CMBUkTI10

10
GIuRdUEsn
(Hydrogen)
GIuRdUEsnCaFatuEtmYyKt;EdlminsßitenAkñúgRkumNamYyeLIyenAkñúgtaragxYbKImIeRBaH
vaCaFatuEdlEbøkBIeK ehIymanEtÉg. GIusUtUbTaMgbIrbs;GuIRdUEsnmanma:smU:lxusKña Edl
CaehtueFIV[BYkvamanlkçN³KImI niglkçN³rUbxusKñaEdr.
eTaHbICaGIuRdUEsnRtUv)aneKsÁal;CagBIrryqñaMmkehIyk¾eday bu:EnþGIusUtUbTaMgbIrbs;va
eKeTIbEtrkeXIjfμI²enHeT. kñúgqñaM 1931 karkMNt;nUvma:sGatUmGIuRdUEsnrbs;sa®sþacarü
mYybgðajfa GatUmGIURdUEsnGacmanGIusUtUbxus²Kña. Harold C. Urey enAsaklviTüal½y
kULMb‘Íya: (Columbia University))anseRmccitþeFIVkarEjkBYkvaedayGnuvtþeTAtameKal
karN_mYy KWcMNucrMBuHénFatuKImImYyEpñkGaRs½yeTAelIma:smU:lrbs;va. elak Urey )an
rMhYtGIuRdUEsnravRbEhl 5L edayrMBwgTukfaGIuRdUEsnravEdlenAsl;cMnYn 2mL cugeRkaynwg
manpÞúkGIusUtUbGIuRdUEsnEdlmanma:sm:UlFMCagmun. tamry³lT§pleFIV[karrMBwgTukrbs;Kat;
TTYl)aneCaKC½y KWsMNl;Edlsl;eRkayBIrMhYtmanma:smU:leTVdg ebIeRbobeFobnwg
GIuRdUEsnFmμta ehIyGIuRdUEsnRbePTenHRtUv)anKat;[eQμaHfa dWetrüÚm.
elak Frederick Soddy EdlCaGñkbegáIteKalkarN_énGIusUtUb)anbdiesFmineCOfa
dWetrüÚmCaGIusUtUbmYyrbs;GIuRdUEsn. Kat;)anKitdUcGñkKImIviTUeRcIndéTeTot edaybBaØtiþmYy
KWGIusUtUbminGacbMEbk)an. edayelak Urey )anGHGagBIkarbMEbkTRmg;TaMgBIrrbs;
GIuRdUEsn elak Soddy )anRbEkkfaBYkvaminEmnCaGIusUtUbeT ehIyKat;)aneCOfa
karBiesaFrbs;elak Urey minRtwmRtUv EdlvapÞúyeTAnwgniymn½yrbs;elak. eRkABIKMnit
GviC©manrbs;elak Soddy elak Urey )anTTYlkarKaMRT nigTTYlsÁal;BIrbkKMehIjrbs;Kat;
RBmTaMgTTYl)anrgVan;NUEblenAqñaM1934. bu:EnþkarBiesaFeRkaymkeTot)anbgðajfa
karBiesaFrbs;elak Urey minRtwmRtUveT. dUecñH eTaHbICakarrkeXIjrbs;elak Urey
TTYl)aneCaKC½y EttamBit vaEp¥keTAelIB½t’manminRtwmRtUveT.

10-1
GIuRdUEsn

10>1 GIusUtUbénGIuRdUEsn
GIusUtUbénGIuRdUEsnmansarsMxan;xøaMgNas;enAkñúgmuxviC¢aKImI. edayTMnak;TMngma:s;rbs;va
xusKñaeRcInrvagGIusUtUbGIuRdUEsneFIV[vamanlkçN³KImI niglkçN³rUbminsUvdUcKñaeT. GIuRdUEsn
enAkñúgFmμCatimanGIusUtUbbI KWRbUtUm CaGIuRdUEsnFmμtaEdlKμanNWRtug ehIymancMnYneRcIn
CageKenAkñúgFmμCatirhUtdl; 99.985 % dWetrüÚm EdlmanNWRtugmYy ehIyman 0.015%
kñúgFmμCati nigFatuviTüúskmμ RTIcUm EdlmanNWRtugcMnYnBIr ehIymancMnYntictYcbMput
kñúgFmμCatiKW 10 %. Cak;EsþgTaMgenHCaGIusUtUbEdleKbegáIteLIgEdltagnimitþsBaØadUcCa H
-5

sRmab;GIuRdUEsnFmμta DsRmab;dWetrüÚm nig TsRmab;RTIcUm. enAeBlEdlma:smU:lénGIusUtUb

ekIneLIg enaHcMNucrMBuH nigfamBlsm<½n§k¾ekIneLIgEdr(emIltarag 10>1).
tarag 10>1 lkçN³rUbénGIusUtUbGIuRdUEsn
GIusUtUb ma:smU:l(g.mol ) cMNucrMBuH (K) famBlsm<n½(§ kJ.mol )
-1 -1

H2 2.02 20.6 436

D2 4.03 23.9 443
T2 6.03 25.2 447
sm<½n§kUva:Lg;rbs;dWetrüÚm nigRTIcUmCamYyFatudéTeTotxøaMgCagkarcgCamYyGIuRdUEsn
Fmμta. ]TahrN_ kareFIVGKÁisnIviPaKTwkEdleKTTYl)an]sμ½nGIuRdUEsn nigGuksIuEsn sm<½n§kU
va:Lg;rvagGuksIuEsn nigGIuRdUEsn (O-H)RtUv)ankat;pþac;eRcInCagsm<½n§rvagGuksIuEsnnigdWet
rüÚm (O-D). cugbBa©b;GgÁFaturavEdlenAsl;pÞúknUvTwkEdlmanma:sF¶n;KWdWetrüÚmGuksIut. enA
eBlEdleKykTwk 30 L eTAeFIVGKÁisnIviPaKrhUtenAsl;maD 1 mL enaHGgÁFaturavEdlenA
sl; 99% CadWetrüÚmGuksIut. TwkFmμta (H O) nigTwkF¶n; (D O) manlkçN³rUbxusKñaTaMg
2 2

Rsug. ]TarN_ D O rlayenAsItuNðPaB 3.8 C ehIyBuHenAsItuNðPaB 101.4 C nigman

2
o o

dg;sIuetF¶n;CagGIuRdUEsnGuksIut 10% enARKb;sItuNðPaBTaMgGs;. TwkkkénTwkF¶n;elckñúgTwk

FmμtaenAsItuNðPaB 0 C. dWetrüÚmGuksIutRtUv)aneKeRbIya:gTUlMTUlayCaGgÁFaturMlayEdl
o

eFIV[GatUmGIuRdUEsnGacRtUv)aneKsikSaedayvamin)anelccUleTAkñúgGgÁFaturMlayCaTwk.
kñúgRbtikmμ EdlmanTak;TgnwgGatUmGIuRdUEsn k¾GacRtUv)aneKsikSaedayeRbIsmasFatu
dWetrüÚmpgEdr.

10-2
 CMBUkTI10

RTIcUmCaFatuviTüúskmμmYyEdlmanBak;kNþalCIvit RbEhl12qñaM. CamYyBak;kNþal

1

CIvitd¾xøIenH eyIgGacrMBwgTukfaKμannrNamñak;Gacrs;enAtamlkçN³FmμCati)aneT eRBaHRTIcUm

RtUv)anbegáItedaykarTgÁicénkaMrsμIelahFatuelIGatUmkñúgbriyakasd¾x<s;. dMeNIrkarmYyén
karbegáItvaKWTak;TgeTAnwgkarTgÁicNWRtugmYyeTAelIGatUmGasUt³
14 1 n 12 3
N + C + T
7 0 6 1

karBukpuyénGIusUtUb T eKGacTTYl)anGIusUtUbéneGlüÚmmYyd¾kRmKWeGlüÚm-3 ³
3
1
3
1 T → 2
3
He + 0
−1 e
RTIcUmmansarsMxan;xøaMgNas; eRBaHeKEsVgrkvaedIm,IkarplitfñaMeBTü dUcenHvaCaFatu
EdlkRm. kñúgkarBukpuyénFatuviTüúskmμ GIusUtUbbeBa©jfamBlTab(kaMrsμI β ) EtminEmnCa
kaMrsμI α EdlmaneRKaHfñak;eT. eGLicRtugRtUv)aneKsegátedaykugT½reXIjfa vaGacbNþal
[mankarbMpøajdl;Calika. GñkeRbIR)as;RTIcUmPaKeRcInKWCakgkmøaMgRbdab;GavuFénRbeTs
EdlplitRKab;EbkGuIRduEsn. edIm,IEjkbrimaNd¾tictYcénRTIcUmecjBITwkKWRtUvkarbrimaN
Twkd¾eRcInelIslub. viFId¾gayRsYlmYyKWkar)aj;NWRtugmYyeTAelIlIcUm-6kñúgerGak;T½r
nuyekøEG‘³
6
3 Li + 0
1
n→ 4
2 He + 31 T
Bak;kNþalCIvitd¾xøIrbs;RTIcUm)anbegáItbBaðaFMmYycMeBaHGñkviTüasaRsþEdlCakgT½B KW
edaysarEtfamBlnuyekøEG‘ eRBaHCayUrmkehIybrimaNRTIcUmenAkñúgk,alGavuFnuyekøEG‘
RtUv)anbnßy[manma:sticsRmab;[varlay. dUcenH k,alGavuFRtUvEtdak;bBaÄrk,aleLIg
elIedaymaneBlkMNt;RbsinebIenAEteRbIva.
10>2 er:sUNg;ma:ejTicnuyekøEG‘ (NMR)

]bkrN_müa:gEdlmanRbeyaCn_sRmab;karsikSaBITRmg;mU:elKul KWersUNg;ma:ejTic
nuyekøEG‘(NMR). ]bkrN_enHTak;TgeTAnwgkarsikSas<InnuyekøEG‘. RbUtug nigNWRtug
mans<In +½. enAkñúgGatUmmYyGacmanPaKl¥itnuyekøEG‘pSMbYnya:g KWRbUtugnigNWRtug
mancMnYnKU RbUtugmancMnYnessnigNWRtugmancMnYnKU RbUtugmancMnYnKUnigNWRtugmancMnYn ess
nigRbUtugnigNWRtugmancMnYness. dUcenH bnSMbIxageRkayeKnwgmannuyekøGugKμanKU.
lkçxNÐenHGacrMBwgTukfanwgekIteLIgkñúgcMnYnd¾eRcInénéNVyU: bu:Enþedaysars<InEdlmanKUCa

1
ry³eBlsMrab;éNVy:UviTüúskmμ cMnYnBak;kNþal rgkarbMEbkedayÉkÉg.

10-3
 GIuRdUEsn

ktþasMxan;mYysRmab;eFIV[éNVyU:manesßrPaB manEtbYneTkñúgcMeNaméNVyY:manesßrPaBcMnYn
273 EdlmancMnYnRbUtug nigNWRtugess.

nuyekøGugKμanKUGacmans<In +½ b¤ -½ Edls<InnImYy²manfamBldUcKña. eTaHCa

ya:genHkþI enAkñúgEdnma:ejTics<InGacRsbb¤pÞúyeTAnwgEdn edays<InRsbmanfamBlTab
Cag. karEbkExJkrvagkRmitfamBlTaMgBIrtUcNas; ehIyRsbtamEdneRbkg;viTüúéns,iúc
eGLicRtUma:ejTic. enAeBlEdleyIgbBa©aMgRbPBrlkviTüúmYyeTAelIPaKsMNakEdlman
nuyekøGugKμanKU ehIydUre®bkg;viTüúeTAdl;kRmitfamBlEbkExJk enaHkaMrsμIeGLicRtUma:ejTic
RtUv)anRsUbedayPaKsMNakedaysarnuyekøGugKμanKURtlb;s<Inrbs;vaedIm,I[pÞúyBIEdn
ehIyeFIV[vabþÚreTACakRmitfamBlx<s;. enAkñúgEdnmYyEdlman 1500 gauss sRmUbekIt
eLIgenA 63.9 MHz b¤ 6.39x10 s sRmab;RbUtugdac;EtÉg. -7 -1

TMnak;TMngGaMgtg;sIueténsRmUbGaRs½yeTAelIPaKdUcKñaénéNVy:U. enAeBlvaekIt
eLIg GIuRdUEsn-1pþl;sRmUbya:gxøaMgkñúgcMeNaméNVyU:(rUbPaBTI 10>1).
TMnak;TMngGaMgtg;sIueténsMrUbrlkviTüú

H-1

F-19

rUbPaBTI 10>1 TMnak;TMngGaMgtg;sIuetén

sMrUbEtmYy edayGIusUtUbkñúgEdnma:ejTic
14000 gauss.
P-31
H-2 C-13
N-14

10 20 30 40 50 60

eRbkg; (MHz)
edaysarEtGIuRdUEsnCaFatud¾samBaØmYyenAkñúgsakleyIg dUcenHeyIgGacsikSaeTA
elIva)an. sBVéf¶enHGIuRdUEsnCaFatuEdleKniymykmksikSaedayeRbIma:sIun NMR eTaHbICa
ma:sIunenHRtUv)aneKrkeXIjCaeRcInqñaMmkehIyk¾eday.
RbsinebI NMR GaceFVI)anEtdUecñH vaminEmnCabec©keTsmansar³RbeyaCn_eT.
eTaHbICay:agNak¾eday eGLicRtugenACMuvijéNVy:Uman\T§iBlelIEdnm:aejTicrbs;va. BIeRBaH
EtEdnm:aejTicrbs;brisßannImYy²xusKñaBIbrisßaneFVIedaykareRbIR)as;emEdkmYy enaHeFVI[
karEbkExJkénkRmitfamBlnigeRbkg;énkarRsUbkaMrsμI KWmanlkçN³yfaRbePTsRmab;GatUm

10-4
 CMBUkTI10

nImYy². dUcenH eRbkg;sRmUb (absorption frequency) Tak;TgeTAnWgbrisßankñúgGatUm. PaB

xusKñakñúgeRbkg;Edl)anRsÚb(ehAfa Chemical shift, or shift) KWtUcNas;RbEhl 10 −6

éneRbkg;rbs;va. dUcenH eyIgniyay)anfakarERbRbYlmanxñat ppm. elIsBIenHeTAeTot

karEbkExJkénkRmitpøas;bþÚrGacekIteLIgedayGnþrkmμéNVy:U Edlmans<InessCitCag dUcenH
TMnak;TMngTItaMgénGatUmGacRtUv)aneKrkGtþsBaØaNedaym:asIunNMR. bec©keTsenHCa
CMnYymYyd¾Gs©arüsRmab;KImIviTU CaBiessKImIviTUEpñksrIragÁrkGtþsBaØaNkmμsmasFatu nig
sikSaBIkarEbgEckeGLicRtugkñúgm:UelKul. vak¾)anRtUveRbIkñúgvis½ysuxaPi)alEdlmaneQμaH
fa ersUNg;m:aejTicrUbPaB (MRI).

GIusUtUbenAkñúgKImI
karsikSaBIFatuKImI eKkRmniyayGMBI\T§iBlrbs;GIusUtUbeTAelIRbtikmμKImINas;.
\T§iBlTaMgenHk¾sMxan;Edr CaBiesscMeBaHGIuRdUEsn EdlGIusUtUbrbs;vamanma:sxusKñaya:g
xøaMg. PaBxusKñaénma:sGIusUtUbGacCH\T§iBleTAelIel,OnRbtikmμnigTItaMglMnwg.
eyIg)anyl;GMBIc,ab;énGIusUtUbEdlCalT§plénrUbmnþ Begeleisen-Mayer (rkeXIj
edayelakRsI Maria Goeppert-Mayer Edl)anbegáItKMrURsTab;rbs;éNVy)U: . TMnak;TMngenH
bgðajfasm<½n§énGIusUtUbEdlmanma:sRsalCaggaypþac;Cagsm<½n§énGIusUtUbEdlmanma:sF¶n;
Cag. dUcenH GIusUtUbEdlmanma:sF¶n;énFatumYynwgmanlkçN³KImI nigcgsm<½n§xøaMgCag.
]TahrN_ eyIgeXIjfaenAkñúgbrisßan GIusUtUbEdlF¶n;Cagéns<an;F½rKW S-34 EdlmaneRcInelIs
lubeRkamTRmg;Casu‘lpat (Edls‘ulpYmansm<½n§kUva:Lg;xøaMgcgeTAGatUmGuksIuEsnbYneTot)

10-5
GIuRdUEsn

Cags‘ulPIt. eyIgk¾GacEjkGIusUtUbedayeRbIlMnwgKImI)anEdr. xageRkamCa]TahrN_bgðaj

BI\T§iBlrbs;GIusUtUbeTAelIRbtikmμ ³
HO ( g ) + H 2 O ( g ) H 2 ( g ) + HDO ( g )
RkabénkRmitfamBlrbs;FatubYnRbePTRtUv)anbgðajkúñgrUbPaBTI 10>2. eyIgGac
eXIjfadWetrüÚmcgsm<½n§CamYyGIuRdUEsnxøaMgCagGIuRdUEsnFmμta. dUcenH manfamBlmYy
sRmab;l,ayHDO/H EdllMnwgeTAxagsþaM EdlvaCaTwk)anBIdWetdüÚm. edaybgðaj
2

nUvlMnwgTaMgenaH D O suT§GacRtUv)aneKplit .
2

kabUnCaFatumYyepSgeTot Edl\T§iBl H 2

GuIsUtUbmansarsMxan; CaBiesssmamaRtén ΔE H 2 / HD
HD
kabUn-13 GacxusKñaBI 0.99 1.10% KWGaRs½y H O

famBl
2

edayRbPBénkabUn. enAeBlEdl CO RtUv)an 2

ΔE H 2 O / HDO

RsUbedayrukçCati ehIybMElgeTACasár dMeNIrkar HDO

rsμIsMeyaKxusKña[CalT§plbMEbkepSgKña
énGuIsUtUbkabUn. ]TahrN_ ³ BIsmamaRt rUbPaBTI 10>2
GuIsUtUbkabUneyIgGacR)ab;)anfaetIPaKsMNaksármYy)anBIsárGMeBA b¤sáretñat. kareFVIetsþ
smamaRtGuIsUtUbTaMgenaH)ankøayCameFüa)aymYysMxan; kñúgkarRtYtBinitüKuNPaBmðÚbGahar
sRmab;GñkeRbI dUcCakareFVI[TwkXμMúminsuT§ b¤RsaefakEdlmansUluysüúgsár. enAkñúgmnÞIr
BiesaFKImImankarGnuvtþCaeRcInén\T§iBlGIusUtUb rYmTaMgTMnak;TMngs,iúcsRmUbRkhmGaMgRhVa
CamYylMj½rm:UelKul.

10>3 lkçN³énGIuRdUEsn
dUcEdl)anerobrab;BIxagedIm GIuRdUEsnCaFatumYyEdlenAEtÉg ehIyk¾minsßitenAkñúg
epSgeTotkñúgtaragxYbEdr. karEksMrYlPaBedIméntaragxYbxøH)andak;vacUlCasmaCikénRkum
elah³Gal;kaLaMg xøHdak;cUlkñúgRkumGaLÚEsn xøHeTotdak;vacUlRkumTaMgBIr ehIynigGñkxøH
eTotdak;Rtg;TItaMgrbs;vapÞal;. ehtuplEdlKaMRT nigRbqaMgBITItaMgén H kñúgRkumTaMgBIr KW
Rkum 1 nig 17 )ansegçbkñúgtarag 10.2 xageRkam. tamry³esovePAenH GIuRdUEsnmanTItaMg

10-6
 CMBUkTI10

mYyCarbs;vakñúgtaragxYb CaBiess taMgBIGIuRdUEsnmaneGLicRtUGviC¢manFMCagelah³Gal;ka

LaMg nigtUcCagRkumGaLÚEsn vak¾)aneKdak;enAcMBak;kNþalénRkumTaMgBIr .
tarag 10.2 : ehtuplkñúgkardak; H kñúgRkum 1 b¤ 17
Rkumelah³Gal;kaLaMg RkumGaLÚEsn
Rsb *begáItGuIy:ugmU:NUviC¢man H (H O ) *CaGelah³
+
3
+

*man e Grb‘Ital; S EtmYy

−
*begáItm:UelKulDIGatUm

RbqaMg *minEmnCaelah³ *kMrekItmanGuIy:ug H −

*KμanRbtikmμCamYy H O 2 *skmμPaBKImIxøH

DIGIuRdUEsnCa]sμ½nKμanBN’ Kμankøni EdlGacmanTRmg;CaGgÁFaturavenAsItN

u Pð aB-253 C o

CaGgÁFaturwgenA − 259 C . ]sμ½n H BuMsUvmanskmμPaBeT mYyEpñkKWedaysarEtfamBl

o
2

sm<½n§kUv:aLg;rvag H – H x<s; (436KJ.mol ) . sm<½n§enHxøaMgCagsm<½n§kUv:aLg;énGIuRdUEsn

−1

EdlbegátI CamYyGelah³epSgeTot dUcCafamBlsm<n½ r§ vag H – S KW 347KJ.mol. enAeBl

EdlfamBlsm<½n§énplitplRsedogKña b¤FMCagGgÁFatuRbtikr KWRbtikmμGacekIt eLIgeday
ÉkÉg dUcCaRbtikmμmYy KWcMehHrvag]sμ½n H nig O . RbsinebI]sμ½n H nig O RtUv)an
2 2 2 2

laycUlKña ehIypþl;páaePøIg enaHRbtikmμnwgpÞúH ³

2H 2 (g ) + O 2 (g ) → 2H 2 O(g )

2H(g) + O(g) RbtikmμRtUveTAtamGg;tal;BI BIeRBaHmankarfycuH

kñúgGg;RtUBI. RbsinebIeyIgbEnßmfamBlsm<½n§eyIg
+436 kJ
H 2 (g) + O(g)
eXIjfasm<½n§xøaMgrvag O – H (464KJ/mol) eFVI[
+248 kJ
-928 kJ
smIkarETm:UDINamicminRbRBwtþeTA)an(rUbTI10>3) .
H 2 (g) + 1/2 O 2 (g) DIGIuRdUEsnRbtikmμCamYyGaLÚEsnEdl
-244 kJ el,ÓnRbtikmμfycuHkñúgRkum. vamanRbtikmμCamYy
rUbTI10>3 vdþGg;tal;BIkñúg
H 2 O(g)
DIPøúyGredIm,I)an HF :
H 2 ( g ) + F2 ( g ) → 2HF( g )
karbegáItTwk
RbtikmμrvagDIGIuRdUEsnCamYyDIGasUtyWtxøaMgebIKμankatalIkr
3H2(g) + N2(g) 2NH3(g)

10-7
GIuRdUEsn

enAsItuNðPaBx<s; DIGIuRdUEsneFVIerdukmμelIelah³GuksuItCaeRcIn[køayCaelah³vij
dUcCaTg;Edg II GuksuIt rgerdukmμkøayCaelah³ Cu ³
Δ
CuO( s) + H 2 ( g ) ⎯⎯→ Cu ( s) + H 2 O( g )
kñúgvtþmankatalIkr ¬Pd b¤ Pt¦ DIGIuRdUEsneFVIerdukmμsm<½n§BIrCan;rvag C – C [
køayCasm<½n§1Can;. ]TahrN_ eGtan C H rgerdukmμkøayCaeGtan C H ³
2 4 2 6

H 2 C = CH 2 (g) + H 2 (g ) → H 3C − CH 3 (g )
erdukmμCamYy H RtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IbMElgxøaj;minTan;Eq¥t¬eRbgjaMu)an¦Edlman
2

sm<½n§2Can;rvagkabUnnigkabUnCaeRcIn[mankarrlayx<s; mYyEpñkFMCaBBYkxøaj;Eq¥t
(margarines) EdlmanpÞúksm<½n§BIrCan;rvagkabUn nigkabUnBIr b¤bI.

1> karerobcMDIGIuRdUEsn
kñúgmnÞIrBiesaF ]sμ½nGIuRdUEsnGacRtUv)aneKplitedayRbtikmμrvagGasuItravCamYy
elah³CaeRcIn. CaBiessRbtikmμEdlgayRsYl KWRbtikmμrvag Zn nig HCl ³
Zn( s ) + 2 HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H 2 ( g )
manviFIxusEbøkKñaCaeRcInénkarsMeyaKvakñúg]sSahkmμ dUcCadMeNIrkarERbTRmg;eday
cMhayTwk (Steam reforming). kñúgCMhanTImYyéndMeNIrkarenH RbtikmμRsUbkemþAén]sμ½n
FmμCatiemtanKWRtUv)andutCamYycMhayTwkenAsItuNðPaBx<s; eK)ankabUnmU:NUGuksIut nig]sμ½n
GIuRdUEsn. vaBi)akkñúgkarEjkplitplBIr BIeRBaHRtUvkarbBa©úHRtCak;rhUtdl; –205ºCmuneBl
kabUnmU:NUGuksIutRtUveKrMedaH. edIm,IedaHRsaybBaðaenH ehIybegáInTinñplén]sμ½n H eK 2

bBa©úHsItuNðPaBmþgeTot bEnþmcMhayTWk ehIy[l,ayTaMgenaHqøgkat;RbB½n§katalIkr

xusKña. eRkamlkçxNÐTaMgenH CO RtUv)anrgGuksuItkmμkñúgRbtikmμbeBa©jkemþAkøayCa]sμ½n
kabUnic ehIyTwkEdlbEnßmRtUv)anrgerdukmμ køay]sμ½nGIuRdUEsn ³
CH 4 (g) + H 2 O(g ) ⎯Ni
⎯/ 800
⎯⎯ ºC
→ CO(g ) + 3H 2 (g )

CO(g ) + H 2 O(g) ⎯Fe

⎯2O⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯→ CO 2 (g ) + H 2 (g )
3 / Cr2 O 3 / 400 º C

]sμ½nkabUnicGacRtUv)aneKrMedaHecjBI]sμ½nGIuRdUEsntamviFICaeRcIn. viFImüa:gKWbBa©úH
sItuNðPaBplitpleRkamsItuNðPaBkMNén]sμ½nkabUnic(–78ºC)Edlx<s;CagsItuNðPaBkMN
én]sμ½nGIuRdUEsn(–253ºC)y:agxøaMg b:uEnþviFIenHtRmUv[manRbB½n§bBa©úHsItuNðPaBkRmitx<s;
xøaMgNas;. viFImüa:geTot KWTak;TgeTAnwgkarbBa©Úll,ay]sμ½nenaH[qøgkat;sUluysüúg

10-8
 CMBUkTI10

b:UtasüÚmkabUNat (K CO ). ]sμ½nkabUnicCaGuksuItGasuItmindUcCakabUnmU:NUGuksIut Edl

2 3

NWteT. 1molén]sμ½n CO RbtikmμCamYyGuIy:ugkabUNatelIs nig H O eKTTYl)an 2mol

2 2

énGuIy:ugGuIRdUEsnkabUNat. enAeBlRbtikmμenHcb; sUluysüúgb:UtasüÚmGuIRdUEsnkabUNat

GacRtUveKykecj nigdutedIm,IbegáIt)anCabU:tasüÚm.
eKTTYl)ankabUNatenAeBlEdl]sμ½nkabUnicsuT§GacRtUv)anRbmUl ehIyrkSasm<aF
[dUcsm<aFbriyakas ³
K 2CO3 (aq ) + CO2 ( g ) + H 2O(l) → 2 KHCO3 (aq)
tameKalbMNg KW]sμ½n H ¬m:UelKul H ¦ suT§TTYl)anBIdMeNIrkarETm:UKImI EdlCa
2 2

eKalbMNgcg;)an. eTaHbIy:agNa ]sμ½n H suT§ ¬y:agtic 99.9%¦ GacRtUv)anbegáIteday

2

viFIKImIviPaK dUcCaGKÁisnIviPaK NaOH b¤ KOH . RbtikmμbegáIt]sμ½n O enAxagGaNUt nig 2

H katUt ³
2 katUt −
: 2 H O(l) + 2e → 2OH (aq) + H ( g )
2
−
2

GaNUt 2 3
+
: 3H O(aq) → 2 H O (l) + O ( g ) + 2e 1
2 2
−

EsVgrkGuIy:ugRTIGuIRdUEsnenAkñúgcRkvaL
eyIgKitfa RbtikmμKImIGacekIteLIgenAsm<aFRbEhl 100kPa nigsItuNðPaB 25ºC
EdlCalkçxNÐénépÞPBEpndIenH b:uEnþRbePTKImIEdlmanesßrPaBGacxusKñay:agxøaMgNas;
enAtamkEnøgxus²KñaelIelak ehIyRbePTKImImYyEdlKYr[cab;GarmμN_enaH KWkacug
RTIGuIRdUEsn (H ) ekIteLIgenAkñúgbriyakasEpndIkRmitx<s;EdlCakEnøgBnøWRBHGaTitü nig
+
3

RbPBepSgeTotmaneGLicRtugEdlmanfamBlx<s;b:HTgÁicKñaCamYym:UelKul H ³ 2
− + −
H 2 ( g ) + e → H ( g ) + 2e
2

H 2+ ( g ) + H 2 ( g ) → H 3+ ( g ) + H ( g )
GuIy:ugRTIGuIRdUEsnmanesßrPaBxøaMgenAeRkamsm<aFTab ehIymans,iúcbeBa©jlMj½rxøaMg
køa. dUcenH GñkKImIGvkasGacsikSaBIGuIy:ugRTIGIuRdUEsnenAxageRkAEpndI KWenAPBRBhs,t×
PBesAr_ nigG‘uyr:anus edIm,Ipþl;Bt’manGMBIbriyakasx<s;én]sμ½nxøaMgkøaTaMgenH .
GuIy:ugmanpÞúknUvGatUmGuIRdUEsnragRtIekaNsm)atmanRbEvgsm<½n§rvag H–H 87pm.
vaCaesßrPaBETm:UDINamicEdlxusBIeK b:uEnþenAkñúgbriyakasEpndIGuIy:ugRtUvRbQmmuxnwg
RbtikmμrvagGuIy:ugepSg² ehIyRbtikmμbMEbkd¾sMxan;mYyKWCamYyeGLicRtug ³
H 3+ ( g ) + e − → H 2 ( g ) + H ( g )

10-9
GIuRdUEsn

rbkKMehIjfμI²minTan;manenAeLIyeT. tamry³karsikSaclnaTMnajéntaraEdlenA
Ek,r² taraviTUsnñidæanfa EpndIvilCuMvijtaraCaeRcIn. bc©úb,nñenH mantaraCag40RtUv)anbgðaj
b:uEnþKμannrNamñak;GacemIleXIjPBTaMgenaHpÞal;[)anc,as;eT. karcaMgénBnøWRBHGaTitü
BIPBTaMgenaHq¶ay ehIyexSayxøaMgeBkkñúgkarsegát b:uEnþetelTsSn¾ (telescope[EkvyWt])
sBVéf¶enH GacmansmtßPaBRKb;RKan;edIm,ItamdanBIs,iúcbeBa©jénRTIGIuRdUEsn vaRKan;EtCa
bBaðamYyéneBlevla nigkarGPivDÆénetelTsSn¾ muneBlkarbeBa©j[dwgnUvs,iúcRTIGIuRdUEsn
nwgbBa¢ak; edaypÞal;BIesßrPaBénEpndICuMvijtaraepSgeTotenAkñúgcRkvaLeyIg.

10>4 GuIRdY Hydrides

smaFatueTVPaKénGIuRdUEsnRtUv)aneK[eQμaHCaTUeTAfaCaGuIRdY. GIuRdUEsnmanTRmg;
CasmasFatueTVPaKCamYyFatuCaeRcIn ehIymancMnYneGLicRtUGviC¢manelItémømFüménFatu
TaMgGs;kñúgtaragxYbbnþicbnþÜcEtb:ueNÑaH. CalT§pl vaCaGelah³EdlmaneGLicRtUGviC¢man
exSayEdlbegáItCasmaFatuGuIy:UnicCamYyelah³maneGLicRtUviC¢manxøH nigCamYysmasFatu
kUv:aLg;CamYyGelah³xøH. elIsBIenHeTAeTot vabegáItCaGuIRdUénelah³CamYynwgelah³qøg
mYycMnYn. eKEbgEckGuIRTYCabIRbePTsMxan;² dUcbgðajkñúgrUbPaBTI 10.4
Ionic
Metallic He
Li Be Covalent B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh
rUbPaBTI 10.4: RbePTGuIRTY 3 KW GuIy:unickUv:aLg; nigelah³. manEtFatusMxan;nigRkumelah³ qøgeT EdlRtUv)an
bgðaj. GMbUrLg;TInIt nigGak;TInItmYycMnYnbegáItCaGuIRdYelah³¬min)anbgðajeT¦. cMeBaHFatu EdlKμanBN’ GuIRdY
minmanRbtikmμeLIy.

k-GuIRdYGuIy:Unic
RKb;GuIRdYGuIy:UnicTaMgGs;suT§EtCaGgÁFaturwgBN’s skmμbMput ehIyRtUv)anbegáIteday
elah³EdlmaneGLicRtUviC¢man. RkamGuIy:UnicTaMgenHmankacugelah³ nigGuIy:ugGuIRdY H . −

karbBa¢ak;BIkacugenH)anmkBIkareFVIGKÁisnIviPaKkñúglIcUmGuIRdYkñúg LiCl rlay. kñúgeBldMeNIr

karenHGIuRdUEsnekItenAxagGaNUtEdlenAeGLicRtUtxagbU:l (+) ³

10-10
 CMBUkTI10

2H − ( LiCl) → H 2 ( g ) + 2e −
GIuy:ugGIuRdYCaPñak;garerdukmμxøaMg. vaGaceFVIerdukmμTwk[køayeTACa]sμ½nGIuRdUEsn.
Rbtikmμrvagkal;süÚmGIuRdYCamYyTwkeBlxøHRtUv)aneKeRbIkñúgKImIsrIragÁEdlCaviFImYyeKTTYl
)anFaturMlays¶Üt³ CaH (s) + H O(l ) → Ca(OH ) (s) + H ( g )
2 2 2 2

x-GuIRdYkUv:aLg;
GIuRdUEsncgsm<½n§kUv:aLg;CamYyRKb;Gelah³¬elIkElgEt]sμ½nkMr¦ nigelah³Edl
maneGLicRtUviC¢manexSay dUcCakalüÚm(Ga) nigsMN)a:haMg(Sn). GuIRdYkUv:aLg;FmμtaesÞIrEt
TaMgGs;KWCa]sμ½nsßitkñúgsItuNðPaBbnÞb;. eKeFVIcMENkfñak;GuIRdYkUv:aLg;Ca3tUc²KW³
1-GuIRdYkUv:aLg;EdlmanGatUm H esIÞrNWt
2-GuIRdYkUv:aLg;EdlmanGatUm H viC¢man
3-GuIRdYkUv:aLg;EdlmanGatUmHEk,rGviC¢manedayrYmTaMgsmasFatubranEdl
exSay.
cMENkfñak;TI1 edaysarEtPaBb:UElrbs;vaexSayeFVI[kmøaMgGnþrmU:elKulrvag
m:UelKulGuIRdYEk,r²eTotRtUvEbkExJk. dUcenH GuIRdYkUv:aLg;TaMgenHCa]sμ½nEdlmancMNucrMBuH
Tab. ]TahrN_ dUcCaGuIRdUEsneselj:Úm H Se mancMNucrMBuH –60ºC nigpUsVIn (PH ) man
2 3

cMNucrMBuH –90ºC .
RkumEdlFMCageKbg¥s;énGuIRdYkUv:aLg;Ek,rNWtmankabUn ¬BBYkGuIRdUkabY¦ cUlpSMdUcCa
Gal;kan Gal;Esn Gal;suIn nigGuIRdUkabYGar:Um:aTic. GuIRdUkabYCaeRcInsuT§EtCamU:elKulFM²
EdleFIV[kmøaMgGnþrm:UelKulxøaMgRKb;RKan; EdlGaceFVI[vakøayCaGgÁFaturwg b¤ravenA
sItuNðPaBbnÞb;)an. GuIRdUkabYTaMgGs;KμanesßrPaBETm:UDINamic EdlGaceFVI[man
GuksuItkmμ)aneT. ]TahrN_ ³ emtanmanRbtikmμCamYy O edayÉkÉgedayTTYl)an CO
2 2

nig H O ³ CH (g) + 2O (g) → CO (g) + 2H O(g) ΔG º = −800KJ / mol

2 4 2 2 2

b:uEnþRbtikmμenHnwgminekIteLIgeT ebIeKmindutl,ayenHedayGNþatePøIg. Rbtikmμ

enHpþl;famBlskmμd¾xøaMg.
GamU:ja:k; Twk nigGuIRdUEsnPøúyGrY KWsßitenAkñúgcMENkfñak;TI2énGuIRdYkUv:aLg; Edl
smasFatu H manbnÞúk(+) elIGatUm H. smasFatuTaMgenHxusBIGuIRdYkUv:aLg;epSgeTot
edayvamancMNucrMBuHnigrlayx<s;xusBIFmμta . lkçN³enHRtUvbgðajkñúg Figure 10.5 .

10-11
GIuRdUEsn

bnÞúk (+) enAelIGatUm H kñúgsmasFatuTaMg +20 HF

0
enaHRtUv)anTajedayKU e énGatUmepSgeTot edIm,I -20
–
HI
-40

sItuNPð aB
begáIt)ansm<½n§exSay EdleKehAfa sm<½n§ H b:uEnþtam -60 HBr
eQμaHCak;lak;rbs;va KWs<anRbUtug (Protonic Bridge). -80 HCl
-100
eTaHbICasm<½n§RbUtugKwkmøaMgGnþrkmμmU:elKulxøaMg b:uEnþva 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cMnYneGLicRtug
enAEtexSayebIeyIgeRbobeFobnwgsm<½n§kUv:aLg;.
rUbPaBTI 10.5 ³cMNucrMBuHénRkum 17
]TahrN_ ³ H O…HOH sm<½n§RbUtugmanfamBlsm<½n§
2

22kJ/mol ebIeRbobeFobnwgsm<½n§kUv:aLg;én O–H Edlmantémø 464kJ/mol. kñúgGtßbT

ENnaMKImIdMbUg s<anRbUtugRtUv)aneKcat;TukCaGnþrkmμDIb:Ul-DIb:UlxøaMg EdlekIteLIgCalT§pl

énsm<½n§kUv:aLg;b:UElxøaMgkñúgmU:elKulnImYy². eyagtambBaØtþiénTMnajeGLicRtUsþaTic
GuIRdUEsnkørYKYrEtekIteLIgdUcenHEdr b:uEnþvaminekIteLIgeT.
sm<½n§ H GacRtUv)aneKerobrab;CaKMrUkUv:aLg;mYy edayeRbIRTwsþIGrb‘Ítal;énm:UelKul.
eKeRbIKMrUenHsRmab;dak;bBa©ÚlKñaénGrb‘Ítal; σ mYyénm:UelKulTwkmYyeTAGrb‘Ítal; σ mYyén
mU:elKulTwkmYyeTot. GnþrkmμrvagGrb‘Ítal;TaMgBIrenH GacbegáIt)anCaKUsm<½n§mYy
b¤minEmnCaKUsm<½n§mYy EdlkñúgenaHmanKU e mYyKUsRmab;sm<½n§mYy . karsegátbgðajfa
–

RbEvgsm<½n§ H CaFmμtaxøICagplbUkénGgát;p©it Van der Waals énGatUmBIrEdlKaMRTKMrUenH.

elIsBIenHeyIgeXIjfa sm<½n§RbUtugxøaMgCagehIysm<½n§kUv:aLg; O–H EbrCaexSayCag.
dUcenH sm<½n§BIr KWmanTMnak;TMngKñaeTAvijeTAmky:agxøaMg .
kñúgcMENkTI 3 énGIuRdYEdlGatUm H enAEk,rGviC¢man mandUcCaDIbr:an (B H ) suILan
2 6

(SiH ) esm:an (GeH ) nigEsþNan rW sMN)a:haMg IV GuIRdY (SnH ). GuIRdYm:UNUEmTaMgenHman

4 4 4

H EdlmanbnÞúk (–) ehIymanRbtikmμCamYy O y:agxøaMgkøa. ]TahrN_ eBleKdut

2

sMN)a:haMg IV GuIRdY eKTTYl)ansMN)a:haMg IV GuksuIt nig H O ³ 2 2

SnH 4 (g) + 2O 2 (g ) → SnO 2 (g ) + 2H 2 O(l)

GatUm H EdlmanbnÞúk (–) mYycMnYnmanskmμPaBKImIxøaMgCagGatUm H EdlbnÞúk (+)
dUcCasm<½n§kñúgbr:an Casm<½n§EdlmanlkçN³Biess EdleyIgnwgelIkeTAsikSaenA Chapter
13, Section 13-4. GuIRdYxøH manTRmg;b:UlIEmCamYyGatUm H edaycgsm<½n§rvagGatUmelah³

nigelah³ Edlelah³TaMgenaHCaelah³exSay dUcCa Be, Mg, Al, Cu, nig Zn EdlGac

begáItTRmg;TaMgenH)an.
10-12
 CMBUkTI10

K-GuIRdÜénelah³ (d-Block)
elah³qøgmYycMnYnbegáItcMENkfñak;TI3CamYyGuIRdÜ KWGuIRdYénelah³. smasFatu
TaMgenHmineKarBsÞWsüÚemRTI dUckñúgusmasFatuénGuIRdUEsnnigTItaj:Úm EdlmanpleFobFMbMput
kñúgrUbmnþ TiH ehIylkçN³énsmasFatuenaHKwsaMjauMNas;. dUcenHTItaj:ÚmGuIRdYxagelI
1.9

\LÚveKeCOfaman (Ti )(H ) (e ) . vaCaeGLicRtugesrIEdleFIV[manepøkelah³ ehIy

4+ –
1.9
–
2.1

mankRmitcmøgGKÁisnIx<s;rbs;smasFatuTaMgenH. dg;sIuetrbs;GIuRdYelah³EtgEtRsalCag
dg;sIueténelah³suT§ eRBaHEtkarbþÚrTRmg;rbs;vakñúgRkaménelah³ ehIysmasFatuTaMgenaH
EtgEtRsYyCaFmμta. kRmitcmøgGKÁisnIrbs;GIuRdYelah³CaTUeTATabCagelah³edImrbs;va
(parent metals).

GIuRdYelah³CaeRcInRtUv)aneKerobcMeLIgedaydutkemþAelah³CamYyGIuRdUEsneRkam
sm<aFx<s;. enAsItuNðPaBx<s; GIuRdUEsn)anPayCa]sμ½nDIGIuRdUEsnmþgeTot. sMelah³CaeRcIn
(dUcCa Ni La) GacRsUb nigbeBa©jnUvbrimaNGIuRdUEsnd¾eRcIn. GgÁFaturavénGIuRdUEsnEdlman
5

dg;sIuetRbUtugelIsmancMNab;GarmμN_ya:gxøaMgEdlCaviFImYysRmab;pÞúkGIuRdUEsneRbIR)as;kñúg
yanCMniHEdleRbIfamBlGIuRdUEsn.
bMerIbMras;d¾sMxan;rbs;GIuiRdYelah³KWkñúgGaKuyGIuRdYénelah³nIEkl EdlRtUv)aneKeRbI
kñúgkMuBüÚT½ryYréd ma:sIunbUmFUlI\tExS Bil nigma:sIuneGLicRtUnic\tExSCaeRcIneTot. tRmÚvkar
sarsMxan;énGaKuyenaH KWmannUvsMelah³mYyEdlGacRsUbnigbeBa©jGIuRdUEsnvij)anenA
sItuNðPaBFmμta. sMelah³EdlRsUbGIuRdUEsnTaMgenH pSMP¢ab;elah³ A mYyEdlbeBa©j
kemþAenAeBlbgáTRmg;GIuRdY CamYyelah³ B mYyEdlRsUbkemþAenAeBlbgáTRmg;GIuRdY. dUcenH
sMelah³enaHGacmansmamaRtbYnya:gKW AB (TiFe) AB (ZnMn ) AB (LaNi ) nig A B
2 2 5 5 2

(Mg Ni). eKKitfakarlayl,aybBa©ÚlenH pþl;nUvTRmg;GIuRdYEdlmanfamBlNWtd¾sMxan;

2

mYy. vaCal,ayén TiNi nig LaNi Edlmanmuxgard¾sMxan;. enAkñúgfμxagGaNUtnIEkl II

2 5

GIuRduksIutrgGuksIut kmμCanIEkl III GuksIut ehIyxagkatUtTwkrgerdukmμCaGatUmGIuRdUEsn

RsUbedaysMelah³
Ni (OH ) 2 ( s) + OH − (aq) → NiO (OH )( s) + H 2O(l ) + e −

[ Ni − alloy ] + H 2O(l ) + e − → [ Ni − alloy ]H + OH − (aq)

10-13
GIuRdUEsn

10>5 karcgsm<½n§rvagTwknigGIuRdUEsn
TwkCaGgÁFaturavd¾samBaØmYyenAelIEpndI. ebIKμanTwkCaGgÁFaturMlaysRmab;Rbtikmμ
KImInigKImICIv³eT enaHk¾KμanCIvitrs;enAelIEpndIEdr. b:uEnþkareRbobeFobeTAnwgGIuRdYdéTeTotenA
kñúgRkum16 enaH[eyIgnwgKitfavanwgkøayeTACa]sμ½nenA
sItuNðPaBEpndI. CakarBittamry³kareRbobeFobenH eyIg
nwgKitfaTwkrlayenA -100 C nigBuHenA -90 C (rUbTI 10.6).
o o

rUbTI 10.6 ³ RbePTGgÁFaturavénGIuRdYkñúgRkumTI 16. ebImU:elKul

Twkmin)ancgsm<½n§CamYymU:elKul TwkepSgeTotedaysm<½n§GIuRdU
EsneT enaHGgÁFaturavénTwknwgenAcenøaH -90 C nig -100 C.
o o

sm<½n§GIuRdUEsn[plmYyeTotCalkçN³d¾kRménTwk
Edlpasravmandg;sIuetFMCagpasrwg. cMeBaHsamsFatuCaeRcInmU:elKulrbs;vaRtUv)anpþúMenA
CitKñakñúgpasrwgCagkñúgpasrav dUcenHGgÁFaturwgmandg;sIuetFMCagGgÁFaturav. tamFmμta
GgÁFaturwgnwgcuHeTAEpñkxageRkam enAeBlEdlvacab;epþImkMNkkñúgGgÁFaturav. ebIvaGac
ekIteLIgcMeBaHTwk Twkbwg Tenø nigsmuRT EdlenAdMbn;RtCak;énBiPBelaknwgkkBIeRkam
eLIgmkelIenAeBlsItuNðPaBcuHeRkamsItuNðPaBkMNk. dUcenH Pav³rs;Edlrs;enAkñúgTwk
nwg)at;bg;TaMgGs;.

rUbTI 10.7 ³ rUbtMNagTRmg;TwkkkEdlbgðajBIeRKagebIk. rgVg;FMtag[GatUmGIuRdUEsn.

10-14
 CMBUkTI10

bu:EnþTwkkkmandg;sIuetRsalCagTwkravFmμta dUcenHehIyenAsItuNðPaBeRkamsUnüRs
Tab;TwkkkekIteLIgenAelIépÞTwkbwg Tenø nigsmuRTTaMgenaH edayrkSaTwkxageRkam[ravenA
dEdl. TaMgenHk¾edaysarEtTRmg;ebIkénTwkkkmanbNþajsm<½n§GIuRdUEsn (rUbTI 10.7).

Twk³ GgÁFaturMlayd¾Gs©arüfμI
taMgBIeyIgcab;epþImstvtSén “KImIébtg” manbBaðad¾sMxan;mYykñúgvis½y]sSahkmμKW
2

beRmIbRmas;GgÁFaturMlay. GgÁFaturMlayCaeRcInCaBiessGgÁFaturMlayEdleKeRbIenAkñúg
karsMeyaKsmasFatusrIragÁsuT§EtBul ehIybMBuldl;brisßan b:uEnþeK)anykGgÁFaturMlay
mYymkCMnYsKWTwk. kalBImunTwkRtUv)aneKhamXat;min[eRbIkñúgkarsMeyaKsmasFatu
srIragÁ eRBaHvamankRmitrlayTabrhUtdl;Ek,rsUnü Edll¥sRmab;GgÁFaturlayEdlexSay
ehIyminbU:El. eTaHCaya:genHkþI enAsItuNðPaBnigsm<aFx<s; lkçN³rbs;TwkERbRbYlKYr[
kt;smÁal;.
TwkenAelIskMrit(Supercritical)RtUv)aneKpSBVpSayCagBIrTsvtSmkehIyfaCaPñak;gar
sRmab;lagCRmHsMNl;Bul. enAsItuNðPaBBI 400-500 C nigsm<aFBI 20-40MPa TwkGac
o

rlaycUlCamYyGuksIuEsn nigCatiBulkñúgbriyakas)an. eRkamlkçxNÐd¾xøaMgkøaenH

mU:elKulsrIragÁCaeRcInRtUvbMEbkCamU:elKultUc² dUcCa CO , H O nigGasIutkørIRTic. eRkam
2 2

lkçxNÐCitkMrit TwkCaGgÁFaturMlayd¾l¥mYysRmab;sMeyaK CaCagsRmab;bMEbk. PaBxus

EbøkKñarvagTwkravFmμta nigTwkenAeRKamkMrit KWefrDIeGLicRTic (mincmøgcrnþedaykarvas;nUv
PaBbU:Elrbs;GgÁFaturMlay). karbegáInsItuNðPaB nigsm<aFnaM[efrDIeGLicRTicfycuHya:g
xøaMg edaykat;bnßyPaBbU:Elrbs;va[mantémøEk,rGaestUn. ]TahrN_ GibtanmankMrit
rlayxøaMgCagtUlUyEGn 10 dgenAkñúgTwkCitkMrit. dUcenH TwkkøayCaGgÁFaturMlayd¾l¥bMput
5

mYysRmab;RbtikrexSay nigminbU:El.
TwkCitkMrit(near critical)bMEbkÉkÉgCaGIuy:ugxøaMgCagTwkFmμta 10 dg. ebIman
3

kMhab;d¾FMénGIuy:ug H O nig OH RbtikmμkatalIsGasIutb¤)asGacerobcMeLIgedaymin

3
+ -

RtUvkarbEnßmGasIut b¤)ascUlkñúgRbtikreTotk¾)an. PaBxusEbøkKñaya:gxøaMgkñúgRbtikmμKImI

2
manns½yfa dMeNIkarKImIEdleKarbbrisßan.

10-15
GIuRdUEsn

srIragÁRtUv)anbnþ edIm,IeFIV[TwkCitkMrti s¥at nigminRtUvkarkatalIkr. tarag 10.3 bgðajBI

kareRbobeFoblkçN³énTwkravFmμta TwkCitkMrit nigTwkelIskMrit.
enAkñúgdMeNIrkar]sSahkmμRbEhlBI 50-80%énmUlFn nigtémøénRbtibtþikarRtUv)an
cMNayeTAnwgkarEbgEckénplitpl. karkat;bnßysm<aFénRbtikmμTwkCitkMriteFIV[efr
DIeGLicRTicénTwkekIneLIg. pÞúyeTAvij karRtlb;enHeFIV[plitplsrIragÁminrlay ehIy
GacEjk)anedaygayRsYl.
RbsinebIdMeNIrkarénTwkCitkMrit)anl¥ ehtuGIV)anCaeKmineRbIva[)anTUlMTUlay?
edIm,ITTYl)anlkçxNÐenH eKRtUveRbIkMhab;FM cMNayeRcIn eRbIEdkEfbeFIVsm<aF dUcenH
eKRtUvcMNayGs;eRcInNas;. b:uEnþ RbtikmμxøHeRbIFatuKImIEdlFn;dUcCa Ti(éføNas;)RtUv)aneK
eRbICaRbGb;Rbtikmμ)an. ya:gNak¾edayKWtMrUv[mankarsikSaRsavRCavelIlkçxNÐ[)an
RbesIrsinmunnwgdak;karvinieyaKTun. karsMeyaKsmasFatusrIragÁCaCMnYjEdleRbIGgÁFatu
rMlayCaTwkCitkMritpþl;nUvKuNsm,tiþd¾eRcIn dUcCaGacecosputnUvRbB½n§GgÁFaturMlay srIragÁ
bM)at;nUvkatalIkrEdlmincg;)an ecosputBIplitplEdlmincg;)an nigpþl;nUvCMerIs
RbtikmμEdlnwgmkdl;qab;²enH.
taragTI 10.3 lkçN³énTwk
lkçxNÐFmμta CitkMrit elIskMrit
sItuNðPaB ( C)
o
25 275 400

sm<aF (kPa) 100 6000 20 000

dg;sIuet (g.cm )
-3
1.0 0.7 0.1

efrDIeGLicRTic 80 20 2

10-16
 CMBUkTI10

enAeBlrlay sm<½n§TaMgenHRtUv)anpþac; ehIyTRmg;ebIkk¾)anFøak;cuHCaEpñk². kar

pøas;bþÚrenHbegáIndg;suIetGgÁFaturav ehIymandg;sIuet
GtibrmaenA 4ºc edaysarEtkar)ak;Føak;cuHénsm<½næ
GIuRdUEsnrbs;m:UelKulTwk edaybnßydg;suIeteFVI[clna
m:UelKulekIneLIgenAeBlbegáInsIutuNðPaB.
edIm,IvaytémøBIlkçN³rbs;Twk eyIgRtUvemIl
düaRkampas. düaRkamenHbgðajBIpaszitefrETm:U-
DINamicénFatu b¤smasFatu edayGnuKmn_nwgsItNða
PaBnigsm<aF. rUbTI10.8 bgðajBIdüaRkampasbrisuT§
mYy. tMbn;cenøaHrvagbnÞat;tag[pas EdlmanesßrPaB
ETm:UDINamiceRkamlkç½NÐsm<aF nigsItuNðPaBBiess
mYy. cMNucrlaynigrMBuHsþg;daGacRtUveKkMNt;eday
karbþÚrpøas;enAsm<aFsþg;da 100 Kpa. enAeBlEdl
G½kSedkRtUv)aneKKUsecjBIsm<aFsþg;da eK)anG½kS
sItuNðPaB EdlcMNucrlayCabnÞat;enAcenøaHGgÁFaturwg
nigrav. esÞIrEtRKb;FatuTaMgGs;bnÞat;cenøaHGgÁFaturwg
nigravmanemKuNR)ab;TisviC¢man (positive slope).
karERbRbYlenHmann½yfakñúgkareFVI[sm<aFx<s;RKb;RKan;edIm,I)anCapasravnwgnaM[GgÁFatukk.
eTaHya:gNak¾edayTwkmandüaRkampasminRbRktImYy eRBaHdg;sIueténTwkkkTabCag
Twkrav¬emIlrUbTI10.9¦. tameKalkarN_ Le Chatelier bgðajfa pasdg;sIuetF¶n;Cag
KWedaysarEtkarbegáInsm<aF. dUcenHcMeBaH
Twk karbegáInsm<aFenAelIpasGgáFaturwg Edl
mandg;sIuetTab )aneFVI[varlayCapasGgÁ
Faturav Edlmandg;sIuetF¶n;Cag. lkçN³min
RbRktIenaHGac[eyIgBak;Es,keCIgsIÁelITwk
kk)an eRBaHEtsm<aFén)atEs,keCIgenaH
CamYynwgkemþABIkmøaMgkkit (friction heating) EdleFIV[rlayépÞTwkkkpþl;nUvRsTab;
GgÁFaturavcuHdl;RbEhl -30ºc .
10-17
GIuRdUEsn

TwksMxan;Nas;kñúgKImI eRBaHvaGacCaGasIutpg )aspgEdl)anBIGUtUGIuy:ugkmμrbs;va.

2H2O(l) H3O (aq) OH- (aq)

10>6 køaRtat (Clathrates)

kñúgry³eBl 2-3 qñaMenH køaRtatCamnÞIrBiesaFEdlmanPaBcEmøk. bc©úb,nñ køaRtat
emtan nig]sμ½nkabUnickMBugkøayCacMnab;GarmμN_sMxan;mYysRmab;brisßan. køaRtat KwCa
smasFatuEdlkñúgenaHGatUm b¤m:UelKultUc²RtUv)anCab;enAkúñgRbehag kñúgbNþajRkamrbs;
va. vaminRtUv)anP¢ab;edaysm½<n§KImI dUecñHvaminEmnCasmasFatuBitR)akdeT. eQμaHenH
)anBIPasaLataMgfa Clathratus Edlmann½yfa “B½T§edayr)aMg” (enclosed behind Bars).
enAkñúgkarsikSaenH eyIgnwgepþateTAelI]sμ½nkøaRtaténTwk EdleBlxøHeKehAfa]sμ½nGIuRdat.
eTaHbICaBakü“]sμ½nGIuRdat”RtUv)aneKeRbIya:gTUlMTUlay b:uEnþvamin Tan;RtwmRtUvc,as;las;eT
eRBaHBaküfa GIuRdatCaFmμtabBa¢ak;BITMnajGnþrm:UelKul rvagFatu nigm:UelKulTwkenACMuvij
dUcCakñúgGIuy:ug GIuRdatelah³ ]sμ½nkRmkøaRtat)aneRbI]TahrN¾BImunénkøaRtatmYy.
enAeBlenaHKμansmasFatuKImIén]sμ½nkRmRtUv)aneKsÁal;eT. dUcenH køaRtat)anpþl;lkçN³
KImIsRmab;EtFatuTaMgenaH. ]TahrN_esNugrlaykñúgTwkeRkamsm<aF ehIysUluysüúg
RtCak;eRkamsUnüGgSaes enaHTRmg;CaRkaménsmasFatu Xe.H O RtUv)anbegáIt. kardut
2

RkamenHeFIV[vaPay]sμ½nPøam. KμanGnþrkmμKImIrvag]sμ½nkRm nigmU:elKulTwkeT ehIyGatUm

]sμ½nRtUvCab;kñúgcenøaHsm<½n§GIURdUEsnkñúgTRmg;Twkkk. enAeBlTwkkkrlay TRmg;Rbehag
)an)ak;Føak;cuH ehIy]sμ½nk¾Payecj. bu:EnþcMNucEdlsMxan;KWvtþmanva b¤GVIepSgeTotkññúg
TRmg;TwkkkeFIV[RkammanesßrPaB ehIyeFIV[cMNucrlayrbs;TwkkkekIneLIg)an BIrb¤
bIdWeRkelIsUnü.
k> emtankøaRtat
vaCakarrkeXIjnUvemtanGIuRtat(rUbTI 10.10) enAelIépÞTwksmuRTEdlbþÚrkøaRtatCa
bBaðad¾FMmYy. \LÚveyIgdwgfatMbn;d¾FMénépÞsmuRTmanRsTab;d¾Rkas;énemtankøaRtatEdl
enAeRkamRsTab;elIén)atsmuRT. RbEhlRsTab;køaRtatTaMgenH)anbegáIteLIgkñúgry³eBl
yUrNas;edayGnþrkmμénemtan EdleLIgFøayBIRsTab;eRkam)atsmuRTCamYyTwkesÞIrEtkk
EdlhUrRCabqøgkat;RsTab;)atsmuRT. RbsinebITwkmansItuNðPaBnigsm<aFeRkamcMNuc
rlayrbs;køaRtat køaRtatnwgekIteLIg. kñúg 1cm énGIuRdatmanpÞúk]sμ½nemtanRbEhl
3

10-18
 CMBUkTI10

175cm3 Edlvas;enA SATP (298K nig 100kPa). brimaNemtanénkøaRtatGacRKb;RKan;[

TwkkkGaceqH)an. eKeCOfa mankabUnenAkñúgemtankøaRtatkb;kñúgsmuRTelIBiPBelakeRcIn
Cag eTVdgkabUnTaMgGs;EdlmandUcCaFüÚg eRbg nig]sμ½nFmμCatikñúgdI.

rUbTI10.10
BIeRBaHesßrPaBénemtankøaRtatGaRs½yelIsItuNðPaB nigsm<aFeFIV[mankarRBYy
)armÖmYyBIbBaðaekInkemþATwksmuRT EdlnaM[rlaynUvkøaRtatenaH ehIybeBa©jmaDemtand¾
eRcInsem,ImnigPayecjeTAkñúgbriyakas. karPayén]sμ½nenHnwgb:HBal;y:agxøaMgdl;
GakasFatu eRBaHemtanCa]sμ½npÞHkBa©k;Edlman\Ti§Blx<s;. eK)anEvkEjkfa karERbRbYl
GakasFatuknøgeTAenHKWedaysarEtkarPayemtanBIkøaRtat. ]TahrN¾enAGtItkalyUrmk
ehIyeKehAfa “yuKTwkkk” EdlmannIvU:smuRTTabCagbc©úb,nñkal karbnßynIvU:TwkGacbnßy
sm<aFenAelIRsTab;)atsmuRT ehIyeFVI[]sμ½nemtanPayecj. karekIneLIgnUvbrimaN
emtannwgeFIV[ekInkemþATUTaMgBiPBelak nigeFVI;[rYcputBIyuKTwkkk.
x> ]sμ½nkabUnickøaRtat
karcab;TuknUv]sμ½nkabUnicedayTwksmuRTeRCA eKKitfaCaviFImYyedIm,IrkSaTuknUv]sμ½n
kabUnicEdlplitedayeragcRkplitGKÁisnI nig]sSahkmμ. enAeBlEdl]sμ½nkabUnicRtUv
RsUbeTAkñúgTwksmuRTeRCAenAsItuNðPaBnigsm<aFCMvij vanwgkøayCakøaRtatrwg. køaRtatenaH
manesßrPaBx<s; ]TahrN_enACeRmA 250m Edlmansm<aFRbEhl 2.7MPa køaRtatman

10-19
GIuRdUEsn

esßrPaBenAsItuNðPaB5 C. TwkkkFmμtamandg;sIuetTabCagTwkrav b:uEnþkøaRtat]sμ½nkabUnic

o

mandg;sIuetRbEhl 1.1g/cm ehIyliccUleTAkñúgCeRmATwksmuRT. eK)anRbmaNfarab;

-1

lanetanén]sμ½nkabUnicGace)aHecaltamviFIenH b:uEnþmanbBaðacMnYnbIsRmab;viFIenH. TImYy

EdlsMxan;CageKKWRsTab;]sμ½nkabUnickøaRtatnwgRKbmin[rs;énstVd¾kRmenA)atsmuRTeRCA²
EdlCakEnøgrkSaTukkøaRtat. TIBIrKWtamkarBiesaFEdl)anbgðajfa RtInwgmanbBaðakñúgkardk
degðImenAeBlBYkvaenAEk,rTwkEdlEq¥t]sμ½nkabUnic. TIbIkñúgry³eBlrab;lanqñaMkøaRtat
RbEhlCabMPay]sμ½nkabUnicEdlvasþúkTukcUleTAkñúgTwkenACMuvij Edlbgá[ pH rbs;Twk
smuRTfycuH. karERbRbYl pH eFIV[man\T§iBlGaRkk;dl;lMnwgénbrisßanCIvitenAkñúgTwk
smuRT.
10>7 TidæPaBCIv³énsm<½n§GIuRdUEsn
GIuRdUEsnCaFatusMxan;mYyenAkñúgkarrs;enArbs;Pav³rs;. Cak;Esþg vtþmanénCIvit
GaRs½yelIlkçN³BiessBIry:agénGIuRdUEsn KWkarxitCiténkRmiteGLicRtUGviC¢manrbs;kabUn
nigGIuRdUEsn nigsmtßPaBénGIuRdUEsnkñúgkarbegáItsm<½n§GIuRdUEsnenAeBlcgsm<n½§kUva:Lg;Ca
mYYyDIGasUt b¤DIGuksIuEsn. PaBbU:ElTabrbs;sm<½n§kabUn nigGIuRdUEsneFIV[smasFatusrIragÁ
manesßrPaB. kñúgdMeNIrkarCIv³k¾GaRs½yelIPaBbU:El nigminb:UElpgEdr ]TahrN_ Edll¥
bMputénPaBminb:UElKWCalIBIt. vasMxan;kñúgkareCOfa EpñkminbU:ElénmU:elKulCIv³ Edl
CaFmμtamanGatUmkabUnnigGIuRdUEsn mansarsMxan;dUcCaEpñkbU:ElEdr.

rUbPaBTI 10.11
sm<½n§GIuRdUEsnCaEpñkmYyd¾sMxan;énRKb;mU:elKulCIv³TaMgGs;. RbUetGIunmanTRmg;rbs;
vaedaysarEtsm<½n§GIuRdUEsn)anbegáItExSRbTak;KñarvagRcvak;. Rcvak;én DNA nig RNA

10-20
 CMBUkTI10

CasMPar³esenTic RtUv)anP¢ab;edaysm<½n§GIuRdUEsn. bu:Enþ elIsBIenHeTotsm<½n§GIuRdUEsnkñúg

Rcvak;rages<oBIrrbs;DNAKWminmanlkçN³RBav²eT. BYkvaekIteLIgedaykarpÁúMpÁÚCak;lak;én
)assrIragÁ. KUTaMgenHcgsm<½n§GIuRdUEsn eRBaHsmasFatuBIrpþúMcUlKñaKW[GatUmGIuRdUEsn
xitCitKña edIm,IbegáIt)ansm<½n§GIuRdUEsn. sm<½n§enHbgðajenAkñúgrUbTI 10.11énGnþrkmμrvag)as
BIr KWTImIn(Thymine) nigGaednIn(Adenine). vaCakarpÁúMpÁÚCak;lak;Edl[lT§plCa
smasFatutamlMdab;lMedayd¾Cak;lak;kñúgRcvak; DNA nig RNA ehIyCaRbB½n§mYyEdlGac
[mU:elKulTaMgenaHekIteLIgCafμIedaycmøgÉkÉg ehIyKμankMhus.
RbUetGIunTaMgGs;GaRs½yedaysm<½n§GIuRdUEsnsRmab;muxgarrbs;vapgEdr. RbUetGIun
manRcvak;mYy b¤BIrP¢ab;KñaeTAGamINUGasIut. bu:EnþRbUetGIunCaeRcInRtUvbegáItTRmg;bRgYm[tUc
ehIyeFIVEbbenH)anExSRbUetGIunRtUvcgCargVg; ehIymUlcUlKñaedayxøÜnvaedaysm<½n§GIuRdUEsn
EdlcgBIExSmYyeTAExSmYyeTot.

etImanCIvitrs;enATINaepSgeToteTenAkñúgRbB½n§RBHGaTitürbs;eyIg?
GñkKImI nigKImICIvviTUBi)akkñúgkarEsVgrkCIvitNaEdlminGaRs½ynwgTwkNas;. TwkCa
GgÁFaturMlayd¾sMxan;mYy ehIyvamansm<½n§GIuRdUEsnsRmab;[mU:elKulRbUetGIun nig DNA
begáItTRmg;d¾saMjauMrbs;va. enaHelIksMnYrfa TINamanTwk etITIenaHmanPav³rs;b¤eT?
rhUtmkdl;sBVéf¶enH vahak;dUcCasMnYrEdlTak;TgeTAnwgEtRTwsIþ eRBaHminTan;man
PBfμIepSgmYyNamanTwkenAeLIyeT. \LÚvkarykcitþTukdak;rbs;BYkeyIg KWepþatelIRBHc½nÞFM
rbs;PBRBhs,t×. kalBImuneKeCOfa RBHc½nÞrbs;PBepSgeTotenAkñúgRbB½n§RBHGaTitü KWdUc
RBHc½nÞrbs;PBEpndIrbs;eyIg manRKbdNþb;edayfμ FUlI nigKμanCIvitrs;enA. b:uEnþtamry³
rUbftEdl)anBIkarsegátrbs;GñkGvkas eyIgdwgfa RBHc½nÞrbs;PBRBhs,ti nigPBesAr_
bgðajnUvPaBxusEbøkKñaEdlminKYr[eCOBIépÞrbs;BYkva. PaBxusEbøkCageK KW Io Edlman
PñMePøIgs<an;F½r niglkçN³KImIyfaRbePT.
tamkarBitmaneRBaHc½n©FM²bYnrbs;PBRBhs,t× KW Io GWrU)a (Europa) hÁanImit
(Ganymede) nigkalItU (Callisto) (ragtamlMdab;cm¶ayBIPBRBhs,t×). GWrU)aCaeRBaHc½n

TIBIrEdlTak;TajGarmμN_ya:gxøaMgcMeBaHGñktaraviTUKIm.I RBHc½nÞrbs;eyIghak;dUcCaPBmYy
Edl“søab;”kñúgRbB½n§RBHGaTitü KWsMbUreTAedayreNþAPñMePøIg EdlekIteLIgedaykarTgÁicén
Gacm_páay (enAcenøaHPBRBhs,tinigPBesAr_) kñúgkMLúgeBlbnþbnÞab;énCIvitPUKmÖsaRsþTaMg
10-21
GIuRdUEsn

mUl. b:uEnþeK)anrkeXIjfaGWrU)aCaeRBaHc½n©EdlmanépÞrabesμICageK ehIymandg;sIuet

mFümTabNas;. dUcenHeKKitfaépÞrbs;vamanTwkkk. épÞTaMgenaHRtUvmanGgÁFaturavenA
yuKbc©úb,nñ EdlkkenAelIva[reNþAPñMePøIgemIlmineXIj ehIyépÞrelag.
sMnYrEdlelIkeLIgenHk¾hak;dUcCacg;dwgfaetImanTwkenAeRkamépÞTwkkkénRBHc½nÞGWrU)a
b¤Gt;. eyIgdwgfaTwkkkCaGIusULg;kemþAmYyd¾l¥ (eTaHbIépÞenaHmansItuNðPaB -160 C o

k¾eday) ehIykkitkñúgTwkeLIgnigcuHbgá
edaykmøaMgTajBIPBRBhs,t×CaRbPB
faBlmYyd¾l¥Edr. ecjBIsMnYrenHeFIV[
mansMnYrmYyeTot)ansYrfa RbsinebIman
Twwk etImankarvivtþénCIvitenATIenaHeT?
BIrbIqñaMeTAehIy sMnYrenHeFVI[mansMeNIc
bu:Enþ\LÚvenHKμaneToteT. \LÚveyIg)an
sÁal;)ak;etrIcEmøk EdlGacrs;enAkñúg
brisßanEdlminKYr[eCO. Cak;Esþgkarrs;
enArbs;)ak;etrIRtUv)aneKrkeXIjkμñúg
RsTab;TwkkkCit 4km BIeRkampÞaMgTwkkk
Gg;tactic ehIynigenAelIbwg Vostok.
edIm,IsegátBIépÞrbs;GWrU)a NASA )an
bBa¢ÚnnUv]bkrN_segátmüa:geTAPBRBHcnÞedIm,IRbmUlPaKsMNakTwkkk ehIyykvaRtlb;
mkvij. GkuslkarsegátenHRtUv)aneKRcanecal bu:EnþGacmanebskkmμmYyeTotnwgRtUv
)aneKesñIeLIgedIm,IeFIV[)aneCaKC½ynUvkic©kard¾sMxan;enH.
bc©úb,nñ eKEbrCacab;GarmμN_elIPBhÁanImit nigPBkalItU. hÁanImit CaPBmYyd¾FMbMput
rbs;PBRBhs,ti_ EdlCak;EsþgvaCaPBFMCageKkñúgRbB½n§RBHGaTitü ehIyvak¾FMCagPBBuF
eTot. hÁanImitk¾CaPBEdlmanépÞRKbdNþb;edayTwkkkEdr eTaHbImanPsþútagbgðajfava
manelah³EdkrlaykñúgsñÚlrbs;va. RbsinebIdUcenHEmn nwgmanRsTab;TwkenAeRkamTwk
kk. sRmab;PBenHkMras;TwkkkGacRkas;rhUtdl; 800 km dUcenHedIm,I)anTwkrav vaGacCa
kic©karEdlminGaceFIVeTA)an. bu:Enþ\LÚvmanPsþútagmYyeTotbgðajfaPBkalItUmansmuRTéRb

10-22
 CMBUkTI10

enAEpñkxageRkaménpÞaMgTwkkkcas;. bu:EnþebImanCIvitrs;enABitEmnkñúgRbB½n§RBHGaTitü GñkKImI

nigKImICIvviTUnwgKitfamanEtenAPBGWrU)aeT.

10>8 KMnUsbMRBYjénRbtikmμ
xageRkamCaKMnUsbMRBYjbgðajBIRbtikmμrbs;GIuRdUEsn³
NaH

Na

F2 O2
HF H2 H2O
Ti CuO
N2
bBaØtþisMxan; TiH1.9
NH3
Cu

• GIuRdUEsnCaFatu]sμ½nskmμ.
• GIuRdYEckCabIcMENk KWGIuyU:nic kUv:aLg;(EckCabIeTot) nigelah³.
• sm<½n§GIuRdUEsnCabBaØtþid¾sMxan;kñúgkarkMNt;lkçN³rUbrbs;Twk.
• køaRtat (emtan nig]s½nμkabUnic)køayCacMNab;GarmμN_xøaMgkñúgEpñkbrisßan.
BaküKnøwH
RbUtUm protium 10-2

dWetrüÚm deuterium 10-2

RTIcUm tritium 10-2

TwkF¶n; heavy water 10-2

ersUNg;ma:ejTicnuyekøEG‘ nuclear magnetic resonance NMR 10-3

ERbTRmg;edaycMhayTwk steam reforming 10-8

GuIRdY hydride 10-10

sm<½n§GIuRdUEsn hydrogen bonding 10-14

køaRtat clathrate 10-17

10-23
GIuRdUEsn

lMhat;
1> [niymn½y³ k> sm<½n§RbUtug x> sm<½n§GIuRdY
2> [niymn½y³ k> køaRtat x> düaRkampas
3> TwkkkmYydMu 0 C RtUv)aneKdak;cUlkñúgTwkrav 0 C Edr. dMuTwkkkelc cUrBnül;.
o o

4> etIGIusUtUbNaEdleKGacsikSatam NMR )an³ kabUn-12 GuksIuEsn-6 nigGuksIuEsn-7?

5> enAeBleyIgsikSaBIs,iúc NMR énFatumYy ehtuGIVeRbkg;sRmUbbgðajCa ppm?
6> ehtuGIVeKmincat;GIuRdUEsncUlkñúgRkumelah³Gal;kaLaMg?
7> ehtuGIVeKmindak;GIuRdUEsncUleTAkñúgRkumGaLÚEsnkñúgtaragxYb?
8> ehtuGIVeKeRbobeFobfaGIuRdUEsnminsUvmanRbtikmμPaB?
9> etIRbtikmμrvagGIuRdUEsn nigGasUt[CaGamU:ja:k;RbRBwtþtamGg;RtUBI b¤Gg;tal;BI?
edaymineRbItaragTinñn½ycUrbnül;.
10> sresrsmIkartagRbtikmμ³
k> tg;Esþn VI GuksIut nigGIuRdUEsndutkemþA
x> ]sμ½nGIuRdUEsn nigkør
K> GaluymIjÚ:m nigGasIutkørIRTicrav
11> sresrsmIkartagRbtikmμ³
k> bU:tasüÚmGIuRdUEsnkabUNatdutkemþA
x> eGTInCamYyGIuRdUEsn
K> sMN IV GuksIutCamYyGIuRdUEsndutkemþA
X> kal;süÚmGIuRdYCamYyTwk
12> cUrbgðajfakardutemtan³ CH ( g ) + 2O ( g ) → CO ( g ) + 2H O(l ) ekIteLIgedayÉk
4 2 2 2

Ég edayKNnasþg;damU:lénGg;tal;BI Gg;RtUBI famBlesrIénkardut)anBIkar Gg;tal;BIkMN

nigtémøBiténGg;RtUBI. eRbItaragTinñn½ykñúgesovePASI
13> cUrKUrvdþGg;tal;BItamRTwsþIsRmab;begáItGamU:ja:k(; RsedogrUbTI 10.3). edayeRbIfamBl
sm<½n§ nigkarbegáItGg;tal;BIsþg;daénGamU:ja:k;BItaragTinñn½ykñugesovePASI cUreRbobeFob
düaRkamrbs;GñkeTAnwgtarag 10.3 ehIysniñdæanBIPaBxusKña.
14> etIlkçN³rUbénGIuRdYGIuy:Unic nigGIuRdYkUva:Lg;xusKñadUcemþc?

10-24
 CMBUkTI10

15> cUrBiPakSaBIGIuRdYkUva:Lg;TaMgbIRbePT?
16> etIFatuxageRkamNaEdlGacbegáItCaGIuRdYGIuyU:nic elah³ kUva:Lg; b¤KμanesßrPaB GIuRdY³
k> Cr x> Ag K> P X> K
17> cUrsresrrUbmnþGIuRdYCamYyFatukñúgxYbTIbYncab;BI K dl; Br . etImankarERbRbYl
dUcemþcénrUbmnþTaMgenH? etIes‘rIénFatuBIrdMbUgxusBIFatuepSgeTotdUcemþc?
18> cUrKUrExSRkab;énkarbegáItGg;tal;BIrbs;kabUn sIulIsüÚm nigsMNGIuRdY (emIlesovePA SI)
EdlpÞúynwgPaBxusKñaéneGLicRtUGviC¢manrbs;GIuRdUEsnsRmab;GIuRdYnImYy². cUrBnül;BI
karERbRbYlenH?
19> cUrBüakrN_faetIFatudUcteTAénGIuRdYCa]sμ½n b¤GgÁFaturwg³
k> HCl x> NaH nigBnül;pg?
20> RbsinebIsm<½n§GIuRdUEsnrvagKUrGatUmGIuRdUEsn nigPøúyGrCasm<½n§GIuRdUEsnEdlxøaMgCageK
bg¥s; ehtuGIV)anCaTwkmancMNucrlayx<s;CagGIuRdUEsnPøúyGrY?
21> etIlkçN³sMxan;BIrya:gGIVrbs;GIuRdUEsnsRmab;CIvitrs;enA?
22> cUrsresrsmIkartagRbtikmμkñúgKMnUsbMRbYjTaMgGs;.
lMhat;bEnßm
23> BüakrN_faetIGIuRdYxageRkamNaxøHEdlmansm<½n§GIuRdUEsnxøaMg ehIyTajfaetIGIuRdYnImYy
²sßitkñúgpasGIVenAsItuNðPaBbnÞb;³
k> H O
2 2 2x> P H
4 2 K> N H
4 X> B H
2 6

24>cUrsresrsmIkartulükarénGuksIutkmμxül;CamYy³
k> B H
2 6 x> PbH
4 K> BiH
3

25> GIuy:ugGIuRdYCYnkalRtUv)aneKKitfaRsedogeTAnwgGIuy:ugGaLÚEsn. ]TahrN_ famBl

bNþajén NaOH nig NaCl, -808 kJ.mol nig -788 kJ.mol erogKña. bu:EnþGg;tal;BIén
-1 -1

NaCl tUcCagsUdüÚmGaLÚEsnYxøaMgNas; dUcCa NaOH. edayeRbItaragTinñn½ykñúgesovePASI

KNnatémøGg;tal;BIénsmasFatuBIr ehIybBa¢ak;BIktþaEdleFIVtémøenHxusKña?
26> cUrBnül;ehtuGIV)anCa³
k> GIuRdYRbelaH dUcCaGIuRdYelah³ mandg;sIuetTabCagelah³edImrbs;va.
x> GIuRdYGIuy:Unicmandg;sIuetFMCagelah³edImrbs;va.

10-25
GIuRdUEsn

27> GIuRdUEsnCa]sμ½nEdleKKitfaCa\n§n³d¾l¥bMputkñúgstvtSTI21bu:EnþRkumh‘unmYyenArdæ
Florida )anEkécñ Aquafuel mYyepSgeTot. l,ayenHbegáItedaykarbBa¢ÚncrnþGKÁisnIya:g

x<s;[qøgkat;TwkedayeRbIeGLicRtUtkabUn. etI]sμ½nGIVEdlPayénGKÁisnIviPaKenH cUrsresr

smIkartulükaréndMeNIrkarenH. sresrsmIkaréncMehHl,ayenH. KNnafamBlEdl
beBa©jkñúg 1 mol énl,ay]sμ½n ehIyeRbobeFobvaeTAnwgfamBlEdlbeBa¢jkñúg 1 mol
éncMehH]sμ½nGIuRdUEsn.
cemøIylMhat;elxess
10.1(a) GatUmGIuRdUEsnmYycgsm<½n§eTAnwgGatUmepSgeTotBIrb¤eRcInCasm<½n§kUva:Lg;Edlkñúg
enaHGIuRdUEsnmaneGLicRtUGviC¢manTabCagGatUmEdlvacgsm<½n§CamYy.
(b) GatUmGIuRdUEsnmYycgsm<½n§eTAnwgGatUmepSgeTotBIrb¤eRcInCasm<½n§kUva:Lg;Edlkñúg

enaHGIuRdUEsnmaneGLicRtUGviC¢manTabCagGatUmEdlvacgsm<½n§CamYy.
10.5 PaBxusKñakñúgeRbkg;sRmUbKWtUcNas; RbEhl 10 énsBaØaxøÜnva. dUcenH eKeRbIxñat
-6

ppm.

10.9 TMenarGg;tal;BIEdlRbtikmμKImIKW N2(g) + 3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)

mankarkat;bnßycMnYnmU:elKul]sμ½n dUcenHehIynaM[mankarfycuHGg;RtUBI. dUcenH

sRmab;RbtikmμRtUvEtekIteLIgedayÉkÉg nigbeBa©jkemþA.
10.13 edayemIldüaRkam Gg;tal;BIénkarbegáItGamU:ja:k;KWticCagxøaMgebIeRbobeFobeTA

nwgTwk ehIyRtUv)anBnül;edaysarEtfamBlsm<½n§FMCagénDIGasUt (945 kJ·mol−1) ebI

eRbobeFobCamYyDIGuksIuEsn(498 kJ·mol−1).
10.17 KH, CaH , GaH , GeH , AsH , H Se, HBr TMenarKWwekIneLIgedayGIuRdUEsnmYy
2 3 4 3 2

rhUtdl;esma:jÚ:m bnÞab;mkfycuHedayGIuRdUEsnmYyeTAGIuRdUEsnRbUmY. FatuBIrdMbUgénes‘rICa

GIyU:nic ehIyFatuEdlenAsl;cgsm<½n§kUva:Lg;.
10.21 PaBenACitKñaéneGLicRtUGviCmanrbs;GIuRdUEsn nigkabUn ¬EdleFIV[sm<½n§ C-H

manPaBbU:ElexSay¦ ehIymansmtßPaBcgsm<½n§GIuRdUEsn.
cemøIylMhat;bEnßm
10.25 edayemIlvdþTUeTA Born-Haber Edl X=H b¤ Cl eyIgeXIjfamanlkçN³Biess
xusKñaBIrya:g KWedayGaRs½yelI X famBlsm<½n§ nigeGLicRtugdUcKña.

10-26
 CMBUkTI10

GIuRdUEsn kør
famBlsm<½n§ 432 kJ·mol−1 240 kJ·mol−1

eGLicRtugdUcKña −79 kJ·mol−1 −349 kJ·mol−1

dUcenH PaBxusKñaedaysarEtsm<½n§ H-H xøaMgCagsm<½n§ Cl-Cl EdleGLicRtugdUcKañén

kørxøaMgCagGIuRdUEsn.

10-27