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Mule deer
The mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) is a deer
Mule deer
indigenous to western North America; it is named for its
ears, which are large like those of the mule. Two subspecies
of mule deer are grouped into the black-tailed
deer.[1][5][6][7][8][9]

Unlike the related white-tailed deer (Odocoileus

virginianus), which is found throughout most of North
America east of the Rocky Mountains and in the valleys of
the Rocky Mountains from Idaho and Wyoming northward,
mule deer are only found on the western Great Plains, in the Male (buck) near Elk Creek, Oregon
Rocky Mountains, in the southwest United States, and on the
west coast of North America. Mule deer have also been
introduced to Argentina and Kauai, Hawaii.[5]

Taxonomy
Mule deer can be divided into two main groups: the mule
deer (sensu stricto) and the black-tailed deer. The first group
includes all subspecies, except O. h. columbianus and O. h. Female (doe) near Swall Meadows,
sitkensis, which are in the black-tailed deer group.[5] The California
two main groups have been treated as separate species, but
they hybridize, and virtually all recent authorities treat the Conservation status
mule deer and black-tailed deer as
conspecific. [1][5][6][7][9][10] Mule deer apparently evolved
[9]
from the black-tailed deer. Despite this, the mtDNA of the
white-tailed deer and mule deer is similar, but differs from Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
that of the black-tailed deer.[9] This may be the result of Scientific classification
introgression, although hybrids between the mule deer and
Domain: Eukaryota
white-tailed deer are rare in the wild (apparently more
common locally in West Texas), and the hybrid survival rate Kingdom: Animalia
is low even in captivity.[8][9] Many claims of observations of Phylum: Chordata
wild hybrids are not legitimate, as identification based on
Class: Mammalia
external features is complicated.[8]
Order: Artiodactyla

Subspecies Family: Cervidae

Some authorities have recognized O. h. crooki as a senior Subfamily: Capreolinae

synonym of O. h. eremicus, but the type specimen of the Genus: Odocoileus
former is a hybrid between the mule deer and white-tailed
Species: O. hemionus
deer, so the name O. h. crooki is invalid.[5][11] Additionally,
the validity of O. h. inyoensis has been questioned, and the Binomial name
two insular O. h. cerrosensis and O. h. sheldoni may be Odocoileus hemionus
synonyms of O. h. eremicus or O. h. peninsulae.[10]
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The 10 valid subspecies, based on the third edition of Rafinesque, 1817[2]

Mammal Species of the World, are:[5]
Subspecies
Mule deer (sensu stricto) group: 10, but some disputed (see text)
O. h. californicus – California mule deer
O. h. cerrosensis – Cedros/Cerros Island mule deer;
named after Cedros Island, the only place the
subspecies is found
O. h. eremicus – desert/burro mule deer; found in the
Lower Colorado River Valley, northwestern Mexico,
southeastern California, and Arizona
O. h. fuliginatus – southern mule deer; found in
southernmost California and Baja California
O. h. hemionus – Rocky Mountain mule deer; found
in western and central North America
O. h. inyoensis – Inyo mule deer; named after Inyo
County, California and found in the Sierra Nevada
mountain range in California
O. h. peninsulae – peninsular mule deer; found in Distribution map of subspecies:
Baja California Sur Sitka black-tailed deer (O. h.
O. h. sheldoni – Tiburon Island mule deer; found on
sitkensis)
Tiburón Island
Columbian black-tailed deer (O. h.
Black-tailed deer group:
columbianus)
O. h. columbianus – Columbian black-tailed deer;
California mule deer (O. h.
found in the Pacific Northwest and Northern
California regions californicus)
O. h. sitkensis – Sitka deer; named after Sitka, southern mule deer (O. h.
Alaska and found in the coastal area and islands off fuliginatus)
western British Columbia
peninsular mule deer (O. h.
peninsulae)
Description desert mule deer (O. h. eremicus)
The most noticeable Rocky Mountain mule deer (O. h.
differences between hemionus)
white-tailed and mule
Synonyms[3][4]
deer are ear size, tail
color, and antler
Cervus hemionus Rafinesque,
configuration. In many
1817
cases, body size is also a
key difference. The mule Cervus auritus Warden, 1820
Small herd of mule deer in the
deer's tail is black- Cervus macrotis Say, 1823
Sulphur Springs Valley of southern
Arizona
tipped, whereas the
white-tailed deer's is not. Cervus lewisii Peale, 1848
Mule deer antlers are Cariacus punctulatus Gray,
bifurcated; they "fork" as they grow, rather than branching 1852
from a single main beam, as is the case with white-tails.
Cervus richardsoni Audubon &
Each spring, a buck's antlers start to regrow almost Bahman, 1848
immediately after the old antlers are shed. Shedding Eucervus pusilla Gray, 1873
typically takes place in mid-February, with variations

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occurring by locale. Dorcelaphus crooki Mearns,

1897
Although capable of running, mule deer are often seen
stotting (also called pronking), with all four feet coming Cariacus virgultus Hallock, 1899
down together.

The mule deer is the larger of the three Odocoileus species on

average, with a height of 80–106 cm (31–42 in) at the
shoulders and a nose-to-tail length ranging from 1.2 to 2.1 m
(3.9 to 6.9 ft). Of this, the tail may comprise 11.6 to 23 cm (4.6
to 9.1 in). Adult bucks normally weigh 55–150 kg (121–331 lb),
averaging around 92 kg (203 lb), although trophy specimens
may weigh up to 210 kg (460 lb). Does (female deer) are
smaller and typically weigh from 43 to 90 kg (95 to 198 lb),
Stotting mule deer
with an average of around 68 kg (150 lb).[12][13][14][15]

Unlike the white-tailed, the mule deer does not generally show
marked size variation across its range, although environmental
conditions can cause considerable weight fluctuations in any
given population. An exception to this is the Sitka deer
subspecies (O. h. sitkensis). This race is markedly smaller than
other mule deer, with an average weight of 54.5 kg (120 lb) and
36 kg (79 lb) in males and females, respectively.[16]

Female desert/burro mule deer (O.

Seasonal behaviors h. eremicus) in Truth or
Consequences, New Mexico
In addition to movements related to available shelter and food,
the breeding cycle is important in understanding deer
behavior. The rut or mating season usually begins in the fall as does go into estrus for a period of a
few days, and males become more aggressive, competing for mates. Does may mate with more than
one buck and go back into estrus within a month if they did not become pregnant. The gestation
period is about 190–200 days, with fawns born in the spring.[17] The survival rate of the fawns
during labor is about 50%.[18] Fawns stay with their mothers during the summer and are weaned
in the fall after about 60–75 days. Mule deer females usually give birth to two fawns, although if it
is their first time having a fawn, they often have just one.[17]

A buck's antlers fall off during the winter, then grow again in preparation for the next season's rut.
The annual cycle of antler growth is regulated by changes in the length of the day.[17][19]

The size of mule deer groups follows a marked seasonal pattern. Groups are smallest during
fawning season (June and July in Saskatchewan and Alberta) and largest in early gestation
(winter; February and March in Saskatchewan and Alberta).[19]

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Besides humans, the three leading predators of mule deer are coyotes, wolves, and cougars.
Bobcats, Canada lynx, wolverines, American black bears, and grizzly bears may prey upon adult
deer, but most often only attack fawns or infirm specimens, or eat a deer after it has died naturally.
Bears and smaller-sized carnivores are typically opportunistic feeders and pose little threat to a
strong, healthy mule deer.[13]

Diet and foraging behaviors

In 99 studies of mule deer diets, some 788 species of plants were eaten by mule deer, and their
diets vary greatly depending on the season, geographic region, year, and elevation.[20] The
studies[21] gave these data for Rocky Mountain mule deer diets:[22]

Shrubs and trees Forbs Grasses and grass-like plants

Winter 74% 15% 11% (varies 0–53%)

Spring 49% 25% 26% (varies 4–64%)

Summer 49% 46% (varies 3–77%) 3% (varies 0–22%)

Fall 60% 30% (varies 2–78%) 9% (varies 0–24%)

The diets of mule deer are very similar to those of white-tailed deer in areas where they
coexist.[23][20] Mule deer are intermediate feeders rather than pure browsers or grazers; they
predominantly browse but also eat forb vegetation, small amounts of grass and, where available,
tree or shrub fruits such as beans, pods, nuts (including acorns), and berries.[20][22]

Mule deer readily adapt to agricultural products and landscape plantings.[24][25] In the Sierra
Nevada range, mule deer depend on the lichen Bryoria fremontii as a winter food source.[26]

The most common plant species consumed by mule deer are the following:

Among trees and shrubs: Artemisia tridentata (big sagebrush), Cercocarpus ledifolius (curlleaf
mountain mahogany), Cercocarpus montanus (true mountain mahogany), Cowania mexicana
(Mexican cliffrose), Populus tremuloides (quaking aspen), Purshia tridentata (antelope
bitterbrush), Quercus gambelii (Gambel oak), and Rhus trilobata (skunkbush sumac).[22]
Among forbs: Achillea millefolium (western yarrow), Antennaria (pussytoes) species, Artemisia
frigida (fringed sagebrush), Artemisia ludoviciana (Louisiana sagewort), Aster species,
Astragalus (milkvetch) species, Balsamorhiza sagittata (arrowleaf balsamroot), Cirsium (thistle)
species, Erigeron (fleabane) species, Geranium species, Lactuca serriola (prickly lettuce),
Lupinus (lupine) species, alfalfa, Penstemon species, Phlox species, Polygonum
(knotweed/smartweed) species, Potentilla (cinquefoil) species, Taraxacum officinale
(dandelion), Tragopogon dubius (western salsify), clover, and Vicia americana (American
vetch).[22]
Among grasses and grasslike species: Agropyron, Elymus (wheatgrasses), Elytrigia,
Pascopyrum species (wheatgrasses), Pseudoroegneria spicatum (bluebunch wheatgrass),
Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass), Carex (sedge) species, Festuca idahoensis (Idaho fescue),
Poa fendleriana (muttongrass), Poa pratensis (Kentucky bluegrass), and other Poa (bluegrass)
species.[22]
Mule deer have also been known to eat ricegrass, gramagrass, and needlegrass, as well as
bearberry, bitter cherry, black oak, California buckeye, ceanothus, cedar, cliffrose, cottonwood,
creek dogwood, creeping barberry, dogwood, Douglas fir, elderberry, Fendlera species, goldeneye,
holly-leaf buckthorn, jack pine, knotweed, Kohleria species, manzanita, mesquite, pine,
rabbitbrush, ragweed, redberry, scrub oak, serviceberry (including Pacific serviceberry), Sierra

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juniper, silktassel, snowberry, stonecrop, sunflower, tesota, thimbleberry, turbinella oak, velvet
elder, western chokecherry, wild cherry, and wild oats.[27] Where available, mule deer also eat a
variety of wild mushrooms, which are most abundant in late summer and fall in the southern
Rocky Mountains; mushrooms provide moisture, protein, phosphorus, and potassium.[20][27]

Humans sometimes engage in supplemental feeding efforts in severe winters in an attempt to help
mule deer avoid starvation. Wildlife agencies discourage such efforts, which cause harm to mule
deer populations by spreading disease (such as tuberculosis and chronic wasting disease) when
deer congregate for feed, disrupting migratory patterns, causing overpopulation of local mule deer
populations, and causing habitat destruction from overbrowsing of shrubs and forbs.
Supplemental feeding efforts might be appropriate when carefully conducted under limited
circumstances, but to be successful, the feeding must begin early in the severe winter (before poor
range conditions and severe weather cause malnourishment or starvation) and must be continued
until range conditions can support the herd.[28]

Mule deer are variably gregarious, with a large proportion of solitary individuals (35 to 64%) and
small groups (groups with ≤5 deer, 50 to 78%).[29][30] Reported mean group size measurements
are three to five and typical group size (i.e., crowding) is about seven.[19][31]

Mule deer foraging on a late Male Rocky Mountain mule deer

winter morning at Okanagan (O. h. hemionus) in Zion National
Mountain Provincial Park Park

Male O. h. hemionus near Female Columbian black-tailed

Leavenworth, Washington deer (O. h. columbianus) in
Olympic National Park

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Female mule deer in Garden of

the Gods, Colorado Springs,
Colorado, USA.

Nutrition
Mule deer are ruminants, meaning they employ a nutrient acquisition strategy of fermenting plant
material before digesting it. Deer consuming high-fiber, low-starch diets require less food than
those consuming high-starch, low-fiber diets. Rumination time also increases when deer consume
high-fiber, low-starch diets, which allows for increased nutrient acquisition due to greater length of
fermentation.[32] Because some of the subspecies of mule deer are migratory, they encounter
variable habitats and forage quality throughout the year.[33] Forages consumed in the summer are
higher in digestible components (i.e. proteins, starches, sugars, and hemicellulose) than those
consumed in the winter. The average gross energy content of the consumed forage material is
4.5 kcal/g.[34]

Due to fluctuations in forage quality and availability, mule deer fat storage varies throughout the
year, with the most fat stored in October, which is depleted throughout the winter to the lowest
levels of fat storage in March. Changes in hormone levels are indications of physiological
adjustments to the changes in the habitat. Total body fat is a measure of the individual's energy
reserves, while thyroid hormone concentrations are a metric to determine the deer's ability to use
the fat reserves. Triiodothyronine (T3) hormone is directly involved with basal metabolic rate and
thermoregulation.[35]

Migration
Mule deer migrate from low elevation winter ranges to high
elevation summer ranges.[36] Although not all individuals in
populations migrate, some will travel long distances between
summer and winter ranges.[37] Researchers discovered the
longest mule deer migration in Wyoming spanning 150 miles
from winter to summer range[36] Multiple US states track mule
deer migrations.[38][39][40][41]
The Grand Canyon, Mule Deer
Mule deer migrate in fall to avoid harsh winter conditions like
diorama at the Milwaukee Public
deep snow that covers up food resources, and in spring follow
Museum
the emergence of new growth northwards.[42][43] There is
evidence to suggest that mule deer migrate based on cognitive

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memory, meaning they use the same path year after year even if the availability of resources has
changed. This contradicts the idea that animals will go to the areas with the best available
resources, which makes migratory paths crucial for survival.[43]

Risks
There are many risks that mule deer face during migration including climate change and human
disturbance. Climate change impacts on seasonal growth patterns constitute a risk for migrating
mule deer by invalidating historic or learned migration paths.[44][45]

Human activities such as natural resource extraction, highways, fencing, and urban development
all have an impact on mule deer populations and migrations through habitat degradation and
fragmentation.[46][47][48][49] Natural gas extraction has been found to have varying negative effects
on mule deer behavior and can even cause them to avoid areas they use to migrate.[46] Highways
not only cause injury and death to mule deer, but they can also serve as a barrier to migration.[50]
As traffic volumes increase, the more mule deer tend to avoid those areas and abandon their
typical migration routes. It has also been found that fencing can alter deer behavior, acting as a
barrier, and potentially changing mule deer migration patterns.[51] In addition, urban development
has replaced mule deer habitat with subdivisions, and human activity has increased. As a result of
this, researchers have seen a decline in mule deer populations. This is especially prominent in
Colorado where the human population has grown by over 2.2 million since 1980.[49]

Management

Protecting migration corridors

Protecting migrations corridors is essential to maintain healthy mule deer populations. One thing
everyone can do is help slow the increase in climate change by using greener energy sources and
reducing the amount of waste in our households.[52] In addition, managers and researchers can
assess the risks listed above and take the proper steps to mitigate any adverse impacts those risk
have on mule deer populations. Not only will populations benefit from these efforts but so will
many other wildlife species.[53]

Highways
One way to help protect deer from getting hit on roadways is to install high fence wildlife fencing
with escape routes.[54] This helps keep deer off the road, preventing vehicle collisions and allowing
animals that are trapped between the road and the fence a way to escape to safety.[54] However, to
maintain migration routes that cross busy highways, managers have also implemented natural,
vegetated, overpasses and underpasses to allow animals, like mule deer, to migrate and move
safely across highways.[55]

Natural resource extraction

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Approaches to mitigating the impact of drilling and mining operations include regulating the time
of year when active drilling and heavy traffic to sites are taking place, and using well-informed
planning to protect critical deer habitat and using barriers to mitigate the activity, noise, light at
the extraction sites.[56]

Urban development
The increase in urbanization has impacted mule deer migrations and there is evidence to show it
also disrupts gene flow among mule deer populations.[57] One clear option is to not build houses in
critical mule deer habitat; however, build near mule deer habitat has resulted in some deer
becoming accustom to humans and the resources, such as food and water.[58] Rather than migrate
through urban areas some deer tend to stay close to those urban developments, potentially for
resources and to avoid the obstacles in urban areas.[59] Suggested measures by property owners to
protect mule deer genetic diversity and migration paths include planting deer-resistant plants,
placing scare devices such as noise-makers, and desisting from feeding deer.[58]

Disease
Wildlife officials in Utah announced that a November–December 2021 field study had detected the
first case of SARS-CoV-2 in mule deer. Several deer possessed apparent SARS-CoV-2 antibodies,
however a female deer in Morgan County had an active Delta variant infection.[60] White-tailed
deer, which are able to hybridize with mule deer and which have shown high rates of SARS-CoV-2
infection, have migrated into Morgan County and other traditional mule deer habitats since at least
the early 2000s.[61][62]

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Further reading
Woodman, Neal (2015). "Who invented the mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus)? On the
authorship of the fraudulent 1812 journal of Charles Le Raye". Archives of Natural History. 42
(1): 39–50. doi:10.3366/anh.2015.0277 (https://doi.org/10.3366%2Fanh.2015.0277).

External links
Mule Deer Odocoileus hemionus (Rafinesque 1817) (https://eol.org/pages/328651) at the
Encyclopedia of Life

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mule_deer&oldid=1214554911"

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