Body Image 44 (2023) 222–226

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Body Image
journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/body-image

TikTok, TikTok, the time is now: Future directions in social media and
body image ]]
]]]]]]
]]

⁎
Jennifer A. Harriger a, , J. Kevin Thompson b, Marika Tiggemann c
a
Social Science Division, Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA, USA
b
Department of Psychology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
c
College of Education, Psychology and Social Work, Flinders University, SA, Australia

a r t i cl e i nfo a bstr ac t

Article history: This article synthesizes practical strategies and future directions proposed by contributors to the special
Received 17 January 2023 issue in Body Image on social media and body image. It also moves beyond the contributions of the special
Accepted 17 January 2023 issue in an effort to provide additional guidance to researchers, clinicians, educators, and policymakers.
Available online 4 February 2023
First, we recommend that research on social media and body image extend beyond convenience sampling of
young, White women and include children and older adults, boys and men, and underrepresented groups.
Keywords:
Second, we urge researchers to move away from simplistic measures of social media and to utilize mixed-
Body image
Social media methods approaches. Third, we advocate for the development of new theories that can be tested long-
Social networking itudinally and that capture the unique influences of social media, rather than relying solely on existing
SNS models that were developed for traditional media. Fourth, we provide recommendations regarding practical
strategies, such as the inclusion of media literacy campaigns, increased research on the role of reality check
disclaimers, and further examination regarding the role of body positivity in prevention and intervention
efforts. Finally, we end with recommendations regarding advocacy, such as using social media to harness
positive efforts and partnering with social media companies regarding their use of algorithms.
© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 223
1.1. Children and older participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 223
1.2. Boys and men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 223
1.3. Other underrepresented groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 223
2. Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 223
2.1. More sophisticated measures of social media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 223
2.2. Mixed-method approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 224
3. Mechanisms and theoretical formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 224
3.1. Integrated and prospective designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 224
3.2. Development of new theories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 224
4. Prevention and intervention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 224
4.1. Media literacy programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 224
4.2. Digital modification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 224
4.3. Body positivity messaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 224
5. Advocacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 225
5.1. Implementation of policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 225
5.2. Using social media to harness advocacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 225
5.3. Partnering with social media companies surrounding the use of algorithms . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... 225

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J.A. Harriger).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2023.01.005
1740-1445/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J.A. Harriger, J.K. Thompson and M. Tiggemann Body Image 44 (2023) 222–226

6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Conflict of interest statement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

A clear link between social media use and higher body dis- Additional research including adult samples is also warranted.
satisfaction and eating disorder risk has been established in the The majority of research on social media includes participants ages
literature (Fardouly & Vartanian, 2016; Saiphoo & Vahedi, 2019). It 30 or younger, yet adult women are likely to utilize social media
has also been found that participation in photo or appearance-based (Pew Research Center, 2021) and may be similarly affected by the
activities (e.g., posting photos/videos or commenting on others’ messages present on social media platforms (Nelson et al., 2022).
photos/videos) is more related to body dissatisfaction than overall Furthermore, adult women experience unique risk factors for body
time spent on social media (for reviews, see Fardouly & Vartanian, dissatisfaction, such as pregnancy, menopause and other age-related
2016; Holland & Tiggemann, 2016; Saiphoo & Vahedi, 2019). Social body changes (Becker et al., 2019; Kilpela, Becker, Wesley, & Stewert,
media users are exposed to a plethora of heavily edited unrealistic 2015), as well as anti-aging pressures (Cameron et al., 2019) that
images from celebrities, influencers, and peers. When they engage in could be exacerbated by social media usage. Therefore, research on
upward appearance comparisons, they almost inevitably fall short, adult women is also needed.
resulting in negative thoughts about their own body. Additionally,
more recent work has reported that photo-based platforms, such as 1.2. Boys and men
Instagram and Snapchat, are more likely to be linked to body dis-
satisfaction compared to text-based platforms such as Twitter and We also urge researchers to include male participants in their
Facebook (Karsay et al., 2021; Wilksch et al., 2020), while research investigations, as much research on social media use focuses on
on video-based platforms, such as TikTok, is in its infancy female groups (Rodgers & Rousseau, 2022). Some emerging work
(Vandenbosch et al., 2022). suggests that men and women may interact differently with social
In this special issue of Body Image devoted to social media, var- media. Gender differences have been reported in the types of social
ious researchers have offered a distillation of current knowledge media platforms used, the motivations for social media usage, and
regarding social media and body image, including suggestions for relationship between body image and social media usage (for a re-
future research, intervention, and advocacy. In an effort to synthe- view, see Rodgers & Rousseau, 2022). For example, adolescent girls
size some practical strategies for future work in this area, our final report engaging in more self-objectification on social media than do
article brings together some of their recommendations but also adolescent boys (Salomon & Brown, 2019). We recommend that re-
provides additional guidance. We provide specific recommendations searchers further investigate the role of gender in social media use,
below under four rather broad categories, namely, sampling, mea- particularly in younger and older populations, which (as outlined
surement, intervention, and advocacy. above) are understudied.

1. Sampling 1.3. Other underrepresented groups

Although the research is strongly indicative of a negative body Finally, in regards to sampling, we recommend the inclusion of
image impact from social media engagement, this body of work lies racial and ethnic groups that are poorly represented in the existing
almost entirely with samples of young White women. In this special research, as well as other underrepresented groups (minority iden-
issue Rodgers and Rousseau (2022) offer insights into demographic tities related to gender, sexual orientation, ability, or visible differ-
and cultural factors that need to be considered. In regard to sam- ence). Hispanic and Latinex individuals, as well as Asian and South
pling, we make the following recommendations: East Asian individuals, are underrepresented in current research
(Rodgers & Rousseau, 2022). Additionally, research on individuals
1.1. Children and older participants with other marginalized sexual or gender identities is needed, as
they may experience social media differently; in particular, they may
The majority of research on social media use and body image rely more on social media to connect with others (Rodgers &
focuses on adolescent and young adult populations (Rodgers & Rousseau, 2022; Sharp & Gerrard, 2022). Finally, we recommend
Rousseau, 2022). We recommend further work with children and research on other underrepresented groups, such as individuals who
pre-adolescent samples, as platforms such as TikTok and SnapChat, are not able-bodied or with chronic illnesses, as they may also have
which are more visually based, are especially appealing to younger unique experiences of social media related to body image.
users (Vandenbosch et al., 2022). Although social media companies
claim to implement age limits, there is nothing that prevents a child 2. Measurement
from creating accounts with false birthdays (Harriger, Evans,
Thompson, & Tylka, 2022) or using an older sibling’s accounts As with any new area of work, measurement is constantly evol-
(Rodgers & Rousseau, 2022). In fact, approximately 25% of TikTok ving, and that is certainly the case with social media. In this special
users in the US are between the ages of 10–19 (Statista, 2022), and issue, Jarman et al. (2022) provide an extensive review of common
an article by the New York Times speculates that a third of TikTok and emerging methodological approaches and future re-
users may actually be under the age of 14 (Zhong & Frenkel, 2020). commendations. While we will not restate all of their re-
Younger users may be particularly vulnerable to the effects of social commendations, we highlight some critical measurement issues
media (Vandenbosch et al., 2022), but may also benefit more from below.
intervention efforts (Tylka et al., 2023). In addition, the inclusion of
children in research provides the opportunity to conduct long- 2.1. More sophisticated measures of social media
itudinal research on the role of social media in the development of
body image at a critical time point. Therefore, there is an urgent Early research on social media drew from models that were used
need to investigate the effects of social media use in children and to examine the effects of traditional media. However, social media
preadolescent samples. use is significantly less passive, as users can post their own content,

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comment and like other users’ content, and interact with other users variables) has been proposed (Choukas-Bradley et al., 2022) but is
in various ways (Perloff, 2014). A user who spends an hour scrolling yet to be empirically tested. Additionally, longitudinal research is
through social media content may be affected quite differently from needed in order to adequately examine how social media use and
a user who spends that hour actively searching for diet or exercise other relevant variables (e.g., social media engagement, types of
tips (Jarman et al., 2022). Therefore, researching social media use content viewed) interact with each other over time.
from a passive perspective is limiting and incomplete. We re-
commend additional analysis and articulation of the various po- 3.2. Development of new theories
tentially relevant components of social media use, especially those
unique to social media (e.g. posting images, editing images, inter- With the exception of the development of the critical body
acting with content) that go beyond mere exposure. Examination of awareness model (Rodgers & Laveway, 2022), research examining
various social media platforms as well as the features available on the role of social media has largely used existing theoretical fra-
each platform (e.g., reels, stories, quick reactions, captions) is also meworks that were not specifically developed with social media in
important. This likely means that researchers need to develop mind. Given the significant differences between social media and
measurement tools that can assess different levels of engagement traditional media (Perloff, 2014), it is likely that existing models may
across specific behaviors that may be differentially linked to more not adequately capture all the unique influences of social media.
negative or positive outcomes. Therefore, we recommend that researchers seek to develop new
models that have the features of the social media experience at
2.2. Mixed-method approaches their core.

As discussed by Jarman et al. (2022), online surveys are widely 4. Prevention and intervention
used in the assessment of body image and social media usage,
whereas other methodologies, such as ecological momentary as- Given the established negative impact of social media on body
sessment (EMA) and computational methods, are underused. We image, it is important to further examine preventative interventions.
suggest mixed method approaches in order to obtain a more com- In this special issue Paxton et al. (2022) provide an overview of the
prehensive understanding of the effects of social media on body protective role of media literacy programs and offer suggestions for
image. For example, Jarman et al. (2022) recommend measurement future research. Additionally, Tiggemann’s (2022) article on digital
burst designs which “combine repeated EMA approaches with modification and Rodgers et al.’s (2022) piece on body positivity
longitudinal survey-based approaches” (p.233), and we echo this provide additional evidence for prevention and intervention efforts.
recommendation. We also recommend the inclusion of more so- We provide the following recommendations.
phisticated modeling approaches, such as the use of computational
methods (for a review, see Jarman et al., 2022). Finally, to circumvent 4.1. Media literacy programs
the unreliability of self-report data, data donation where users up-
load selfies or give researchers access to their data through social As Paxton et al. (2022) outline, the mere application of existing
media tracking apps (Vandenbosch et al., 2022) would provide more media literacy programs (programming that enables participants to
objective information. critically evaluate media content and adjust their own media con-
sumption) designed to target traditional media is unlikely to be
3. Mechanisms and theoretical formulations successful in combating the harmful effects of social media. There is,
however, some initial evidence that media literacy programs de-
In the special issue article on mechanisms (Tylka et al., 2023), the signed specifically to address some of the unique and complex facets
authors presented various established models that have been uti- of social media can be protective against body dissatisfaction. We
lized in an attempt to explain the relationship between sociocultural recommend that researchers continue to explore the use and pos-
factors and body image. These models include the tripartite influ- sible adaptation of such programs, particularly for men and boys, as
ence model (Thompson et al., 1999), social comparison theory results regarding effectiveness are less conclusive (Paxton et al.,
(Festinger, 1954), objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 2022). We echo Paxton et al.’s (2022) recommendation to integrate
1997), the developmental theory of embodiment (Piran, 2002, 2016, media literacy into other intervention approaches such as cognitive
2019), the acceptance model of intuitive eating (Avalos & Tylka, dissonance programs.
2006), cultivation theory (Gerbner & Gross, 1976), and uses and
gratifications theory (Katz et al., 1973). A new model, the develop- 4.2. Digital modification
ment of critical body awareness (Rodgers & Laveway, 2022), is also
outlined. While some of these models have been examined within The digital enhancement of social media images is a common
the context of social media (e.g., Rodgers, 2016), the article identifies practice with detrimental consequences, and the use of disclaimer
other social media variables that may operate as mechanisms, labels (informing the user that the photo has been altered or is
mediators, or predictors within the existing theoretical frameworks, unrealistic) is largely ineffective (Tiggemann, 2022). One type of
identifies gaps in the literature, and concludes that additional re- disclaimer, however, that has received some preliminary support is
search is warranted. We make the following recommendations. the use of reality check comments where someone other than the
original poster, usually a peer, comments that a post is unrealistic
3.1. Integrated and prospective designs (Tiggemann & Velissaris, 2020). We recommend continued research
on reality check disclaimers. If effective, it may be possible to teach
Much of the current research on social media consists of cross- users how to effectively challenge unrealistic appearance ideals on
sectional designs within a single theoretical framework. However, it social media through their ability to leave commentary that will be
seems likely that variables and pathways from multiple frameworks read by others.
could be integrated to better explain the complicated relationship
between social media use and body image and disordered eating. For 4.3. Body positivity messaging
example, a developmental-sociocultural framework integrating a
number of existing models (the tripartite influence model, social The body positive movement was created to challenge the nor-
comparison theory, objectification theory, and relevant social media malization and pursuit of sociocultural ideals regarding appearance

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and to encourage body acceptance by all, irrespective of body size or designed to promote inclusion and more positive messaging, may be
shape. While some research has indicated that body positivity con- particularly beneficial. In this, partnering with influencers and
tent on social media is heterogenous, with some posts not adhering sharing content from key influencers will be a useful strategy.
to the tenets of body positivity or providing contradictory messages
(Lazuka et al., 2020), overall research has demonstrated a beneficial 5.3. Partnering with social media companies surrounding the use of
role of body positive social media content for body image (Rodgers algorithms
et al., 2022). We encourage researchers to further examine the ef-
fects of exposure to both appearance and non-appearance focused Social media companies have been found to be culpable in their
body positive content in diverse samples in an effort to understand use of algorithms to target individuals at risk for body image issues
which types of body positive content might be most protective to (for a review, see Harriger, Evans, Thompson, & Tylka, 2022). Efforts
users. We also recommend further examination of individual-level to partner with companies to modify their practices should be a
moderators in understudied groups. Similar to our above re- priority, as system-level change is essential. We advocate for cor-
commendations regarding media literacy, body positivity prevention porate social responsibility, as these companies have a responsibility
programming could be carefully created and researched as a stand- that goes beyond merely minimizing harm to users (although that is
alone option or addition to existing prevention efforts. certainly the first step). Body image and eating disorder experts have
a wealth of knowledge, and partnerships between experts and social
5. Advocacy media companies can lead to the development of initiatives and
strategies to promote positive body image and inclusion on social
In a very broad sense, advocacy efforts at local, national and in- media. Accordingly, we echo Sharp and Gerrard’s (2022) recent “call
ternational levels can be directed at modifying social media content to arms” and believe that the time truly is now.
that is created and disseminated in an unregulated way and that
impacts the body image and self-esteem of those who engage with 6. Conclusion
social media platforms. In this special issue, Puhl (2022) addresses
advocacy efforts regarding weight stigma, while Harriger, Evans, This special issue has shown that we have made good progress,
Thompson, & Tylka (2022) discuss the use of algorithms by social but also that much remains to be done; it will take our collective
media to target vulnerable individuals. efforts to further our knowledge of the role of social media on not
only body image but overall psychological functioning. In this final
5.1. Implementation of policies article, we attempt to distill the major points of all contributors to
the special issue, in order to guide future work and to enlist scholars
We recognize the need to research at a population level any from diverse disciplines in our pursuit of more research.
policies that have been implemented in efforts to protect in- Correspondingly, we offer many suggestions for future work, around
dividuals. For example, Israel, France, and Norway have either pro- sampling, measurement, intervention and advocacy. Social media
posed or implemented disclaimer laws, yet there is no evidence that has become such an integral part of contemporary lives, but one that
disclaimers have any positive effect or whether they have led to any evolves and changes rapidly. Accordingly, we must remain focused
changes in advertising (Sharp & Gerrard, 2022; Tiggemann, 2022). and nimble in our efforts to identify, inform, and influence the
On the contrary, there is research that suggests that the use of dis- conversation, among researchers, clinicians, advocates and cor-
claimers not only fails to reduce body dissatisfaction, but also may porations.
lead to an increase in social comparisons (Danthinne, Giorgianni, &
Rodgers, 2020). Accordingly, we recommend that body image ex- Conflict of interest statement
perts partner with social media platforms and legislators to create
policies and laws that are grounded in evidence. Similarly, legislation We have no conflicts of interest to report.
in the US has focused on weight discrimination and bullying, and
while there is public support for such legislation (for a review, see
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