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ADVANCE LEARNING

Listening Comprehension:-
Listening comprehension encompasses the multiple processes
involved in understanding and making sense of spoken
language.
These include recognising speech sounds, understanding the
meaning of individual words, and/or understanding the syntax
of sentences in which they are presented. Listening
comprehension can also involve the prosody with which
utterances are spoken (which can, e.g., change intended
meaning from a statement to a question), and making relevant
inferences based on context, real-world knowledge, and
speaker-specific attributes (e.g., to what information the
speaker has access and about what he/she is likely to be
talking).
It involves:-

The Difference Between Hearing And Listening

Hearing is the ability to detect sound. You need your ears and
auditory system to function properly to hear.
Listening, on the other hand, is an active process. It’s what you
do with what you hear. When you listen, you pay attention to
the sounds around you, and your brain tries to make sense of
them.
You can hear without necessarily listening. For example, you
might be in a crowded room and hear many conversations
going on at once. But you’re not really listening to any of them
because the words all sort of jumble together into a lull.

Age-Appropriate Listening Comprehension Skills

Listening comprehension skills develop over time. As your child

grows and matures, they’ll be able to understand more and
more of what’s being said to them.

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From birth to about three years old, children’s listening skills

rapidly develop. They start to understand more words and can
follow simple commands. By age three, most children can
understand around 1,000 words and complete basic one- or
two-step directions

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Model Good Listening:-

• Repeat back what the other person said to show that you
were listening
• Ask questions about what they said to show that you’re
interested
• Summarise what they said to make sure you understand
• Avoid interrupting and wait until they’ve finished talking

Direct and Indirect Speech

What is Direct Speech?

Direct speech is a word-to-word repetition of what the speaker
or writer has conveyed. In other words, it is a way in which you
can report the exact words of the speaker. Direct speech can
be used to convey something that is being said in the present
or to tell someone about something that is to happen at a later
point of time. Let us now take a look at how various dictionaries
define direct speech to further understand what it is.

Definition of Direct Speech

According to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, direct speech is
defined as “a speaker’s actual words.” According to the
Cambridge Dictionary, “when you use direct speech, you repeat
what someone has said using exactly the words they used.”
The Collins Dictionary defines direct speech as “speech which
is reported by using the exact words that the speaker used” and
according to the Macmillan Dictionary, direct speech is defined
as “the exact words that someone has said.”

Rules to be Followed When Using Direct Speech

Like every other grammar topic, there are rules to be followed
when using direct speech. Let us look at each one of them to
know how direct speech can be used accurately and effectively.

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• The first point that you have to remember is that direct

speech is the repetition of the exact words of the speaker
and so you do not have a choice to add or remove words
to and from what is said.
• For the same reason, these words spoken by the speaker
have to be enclosed within quotation marks or speech
marks.
• When using direct speech, you can follow the formula
given below.
Name of the speaker says/said, “Exact words of the speaker.”

• You can also use words like replied, asked, screamed, etc.
to state what the speaker said according to the emotion in
which it is being spoken.
• Immediately after one of the above-mentioned verbs, add
a comma followed by open quotation marks, the words of
the speaker (capitalise the first letter of the first word)
followed by a period, question mark or exclamation mark
and the close quotation marks.
• Also, make sure you close the quotation marks after the
punctuation mark (full stop/question mark/exclamation
mark).
•Finally, keep in mind that you cannot change the words, or
paraphrase what has been said by the speaker when you
are using direct speech.
Tips to Practise Direct Speech
You can become an expert in using direct speech if you practise well.
Here are some ways you can do it.

• Try reading short stories and converting it into a dialogue.

Change the lines of every character into direct speech.
• Write a story on your own. Use direct speech to convey all the
dialogues.

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• Narrate or write about an incident or a day in your life using

direct speech.

Examples of Direct Speech

Now that you know the rules to be followed, take a look at the
following examples to have a better idea of how it is done.

• Devi said, “I am teaching French for first year and second

year college students.”
• Freda asked her brother, “Can you pick me up on your
way home?”
• “My friends are finally coming home this weekend”, said
Sheena.
• The students replied, “We are ready!”

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Indirect Speech:-
Indirect speech conveys a report of something that was said or
written rather than the exact words that were spoken or
written. It is used in many United Nations documents,
including summary records and reports on the proceedings of
intergovernmental bodies. Indirect speech is not enclosed in
quotation marks.

Direct And Indirect Speech Rules

Rules for converting Direct into Indirect speech

To change a sentence of direct speech into indirect speech

there are various factors that are considered, such as reporting
verbs, modals, time, place, pronouns, tenses, etc. We will
discuss each of these factors one by one.

Rule 1 – Direct To Indirect Speech Conversion – Reporting

Verb
1. When the reporting verb of direct speech is in past tense
then all the present tenses are changed to the
corresponding past tense in indirect speech.
Direct to indirect speech example:

Direct: She said, ‘I am happy’.

Indirect: She said (that) she was happy.

1. In indirect speech, tenses do not change if the words

used within the quotes (‘’) talk of a habitual action or
universal truth.
Direct to indirect speech example:

Direct: He said, ‘We cannot live without air’.

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Indirect: He said that we cannot live without air.

1. The tenses of direct speech do not change if the

reporting verb is in the future tense or present tense.
Direct to indirect speech example:

Direct: She says/will say, ‘I am going’

Indirect: She says/will say she is going.

Rule 2 – Direct Speech to Indirect Speech conversion –

Present Tense
• Present Perfect Changes to Past Perfect.
Direct to indirect speech example:

Direct: “I have been to Boston”, she told me.

Indirect: She told me that she had been to Boston.

• Present Continuous Changes to Past Continuous

Direct to indirect speech example:

Direct: “I am playing the guitar”, she explained.

Indirect: She explained that she was playing the guitar.

• Present Perfect Changes to Past Perfect

Direct to indirect speech example:

Direct: He said, “She has finished her homework“.

Indirect: He said that she had finished her homework.

• Simple Present Changes to Simple Past

Direct to indirect speech example:

Direct: “I am unwell”, she said.

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Indirect: She said that she was unwell.

Rule 3 – Direct Speech to Indirect Speech conversion –

Past Tense & Future Tense
• Simple Past Changes to Past Perfect
Direct to indirect speech example:

Direct: She said, “Irvin arrived on Sunday.”

Indirect: She said that Irvin had arrived on Sunday.

• Past Continuous Changes to Past Perfect Continuous

Direct to indirect speech example

Direct: “We were playing basketball”, they told me.

Indirect: They told me that they had been playing basketball.

• Future Changes to Present Conditional

Direct to indirect speech example

Direct: She said, “I will be in Scotland tomorrow.”

Indirect: She said that she would be in Scotland the next day.

• Future Continuous Changes to Conditional

Continuous
Direct to indirect speech example

Direct: He said, “I’ll be disposing of the old computer next

Tuesday.”

Indirect: He said that he would be disposing of the old

computer the following Tuesday.

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FIGURES OF SPEECH:
Figures of speech in English Grammar are literary devices
that add depth, imagery, and rhetorical effect to writing or
speech. A type of representation (such as metaphors or
symbolism) used to convey a message or strengthen the effect,
often by correlating or classifying one thing with some other
that has a sense of implication recognisable to the listener or
the reader. They are used to enhance the expression of ideas,
evoke emotions, create vivid descriptions, and engage the
audience.

Definition of Figures of Speech

A figure of speech is a quasi-word or phrase used to create a

result. This impact could be theoretical, as in the wilful structure
of words to achieve an artistic effect, or graphics, as in the use
of vocabulary to suggest a vivid appearance or make an idea
more dynamic. Figures of speech, in general, serve as poetic
devices due to their imaginative use of language. Words are
used in ways other than their original meaning or classic
implementation.
Types of Figures of Speech
There are many types of Figures of speech some are
discussed below:

1. Smile
2. Metaphor
3. Personification
4. Apostrophe
5. Oxymoron
6. Hyperbole
7. Alliteration
8. Onomatopoeia
Simile

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A Simile compares the two completely unboxed things. Words

like, so, as like, and so on are used to bring a Simile. Here are
some examples of Smilie –
• You are as beautiful as a rose.
• My niece is as intelligent as Albert Einstein.
• Her hair is as black as coal.
• He is like a lion.
• She shines like the sun.
Metaphor
A Metaphor is created when two unlike or dissimilar things or
ideas are compared. It is an irregular or indirect Simile that
avoids the words “like” and “as.” Here are some examples of
metaphors –

• Life is a roller coaster.

• My daughter is a cute little angel.
• Old is gold.
• We are just a puppet.
• The clouds are cotton candy.
Personification
In Personification the representation of non-living objects,
abstract thoughts, or characteristics as humans or living
creatures. Here are some examples of Personification. Here
are some examples of Personification –
• My ball dance on the roof.
• The sun played hide and seek with the cloud.
• Cars are begging for service.
• The chocolates are calling me.
• The stars are smiling at me.
Apostrophe
Under this figure of speech, the author refers to absent or
inanimate objects as if they were real and starts writing about
them. Here are some examples of apostrophes. Here are some
examples of Apostrophes –

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• I haven’t visited Dubai.

• I’m having my lunch.
• She’s so beautiful.
• I don’t like noise.
• He can’t tolerate his insult.
Oxymoron
An Oxymoron occurs when two words are used within a
sentence and yet appear to conflict with one another. An
Oxymoron is a form of speech that easily employs two
opposing opinions. One such difference of opinion generates a
counterintuitive picture in the mind of the listener or reader
resulting in a brand-new concept or meaning for the entire text.
Here are some examples of oxymorons –
• A small crowd gathered outside the temple.
• His face was looking confused.
• Kapil Sharma’s jokes are seriously funny.
• This book is an original copy of Mahabharata.
• Amitabh Bachchan acts naturally.
Hyperbole
Whenever you use words to highlight or convey specific, you
are using Hyperbole. It is used to create something that looks
much bigger or more significant than it is. Here are some
examples of Hyperbole. Here are some examples of Hyperbole
–
• I can smell the rose fragrance from a mile away.
• He is tall as the height of a mountain.
• My nephew is my guardian angel.
• My mom is my Goddess.
• I am so angry I could break this wall.
Alliteration
An Alliteration is a sequence of phrases that begin with a
similar letter. Alliteration is the continuation of such a sound or
even a written statement at the start of a series of words. Here
are some examples of Alliteration. Here are some examples of
Alliteration –

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• I bought a basket filled with bananas.

• Akita and Airedale are awesome dogs.
• My favourite fruit is fig.
• Lalit loves lollypops.
• Charu makes yummy cakes, candy, and chocolates.
Onomatopoeia
A plot of speech in which a phrase is employed to explain a
sound. Onomatopoeia is when we illustrate an act by simply
placing the sounds into linguistics. It is most commonly used
during fiction or rhymes. Here are some examples of
Onomatopoeia –

• My dog always barks at strangers.

• Every morning my alarm clock whistle to wake me.
• The bees buzzed around the honey.
• Ding Dong rings the bell.
• The cat meow as Riya calls her.

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EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION:-
What is effective communication?
Effective communication is the ability to have a conversation
with another person in an engaging way that is focused,
consistent and offers value. Communicating effectively
involves two or more people who can clearly express their
intent and understand the focus or purpose of the
conversation, while also allowing each person to get their point
across.
Effective communication is important for people to interact
with others while expressing their needs and understanding
the tasks or duties given to them. Good communication
skills may also be important in certain industries, including
sales, as it helps people understand the needs of a customer
before then expressing value to them.
Why is effective communication important in the
workplace?
Learning to effectively communicate can provide value in the
workplace. Effective communication is important because it
offers the following benefits:
Demonstrates understanding
Learning to communicate effectively can help you demonstrate
an understanding of what the other person is saying. Whether
you're communicating with a coworker or manager, effective
communication can help teams improve productivity and work
towards a common goal.
Helps to prevent conflict
Effective communicators have the skills necessary to prevent
or resolve conflict. This can help teams overcome challenges
or barriers to productivity and progress toward the completion
of projects faster, while also improving employee morale.
Improves engagement
Creating teams of effective communicators can also increase
employee engagement among team members. This is

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especially useful as a leader when encouraging team members

to work together.
Solves problems
Effective communication skills can help team members identify
solutions to common challenges. Good communication skills
also make it easier for team members to articulate and clearly
express their current concerns, leading to a more transparent
and honest work environment.
Builds trust
Effective communication skills, including empathy, compassion
and consistent nonverbal communication patterns, can help
team members build trust among each other. It can also help
leaders earn the respect and trust of their team members.
Effective communication skills
Some examples of effective communication skills may include:
Active listening
It's important to focus carefully on what the other party
communicates to you, which may include verbal and nonverbal
communication. If you're unsure, ask targeted questions to
improve the strength of your exchange.
Emotional management
Emotional intelligence can help people further their skills,
specifically when it comes to the ability to communicate
effectively. Empathy, compassion and the ability to be
accepting of different cultures, communication styles or ways
of expressing emotion are also important parts of emotional
management.
Observational skills
Being observant may help you gain all the necessary context
to assemble an effective message. For example, you may
notice the audience's mood or energy level and customise
7 C's of effective communication
Effective communication includes seven key elements,
sometimes called the 7 C's of effective communication.
Effective communication is:
1. Concise

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The most understandable, articulate statements are often as

brief as possible. Speaking concisely verbally and in writing
can help you distill your message to the most important parts.
It also may make your message easier for the reader or listener
to interpret. When preparing a speech or presentation,
conversing with others or writing an email, try to use specific
language and limit unnecessary words or sentences.
2. Clear
Be straightforward with your meaning by using direct language
and including all necessary details for the reader to understand
what you're saying. For example, when emailing your manager
about discussing a raise, an unclear message might say, "I'm
wondering about a potential change in the terms of my
employment. Can we talk?" A clearer way to communicate
might be, "I'd like to schedule a one-on-one meeting to
discuss my compensation. Please send me some available
times this week to speak about it."
It's also important that you gain clarity when confused about
someone else's meaning in a conversation. When listening to
someone, identify and summarise what the speaker says to
demonstrate your understanding. If you're unsure, you can
always ask questions or paraphrase to gain further clarity.
3. Concrete
Great communication is often actionable. Rather than strictly
discussing intangible ideas in your writing, try to include
tangible problems, solutions and actions. Consider including
descriptive language that the listener or reader can easily
visualise.
For example, if you're writing a social media caption
advertising tax preparation services, you might say "Tax
season is approaching. If you'd rather work with an expert than
a computer program, schedule a virtual visit with one of our
accountants today." This communicates your message more
concretely than a vague statement, like "Marsh and Matthews
Accounting wants to soothe your worries."
4. Correct

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Check your communications thoroughly for any errors. This

includes inaccuracies, such as misreported facts and figures,
grammatical errors and misspellings. Ensuring your messages
are correct can increase your credibility and professionalism.
Consult trusted resources, like authoritative news, government
and industry organisations, subject matter experts and
encyclopaedias.
5. Complete
Double-check that you've included all the important
components of your message. Review your statements to
ensure you cover all elements that may be critical to the
audience's understanding. Add any context that might help
them, and consider using visual aids to supplement your
words.
Most messages can also benefit from a call to action, which
tells the audience what you want them to do in response to
your statements. In marketing content, the call to action might
suggest that readers learn more about the product or schedule
a consultation. In workplace communications, you might ask a
coworker to attend a meeting or send a follow-up message
about the next steps on a project.
6. Coherent
Coherent statements are another key element of effective
communication. This means that your message makes logical
sense, occurs in a reasonable order and is simple for the
reader or listener to follow. Consider asking a peer to read an
email before you send it to share if they feel it's coherent.
7. Considerate
It's always important to be polite in your business
communications to show the other parties involved that you
respect them and everything they bring to the conversation. Be
considerate of other people's preferences and cultural
backgrounds when speaking with them and try to limit
assumptions about their level of comfort with sensitive topics.
It's also helpful to consider the context of your conversation.
For example, a company holiday party might be a more

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appropriate occasion for a funny story about the company

president than an important client meeting.

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WRITING SKILLS:-
Writing skills are the skills you use to write effectively and
succinctly. A good writer is someone who can communicate
their point to their audience without using too much fluff and in
a way that the other person can understand.

Writing skills don’t just include the physical act of writing. Skills
like research, planning and outlining, editing, revising, spelling
and grammar, and organisation are critical components of the
writing process.

In the workplace, writing skills examples include:

• Documenting a process for someone else to learn it

• Summarising a meeting in an email for all attendees
• Sharing a team update in Slack
• Crafting a mass email to send to prospective customers
• Communicating with a client via email to get action on
next step.
Core elements Of Written Communication
Skills With examples
Written communication skills are made up of five core
elements. Here are some examples of each of these elements:
1. Conciseness
The goal of every written communication is to get to the point
quickly. It is essential to include only relevant details to
communicate your information effectively.
Example: “After seeing your presentation skills, I have
concluded that you are one of the best orators on our team.”
Like the one in the above example, concise writing avoids
unnecessary details and effectively delivers the information.
Such concise writing reduces instances of complex sentence
structures and imparts confidence in your written
communication.

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2. Clarity
Clarity helps your readers understand the message you are
trying to convey. By bringing clarity to your writing, you reduce
instances of misinformation, misconception,
miscommunication and mistakes. Clarity comes with using
simple language and avoiding complex words or sentence
structures.
Example: “Use your best judgement to decide whether you
should build the web design from the start or update the
existing one. Click on the link below to see the details of the
new project. If you have any questions, direct them to your
project head.”
The above message conveys the writer's expectation and
provides steps to follow if the readers require further
clarification.
3. Tone
The tone is the voice of your writing and conveys the emotions
to the readers. For business writing, use a professional tone
with an appropriate degree of friendliness and formality.
Example: “Thank you for sending over the web design on such
short notice. I have highlighted a few inaccuracies and
attached a more detailed brief that conforms to the client's
requirement. Please get the revised design back to me latest by
Wednesday morning. Feel free to get in touch with me if you
have any questions.”
Even when pointing out errors and inaccuracies, keep your
tone friendly yet professional. Instead of directly accusing
someone, know what you want from the reader.

4. Active Voice
Active voice uses action verbs that make your writing clearer,
more accessible and engaging to the readers. It is preferred
over passive voice because active voice allows a reader to
move through your writing quickly. Active voice flows better
and makes your writing more persuasive. While passive voice
finds its use in other forms of writing, in professional
communication, passive voice dilutes the content's action.

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Example: “Call the presenter about the webinar on Monday

morning and ask whether we can shift the webinar to
Wednesday afternoon. If she agrees, send out date change
emails to the attendees. If she disagrees, remind me on
Monday morning to talk to her.”

5. Grammar and punctuation

Grammar and punctuation make your writing clear, engage
your readers, avoid miscommunication and make your
communication effective. In professional communication,
grammar and punctuations help deliver correct information to
the readers.
Example: “Our client requires the use of word processing
programs, blogging platforms, design tools, communication
tools and collaboration apps for their next project.”
Without using the correct spelling, preposition, punctuation,
verb tense, article, conjunction and other basic grammar rules,
it becomes difficult to read and interpret the information.
How To Improve Your written communication skills
Here are a few ways to improve your written communication
skills:
1. Know your goals
Having a clear goal helps in writing a clear and concise copy.
Your goal may be to get readers to respond to the email, make
corrections in their work or pass on the information.
Irrespective of your goal, try conveying your goal at the
beginning of the message. Every written communication has a
purpose and your writing must convey that purpose to the
readers. Explain clearly what you expect from the readers.
2. Choose the right words and tone
Your word choice and writing tone make your writing
compelling. Certain forms of written communication, like
proposals, require a formal tone. Using an informal tone in
such documents confuses the readers. Avoid using jargon,
idioms, metaphors and fancy words. Stick to simple business
language because concise and clear written communication
delivers the right information.

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3. Use outlines
For longer-form content such as reports or newsletters, write
an outline to organise your thoughts. It ensures your work
remains organised and focussed. Start by writing the
document's objective, followed by a list of main points you
want to include. Outlines provide a logical order to your written
communication.
4. Stay on the topic
Effective written communication is all about staying on topic.
Avoid irrelevant information. Before writing anything, ask
yourself how it will help your readers. Clarity is essential for
increasing the reader's engagement with your writing. Try
keeping your paragraphs and sentences short because over-
complicated sentences slow the reader down. It is best to
leave out words that shift your focus away from the main topic.
5. Edit and revise
Read your document two or three times to ensure that it flows
well, the writing makes sense and is free from all unnecessary
details. Apart from proofreading for grammatical errors, give
attention to how the document sounds. Also, look for visual
styles, word spacing and word division. Reread your document
after some time to further eliminate potential errors.

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EFFECTIVE WRITING:-

1. Clear: Write in a way that people always understand what

you’re saying. Clear writing only has one interpretation.
That’s what makes it effective.
2. Credible: You can’t make the reader believe you. Your
reader only believes you if you write credibly. Know what
you’re talking about. If you ramble or are dishonest, a
reader will sense it immediately.
3. Persuasive: An effective writer inspires people with
words. When you write persuasively, it sparks a reaction
within your reader. Again, you can’t make people do
anything. People are moved by effective writing
themselves.
5 Strategies For More Effective Writing
1.Use a Strong Opening

Your first sentence is your chance to hook the reader and make
them want to read. It must be strong. There are several ways to
do this, including:

• Share a personal anecdote or story

• Give a surprising fact
• Establish a personal connection
• Create a sense of need in the reader
Get creative, but open strong.

2. Avoid Common Grammar Errors

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Good writers know their weak points. Learning to spot and fix
common grammar errors will make you a better writer. Here are
some to watch for:

• Sentence problems – Sentences can be run-on, which

stick two complete sentences together without punctuation
or conjunctions, or fragments, which don’t complete the
thought. Both are errors. A sentence needs a subject,
predicate , and complete thought.
• Comma use – Commas are tricky. Good writers know
when to use a comma, such as when joining two
independent clauses with a conjunction or after
introductory phrases. Read our guide to using commas.
• Subject/verb agreement – Subjects and verbs should
agree in number. Plural subjects need plural verbs, as do
singular subjects and verbs.
• Misplaced modifiers – Modifiers are words or phrases
that modify another part of the sentence. If misplaced,
they hurt clarity. The modifier needs to be placed near the
word it modifies so the meaning remains clear.
• Verb tense – When writing, the tenses of the verb need to
stay consistent throughout unless the meaning dictates a
change. For example, if you are writing an essay about
something that happened in the past, keep the verb past
tense.

3. Use Effective Writing Tools

The Internet gives several tools to writers to help make a piece

of writing stronger. The Hemingway App is one of these.
Plugging your piece of writing into the Hemingway App shows
you passive voice errors, wordy sentences, and overall
readability.

4. Master Self-Editing

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Often, conciseness comes in the editing stage. After you get

your thoughts on paper, go back through your piece to see
what you can cut. Many writers find areas to shorten their
thoughts and make them more concise.

Before you can write concisely, you must know what you wish
to say. Your outline will help with that.Our self-editing
checklist can help.

5. Know What Audience Wants

Good writers empathise with their audience’s hopes, fears,

dreams , and frustrations. They pinpoint what their audience
wants to learn or achieve. Or they seek to understand how their
audience is entertained.

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