BED 215 Lecture Note

OFFICE INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Introduction
The aim of this course is to equip business education students with knowledge and skills
relating to efficient functioning of the modern business office. It also aims at producing
competent business educators who will be versed in organisation’s management and
acquaint them with the basic knowledge of office information technology that will be used
in decision making in organizations. Whether you are businessman, a marketer, an
accountant or in a managerial capacity in an organization, you require a space where you
will carry out or conduct your day-to-day work. This space could be referred to as an
office. In this unit we are going to look briefly at the basic meaning and function of an
office, types of office as well as activities relevant to office work.

Definition and Functions of an Office

An office is a room, space, where administrative work, example document preparation,
information dissemination, secretarial duties, are done. In essence, an office is a place in
an organization where business, clerical and professional activities take place. An office
has the ability to self-portray the kind of duties that take place in it.

Functions of an Office
a) Office as information Centre: Office acts as information centre of an
organization because it is the organ that is charged with the responsibility of collecting
information from within and outside the organization.
b) Office as channel of communication: office serves as a channel through which
written communication move from top to bottom and vice visa.
c) Office as co-ordination centre: Office aids in co- ordination. The process of co-
ordination will be impossible without the office. Office provides necessary information to
various departments and as such serves a well -placed machinery for co-ordination.

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 d) Office acts as link with customers: Office is regarded as the channel, which
links a business organization with its customers. The enquiries, orders and complaints
from customers are taken care of by the office through direct personal contact.
e) Office acts as link between shareholders and the company: Office provides a
good linkage with shareholders by providing share certificate, share transfer, issue of
dividend warrants, issue of notice on company's meeting and answering the enquiries
made by the shareholders. It also acts as a servicing department for creditors.

Types of office
The office type has a significant influence on employee’s performance and motivation.
Presently there isn’t any rule that must be followed as to how an office should look like.
It’s only important that planners and users work together to analyze and determine needs
and requirements of their desired work space. If it has to be a big or small office, it would
depend on what obtains in there, the nature of the business that office environment would
look like. Basically, there are two types of office:
1. Personal/closed office
2. Open office
However, determining the type of office whether- big or small office would depend on the
nature of the business of that office. An office has that ability to self-portray the kind of
duties that take place in it. An office is a room, space, where administrative works from
document preparation, information dissemination, are done. Functions of an office were
also elucidated. Office serves as information centre, office as a channel of communication,
as co-ordination centre, as link with customers, acts as link between shareholders and the
company.

OFFICE ENVIRONMENT
Work spaces are areas that afford you the chance to carry out the specified office function
from day to day. There are offices that are typically used for predictable office activities
like reading, writing and computer work. There are types of work space that support

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different official activities. Therefore, office layout refers to the way the office is arranged
to facilitate the flow of work.

Types of Office Work Environment

There are types of office work environment / layout. These are:
Closed office/Personal Work space: This is an office where each individual is given
his/her separate office. It also allows you to manage your private and work life in the same
place. As the name implies, it is your private, default work area. The beauty of this is that
it is just you having access to your notes, tasks and tags stored, where your notes and tasks
are only visible to you. Below is a pictorial view of what a personal work space should
look like:

Open office/work space: This is an open plan office in which more than one person share
the same room. An open office is suitable for activities which demand frequent
communication, and routine activities which need little concentration.

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Team work space: This is a semi-enclosed work space is an office space for two to eight
people (employees). It is suitable for teamwork with demands for frequent internal
communication and a medium level of concentration.
Cubicle work space: This is a semi-enclosed work space for one person (employee). It is
very suitable for activities that require medium concentration and a reasonably low level
of interaction. This is employed by really small offices that hope to manage work space
and still get the best out of it. Below is a pictorial view of what a cubicle work space
actually looks like.

Shared office work space: It is an enclosed work space, designed for the comfort of at
least two or three office staff. It is appropriate for semi-concentration and collaborative
work for very small groups. Below is a pictorial view of what a shared office work space
actually looks like.

Comparison of closed/ Descriptions

personal work space and
open work space Work
Environment
Closed/ Personal work It gives room for privacy, in case of confidential discussions.
space The occupant of the office can concentrate because there is very

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 little disturbance from other employees.
Open Work Space It is not economical. Large space may be occupied by one
individual.
Separate facilities, e.g., computers, telephones may have to be
provided for each office.
It may be difficult to supervise staff.
It might slow down the flow of some activities which require
constant interaction among employees.
Team work space It is easy to supervise since everybody is in view.
It economizes space.
Exchange of information among staff is easy and this facilitates
the flow of work.
Certain facilities may be used commonly, e.g., printers.

Lower energy costs.

Few communication barriers.
vii. Could easily be rearranged
Shared office work space There is no room for privacy for people who wish to discuss
confidential matters. Noise from movements in and out of the
office and office machines might disturb some staff.

PLANNING AN OFFICE ENVIRONMENT

The following factors are taken into consideration in planning the environment of an
office:
1. Business needs: Office environment should provide an environment suitable for the
business of the organization. For example, the layout of a bank will be different from that
of an accounting firm.
2. Space Availability: Planning an office environment will depend on quality and type of
office space available for use.

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3. Accommodation Standards: Organizations often have a policy on the minimum
standard of accommodation for each staff grade. Administration staff may work in open
plan offices whereas managers may have individual offices on seniority basis.
4. Statutory Requirement: Legal requirements, as contained in relevant legislations, affect
the planning of office work space.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. Briefly explain personal work space
2. 2. Enumerate four merits of open work space
3. 3. Identify three factors to consider in planning work space environment.

Answer to Self -Assessment Exercise

1. Personal work space is an office where each individual is given his/her separate office.
Merits of open work space include:
i i. Certain facilities may be used commonly e.g., printers
ii ii. Lower energy costs.
iii iii. Few communication barriers.
iv iv. Could easily be rearranged.
The following factors should be taken into consideration in planning work space
environment:
a. Statutory Requirement: Legal requirements, as contained in relevant legislations
also affect the planning of office work space.
b. Space Availability: Planning an office environment will depend on quality and
type of office space available for use.
c. Accommodation Standards

CONCLUSION
The contents of this unit are to help you understand the office environment and the factors
to be considered in planning the work space environment. This unit discussed open plan
office as one in which more than one person share the same room. An open work space is

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for more than ten people at a time. Comparison was made between personal work space
and open work space in terms of their merit and demerits. Finally, factors to be considered
in planning work space/office were discussed.

BED 215 Lecture Note

TYPES AND USES OF OFFICE MACHINES (MANUAL AND ELECTRONICS

GADGET)
Office equipment used varies from one office to another. Office equipment are used to
improve and ease mobility in and around the office environment. The usefulness office
equipment will be looked at in this unit as well as the types of office machines (both
manual and electronics gadget) used in the office.

Usefulness of Office Machines

Office machines:
a. Improve the quality of work.
b. Aid or speed up the performance of routine functions.
c. Saves space.
d. Help to simplify the work of employees

TYPES OF OFFICE MACHINES

The main types of machines you are likely to meet in most offices are:
Manual office equipment -
i i. Stapler: For holding documents together.
ii ii. Perforator: used for punching holes in documents.
iii iii. Paper shredder: used in shredding unneeded documents to protect against
leakage of content in the process of disposal.
iv iv. Filing cabinet: For storage of folders and protection of documents from fire
outbreak, theft among others.

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v v. Binding Machine: used for putting sheets of a document or content of a file
together. Paper cutter: Manual equipment used to trim paper to a required size.
vi vi. Manual typewriter: used for typing documents. Its use is fast becoming
obsolete
Electronic office equipment:

a. Photocopier: This is a machine used to make copies from original documents. The
original document may be handwritten, printed or typewritten. Photocopiers are used to
prepare extra copies of documents.

b. Facsimile (Fax) Machine: This machine scans printed, typewritten texts and images
and transmits them through telephone lines to a receiving fax machine that converts the
electronic signals back to the original text or image. The machine converts printed
material or images into electronic signals. Suitable for transmission through telephone
lines, cables or satellite networks, facsimile machines could store messages and transmit
them later at a time when transmission costs are cheaper.
c. Calculating Machine: This is used mainly in the office for calculations and complex
computations
d. Scanners: used for scanning images of documents to computers for printing, storage,
display or communication via the internet.
e. Computers: Perhaps the most common equipment in modern offices, it is used for data
and word processing, document storage, communication, presentation etc.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS USED IN ANY OFFICE ENVIRONMENT:

i. Personal Computer (PC): Initially produced by IBM in 1981, for executing a single
task by a single user at the time. Today, a single person can execute many tasks
simultaneously (multitasking).
ii. Apple Macintosh (Mac): They are computers made by the Apple company and are
usually produced for personal use.

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iii. Laptop computer (notebook): it consists of LCD display and a small keyboard.
Although they are relatively small computers, they still perform the same functions as
personal computers.
iv. Personal Digital Assistant - PDA (Palm): These are small computers that can fit into
pocket or the user's palm. It is developed for performing basic personal/business functions
like: Maintaining the address book, Accessing and browsing the Internet,
Sending/receiving e-mails, etc.

CONCLUSION
Office equipment is actually used to improve and ease mobility in and around the office
environment. Office machines are used because: they improve the quality of work, aid or
speed up the performance of routine office functions, saves space. Help to simplify the
work of employees. Office equipment varies from one office to another. In this unit, types
and usefulness of office equipment were examined. Office equipment includes perforator,
filing cabinet, computer, binding machine.

BED 215 Lecture Note

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND INFORMATION PROCESSING TASK

Introduction
This unit is broken down in two parts. The first part looks at information technology
perspective, benefits of information technology as well as categorists of information
processing task and IT tools used. The second part concerns methodologies and formats in
which they are made use of (synchronizing this hardware with their respective software).
It is important that we view this unit this way because the importance of Information
Technology in any office cannot be over-emphasized as can be seen in our present-day
office.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

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▪ Know and identify how information technology can become a vital and integral part of
every official and business plan.
▪ List any three ways in which IT is used.

Information Technology

The office is that part of an organization or business that handles the information dealing
with operation, accounting, payroll, billing, because office labour practically consists of
activities such as document preparation, filing, performing simple computations, checking
information, intra-office communication and external communication.
Information Technology (IT) can be said to be any computer- based tool that people use to
work with information and support the information and information processing data needs
of an organization. It also involves other equipment and information transmission systems
like facsimiles, telex, e-mail, teleconferencing, telecommuting, etc.
Information Technology (IT) has become a vital and integral part of every official and
business plan, of organization; from multi-national corporations who maintain mainframe
systems and databases to small businesses that own a single computer in a small office.
IT can be used in the following ways:
i i. Information processing tasks, e.g., office automation
ii ii. To support management decision making e.g., use of DTP, research and training.
iii iii. To support information sharing through use of network, e.g., telecommuting and
teleconferencing
iv iv. To support innovation e.g., producing automation (i.e., Computer-Aided
Manufacture (CAM), engineering analysis and design, system development, e-marketing.

The figure below shows a typical office environment having modern equipment.

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The activities in the office can be described as:
i A set of activities resulting from requests for service, each with a specific
precedence that requires a supporting file system.
ii. A set of people carrying out specific tasks, communicating with and referencing a
supporting file system.
iii. A gigantic database with users accessing and manipulating data.

The virtual office has no boundary.

The application of Information technology. It actually modernizes the office environment,
making communication and other office duties easy and creating a need for business
minded individuals who can use the latest technologies to connect, support, and coordinate
workers in remote locations in and around the office environment. Ideally an online Office
Management program should be designed for you (students)at under graduate levels to:
i. Be able to develop technical, interpersonal, administrative and communication skills
through modern administrative assistant training.
ii. To become familiar with present-day hardware devices and technologies such as smart
phones and tablets and software, mobile computing; cloud computing and document
sharing.

A traditional office environment: A typical office environment improved by technology

as most software and information technology companies seek to employ those having
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strong programming skills, system analysis skills, software testing skills, debugging (error
detection) skills. It is easier to acquire practical skills required to become a software
developer from the university. This degree encompasses the complete process of software
development from software design and development to final testing. In this stage, the
individual’s logical and critical reasoning/thinking abilities are important to become a
software professional. Computers are being improved upon so that they can ease mobility
in and around the office environment, giving rise to the introduction of laptops. The use of
laptops, often with printers, scanners, fax machines and other office equipment, makes
possible a better result.

Benefits of Information Technology

Some benefits that can arise from the crafting information technology in an office
environment include:
i. Ease in disseminating information.
ii. Communication between individuals in the office becomes faster.
iii. Protection and proper documentation are made possible as the system ensures that data
is structured and standardized.
iv. Using infra-red printing and wireless networking cards enables staff to print their work
fast and connect to each other’s network, especially with the use of e-mail, electronic
communication, and, possibly, internet access even without cables.

Information Processing Tasks and the tools used

i. Capturing information: That is obtaining information at its point of origin. The tools
used consist of input technologies such as mouse, keyboard
ii. Conveying information: that is presenting information in its useful form. The tools
used consist of output technologies such as the screen, printer
iii. Converting Information: that is processing data to create information. The tools used
here consist of processor and internal memory.
iv. Storage of information: that is storing information for used at a later time. The tools
used consist of storage technologies such as hard disk, CD-ROM and DVD.

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v. Communication of information: that is sending information to other people or other
locations. The tools used consist of telecommunications technologies such as modem,
satellite and digital computer.

Methodologies and format in which information system can be employed

The knowledge of information system is essential for organizational heads because most
offices need information system to survive and prosper. It’s often said that the better an
information system there is in any organization, the wider the coverage even at locations
on long distances. Information systems provide problem-solving power that most
organizations need to effectively function at local and global scale. This includes
communication amongst people in the same organization and communicating with
distributors and suppliers in the business world:
i. Again, those with a good amount of information technology skills are able to carry out
the processing and storing of information within and around the office which is one major
way information technology has improved our office environment.
ii. Next, communication between staff with the use of mobile phones and other
Information Technology devices as a field emphasizes the secure management of large
amounts of variable information and its accessibility via a wide variety of systems both
local and world-wide. Information Technology allows people to make informed decisions
in work places.
iii. Information Technology introduces style and dynamism in any office environment its
being employed.
iv. It also provides businesses with that desired edge over their competitors, creating a
whole new opportunity and provides organisation with the required skills needed for rapid
expansion in information technology industry.

Major stake holders in the areas of information technology include:

a. Project manager: He/ She would be the bridging gap between the production team and
client. So, he/she must have a fair knowledge of the industry they are in so that they are
capable of understanding and discussing problems with either party.

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b. Network engineer: A network engineer is more of a developer, He/she is concerned
with everything that has to do with the network of computers, developing
telecommunication network topologies, internetworking service requirements for switched
telephone networks and also the required hardware and software.
c. Software architect: A Software architect is a computer expert who makes advanced
design choices and dictates technical standards, including software coding standards tools
and platforms Main responsibilities include limiting choices available during development
just by either choosing, creating or defining standard ways pursuing applications
development and framework in any organization.
d. Systems analyst: A systems analyst act as liaison between the client and the
developers. They make use of computers and other related systems to design new IT
solutions, modifying and enhancing them or adapt existing systems and integrate new
features or improvements, all with the aim of improving business efficiency and
productivity.
e. Systems administrator: Sometimes called the ‘sysadmin’ he/she is responsible for
maintaining a more than one user (multi-user) computer system, including a Local- Area
Network (LAN) whose typical duties include:
i. Providing really large storage spaces.
ii. Performing processes to prevent the spread of viruses.
iii. Setting up user accounts.
iv. Adding and configurations of new workstations.

f. Programmer: A computer programmer is also known as a developer, coder, software

engineer. He is one who specializes in writing codes for many kinds of software, or one
who practices or professes a formal approach to programming, He makes use of primary
programming computer languages like C, C++, C#, python, Java
g. IT support technician: IT support technicians help to find and correct software and
hardware problems for computer users in and around the giving office environment.

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Reading through the content of this unit, emphasis has been placed on the importance of
identifying a good working space as can be seen from simple definitions, equipment with
which to make working a bit less stressful than it used to be, the importance of unit and
management towards attaining desired official goals and ensuring sanity with the use of
information technology. This unit explains information technology as any computer-
based tool that people use to work with information and support the information and
information processing data needs of an organization. It also involves other equipment and
information transmission systems and not just computer such as facsimiles, telex, e-mail,
teleconferencing GSM, and telecommuting. Also discussed were benefits of information
technology, categorists of information processing task and IT tools used, and the
methodologies and format in which it can be employed.

BED 215 Lecture Note

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION HANDLING PROCEDURE

Management Information system is an organized approach to the information needs of an

organization’s management at every level in making operational, tactical and strategic
decisions. Its objective is to design and implement procedures, processes and routing that
provide suitably detailed reports in an accurate consistent, and timely manner.
Knowledge requirement of MIS
Management information system can be defined as a system which converts data from
internal sources into information and communicate that information, in an appropriate
form, to managers at all levels in all functions to enable them to make activities for which
they are responsible. There are wide ranging knowledge requirements for MIS which
includes, the nature of data and information, general system concepts, organization
principles, planning and decision walling control principles, management functions and
the use of information technology.

The nature of data, information and communication

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Data is the term for collection of facts and figures, e.g., hours worked, invoice values,
usage rates, items received. These basic facts are stored, analyzed, compared, calculated
and generally worked on to produce messages in the form required by the user, i.e., the
manager, which is termed information. In essence, information is processed data which is
understood by the user
Functions of information
The functions performed by information include:
i) Improving/ increasing knowledge.
ii) Reduction of uncertainty.
iii) A control mechanism.
iv) A means of communication.
v) A memory supplement.
vi) An aid to simplification of office work

The Value of Information

Information has no value in itself. Its value derives from the value of the change in
decision behaviour caused by the information being available minus the cost of providing
the information, date capture, handling, recording and processing. It is only when data are
communicated and understood by the recipient and transformed into information, that
value may arise provided that the information is used to improve decision making.

Characteristics of good Information

Good information is that which is used and which creates value.
Good information is one which is:
a) Relevant for its purpose.
b) Sufficiently accurate for its purpose
c) Complete enough for the problem.
d) From a source in which the user has confidence.
e) Communicated to the right person.
f) Communicated in the time for its purpose.
g) That which contains the right level of details.

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h) Communicated through appropriate channel of communication
i) That which is understandable by the user.

Conclusion
Management Information System must be designed and operated with due regard to
organizational and behavioural principles as well as technical factors. Management must
be informed enough to make an effective contribution to system design and information
specialists such as system analysts, operation researches and others must become aware of
managerial functions and needs so that, jointly, more effective MIS are developed. In this
unit, the definition of Management Information System and the knowledge requirement of
MIS have been examined. Also discussed were the nature of data, information and
communications, the functions performed by information, the value of information as well
as characteristics of good information.

BED 215 Lecture Note:

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION HANDLING PROCEDURE

Management Information System

INTRODUCTION
Management Information system is an organized approach to the information needs of an
organization’s management at every level in making operational, tactical and strategic
decisions. Its objective is to design and implement procedures, processes and routing that
provide suitably detailed reports in an accurate consistent, and timely manner.
Management information system can be defined as a system which converts data from
internal sources into information and communicate that information, in an appropriate
form, to managers at all levels in all functions to enable them to make activities for which
they are responsible. There are wide ranging knowledge requirements for MIS which
includes, the nature of data and information, general system concepts, organization
principles, planning and decision walling control principles, management functions and
the use of information technology.

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The nature of data, information and communication
Data is the term for collection of facts and figures, e.g., hours worked, invoice values,
usage rates, items received. These basic facts are stored, analyzed, compared, calculated
and generally worked on to produce messages in the form required by the user, i.e., the
manager, which is termed information. In essence, information is processed data which is
understood by the user.

Functions of information
The functions performed by information include:
i) Improving/ increasing knowledge.
ii) Reduction of uncertainty.
iii) A control mechanism.
iv) A means of communication.
v) A memory supplement.
vi) An aid to simplification of office work.

The Value of Information

Information has no value in itself. Its value derives from the value of the change in
decision behaviour caused by the information being available minus the cost of providing
the information, date capture, handling, recording and processing. It is only when data are
communicated and understood by the recipient and transformed into information, that
value may arise provided that the information is used to improve decision making.

Characteristics of good Information

Good information is that which is used and which creates value.
Good information is one which is:
a) Relevant for its purpose.
b) Sufficiently accurate for its purpose
c) Complete enough for the problem.
d) From a source in which the user has confidence.
e) Communicated to the right person.
f) Communicated in the time for its purpose.
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g) That which contains the right level of details.
h) Communicated through appropriate channel of communication
i) That which is understandable by the user.

CONCLUSION
Management Information System must be designed and operated with due regard to
organizational and behavioural principles as well as technical factors. Management must
be informed enough to make an effective contribution to system design and information
specialists such as system analysts, operation researches and others must become aware of
managerial functions and needs so that, jointly, more effective MIS are developed. In this
unit, the definition of Management Information System and the knowledge requirement of
MIS have been examined. Also discussed were the nature of data, information and
communications, the functions performed by information, the value of information as well
as characteristics of good information.

BED 215 Lecture Note

OFFICE AUTOMATION
INTRODUCTION
The use of information technology and modern communication system may itself be a
factor in the way organizations are structured. Automation means using computer
technology to speed up the performance of existing task. The computer does not change
the task structure, it simply makes it easier. Traditionally, the responsibility of introducing
new computer projects was that of the manager. However, computerization and other
office automation projects can cover a large number of varied office tasks and affect most,
if not all, office staff. Although the manager has the technical Know-how, he doesn’t
necessarily have the managerial skills and knowledge to understand how automation
affects:
a. Working arrangements in the office.
b. The style or structure of the organization.
c. Attitudes of personnel
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The person responsible for supervising/managing office automation projects ought,
ideally, to be someone who:
a. Is aware of the different requirements of different users of the same system (especially
in network systems or multi-users systems);
b. Is aware of the need to design new systems which fit in with different and changing
objectives;
c. Understands how organizations, and people within them, function effectively;
d. Sees office automation as a means of making changes and improvements, not as an end
in itself;
e. Has a technical awareness.
The office automation manager should be given specified responsibilities, which might
include the following:
a. Developing recommending and coordinating plans for office automation projects.
b. Working with the accounting department to produce cost/benefit justification for each
new project.
c. Producing (and enforcing) guidelines, policies and standards for:
i. The procurement of hardware
ii. The procurement of software
iii. Personnel and pay matters
iv. Installation and testing
v. Maintenance of systems Excel Profession Centre, Ibadan
d. Dealing with hardware and software suppliers
e. Staff education and training in new systems
f. Monitoring new technological development and trends
g. Advising other managers and computer users in the organization
h. Involvement in system analysis, design and installation.

Meaning of Office Automation

An Office Automation System is a conglomerate of various technologies intended to
improve the efficiency of office work by replacing the routine clerical secretarial and
paper-based tasks with computer-based equipment.
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Application area of office automation system
Some of the application areas of office automation system are:
a. Word Processing: This involves hardware and software tools that allow the computer to
behave like a typewriter.
b. Desktop Publishing: This refers to technologies used to send messages or documents
from one electronic work station to another. Its uses in business include facsimile, voice
mail and electronic-mail box.
c. Electronic Mail: This refers to technologies used to send message or document from
one electronic work station to another. Its uses in business include facsimile, voice mail
and electronic-mail box.
d. Teleconferencing: This refers to the holding of meetings among people who are at
physically different sites. The types of teleconferencing are Video and Audio-
teleconferencing.
e. Desktops Organizers: These are software packages that provide users with electronics
equivalent of organizing and coordinating tools likely to be found on an office desk. Tools
such as calendar, card file, notepad, clock and calculator are examples.
f. Archival Storage: This refers to offline storage used for historical and long-time storage
of materials. Some common technologies used to store archival materials are magnetic
tape and compact disc.
Adverse effect of office automation on office workers
1. Possible harmful effects and dangers of display devices to user’s eyes.
2. Possible reduction in number of office workers
End-user computer
Traditionally the only people who had direct contact with computer were the systems
professionals (programmers, systems analysis). The introduction of personal computer,
terminals, networks, user-software, databases has altered the position dramatically and has
led to the growth of end-user computers by users-not indirect use through systems
professional.

Users include managers, office staff, sales people, and production workers. End-user
computing is a large and growing field and some of the applications are listed below:
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 a. Decision support systems
b. Expert systems
c. Executive Information systems
d. End-user programming
e. Computer based training
f. Search and retrieval of information
g. Text handling and publishing

NOTE: An expert system is a computer system which embodies some of the experience
and specialized knowledge of an expert. An expert system enables a non-expert to achieve
comparable performance to an expert in the field. It uses a reasoning process which bears
some resemblance to human thought. The unique feature of an expert system is the
knowledge base, which is a network of rules which represents the human expertise. These
rules and linkages are derived from discussions with experts and analysis of that decision-
making behaviour. Expert systems have been developed in a number of fields. They
include medical diagnosis selection of selling methods personal tax planning credit
approval in banking product pricing, and air crew scheduling.

Information Centre (IC)

An IC is small unit of staff with a good technical awareness of computer systems, whose
task is to provide a support function to computer users within an organization. They also
provide help to users who wish to develop their own programs and act as a go between or
link between computer users and the organization’s own department or external software
and hardware suppliers. ICs are of particular value where distributed data processing is
used or where micro-computers are spread throughout an organization. In circumstances
were non-computer-technical people are in charge of files, software and hardware they
need technical support and advice from time to time.

Typical services IC provides are:

a. Identifying areas where it could usefully be employed.

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b. Providing technical advice on existing and new hardware (capabilities, limitations,
speeds).
c. Showing users how to deal with all types of software (application packages, O/S).
d. Encouraging good practice throughout the Organization, e.g., system/ program
documentation, back-up procedures, quality checks
e. Helping to avoid over-laps, duplicating of effort
f. Providing general IT training and specialist training on new developments, equipment
software.
g. To provide assistance and guidance to users developing their own systems.

Other DP Resources
Many organizations do not employ specialist staff because they cannot afford the costs of
full-time systems analysts and programmers. If an organization does not wish (or cannot
afford) to have its own in-house computer staff but it requires technical information, or
needs expert advice on systems development, it can employ an office automation manager
or set up an information centre. Alternatively, or additionally, it may use external
resources. This might involve buying application packages from a supplier, and a range of
other resources and services.

Computer Bureaus
These are organizations which provide facilities to their clients. The range of resources
offered by computer bureaus is considerable, with some offering a complete range of
services while others specialize in particular areas. The services offered include:
a. Data Preparation: Transcribing data from sources documents into a machine-readable
form (e.g., on to magnet tape. disks and file conversion on system implementation)
b. Hiring Computer Time: Providing data on its own computer.
c. Do it yourself: Providing the computer but the client will provide operators, programs.
d. Consultancy: a bureau may provide advice and assistance in areas such as feasibility
studies, system design, equipment evaluation.
e. Software: a bureau may design, write, test and provide software for a particular
application, or may design and/ or adapt application packages;
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f. Timesharing/Remote Job Entry (RJE): The client uses his own remote terminal, to
process data on the bureau’s computer.
g. Turn Key Operation: The bureau' undertakes the client’s conversion to a computer
system, and all the client has to do is ‘turn the key’ to commence using the systems.
h. A system integration service to provide an interface between one organization and
another.

Conclusion
Computerization and other office automation projects can cover a large number of varied
office tasks and affect most, if not all office staff. End-user computing is a large and
growing field with some applications, like decision support system, expert system,
executive information system. On the other hand, while an IC is a small unit of staff with
a good technical awareness of computer users within the organization computer bureau are
organizations which provide DP facilities to their clients. This unit examined the
definition of automation and office automation projects. Automation is a means of using
computer technology to speed up the performance of existing tasks. The data processing
manager has the technical know-how, but he doesn’t necessarily have the management
skills and knowledge to understand how automation affects working arrangement in the
office, the style or structure of the organization and attitude of personal. End-user
computer, information centre and other resources were discussed. Finally, it was explained
that computer Bureau are organization which provide facilities to their client.

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 BED 215 Lecture Note

BED 215: OFFICE INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

TOPIC: COMPUTER SECURITY
Introduction
Failure to secure information may consequently result in irrecoverable losses and harm the
credibility of an organization. Computer system and data processed by such system may
be made dysfunctional due to a number of factors such as natural factors, technical failure,
human error and fault, malicious software, international attacks, computer crime and
international terrorism. At the end of this unit, you should be able to: explain computer
security and identify measures to put in place for computer security.

Computer Security
Computer security can be defined as the protection of systems from accidental or
deliberate threats that might cause unauthorized modification, disclosure or destruction as
well as the protection of information systems from degradation or non-availability of
services. Computer security is concerned with protecting computer systems, computer
files and databases from external sources of damage. A breach of security may result into
any of the followings:
a. Loss of confidentiality
b. Loss of availability of computer services through unscheduled interruption and
breakdown.

Security measures must be proactive and reactive, sound in principle and effective in
operation. Security must be considered from two perspectives, namely; operation and
physical.

Operation Security has two purposes namely:

a. Prevention of unauthorized users to access or use data
b. Prevention of authorized users from misusing the data or damaging it through
ignorance.

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Computer Security Measure
Computer security measures can be in the following ways:
i) Prevention
ii) Pro-activeness
iii) Deterrence
iv) Recovery
v) Correction
vi) Physical security

Prevention and Proactive measures include the following:

a. Precautionary measures to safeguard the system from external threats and
unauthorized persons.
b. Protect and defend the system from illegal operations by authorized personnel
e.g., the use of operator permissions, restrictions of access to certain functions.
c. Immune the system from damage and neutralize the effect of operations inimical
to the correct performance of the system procedures for threat avoidance are:
i) Sense and report unauthorized operations.
ii) Discover and identify illegal operations and intruders.
Difference: Deterrence measures ensure that illegal operations are not encouraged and
that erring employees are not allowed to become bad influences to others. Deterrence
measures include appropriate incentives and penalties to restrain same persons or other
users to perform such acts in future.
Recovery: Recovery procedures are procedures put in place to minimize the effects of
unscheduled interruptions/breakdowns and provide a means to ensure continuous
operations and prevent financial losses to the business.
Correction: Remedial actions are actions taken to bring the system back on track
after recovery. This may include procedures to make necessary amendments and
fine tune the system to achieve desired performance levels.
Physical Security: This relates to the ability to physically protect the hardware and media
that hold programs and data from destruction, loss or damage. This means of achieving
physical security depends on the control environment and the nature of the threat.
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Physical Security measures may include the following:
1. Physical access control
2. Fire prevention and detection equipment
3. Provision of uninterrupted power supply (UPS) equipment
4. Introduction and enforcement of a strict backup routine with a copy of the data stored in
a secure location offsite.
Password Security: The first thing to think about when you implement an office security
policy is password. It seems to be so obvious, and yet it is often overlooked. Here are
some common-sense guidelines for keeping your password secure:
Dos
1. Change your password often (monthly is recommended)
2. Use letter/number/special character combination
3. Choose a password that is easy to type
4. Choose a password that is easy to remember
5. Make your password at least six characters long.
Don’ts
1. Don’t use your first or last name.
2. Don’t use the name of your pet, spouse or children
3. Don’t use your login or username
4. Don’t leave a password on somebody’s voice-mail
5. Don’t use the same password for all your password needs.

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 BED 215 Lecture Note

INFORMATION SYSTEM RECOVERY PLAN

Introduction
A good business continuity plan will take into account all types of events affecting both
critical information system facilities and end user’s normal business operation functions.
In addition to these, in case of the worst scenario, short term and long-term fallback
provisions are required. For the short term, an alternate processing facility may be needed
to meet immediate operation needs, as in the case of a major natural disaster. In the long
term, a new permanent facility must be identified for disaster recovery and equipment to
provide for continuation of information system processing services on a regular basis.

Information system contingency and disaster recovery plan

Information system contingency planning, otherwise called Business Contingency
Planning (BCP), is a process designed to reduce an organization’s business risk arising
from an unexpected disruption of its information system which is critical to the
organization. BCP is primarily the responsibility of senior management, as they are
entrusted with safeguarding both the assets and the viabilities of organization.

Disasters and disruptive events to information system

Disaster can be defined as disruptive incidences that cause critical information system
resources to be inoperative or non-functioning for a period of time and thereby adversely
affecting business operations.

Causes of Disaster
a. Natural calamities, such as floods, severe thunderstorms and fire.
b. Electrical power, telecommunications and delivery services that are no longer supplied
to the company.
c. Event caused by human beings, such as attacks from hackers or viruses.

Information System Disaster Recovery Strategies

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Information systems disaster recovery strategy is a combination of preventive, detective
and corrected actions to be taken. They are:
a) Removing the threat altogether
b) Minimizing the likelihood of occurrence
c) Minimizing the effects of occurrence.
Removing the threat and minimizing the risk of occurrence can be addressed by the
implementation of physical and environmental security, while minimizing the effect can
be achieved by implementing built-in resilience through alternative routing and
redundancy. In selecting a recovery strategy, the following should be considered:
a) The criticality of the business process and the applications supporting the process.
b) Cost
c) Time required to recover and
d) Security
Key elements required in disaster recovery plan are:
a) An emergency plan
b) A backup plan
c) A recovery plan
d) A test plan
Conclusion
Information systems disaster recovery strategy is a combination of preventive, directive
and corrective measures. In case disruption, especially when there is serious damage to
primary, physical facility, there is need for off-site backup alternatives.

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 BED 215 Lecture Note

MANAGING PEOPLE IN THE ORGANIZATION

Introduction
If an office is not properly managed, it becomes difficult to produce desired result. Even if
it has the desired information technology and at the required standard, it would be difficult
to produce results. This unit discusses the roles of management in an office. It also
discusses the important role of planning in an organization.

Managers perceive business challenges in the environment, set organizational strategy for
responding and allocate human and financial resources to achieve the strategy and
coordinate the work. Managers exercise responsible leadership. Management's job is to
"make sense" out of the many situations faced by organizations and formulate action plans
to solve organizational problems. In order to attain this, managers must do more than
manage what already exists. They must also create, and even re-create, new products and
services in the organization from time to time. A substantial part of management
responsibility is creative work driven by new knowledge and information. Information
technology can play a powerful role in redirecting and redesigning most organizational
plans.

Managerial roles and decisions vary at different levels in any organization. Senior
managers are saddled with the responsibility of making long-term strategic decisions
about what products and services to produce. Middle managers carry out programs and
plans of senior management. Operational managers are responsible for monitoring the
firm's daily activities. All levels of management are expected to be creative, develop novel
solutions to a broad range of problems. Each level of management has different
information needs and information system requirements.

The duties of a manager cannot be over emphasized, more often than not they a saddle
with series of responsibilities if the organization is to succeed. These responsibilities
include:

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- Planning: Planning is the key function of management; it is the process of determining
in advance. What should be accomplished, when, by whom, how, and at what cost. It also
includes outlining philosophy, policy, objectives, to be accomplished and the techniques
for accomplishment.
- Organizing: Establishing structures and systems through which activities are arranged,
defined, and coordinated in terms of some specific objectives.
- Directing: making decisions, present the decisions in the form of instructions and
serving as the leader of the enterprise.
- Coordinating: Inter-relating various parts of the work as it relates to the office.
- Reporting: keeping informed those to whom you are responsible, both staff and the
public.
- Budgeting: Making financial plans, maintaining accounting and management control
revenue and keeping costs in line with objectives.

Planning
Regardless of whether it is planning long-term program priorities or planning a two- hour
meeting, the planning aspect of management is the major contributor to the success and
productivity of an organization. Planning is the process of determining an organization's
goals and objectives and making provisions for their achievement. It involves choosing a
course of action from available alternatives. Planning is the process of determining
organizational aims, developing premises about the current environment, selecting course
of action, initiating activities required to transform plans into action and evaluating the
outcome. Planning at managerial level usually depends on their level in the organization
followed by the type and size of the organization.

Generally, there are four major types of planning exercises:

1. Strategic
2. Tactical
3. Contingency
4. Managerial

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Tactical planning occurs at middle and lower management level and it is concerned with
implementing strategic plans for the organization.
Contingency planning anticipates possible problems or changes that may occur in the
future and prepares to deal with them effectively as they arise.
Strategic Planning
Strategic planning occurs at top management level and it involves determining
organizational goals and how to achieve them. Strategic planning has to do with
determining the basic objectives of an organization and allocating resources for their
accomplishment. strategy determines the direction in which an organization needs to move
to achieve its objectives. It also acts as a road map for carrying out the strategy of any
office and achieving long-term goals. Occasionally a gap exists between strategic plan and
real results. To boost organizational performance, people must be a key part of the
strategy. Strategic planning is different from long-term planning. Long-range planning
builds on current goals and practices and proposes modifications for the future. On the
other hand, strategic planning, considers changes or anticipated changes in the
environment that suggest radical moves away from current practices. When doing
strategic planning, the organization should emphasize team planning. By involving those
affected by the plan, the manger builds an organization wide understanding and
commitment to the strategic plan. The elements of strategic plans include:
a. Organizations mission statement - What
b. Strategic analysis - Why
c. Strategic formulation - Where
d. Long-term objectives implementation - When and How
e. Operational plans - When and How

These plans form the framework for focusing organizational resources on the most
strategic areas by using a staged approach. updated plans are implemented by work teams
at all levels of management.
Work-team objectives include: (a) involving all levels of staff in consultation. (b)
Designing and implementing a process to develop-goals and objectives for the

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organization and unit; a strategic process for the next five to ten years. (c) Defining and
clarifying organizational structures and identifying functions, customers and service
delivery models. (d) Identifying changes and staged approaches needed to move from the
current situation to what will be required over the next three to five years. (e) Identifying
and recommending priorities for policy and program development. (f) Incorporating goals
for expenditure reduction, service quality improvement, workforce management,
accountability, technology and business process improvement.
g. Stating the start date and first report date. This way, departments would take their
assigned duties seriously as there would be an expected date of completion.

Managerial Planning helps in combining resources and expertise to achieve the overall
objectives of an organization. Managerial planning focuses on the activity of a specific
unit and involves what needs to be done, by whom, when and at what cost. The strategic
planning process serves as an umbrella over the management planning process which
deals with the following:
a. Establishing individual goals and objectives.
b. Forecasting results and potential problems
c. Developing alternatives, selecting alternatives and setting priorities.
d. Appraising how the management unit has succeeded in meeting its goals and
objectives

Decision making
Closely related to both strategic and managerial planning is the process of decision
making. Decisions need to be made wisely under varying circumstances with different
amounts of knowledge about alternatives and consequences. It’s concerned with the future
and may be made under conditions of certainty, conditions of risk, or conditions of
uncertainty.
Under conditions of certainty, managers have sufficient or complete information and
know exactly what the outcome of their decision will be. Managers are faced with a less
certain environment. They may, however, know the probabilities and possible outcomes of

33
their decisions, even though they cannot guarantee which particular outcome will actually
occur. In such cases, there is a risk associated with the decision and there is a possibility
of an adverse outcome. Most managerial decisions involve varying degrees of uncertainty.
This is a key part of managers’ activities. They must decide what goals or opportunities
will be pursued, what resources are available, and who will perform designated tasks.
Decision making, consists of several steps:
Step1: Identifying and defining the problem
Step2: Developing various alternatives
Step3: Evaluating alternatives
Step4: Selecting an alternative
Step5: Implementing the alternative
Step6: Evaluating both the actual decision and the decision-making process.
The structure of every organization is unique in some respect, but all organizational
structures are consciously designed to enable the organization to accomplish its goals.
Typically, the structure of an organization evolves as the organization grows and changes
over time.
There four basic decisions that managers have to make as they develop an organizational
structure, although they may not be explicitly aware of these decisions:
a. Division of labor. The organization's work must be divided into specific jobs.
b. Departmentalization. Unless the organization is very small, the jobs must be
grouped in some way.
c. Span of control. The number of people and jobs that are to be grouped together
must be decided, which is related to the number of people that are to be managed by one
person.
d. Authority. The way decision-making authority is to be distributed must be
determined.
In making each of these decisions, a range of choices are possible. At one end of the
spectrum, jobs are highly specialized with employees performing a narrow range of
activities; while at the other end of the spectrum employees perform a variety of tasks. In
traditional bureaucratic structures, there is a tendency to increase task specialization as the

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organization grows. In grouping jobs into departments, the manager must decide the basis
on which to group them. The most common basis, is by function. For example, all
accounting jobs in the organization can be grouped into an accounting department; all
engineers can be grouped into an engineering department and so on.

Conclusion
We have succeeded in understanding the importance of managing people (staffs) in any
organization properly to produce the desired result would require some level of
determination on the part of those involved and their ability to make strategic plans. It
Management can perform their duties easier and faster, and how much training can/
should be given to staff with respect to information technology as opposed the use of
manual equipment to do the given task as the level of competence wont and cannot be
measured which in turn would be regarded as bad management tactic and no manager
want to be called that. In managing people in any organization, planning and strategy
would be useful in making required useful decision.

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