Endocrine System

10.1 Principles of Chemical Communication

 Chemical messengers
◊ allow cells to communicate with each other to regulate body activities
 Secretion
◊ the controlled release of chemicals from a cell
 Endocrine System Categories
◊ Autocrine chemical messengers
 stimulates the cell that originally secreted it, and sometimes nearby cells of the same type
 those secreted by white blood cells during an infection
 produced by cells and affect nearby cells of the same type or the cell that produced them.
Essentially, they have a local impact on cellular activity in their immediate vicinity.
◊ Paracrine Chemical Messengers
 local messengers
 secreted by one cell type but affect neighboring cells of a different type
 do not travel in the general circulation; instead, they are secreted into the extracellular fluid
 *Histamine
„ released by certain white blood cells during allergic reactions
◊ Neurotransmitters
 are chemical messengers secreted by neurons that activate an adjacent cell, whether it is another
neuron, a muscle cell, or a glandular cell
 secreted into a synaptic cleft, rather than into the bloodstream
 chemicals released by neurons to activate nearby cells, like other neurons, muscles, or glands.
◊ Endocrine Chemical Messengers
 special chemicals produced by glands and cells in the body
 these messengers are released into the bloodstream, allowing them to travel to distant tissues
 helps regulate and coordinate the functions of cells throughout the body
 travel through the blood to influence cells that are far away from where they originated

10.2 Functions of the Endocrine System

 main regulatory functions of the endocrine system
◊ Metabolism  regulates water balance by controlling
 controls how fast the body undergoes solutes in the blood
chemical changes in its tissues ◊ Heart rate and Blood pressure regulation
◊ Control of food intake and digestion  helps prepare the body for physical
 . The endocrine system activity
 regulates the level of satiety (fullness) ◊ Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
and the breakdown of food into ◊ Control of reproductive functions
individual nutrients  controls the development and functions
◊ Tissue development of the reproductive systems in males and
 influences the development of tissues, females
such as those of the nervous system ◊ Uterine contractions and milk release
◊ Ion regulation  regulates uterine contractions during
 regulates the solute concentration of the delivery and stimulates milk release
blood from the breasts in lactating females
◊ Water balance ◊ Immune system regulation
  helps control the production and
functions of immune cells

10.3 Characteristics of the Endocrine System

 Endocrine System ◊ endocrine glands vs exocrine glands
◊ composed of endocrine glands and  endocrine glands release hormones
specialized cells throughout the body into the bloodstream.
◊ releases hormones into the bloodstream,  exocrine glands have ducts for
not ducts secretions to the outside or into
◊ hormones travel through the blood to hollow organs
target tissues (effectors), producing  * exocrine secretions: saliva, sweat,
specific responses breast milk, digestive enzymes4
◊ term endocrine, derived from the Greek ◊ Endocrinology
words endo (within), and krino (to  the study of the endocrine system
secrete)

10.4 Hormones
 derived from the Greek word "hormon," meaning to set into motion
 regulate nearly every physiological process in the body.
 Chemical Nature of Hormones
◊ classified into two categories: lipid-soluble hormones and water-soluble hormones
 based on their chemical composition, influencing their behavior
◊ cell membrane's selectively permeable nature (phospholipid bilayer) determines hormone
metabolism
 hormones' chemical nature affects their transport in the blood, interaction with targets, and
removal from the body
◊ subdivisions within categories:
 steroid hormones: derived from cholesterol.
 thyroid hormones: derived from the amino acid tyrosine.
 others: categorized as amino acid derivatives, peptides, or proteins.
◊ Lipid-Soluble Hormones
 nonpolar, including steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, and certain eicosanoids
 pass through the cell membrane
 Transport of Lipid-Soluble Hormones
„ small molecules insoluble in water-based fluids like blood plasma
„ travel in the bloodstream attached to binding proteins (transport and protect hormones)
„ degraded slowly, with a lifespan ranging from days to several weeks
„ without binding proteins, lipid-soluble hormones would quickly diffuse out of capillaries. &
would be degraded by enzymes in the liver and lungs. or removal from the body by the
kidneys.
„ circulating hydrolytic enzymes can metabolize free lipid-soluble hormones.
„ breakdown products are then excreted in the urine or the bile(secretion of the liver).
◊ Water-Soluble Hormones
 polar molecules, including protein hormones, peptide hormones, and most amino acid derivative
hormones
 do not easily pass through the cell membrane.
 Transport of Water-Soluble Hormones
 „ many circulate as free hormones, since it is dissolving directly into the blood and are
delivered to their target tissue without attaching to a binding protein
„ they do not readily diffuse through the walls of all capillaries which is why they tend to
diffuse into tissue spaces more slowly due to their large size.
„ organs regulated by some protein hormones have very porous, or fenestrated, capillaries to
aid in delivery of these hormones to individual cells
„ others, being small, require attachment to a binding protein to avoid being filtered out of the
blood
„ water-soluble hormones have relatively short half-lives due to rapid degradation by protease
enzymes within the bloodstream
„ kidneys then filter the hormone breakdown products from the blood
„ target cells also destroy water-soluble hormones, often through endocytosis
„ lysosomal enzymes degrade hormones inside target cells
„ amino acids of peptide and protein hormones recycled for new protein synthesis
„ hormones with short half-lives regulate activities with rapid onset and short duration
„ some water-soluble hormones with carbohydrates or modified terminal ends are more stable
in the blood than others
' these modifications protect them from protease (enzymes that break the peptide bonds of
proteins) activity
„ some attach to binding proteins, circulating in the blood longer than free water-soluble
hormones

10.5 Control of Hormone Secretion

 types of stimuli for hormone release:
◊ humoral, neural, and hormonal
 blood levels of most hormones fluctuate within a homeostatic range
 Stimulation of Hormone Release
◊ Control by Humoral Stimuli
 blood-borne chemicals can directly stimulate the release of some hormones
 humoral stimuli involve blood-borne chemicals circulating in the blood
„ the word humoral refers to body fluids, including blood
 these hormones are sensitive to the blood levels of a particular substance, such as glucose,
calcium, or sodium
„ change in blood calcium level triggers the release of parathyroid hormone (PTH)
„ elevated blood solute concentration after a long race stimulates the release of antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) for water conservation
„ elevated blood glucose levels directly stimulate insulin secretion
„ elevated blood potassium levels directly stimulate aldosterone release by the adrenal cortex
◊ Control by Neural Stimuli
 neurons release neurotransmitters into the synapse with hormone-producing cells
 neurotransmitters may stimulate cells to increase hormone secretion
„ sympathetic nervous system stimulates adrenal gland to release epinephrine and
norepinephrine during exercise
„ neural stimulation declines after exercise, leading to decreased secretion of epinephrine and
norepinephrine
 some neurons secrete chemical messengers directly into the blood, becoming neuropeptides
„ special neuropeptides, known as releasing hormones, stimulate hormone secretion from other
endocrine cells, usually in the hypothalamus
 ◊ Control by Hormonal Stimuli
 occurs when a hormone stimulates the secretion of other hormones
 * tropic hormones from the anterior pituitary gland.
„ tropic hormones stimulate the secretion of another hormone.
„ part of a complex process involving releasing hormones from the hypothalamus
 releasing hormone stimulates the release of a tropic hormone from the anterior pituitary gland
 anterior pituitary tropic hormone then stimulates the release of hormone from another endocrine
gland
„ * hormones from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary regulate the secretion of thyroid
hormones from the thyroid gland.
 Inhibition of Hormone Release
◊ important process alongside stimulating hormone secretion
◊ the slowing or prevention of a process
◊ Inhibition by Humoral Stimuli
 when a hormone's release is sensitive to a humoral stimulus, a companion hormone is often
present
„ companion hormone's release is inhibited by the same humoral stimulus
 companion hormone's effects oppose those of the secreted hormone
„ * aldosterone raises blood pressure, while atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) lowers blood
pressure, working together to maintain homeostasis
◊ Inhibition by Neural Stimuli
 neurons can inhibit endocrine glands as often as they stimulate them
 if the neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the target endocrine gland does not release its hormone
◊ Inhibition by Hormonal Stimuli
 some hormones prevent the secretion of others, a common mode of hormone regulation
 inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus prevent the secretion of tropic hormones from the
anterior pituitary gland.
 thyroid hormones can control their own blood levels by inhibiting their anterior pituitary tropic
hormone
 without the original stimulus, less thyroid hormone is released
 Regulation of Hormone Levels in the Blood
◊ maintained within a homeostatic range by two major mechanisms: negative feedback and positive
feedback.
◊ Negative Feedback
 most hormones are regulated by a negative-feedback mechanism
 hormone secretion is inhibited by the hormone itself once blood levels reach a certain point
 self-limiting system; hormone may inhibit stimulatory hormones to prevent its own secretion
„ thyroid hormones inhibit the secretion of their releasing hormone from the hypothalamus and
their tropic hormone from the anterior pituitary
' when there is enough thyroid hormone in the blood, it tells the brain (specifically the
hypothalamus) to stop releasing the hormone that signals the thyroid to produce more
hormone. So, it's like a built-in control system to avoid making too much thyroid hormone
when it's not needed.
◊ Positive Feedback
 some hormones, when stimulated by a tropic hormone, promote synthesis and secretion of the
tropic hormone
 stimulates target cell and further secretion of the original hormone
 self-propagating system; continuous stimulation leads to more hormone release
 „ prolonged estrogen stimulation promotes release of the anterior pituitary hormone
responsible for stimulating ovulation.
' when estrogen is present for an extended period, it signals the brain's anterior pituitary
gland to release a hormone. This hormone then plays a role in triggering the release of an
egg from the ovary, a process known as ovulation

10.6 Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of Action

 hormones act by binding to proteins known as receptors
 a hormone can only stimulate cells equipped with receptors for that specific hormone
 the part of a receptor molecule where a hormone binds is called a receptor site
◊ receptor sites have specific shapes and chemical characteristics, allowing binding of only a particular
hormone — called specificity
◊ tendency for each hormone type to bind to a specific receptor type
 insulin binds to insulin receptors, not to receptors for thyroid hormones
 hormone receptors have a high affinity for binding hormones, requiring only a small
concentration of the hormone to activate a significant number of receptors
 Classes of Receptors
◊ lipid-soluble hormones mainly act inside the cell nucleus, while water-soluble hormones act on the
outer surface of cells
◊ Lipid-soluble Hormones
 bind to nuclear receptors
 relatively small and nonpolar, allowing them to freely cross the cell membrane
 diffuse through the cell membrane and bind to nuclear receptors, mostly found in the cell nucleus
 nuclear receptors may also be located in the cytoplasm, moving to the nucleus when activated
 hormone-receptor complex interacts with DNA or cellular enzymes, regulating gene transcription
in the target tissue (takes several minutes to several hours)
 effects on target cells can be rapid (less than 1 minute), possibly through membrane-bound
receptors
◊ Water-soluble Hormones
 bind to membrane-bound receptors
 polar molecules unable to pass through the cell membrane
 interact with membrane-bound receptors, which are proteins that extend across the cell
membrane, with their hormone-binding sites exposed on the cell membrane’s outer surface
 when a hormone binds to a receptor on the cell membrane's outer surface, the hormone-receptor
complex initiates a response inside the cell
 Action of Nuclear Receptors
◊ lipid-soluble hormones primarily stimulate protein synthesis
◊ after diffusing across the cell membrane, hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA to produce new
proteins
◊ receptors binding to DNA have fingerlike projections recognizing specific nucleotide sequences
called hormone-response elements
◊ hormone-receptor complex acts as a transcription factor, regulating the transcription of specific
mRNA molecules
◊ newly formed mRNA moves to the cytoplasm for translation into specific proteins at ribosomes.
 these proteins produce the hormone's effects in the target cell.
 * testosterone makes proteins for male features like muscles, and aldosterone makes proteins that
affect salt levels in the kidneys.
◊ target cells have a latent period of several hours between hormone-receptor binding and observable
responses
◊ during the latent period, mRNA and new proteins are synthesized.
◊ hormone-receptor complexes are eventually degraded within the cell, limiting their influence on cell
activities.
◊ cells gradually return to their previous functional states
 Membrane-bound Receptors and Signal Amplification
◊ cell membrane has embedded proteins, including membrane-bound receptors
◊ membrane-bound receptors activate responses in two ways:
 (1) by altering the activity of G proteins at the inner surface of the cell membrane, and
 (2) by directly altering the activity of intracellular enzymes.
◊ activation of G proteins or intracellular enzymes leads to specific cellular responses, including the
production of second messengers
 second messengers are molecules produced inside a cell when a ligand binds to its membrane-
bound receptor
◊ second messengers, such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), activate specific cellular
processes in response to the hormone
◊ coordinated set of events triggered by a second messenger is referred to as a second-messenger
system
 cAMP is a common second messenger produced when a ligand binds to its receptor, stimulating
specific cellular processes
 water-soluble hormones often use this mechanism as they cannot directly enter target cells
 some lipid-soluble hormones also activate second messenger systems through membrane-bound
receptors
◊ Membrane-Bound Receptors that Activate G Proteins
 membrane-bound receptors activate responses through G proteins
 G proteins consist of three subunits: alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ)
 inactive state: guanine diphosphate (GDP) is bound to the α subunit of G proteins
 active state: guanine triphosphate (GTP) is bound to the α subunit
 hormone binding to the receptor triggers a shape change in the receptor
 the receptor then binds to a G protein on the inner cell membrane, leading to the release of GDP
and binding of GTP to the α subunit
 the activated α subunit separates from the β and γ subunits, influencing cellular responses
 after a while, the activated α subunit is turned off (GTP converted to GDP) and recombines with
the β and γ subunits.
 G proteins Interacting with adenylate cyclase:
„ activated α subunits of G proteins can influence the activity of enzymes inside the cell
' they can activate or inhibit adenylate cyclase, an enzyme converting ATP to cAMP
„ cAMP acts as a second messenger, binding to and activating protein kinases
' protein kinases regulate the activity of other enzymes, either increasing or decreasing their
activity
„ The presence of cAMP is limited as it gets broken down to AMP by phosphodiesterase
(enzyme in the cytoplasm)
„ Different cell types respond differently to cAMP
' * glucagon stimulates cAMP synthesis in liver cells, promoting the breakdown of
glycogen into glucose for release
◊ Signal Amplification
 nuclear receptors activate protein synthesis, taking several hours for a response
 hormones stimulating second messengers create almost instantaneous responses as the second
messengers influence existing enzymes
 each receptor produces thousands of second messengers, leading to cascade effects and hormonal
signal amplification
„ amplification: one hormone activates many second messengers, each activating enzymes and
producing a large amount of final product
  second-messenger amplification is highly efficient and results in an "army of molecules"
simultaneously working to produce final products
 both nuclear and membrane-bound receptor hormone systems are effective, suited for different
types of responses
„ * epinephrine quickly activates target cell responses in a fight-or-flight situation, while
steroids mediate long-term processes like pregnancy maintenance

10.7 Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones

 the endocrine system consists of ductless glands secreting hormones into interstitial fluid.
 hormones then enter the blood circulation.
◊ organs with rich blood supply, like adrenal and thyroid glands, are part of the endocrine system.
 some endocrine glands perform additional functions beyond hormone secretion.
◊ * the pancreas has endocrine cells secreting hormones and exocrine cells secreting digestive
enzymes.
 portions of ovaries and testes secrete hormones, while other parts produce oocytes (female reproductive
cells) or sperm cells (male reproductive cells).
 Pituitary and Hypothalamus
◊ pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is a small pea-sized gland located in a depression of the sphenoid
bone under the hypothalamus
◊ the hypothalamus, an autonomic nervous system and endocrine control center, is situated below the
thalamus
◊ pituitary gland is connected to the hypothalamus by the infundibulum (a stalk)
◊ pituitary gland has two parts:
 anterior pituitary (epithelial cells derived from the embryonic oral cavity)
 posterior pituitary (extension of the brain composed of nerve cells)
„ hormones from both lobes of the pituitary gland control various functions in other glands and
organs
◊ pituitary gland influences ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, adrenal cortex, growth, kidney function,
birth, and milk production
 historically known as the body's master gland due to its control over many other glands
◊ hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland through hormonal control and direct innervation
◊ Hormonal Control of the Anterior Pituitary
 the anterior pituitary gland synthesizes hormones under hypothalamic control
 hypothalamic neurons produce neuropeptides that enter a capillary bed in the hypothalamus
 neuropeptides are transported to the anterior pituitary through veins, forming the hypothalamic-
pituitary portal system
„ capillary beds and veins that transport the releasing and inhibiting hormones are called the
hypothalamic-pituitary portal system
 at the anterior pituitary, neuropeptides bind to membrane-bound receptors, regulating hormone
secretion
 releasing hormones stimulate specific hormone production, while inhibiting hormones decrease
secretion
◊ Direct Innervation of the Posterior Pituitary
 the posterior pituitary stores hormones synthesized by hypothalamic neurons
 stimulation of hypothalamic neurons controls the secretion of posterior pituitary hormones
 neurons in the hypothalamus have cell bodies extending through the infundibulum to the
posterior pituitary
  hormones produced in hypothalamic nerve cell bodies are transported through axons to the
posterior pituitary
 action potentials from the hypothalamus cause the release of stored hormones from axon endings
in the posterior pituitary.
 the nervous and endocrine systems in the hypothalamus and pituitary are closely interconnected,
influenced by emotions and stress.
◊ Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
 Growth Hormone (GH)
„ stimulates the growth of bones, muscles, and organs by increasing gene expression
„ resists protein breakdown during periods of food deprivation and favors lipid breakdown
„ too little growth hormone secretion can result from abnormal development of the pituitary
gland, leading to pituitary dwarfism (suffering from a deficiency of growth hormone remains
small, although normally proportioned)
„ excess growth hormone secretion can result from hormone-secreting tumors of the pituitary
gland, leading to giantism (person becomes abnormally tall) or acromegaly (facial features
and hands become abnormally large)
„ the secretion of growth hormone is controlled by two hormones from the hypothalamus: a
releasing hormone stimulates growth hormone secretion, and an inhibiting hormone inhibits
its secretion.
 Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
„ binds to membrane-bound receptors on cells of the thyroid gland and stimulates the secretion
of thyroid hormone.
„ TSH can also stimulate the growth of the thyroid gland.
„ the rate of TSH secretion is regulated by a releasing hormone from the hypothalamus.
 Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
„ binds to membrane-bound receptors on adrenal cortex cells.
„ ACTH increases the secretion of cortisol (hydrocortisone) from the adrenal cortex.
„ ACTH is required to keep the adrenal cortex from degenerating.
„ ACTH molecules also bind to melanocytes in the skin and increase skin pigmentation.
„ the rate of ACTH secretion is increased by a releasing hormone from the hypothalamus.
 Gonadotropins
„ regulate the growth, development, and functions of the gonads
„ Luteinizing hormone (LH)
' in females, LH stimulates ovulation and promotes the secretion of reproductive hormones
(estrogen and progesterone) from the ovaries
' in males, LH stimulates interstitial cells of the testes to secrete testosterone and is
sometimes referred to as interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH).
„ Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
' FSH stimulates the development of follicles in the ovaries and sperm cells in the testes.
' a single releasing hormone from the hypothalamus increases the secretion of both LH and
FSH.
 Prolactin
„ binds to membrane-bound receptors in cells of the breast.
„ helps promote the development of the breast during pregnancy and stimulates the production
of milk following pregnancy.
„ the regulation of prolactin secretion is complex and may involve several substances released
from the hypothalamus
 Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
 „ binds to membrane-bound receptors on melanocytes and causes them to synthesize melanin.
„ the structure of MSH is similar to that of ACTH
„ over secretion of either hormone causes the skin to darken
„ the regulation of MSH is not well understood, but there appear to be two regulatory
hormones from the hypothalamus—one that increases MSH secretion and one that decreases
it.
◊ Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
„ binds to membrane-bound receptors and increases water reabsorption by kidney tubules.
„ results in less water lost as urine
„ can cause blood vessels to constrict when released in large amounts, also known as
vasopressin.
„ reduced ADH release results in large amounts of dilute urine
„ a lack of ADH secretion causes diabetes insipidus, leading to the production of a large
amount of dilute urine
' consequences of diabetes insipidus include severe conditions with increased urine
production, excess water loss, and imbalances in important electrolytes like Ca2+, Na+,
and K+
„ alcohol inhibits ADH secretion, contributing to its diuretic effects.
 Oxytocin
„ binds to membrane-bound receptors
„ causes contraction of the smooth muscle cells of the uterus.
„ stimulates milk letdown from the breasts in lactating women.
„ commercial preparations of oxytocin, such as Pitocin, are given under certain conditions to
assist in childbirth and to constrict uterine blood vessels following childbirth.
 Thyroid Gland
◊ composed of two lobes connected by the
isthmus
◊ located on each side of the trachea, just
inferior to the larynx
◊ highly vascular, appearing more red than
surrounding tissues.
◊ surrounded by a connective tissue
capsule.
◊ synthesizes and stores thyroid hormones,
regulating metabolism.
◊ thyroid follicles store thyroid hormones
in thyroglobulin.
◊ parafollicular cells secrete calcitonin.
 ◊ Regulation of Thyroid Hormones
 regulated by hormones from the hypothalamus and pituitary.
 hypothalamus secretes TSH-releasing hormone (TRH).
 TRH stimulates anterior pituitary to release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
 TSH stimulates thyroid hormones' secretion.
 negative feedback regulates thyroid hormones, inhibiting TRH and TSH secretion when levels
are elevated.
 loss of negative feedback causes goiter.
◊ Effects of Thyroid Hormones
 regulate growth and development.
 a lack of thyroid hormones is called hypothyroidism
„ hypothyroidism leads to decreased metabolic rate, myxedema, and cretinism (characterized
by mental retardation, short stature, and abnormally formed skeletal structures) in infants.
„ hyperthyroidism causes increased metabolic rate, nervousness, and fatigue.
 Graves disease, an autoimmune disorder, leads to hyperthyroidism.
◊ Calcitonin:
 secreted by parafollicular cells.
 released when blood Ca2+ levels are too high.
 lowers blood Ca2+ levels by inhibiting osteoclasts.
 prevents excessive elevation of blood Ca2+ after a high-Ca2+ meal.
 lack of calcitonin secretion compensated by other mechanisms controlling blood Ca2+ levels
 Parathyroid Glands
◊ four tiny glands embedded in the posterior wall of the thyroid gland.
◊ secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH).
◊ PTH is crucial for regulating blood calcium levels.
◊ Effects of PTH
 increases active vitamin D formation, enhancing Ca2+ absorption by intestinal cells.
 increases blood Ca2+ levels by stimulating osteoclasts to reabsorb bone.
 decreases Ca2+ loss in urine.
◊ Vitamin D synthesis and PTH
 vitamin D synthesis influenced by ultraviolet light on the skin.
 PTH stimulates the final stage of vitamin D synthesis in the kidneys
◊ Blood Ca2+ regulation
 decreased blood Ca2+ levels lead to increased PTH secretion, promoting bone reabsorption.
 prolonged bone reabsorption results in reduced bone density.
 increased blood Ca2+ levels cause decreased PTH secretion and stimulate calcitonin secretion
◊ Hyperparathyroidism:
 abnormally high PTH secretion, often due to a tumor.
 increased PTH leads to excessive bone reabsorption, elevated blood Ca2+, and potential
complications like soft bones, fatigue, muscle weakness, inflammation, and kidney stones.
◊ Hypoparathyroidism:
 abnormally low PTH secretion, can result from injury or surgical removal of thyroid and
parathyroid glands.
 low PTH leads to reduced bone reabsorption, decreased vitamin D formation, and lowered blood
Ca2+ levels.
 symptoms include excitable nerves and muscles, muscle cramps, tetanus, and, in severe cases,
respiratory muscle failure and death.
 Adrenal Glands
◊ two small glands located superior to each kidney.
◊ consist of adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex, functioning as separate endocrine glands.
◊ Adrenal Medulla
 releases principal hormone epinephrine (adrenaline) and small amounts of norepinephrine.
 activated by the sympathetic nervous system during excitement, physical activity, stress, and low
blood glucose levels.
 hormones prepare the body for intense physical activity, known as fight-or-flight response.
  major effects include the release of stored energy sources, increased heart rate, smooth muscle
contraction, increased blood flow to skeletal muscles, and increased metabolic rate.
◊ adrenal cortex:
 secretes three classes of steroid hormones: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens.
 Mineralocorticoids
„ regulate blood volume, K+, and Na+ levels.
„ aldosterone is the major hormone, causing Na+ and water retention and K+ elimination.
„ secretion influenced by blood K+ and Na+ levels and blood pressure changes.
 Glucocorticoids
„ regulate blood nutrient levels.
„ cortisol is the major hormone, increasing breakdown of proteins and lipids for energy.
„ cortisol secretion stimulated by ACTH from the anterior pituitary, responding to low blood
glucose levels.
„ excessive cortisol secretion under prolonged stress can suppress the immune system.
 Androgens
„ stimulate the development of male secondary sex characteristics.
„ small amounts secreted in both males and females.
„ in females, influence the sex drive; abnormally high secretion may lead to exaggerated male
characteristics in both genders, especially noticeable in females and prepubescent males.
 Pancreas, Insulin, and Diabetes
◊ endocrine part consists of pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans).
◊ three cell types: alpha cells (secrete glucagon), beta cells (secrete insulin), delta cells (secrete
somatostatin).
◊ hormones regulate blood levels of nutrients, especially glucose.
◊ maintaining normal blood glucose levels is crucial for proper nervous system function.
◊ Insulin
 secreted by beta cells in response to elevated blood glucose levels.
 stimulated by parasympathetic stimulation during digestion and increased blood levels of certain
amino acids.
 inhibitory signals include low blood glucose levels and sympathetic nervous system stimulation.
 major target tissues: liver, adipose tissue, muscles, and satiety center in the hypothalamus.
 actions include increased glucose and amino acid uptake, conversion to glycogen or lipids, and
synthesis of protein.
◊ Diabetes Mellitus
 inability to regulate blood glucose levels within the normal range.
 two types: type 1 (insufficient insulin secretion) and type 2 (defective insulin receptors).
 consequences of uncontrolled diabetes: hyperglycemia, increased appetite, excessive urine
production, dehydration, wasting away of body tissues, acidosis, ketosis, lack of energy.
 type 1 requires regular insulin injections.
 synthetic insulin available through genetic engineering.
◊ Glucagon
 released from alpha cells when blood glucose levels are low.
 binds to liver receptors, causing glycogen conversion to glucose, raising blood glucose levels.
 reduced secretion after a meal when blood glucose levels are elevated.
◊ Somatostatin
 released by delta cells in response to food intake.
 inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion and gastric tract activity.
◊ Insulin and Glucagon Regulation
 work together to maintain blood glucose levels.
 insulin secretion increases with elevated blood glucose, while glucagon secretion decreases.
 when blood glucose decreases, insulin secretion declines, and glucagon secretion increases.
 other hormones (epinephrine, cortisol, growth hormone) also play a role in maintaining blood
nutrient levels.
 Testes and Ovaries
◊ male testes and female ovaries secrete reproductive hormones.
 ◊ hormones play crucial roles in sexual characteristics and reproduction
◊ Male Reproductive Hormone - Testosterone:
 secreted by the testes.
 responsible for the growth and development of male reproductive structures.
 influences muscle enlargement, body hair growth, voice changes, and male sexual drive.
◊ Female Reproductive Hormones - Estrogen and Progesterone:
 secreted by the ovaries.
 affect female reproductive structures and sexual characteristics.
 contribute to breast enlargement and the distribution of adipose tissue, influencing hip, breast,
and thigh shape.
 regulate the female menstrual cycle through cyclical release.
◊ LH and FSH (luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone) stimulate hormone secretion
from ovaries and testes.
◊ releasing hormone from the hypothalamus controls LH and FSH secretion.
◊ LH and FSH control hormone secretion from the ovaries and testes.
◊ hormones from ovaries and testes have a negative-feedback effect on the hypothalamus and anterior
pituitary.
◊ LH, FSH, and releasing hormone intricate in regulating reproductive functions.
◊ negative-feedback system involving hormones maintains balance.
 Thymus
◊ located in the upper part of the thoracic cavity.
◊ important in the function of the immune system.
◊ secretes a hormone called thymosin.
◊ aids in the development of white blood cells called T cells.
 T cells help protect the body against infection by foreign organisms.
◊ most important early in life; absence leads to a less capable immune system.
 Pineal Gland
◊ small, pinecone-shaped structure located superior and posterior to the thalamus of the brain.
◊ produces a hormone called melatonin.
 thought to inhibit the reproductive hypothalamic-releasing hormone.
 inhibition prevents secretion of reproductive tropic hormones (LH and FSH from the anterior
pituitary).
◊ melatonin inhibits the reproductive system.
◊ melatonin secretion influenced by available light.
◊ short day length increases secretion, while longer day length decreases it.
◊ some evidence suggests a role in the onset of puberty in humans.
◊ tumors may develop in the pineal gland, affecting melatonin secretion.

10.8 Other Hormones

 Cells in the Lining of the Stomach and Small Intestine
◊ secrete hormones that stimulate the production of digestive juices from the stomach, pancreas, and
liver.
◊ this secretion occurs when food is present in the digestive system, but not at other times.
◊ hormones secreted from the small intestine also help regulate the rate at which food passes from the
stomach into the small intestine.
 Prostaglandins
◊ are widely distributed in tissues of the body.
◊ function as intercellular signals.
◊ are usually not transported long distances in the blood but function mainly as autocrine or paracrine
chemical signals.
◊ their effects occur in the tissues where they are produced.
◊ some prostaglandins cause relaxation of smooth muscle, such as dilation of blood vessels.
◊ others cause contraction of smooth muscle, such as contraction of the uterus during the delivery of a
baby.
◊ prostaglandins have been used medically to initiate abortion due to their action on the uterus.
 ◊ they also play a role in inflammation, being released by damaged tissues and causing blood vessel
dilation, localized swelling, and pain.
◊ prostaglandins produced by platelets are necessary for normal blood clotting.
 the ability of aspirin and related substances to reduce pain and inflammation is a result of their
inhibitory effect on prostaglandin synthesis.
 Right Atrium of the Heart:
◊ secretes atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH, also called ANP) in response to elevated blood pressure.
◊ ANH inhibits Na+ reabsorption in the kidneys.
◊ this causes more urine to be produced, reducing blood volume.
◊ lowered blood volume lowers blood pressure.
 Kidneys
◊ secrete the hormone erythropoietin in response to reduced oxygen levels in the kidney.
 erythropoietin acts on bone marrow to increase the production of red blood cells.
 Placenta in Pregnant Women
◊ is an important source of hormones that maintain pregnancy and stimulate breast development.
◊ hormones include estrogen, progesterone, and human chorionic gonadotropin, which is similar in
structure and function to LH.

10.9 Effects of Aging on the Endocrine System

 Age-related Changes to the Endocrine System
◊ include a gradual decrease in the secretion of some endocrine glands.
◊ some decreases in secretion may be due to reduced physical activity in older individuals.
 GH Secretion
◊ decreases with age.
◊ regular exercise can offset this decline.
◊ older people who don't exercise have significantly lower GH levels compared to those who exercise
regularly.
◊ decreasing GH levels may contribute to the gradual decrease in bone and muscle mass and the
increase in adipose tissue in many elderly individuals.
◊ administering GH to slow or prevent aging consequences has not proven effective, and unwanted
side effects are possible.
 Melatonin Secretion
◊ decreases with age.
◊ may influence age-related changes in sleep patterns.
◊ contributes to the decreased secretion of some hormones like GH and testosterone.
 Thyroid Hormones Secretion
◊ decreases slightly with age.
◊ age-related damage to the thyroid gland by the immune system can occur.
◊ approximately 10% of elderly women experience some reduction in thyroid hormone secretion, less
common in men.
 Kidneys in the Elderly
◊ secrete less renin.
◊ reducing the ability to respond to decreases in blood pressure.
◊ reproductive hormone secretion:
◊ gradually declines in elderly men.
◊ women experience menopause.
 Thymosin Secretion from the Thymus
◊ decreases with age.
◊ fewer functional lymphocytes are produced.
◊ the immune system becomes less effective in protecting the body against infections and cancer.
 Parathyroid Hormone Secretion
◊ increases to maintain blood calcium levels if dietary Ca2+ and vitamin D levels decrease in the
elderly.
◊ substantial decrease in bone matrix may occur.
 Regulation of Blood Glucose
◊ in most people, does not decrease with age.
◊ an age-related tendency to develop type 2 diabetes mellitus may occur for those with a familial
tendency, correlated with age-related increases in body weight.