Web site.

Information subsidies. RQ2 asked what types of information subsidies are provided
on the Web sites to inform visitors, the media, and policy makers. The researchers
studied information subsidies in two ways. First, we counted as data the actual
information subsidy tactics featured on each organization’s Web site. We looked for
information that would be useful for anyone visiting the page. Features that were
counted included news releases, background information about the organization,
philosophy/mission statements, strategic plans, newsletters, news conference or media
event information, speeches and policy papers, fact sheets and statistics, downloadable
graphics, audio and video clips, links to other relevant sources, sample letters, and
organizational histories. Second, we looked at the target publics of each of the three
categories of organizations’ (PRO, RES, ANTI) to see if they specifically provided
information to researchers, policy makers, medical professionals, patients, media,
voters, and sponsors. These information subsidy tactics were coded for their presence
or absence on a Web site.

Media coverage. RQ3 inquired which stem cell organizations are emerging as media
authorities on the issue. To answer this RQ, we examined news coverage of the ESCR
issue in two different ways to see which organizations are actually appearing in the
stories about stem cell research. First, we sought evidence of which organizations were
being cited as experts in news stories about the stem cell research debate. Through a
LexisNexis key word search of the term, ―Stem Cell Research‖, the researchers
checked which organizational names were being mentioned within a nine-month period
before the 2004 Presidential election. The search yielded 66 articles in total, dated
within a nine-month period (Feb. 8, 2004 to Nov. 1, 2004). Out of these, 20 articles were
eliminated from the sample because they were either transcripts of federal hearings or
radio interviews. Articles from international press sources were also eliminated from the

9
 Taylor and Das – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

sample as we wanted to focus on press articles that the American public would have be
able to access. In addition, we conducted a name search of each organization in the
sample. The names of the 54 ESCR organizations were used as a keyword in
LexisNexis to ascertain how many times each of these organizations was included in
news coverage of the stem cell research issue. Together, the online data collected from
Web sites and the mention of ESCR organizations in the media provide the data for this
case study. The results of the case study provide a descriptive analysis of the patterns
of ESCR Internet resource mobilization and media coverage.

RESULTS

Resource Mobilization

RQ 1 sought evidence if and how the Internet is being used for tangible and intangible
resource mobilization. The ESCR organizations had low scores on both types of
resource mobilization. Table 1 shows that the Web sites incorporate very few of the
tangible and intangible features. In terms of tangible resources, the groups use their
sites to appeal for donations (range 42% to 50%). The ANTI stem cell research
organizations appear to be better at selling products (such as anti abortion tee shirts
and bumper stickers). The PRO organizations have a higher rate of asking for corporate
sponsorship and this is actually common for health related not-for-profit organizations.
Corporations, especially health or consumer product organizations, regularly sponsor
campaigns to raise awareness and money for health related causes. The Juvenile
Diabetes Research Foundation, a PRO stem cell research group, has partnered with
Accu-Check, Abbott Diabetes Care, and Ford Motor Company. It might be more difficult
for ANTI groups, especially those that frame the ESCR issue around cloning and
abortion, to attract corporate sponsorship.

10
Public Relations in Advocacy – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

Table 1
Percentage of Resource Mobilization Features on Web Sites

PRO
Tangible Resources RES (n = ANTI
(n =11) 32) (n = 11)

Make a Donation 45 50 42
Participate in Fundraising 27 13 17
Become a corporate sponsor 9 16 8
Shop at the on-line store 27 25 42

Intangible Resources

Become a member 18 44 17
Sign up email updates 18 34 50
Sign up to receive a newsletter 0 50 33
Message boards or chat rooms 0 28 17
Volunteering opportunities 18 16 8
Tell a Friend (Help spread the word about us) 18 13 17
Action alerts (e.g., legislative alerts) 18 28 8
Contact
congress/government/organization/media 27 38 8
Benefits to members 9 25 8
Member login 9 25 8
Internship/Job opportunity 18 13 42
Past voting records 0 3 8

Note. RES = Stem cell research focused; PRO = pro ESCR; ANTI = anti ESCR

ESCR organizations also fail to incorporate intangible resource mobilization features

into their Web design. The options to become a member of the organization, sign up to
receive newsletters, or e-mail updates were provided by approximately one quarter of
the organizations. PRO stem cell advocacy groups scored higher on encouraging
visitors to become a member, asking them to fill out action alerts, providing information
to contact Congressional representatives, and asking visitors to sign up for the
newsletter. The ANTI stem cell research organizations more frequently offered e-mail
updates, internships, and job opportunities.

The low scores by all three groups suggest that the Internet is not being used as a tool
to mobilize tangible or intangible resources. To answer RQ1, there appears to be only
minimal evidence that ESCR organizations are using their Web sites for any type of
resource mobilization.

11
 Taylor and Das – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

Information Subsidies

RQ 2 inquired about the information subsidies of ESCR organizations. Web sites

provide organizations with a controlled way to reach the public and the media. Table 2
provides a breakdown of percentages of the different public relations tactics integrated
into the ESCR Web sites.

Table 2
Percentage of Information Subsidies

PRO
RES (n = ANTI
(n =11) 32) (n = 11)
Press releases 27 47 42
Biographical information ("about us") 64 100 83
Philosophy/Mission statement 73 72 33
Strategic plan 0 31 8
Newsletters 9 59 58
Conference and/or media events 54 53 25
Speeches/Policy papers 27 44 50
Fact sheets/statistics 45 34 17
Downloadable graphics 27 19 17
Audio or video clips 36 28 50
Contact information 54 38 33
Out-link to other relevant information sources 63 56 25
Organizational history 0 25 58
Sample letters to policy makers 0 3 0

Note. RES = Stem cell research focused; PRO = pro ESCR; ANTI = anti ESCR

Organizations can post a variety of public relations tactics on their Web site to inform
and persuade. Common tactics include news releases, newsletters, speeches, fact
sheets, audio and video clips, and backgrounders. These tactics provide useful, reliable
information to visitors and the media. The organizations appear to be doing a good job
of telling Web site visitors about their organization and mission. The low percentage of
Web sites that featured news releases, policy papers, and fact sheets suggests that the
ESCR organizations are not maximizing their outreach to a variety of publics.

Kent and Taylor (1998) suggested that Web sites need to be useful to a variety of
publics including government leaders. Jones and Chase (1979) showed us that public
policies are decided in the halls of government. Thus, organizations that seek to
influence public policy need to ensure that the information on their Web sites is valuable
to policy makers. Policies are influenced by media coverage of a topic and voter interest
in legislation (Jones & Chase, 1979).

12
Public Relations in Advocacy – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

Table 3 shows that ESCR organizations are not doing a very good job of providing
useful information subsidies to those who have the most influence/power in stimulating
the issue agenda and policymaking. The very low score for customized information for
journalists (ranging from 8% to 18% of the Web sites) suggests that these organizations
are not maximizing their site design to serve the information needs of the media.

Table 3
Percentage of Information Subsidies on Advocacy Web Sites

PRO ANTI
Influencing The Influencers RES (n (n =
(n = 11) =32) 11)
Customized information for journalists 18 9 8
Customized information for policymakers 0 9 8
Customized information for voters 27 6 17

Influencing Stakeholders

Customized information for sponsors 0 9 8

Customized information for researchers 64 63 0
Customized information for medical
professionals 27 50 17
Customized information for members/patients 18 38 33

Note. RES = Stem cell research focused; PRO = pro ESCR; ANTI = anti ESCR

The very low scores on customized information for journalists, policymakers, and voters
shows that all three ESCR types are missing key opportunities to inform those who
influence legislative decisions.

The frequency of information subsidies customized for more general stakeholders is

higher. The data show that Web sites appear to focus their information for researchers,
doctors and medical practitioners, and to a lesser extent, people interested in treatment
options. When reviewing Table 3, it becomes clear that the ANTI group refuses to even
acknowledge stem cell researchers. They have no information directly targeted to
researchers. Table 3 also shows that the RES groups are not attempting to influence
policy makers. This finding really begs the question about their role as experts to
advocate for ESCR legislation and funding. These findings suggest missed
opportunities by all three groups for issues management.

RQ3 inquired if specific organizations were emerging as authorities on the ESCR topic
in media coverage. Because of the high interest in the ESCR issue in connection with
the 2004 Presidential elections, many of the organizations selected in the sample were
featured in media stories about the issue. Stem cell research was a major point of
difference between the two 2006 presidential candidates (President Bush and Senator

13
 Taylor and Das – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

Kerry). The researchers employed two different search strategies to identify

organizations cited by the media in stories about ESCR.

General keyword search. The authors searched the term ―Stem Cell Research‖ in
LexisNexis. A total of 46 articles were identified through these terms. Forty three articles
met the parameters of the study and contained the names of advocacy organizations in
this study. Organizations that appeared in news coverage most frequently include the
Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation (13 articles), California Stem Cell Research
and Cures Initiative (10 articles), Christopher Reeve Paralysis Foundation (8 articles),
and Advanced Cell Technology (4 articles). It is useful to note that the most frequently
mentioned organizations in the general search are all PRO ESCR organizations.

Name search. The second strategy searched for the names of the 54 specific stem cell
advocacy organizations. This search created a sample of 125 articles. One RES group
in particular, Stem Cell Research Foundation, was mentioned in 59 different articles.
The March of Dimes, Coalition for the Advancement of Medical Research, Kaiser
Foundation, ALS Association, Organ Transplant Association, and Alliance for Aging
Research were also featured in multiple articles.

Certain ANTI organizations in the sample received significant press coverage:

Concerned Women for America (60 articles), United States Catholic Conference of
Bishops (75 articles), Family Health International (75 articles), Stand to Reason (69
articles), National Right to Life (82 articles), and Culture of Life Foundation (4 articles).

The results present a case study of how stem cell advocacy organizations use their
Web sites to participate in issues management. The next section provides specific
recommendations to the public relations practitioners who work in advocacy
organizations on ways to better use their Web sites as resource mobilization tools.

Implications for Public Relations Practitioners

Previous public relations research about activists’ use of the Web for relationship
building and information subsidies to the media has suggested that activists have not
been able to use their Web sites to increase their influence in social issues (Kent et al.,
2003; Reber & Kim, 2006; Taylor et al., 2001). This current research study supports
these earlier conclusions.

Social movements begin with a group of committed individuals and in order for them to
get their definition of the issue and the resolution of the issue onto the public agenda,
they need to communicate their issues to broader publics. Freeman (1979) and Jenkins’
(1983) framework provided the groundwork to position the Internet as a logical tool in
issues management. The findings of this study suggest two conclusions and three
recommendations about activism, public relations, and the Internet for practitioners.

Missed Opportunities for Resource Mobilization

14
Public Relations in Advocacy – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

The data suggest that the Web sites of these organizations are not used adequately for
resource mobilization. When tangible Web site resources are examined, it appears that
less than half of the organizations seek donations or ask like-minded organizations to
help them financially. Not one tangible resource feature achieved a frequency greater
than 50%. Web site features that provided intangible resources were also not prevalent.
There were many lost opportunities for these groups to leverage their Web sites’
potential. For instance, very few (less the 32%) asked visitors to contact their elected
officials and even fewer showed the political positions of elected leaders on the topic.
The sites fail to follow through on the issues management mission of their
organizations. They cannot hope to change government policy without additional
supporters, additional resources, or additional news coverage.

Missed Opportunities for Information Subsidies and Issues Management

Web sites are controlled communication channels. With little or no effort, a public
relations practitioner can place existing organizational documents such as news
releases, memos, fact sheets, backgrounders, graphics or speeches onto the Web site.
The media cannot use information that does not exist or is difficult to find. Web site
content needs to anticipate and fulfill media needs (Reber & Kim, 2006).

The ESCR sites are not using their Web sites to provide information to policy makers,
the media, or voters. The very low scores reported on Tables 2 and 3 suggest that the
organizations are missing the key argument made by academics about the Web:
organizations can use their sites to communicate controlled information. A closer look at
Table 2 shows that more than half of all organizations failed to post one news release
about their position on the ESCR issue. More than half of the organizations in this study
failed to clearly state their policy in a document for the media and only one organization
provided visitors with their strategic plan for resolving the ESCR issue.

There are exemplar Web sites and the data from RQ3 shows some support that
excellent Web sites can generate increased media coverage of the organization’s
position. Excellent PRO Web sites provided a variety of mobilizing features and
information subsidies. The California Stem Cell Research and Cures Initiative provided
their perspective on the ESCR issue when their positions were covered in 10 news
articles. The Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation appeared in 13 different articles.
The Christopher Reeve Paralysis Foundation was mentioned as a source in eight news
articles. These organizations’ Web sites incorporated many of the resource mobilization
and information subsidy features and thus emerged as sources for media stories. These
organizations have a greater chance of influencing the ESCR debate because of this
news coverage.

Two of the ANTI Web sites: ―Stand to Reason‖ and ―National Right to Life‖ also appear
as exemplars of Web site advocacy. The group, Stand to Reason ―trains Christians to
think more clearly about their faith and to make an even-handed, incisive, yet gracious
defense for classical Christianity and classical Christian values in the public square.‖ It
does not call itself a political or advocacy group. Rather, it trains individuals to become

15
 Taylor and Das – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

personal advocates on Christian issues in their own communities. It uses its Web site as
a training tool. Stand to Reason’s Web site embodies many tangible and intangible
advocacy features. It was mentioned in 69 news articles about ESCR. From an issue
management perspective, it had 69 opportunities to communicate its stand on the issue
to the public and policy makers.

The National Right to Life Web site also included many of the tangible and intangible
resource mobilizing features. A section entitled ―Training‖ provided public relations
tactics to visitors. Features such as ready-made presentations, sample letters to the
editor, shells of speeches, and ―personal tactics‖ could be downloaded and used
immediately by anyone who wanted to become a foot soldier in the anti-ESCR
movement. The National Right to Life organization and its position on the ESCR issue
was mentioned in 82 national news articles. Its information subsidies appear to be
effective in gaining media attention.

Public relations practitioners who work in any type of advocacy organization can benefit
from the findings of this study. Three suggestions for advocacy organizations interested
in maximizing their tangible, intangible, and information resources via the Internet
emerged from this study.

Recommendations for Improving the Advocacy Potential of Web Sites

What can public relations practitioners do to maximize the use of the Web sites for
issues management? The literature and the case study findings suggest advocacy
organizations can start by ensuring that they include Web site design features that
create opportunities for tangible and intangible resource mobilization. Organizations
need to sit down and look carefully at their Web site. The public relations practitioner
needs to recognize all of the potential ways that the Web site can be used to support
and extend the organization’s agenda. If an activist group wants a policy created or
changed, then they need to tell the visitor how s/he can be a part of that change. By
including action alerts, e-mail addresses of Congressional leaders, sample letters to the
editor, and other mobilizing features, the organization can fulfill the public relations and
issues management potential of the Web. There are three specific recommendations to
improve the use of the Internet in public relations advocacy.

#1: Create a checklist of tangible and intangible features on your Web site. Practitioners
interested in maximizing their resource mobilization need to review the specific features
of their Web sites. Create a checklist based on Tables 1 and 2 and visit your Web site to
see how easy it is to find the pages that ask people to donate, contact their
Congressional representative, or download information about the issue. Visitors will not
donate or sign up for more information if the organization does not ask them to do so. If
your organization is missing some of the tangible and intangible features, the public
relations practitioner should consider ways to add these features to the Web site.
Adding social media tactics that provide both tangible and intangible resources will also
help advocacy groups to accomplish their mission.

16
Public Relations in Advocacy – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

#2: Anticipate what the media will need when they visit your Web site. Practitioners
interested in maximizing their media coverage need to review the information subsidies
provided on their Web site. Jones and Chase (1979) suggested that the media play an
important role in linking issues with policy solutions. Practitioners should look at their
Web site as if they were a media representative gathering information for a news story
about the ESCR issue. What they see (or do not see) might motivate them to rethink the
content of their site. Advocacy organizations that seek to influence public policy need to
provide the information media need in an easy to find format. The media need mission
statements, statistics, names of experts, news releases, and audio/video clips as a
foundation for their stories. These information subsidy features need to be regularly
updated and available in a variety of formats. For instance, television reporters need
video to enhance their stories while radio reporters seek audio clips. Print outlets
appreciate high quality, downloadable graphics such as charts, tables, and
photographs. Adding these tactics will increase your chances of media coverage of the
issue.

#3: Advocacy means empowering individuals. Social movement organizations and

activists groups need regular citizens to become the ―foot soldiers‖ of the cause. Most
Americans are not comfortable writing a letter to the editor or speaking at a public
forum. Advocacy Web sites can provide grass roots activists with simple tools that allow
them to maximize their individual efforts on behalf of the collective cause. If an
organization wants to empower individuals to act, then it needs to provide the tools to
support the activism. Practitioners should review their Web sites to see which
empowering tools they are providing. The National Right to Life Web site provides a
variety of personal advocacy tools that could be easily adapted for any type of advocacy
organization. Their Web site, with 82 media hits in a short nine-month period, provides
an exemplar of how to use the Internet for pushing an issue agenda. Even small
organizations can activate their foot soldiers by providing model news releases,
speeches, letters to the editor, Op Ed pieces, and training guides for local organizing.

CONCLUSION
This paper followed Dozier and Lauzen’s (2000) call to study activist organizations as
practitioners of public relations. The case study specifically explored advocacy, public
relations, and the Internet. The Web sites of these stem cell advocacy organizations
have the potential to serve two broad public relations goals: resource mobilization and
information subsidies. Currently, most of the Web sites are missing these opportunities.
The 1989 movie, Field of Dreams, made popular the expression, ―if you build it, they will
come.‖ The same is true for activist Web sites. If an activist organization builds a Web
site that incorporates both tangible and intangible mobilizing resources, then they can
maximize their ability to provide useful information to the media, government policy
makers, and visitors. This information can become the foundation of influencing the
ESCR debate.

This case study is only the starting point for learning more and theorizing about
advocacy and the Internet. The patterns that emerged suggest that public relations

17
 Taylor and Das – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

theorizing indeed needs to include activist organizations because of their unique needs
and constraints. Right now, public relations theory and public relations practice appear
to be disconnected. Public relations and advocacy theories tell us that the organizations
should be creating certain Web site design features to maximize their activism.
However, the reality of the Web sites is much different. They lack features that would
bring in both tangible and intangible resources.

Like all research, this research project has some limitations. The case study sample
was chosen through a Google search as no composite list of stem cell research
advocacy organizations was available. Therefore, it is entirely possible that some
organizations that should have been included in the population were missed. The
results therefore should be understood as demonstrating the general trends in Internet
use for public relations by stem cell research advocacy organizations rather than an
exact picture of stem cell research advocacy on the Internet. Given the exploratory
nature of the research, this is appropriate goal (Stake, 1995; Yin, 1994).

The breakdown of the sample did not allow for the application of inferential statistics.
Therefore, the generalizability of the findings for theory building is limited. The case
study provides descriptive information for public relations practitioners who work in
advocacy organizations. The use of frequencies of resource mobilization feature does,
however, provide a general framework for describing how advocacy groups are using
their Web sites. The frequency (or lack of) does tell us that the ESCR advocacy groups
are missing out on valuable mobilizing and information subsidies opportunities.

Future studies might look at current and potential visitors to advocacy Web sites. This
would allow us to see what users expect from such Web sites and how the current
ESCR sites are meeting these expectations. Another area for future Internet advocacy
research could include an analysis of Blogs or other interactive social media features in
how they help the organizations engage in dialogue (Kent &Taylor, 1998). Agenda
setting theory would also provide a valuable framework for future studies.

The debate over stem cell research continues with the election of a pro stem cell
research president in 2008. Yet, no matter who sits in the White House, the ESCR
issue, like most issues, will come and go depending on media coverage and current
events. The stem cell advocacy groups on all sides of the issue will use public relations
to explain this complex issue to the public and to policy makers. The media will continue
to need experts to help them understand this issue. The organization that provides the
most useful Web site with the most mobilizing features will be in the best position to
have their interpretation of the issue become the dominant interpretation of the issue.
This organization will be in the best position to manage the ESCR issue and ultimately
influence public policy.

18
Public Relations in Advocacy – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

REFERENCES
Ansoff, H. I. (1980). Strategic issue management. Strategic Management Journal, 1,
131-148.

Bartha, P. F. (1984). Tuning in on issues management. Canadian Business Review, 11,

25-33.

Behuniak-Long, S. (1989). Roe v. Wade. The impact of an outdated decision on

reproductive technologies. Policy Studies Review, 8 (2), 368-379.

Callison, C. (2003). Media relations and the internet: How Fortune 500 company web
sites assist journalists in newsgathering. Public Relations Review, 29, 29-42.

Chase, W. H. (1977). Public issue management: The new science. Public Relations
Journal, 33, 26.

Chase, W. H. (1984). Issue management: Origins of the future. Stamford, CT: Issue
Action Publications.

Coombs, W.T. (1998). The Internet as potential equalizer: New leverage for confronting
social irresponsibility. Public Relations Review, 24, 289-303.
Crable, R. E., & Vibbert, S. L. (1985). Managing issues and influencing public policy.
Public Relations Review, 11, 3-16.

Davis, D. S. (2002). Stem cells, cloning and abortion: making careful distinctions. The
American Journal of Bioethics, 2 (1), 47-49.

Diani, M. (2000). Social movement networks, virtual and real. Information,

Communication and Society, 3, 386-401.

Diani, M. (1992). The concept of social movement. The Sociological Review, 38, 1-25.

Dozier, D. M., & Lauzen, M. M. (2000). Liberating the intellectual domain from the
practice: Public relations, activism, and the role of the scholar. Journal of Public
Relations Research, 12, 3–22.

Freeman, J. (1979). Resource mobilization and strategy. In M. N. Zald, & J. M.

McCarthy (Eds.), The dynamics of social movements (pp. 167-189). Cambridge,
MA: Winthrop.

Gandy, O. (1982). Beyond agenda setting: Information subsidies and public policy.
Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

19
 Taylor and Das – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

Grunig, L. A. (1992). Activism: How it limits the effectiveness of organizations and how
excellent public relations departments respond. In J. Grunig (Ed.), Excellence
and public relations and communications management (pp. 483-502). Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Hachigian, D., & Hallahan, K. (2003). Perceptions of public relations Web sites by
computer industry journalists. Public Relations Review, 29, 42-62.

Hainsworth, B.E. (1990). The distribution of advantages and disadvantages. Public

Relations Review, 16, 33-39.

Heath, R. L. (2007). Management through advocacy: Reflection rather than domination.

In E. L. Toth (Ed.), The future of excellence in public relations and
communication management (pp. 41-66). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.

Heath, R. L. (2006). A rhetorical theory approach to issues management. In C. H.

Botan, & V. Hazelton, (Eds.), Public relations theory II (pp. 63-100). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Heath, R. L. (2006). Onward into more fog: Thoughts on public relations’ research
directions. Journal of Public Relations Research, 18, 93-114.

Heath, R. L. (1998). New communication technologies: An issues management point of

view. Public Relations Review, 24, 273-288.

Heath, R. L., & Cousino, K. R. (1990). Issue management: End of first decade progress
report. Public Relations Review, 16, 6-18.

Heath, R. L., & Nelson, R. A. (1986). Issue management: Corporate public policy
making in an information society. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Holtzhausen, D. (2007). Activism. In E. L. Toth (Ed.), The future of excellence in public

relations and communication management (pp. 357-380). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Jacobs, R. N., & Glass, D. J. (2002). Media publicity and the voluntary sector: The case
of non-profit organizations in New York City. Voluntas: International Journal of
Voluntary and Non-profit Organizations, 13 (3), 235-252.

Jones, B. L., & Chase, H. W. (1979). Managing public policy issues. Public Relations
Review, 5, 3-23.

Jenkins, J. C. (1983). Resource mobilization theory and the study of social movements.
Annual Review of Sociology, 9, 527-553.

20
Public Relations in Advocacy – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

Kent, M. L., & Taylor, M. (1998). Building dialogic relationships through the World Wide
Web. Public Relations Review, 24, 321-334.

Kent, M. L., Taylor, M., & White, W. J. (2003). The relationship between Web site
design and organizational responsiveness to stakeholders. Public Relations
Review, 29, 63-77.

Marx, T. G. (1986). Integrating public affairs and strategic planning. California

Management Review, 29, 141-147.

McCarthy, J. D., & Zald, M. N. (1977). Resource mobilization and social movements.
American Journal of Sociology, 82, 1212-1241.

Nisbet, M. (2004). The poll trends: Public opinion about stem cell research and human
cloning. Public Opinion Quarterly, 68, 131-154.

O’Connor, A. (2006). Merchant of mercy, merchant of death: How values advocacy

messages influence jury deliberations. Journal of Applied Communication
Research, 34, 263-285.

Reber, B. H., & Kim, J. K. (2006). How activist groups use websites in media relations:
Evaluating online pressrooms. Journal of Public Relations Research, 18, 313-
334.
Ross, S. (2005). Eleventh annual RSCG Magnet and Columbia University survey of the
Media. New York.

Ryan, M. (2003). Public relations and the web: Organizational problems, gender, and
institutional type. Public Relations Review, 29, 335-349.

Sandel, M. (2004). Embryo ethics – The moral logic of stem cell research. New England
Journal of Medicine, 351 (3), 207 – 214.

Smith, M. F., & Ferguson, D. P. (2001). Activism. In R. L. Heath (Ed.), Handbook of

public relations (pp. 291–300). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Stake, R. (1995). The art of case research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Tauer, C. A. (2004). International policy failures: Cloning and stem cell research.
Lancet, 364:9429, 209-215.

Taylor, M., Kent, M. L., & White, W. J. (2001). How activist organizations are using the
Internet to build relationships. Public Relations Review, 27, 263–284.

Tesh, S. N. (2002). The Internet and grassroots. Organization and Environment, 15 (3),
336-339.

21
 Taylor and Das – Public Relations Journal – Vol. 4, No. 4, 2010

Wartick, S. L., & Rude, R.E. (1986). Issues management: Corporate fad or corporate
function? California Management Review, 24, 124-140.

Yin, R. (1994). Case study research: Design and methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publishing.

22

View publication stats