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01 Hecht Communication Theory of Identity

Humanities and Social Sciences (Arellano University)

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Communication Theory of Identity 139

indeed, but among the most prominent are extro- Delia, J. G. (1987). Communication research: A history.
version, self-monitoring, and cognitive complexity. In C. R. Berger & S. H. Chaffee (Eds.), Handbook of
While the literature on the role of such variables in communication science (pp. 20–98). Newbury Park,
communication skill is extensive and very often CA: Sage.
produces statistically significant effects, it is impor- Greene, J. O. (2009). Communication skills. In H. T. Reis
tant to note that these relationships tend not to be & S. K. Sprecher (Eds.), Encyclopedia of human
large, rarely accounting for more than 10% of the relationships. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
variance in actual behavior (as opposed to self- Greene, J. O., & Burleson, B. R. (Eds.). (2003).
Handbook of communication and social interaction
reports of behavior, responses to hypothetical
skills. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
scenarios, etc.).
Hargie, O. D. W. (Ed.). (2006). The handbook of
In contrast to relatively enduring person fac-
communication skills (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.
tors, state variables refer to characteristics of
Jones, E. E. (1998). Major developments in five decades
persons that change over comparatively short of social psychology. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, &
time spans (i.e., days, hours, or even minutes). G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology
Among such state variables is the individual’s (4th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 3–57). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
level of physiological arousal—a factor that is Proctor, R. W., & Dutta, A. (1995). Skill acquisition and
particularly interesting because some evidence human performance. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
suggests that the relationship between arousal Spitzberg, B. H., & Cupach, W. R. (1989). Handbook of
and proficiency is curvilinear: Performance interpersonal competence research. New York:
improves with increasing arousal up to some Springer-Verlag.
point, but beyond that, still higher levels of Spitzberg, B. H., & Dillard, J. P. (2002). Social skills
arousal result in performance decrements. Other and communication. In M. Allen, R. W. Preiss,
examples of state variables include various moods B. G. Gayle, & N. A. Burrell (Eds.), Interpersonal
and emotions, most prominently social anxiety— communication research: Advances through meta-
the nervousness and “butterflies” accompanying analysis (pp. 89–107). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
social interaction that have been shown to be Erlbaum.
associated with a variety of behavioral manifesta-
tions generally taken to be less competent or skill-
ful. In contrast, positive moods tend to be
associated with greater creativity and increased
social engagement. Still other state variables
COMMUNICATION THEORY
related to social proficiency include stress, drug OF IDENTITY
ingestion (e.g., “alcohol myopia”), and lack of
sufficient sleep. The communication theory of identity (CTI) was
developed by Michael Hecht and colleagues; the
John O. Greene theory emerged in the 1980s as part of a shift
from considering identity a central element of
See also Cognitive Theories; Communication and human existence to identity as a social phenome-
Language Acquisition and Development; Competence non. While earlier views emphasized the Western
Theories; Facework Theories; Impression notion of “self” as a single, unified identity, this
Management; Intercultural Communication broader conceptualization argues that humans are
Competence; Learning and Communication; Social
inherently social beings whose lives revolve around
and Communicative Anxiety
communication, relationships, and communities
and who operate from multiple and shifting iden-
tities. As a result, identities and identification are
Further Readings key processes through which people and groups
Chen, G.-M., & Starosta, W. J. (1996). Intercultural orient themselves to each other and the world
communication competence: A synthesis. In around them.
B. R. Burleson (Ed.), Communication yearbook 19 From this beginning, a framed or layered per-
(pp. 353–383). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. spective emerged in the early 1990s that described

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140 Communication Theory of Identity

identity as multifaceted, including personal, often seen as homogeneous. CTI-related research,

enacted, relational, and communal frames. Hecht in contrast, examined diverse ways of experiencing
and colleagues were studying interethnic commu- these identities. For example, studies by Hecht and
nication with the expectation that identity would Sidney Ribeau examined different labels used by
influence these processes and they, in turn, would members of the African American community and
lead to outcomes such as satisfying communica- how these labels manifested themselves in relation-
tion. However, the data did not fit this model. ships, behaviors, and thoughts.
Instead, identity and communication influenced This research also suggested some of the ways in
outcomes jointly. The need to explain these find- which identity management can be problematic.
ings and emerging research on media representa- Not only is there a tendency to see members of a
tions of identity led to an examination of research group as homogeneous, but the potential conflicts
conceptualizing identity as a social process and the that emerge from competing enactments of identi-
CTI view of identity as consisting of four frames. ties must be skillfully negotiated. For example, the
The personal frame encompasses what has work of Michael Hecht and Sandra Faulkner on
traditionally been thought of as self and self- Jewish American identity described not only the
concept—the ways an individual conceives of self. ascriptions others make to group members but also
The enacted frame is the performance or expres- multiple and fluid communal identities, members’
sion of identity. CTI argues that the enactments own insider/outsider status, the “closetable” nature
themselves are a frame of identity—that communi- of this potentially stigmatized identity, and how all
cation is identity and not just caused or influenced these factors get negotiated inside and outside the
by it. As a result, managing or negotiating identity group. Specific strategies for revealing identity align
is a central process. Next, the relational frame of along an explicit–implicit dimension that is influ-
identity refers to identities that are invested in rela- enced by the relationship type (especially the pres-
tionships, exist in relationship to each other, and ence of romance) and in the greater societal context
are ascribed in and through relationships. For of isolation and “otherness.” In closer relationships
example, being a parent requires a child, and who and more supportive contexts, identities may be
we are is established and defined through identities overtly discussed and negotiated (e.g., how all mem-
that are ascribed to us by others. Identities also bers will get to celebrate their own holidays and
exist as characteristics of communities (communal even aid in these enactments), as opposed to the
frame). Media tell us, for example, what it means more covert practices that go on when discrimina-
to be successful. Communal identities are held in tion and prejudice are rife. These findings demon-
common by groups rather than individuals. Finally, strate the power of the theory to focus on the
these identity frames are said to interpenetrate or dynamics of identity—how it changes and evolves.
intertwine with each other. For example, one’s Another line of work focusing on these dynam-
view of self as a man or women (personal identity) ics was initiated by Eura Jung in his 2004 disserta-
is juxtaposed to how others see us as men or tion on identity gaps, which are defined as
women (relational identity), as well as how one’s disconnects between and among the various frames
communities (communal identity) define these that challenge identity management. Since com-
social positions. munication and human relations are inexact, there
While the CTI has many other aspects, the con- are often discrepancies among how we see our-
ceptualization of identity as social, the interpene- selves (personal identity), how others see us (rela-
tration of the four frames, and the management of tional identity), and how we express ourselves
these identities form the core of the theory. One (enacted identity). These identities also may differ
implication is that at any time we are likely to be from communal representations, especially when
experiencing multiple, intersecting identities, some communal representations are stereotypic. These
of which are group based, or communal. People gaps have proven problematic for effective com-
rarely operate out of a single identity; rather mul- munication, as well as mental health, across differ-
tiple identities guide their thoughts and behaviors. ent groups and situations. For example, Jung and
This precept had not been well represented in Hecht found that Korean immigrants who come
research, and as a result, ethnic communities were from a homogeneous society into a racially

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Communicative Action Theory 141

segmented and hierarchical U.S. society often world. Finally, identities have proven useful when
experience gaps in identity, especially when they targeting health messages to groups or tailoring
occupy “middle person status” between higher them to individuals. Messages designed to include
status Whites and lower status Blacks and Latinos identity representations and to appeal to salient
in inner cities. These gaps have been shown to identities are proving effective in health cam-
produce depression. These gaps also have proven paigns. The multifaceted nature of CTI makes it
problematic in grandparent–grandchild relation- ideal for understanding the new global village,
ships, as shown in work by Jennifer Kam. with its electronic and face-to-face connectivities
CTI also has directed work on youth identity and emerging sense of multiple identities.
and health. As a guiding force in Michael Hecht
and Michelle Miller-Day’s Drug Resistance Michael L. Hecht
Strategies Project, begun in the late 1980s, CTI has See also Co-Cultural Theory; Cultural Contracts Theory;
been used to study Latino identity and substance Cultural Identity Theory; Health Communication
use as well as to develop an evidence-based, multi- Theories; Identity Theories; Social Construction of
cultural, middle school substance abuse prevention Reality; Social Interaction Theories; Symbolic
curriculum called “keepin’ it REAL.” The preven- Interactionism
tion curriculum was infused with the identities of
the audience through its basis in narrative and nar-
rative performance. The principle of cultural Further Readings
grounding, an approach to health-message design Hecht, M. L. (1993). 2002—A research odyssey: Toward
developed by Michael Hecht and Janice Krieger, the development of a communication theory of
emerged from this work and guides prevention identity. Communication Monographs, 60, 76–82.
message construction. These messages may address Hecht, M. L., Jackson, R. L., & Pitts, M. (2005).
different frames, but it is argued that focusing on Culture: Intersections of intergroup and identity
indigenous narratives about identity and the iden- theories. In J. Harwood & H. Giles (Eds.), Intergroup
tities most salient to these narratives is essential to communication: Multiple perspectives (pp. 21–42).
effective health messages. New York: Peter Lang.
Since 2000, CTI has been guiding a number of Hecht, M. L., Jackson, R. L., & Ribeau, S. (2003).
new lines of research that demonstrate its encom- African American communication: Exploring identity
passing and expansive view of identity. Culture and culture (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
has often been defined in terms of nationality, Erlbaum.
race, and ethnicity; CTI encourages a broader Hecht, M. L., & Miller-Day, M. (in press). The drug
definition consisting of multiple frames of identity. resistance strategies project: A communication
For example, on a communal level, rurality is approach to preventing adolescent drug use. In L. Frey
defined by population density and/or proximity to & K. Cissna (Eds.), Handbook of applied
dense population areas. These definitions have not communication. London: Taylor & Francis.
been useful in public health campaigns except in Hecht, M. L., Warren, J., Jung, E., & Krieger, J. (2004).
noting that rural communities tend to be under- Communication theory of identity. In W. B.
served. As a result, Janice Krieger is exploring the Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural
communication (pp. 257–278). Thousand Oaks, CA:
construct rural identity as it reflects the other
Sage.
frames. Online communities also are sources of
identity and locations for identity expression. CTI
research by Jennifer Warren has demonstrated
how different aspects of identity influence online
health information seeking by lower income COMMUNICATIVE ACTION THEORY
African American women and is being used to
develop smoking interventions targeted at mem- Jürgen Habermas, the contemporary German phi-
bers of this ethnic group. From the social- losopher and social theorist, formulates what are
networking sites to health information seeking on arguably his most important ideas in his theory of
the Web, identities are implicated in the online communicative action. This account of social

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