Beaver

Genus of mammal

For other uses, see Beaver (disambiguation).

Beavers (genus Castor) are large, semiaquatic rodents of the Northern
Hemisphere. There are two existing species: the North American
beaver (Castor canadensis) and the Eurasian beaver (C. fiber). Beavers are
the second-largest living rodents, after capybaras, weighing up to 50 kg
(110 lb). They have stout bodies with large heads, long chisel-like incisors,
brown or gray fur, hand-like front feet, webbed back feet, and tails that are
flat and scaly. The two species differ in skull and tail shape and fur color.
Beavers can be found in a number of freshwater habitats, such as rivers,
streams, lakes and ponds. They are herbivorous, consuming tree
bark, aquatic plants, grasses and sedges.
Quick Facts Beaver Temporal range: Late Miocene – Recent, Scientific
classification ...
Beavers build dams and lodges using tree branches, vegetation, rocks and
mud; they chew down trees for building material. Dams restrict water flow,
and lodges serve as shelters. Their infrastructure creates wetlands used by
many other species, and because of their effect on other organisms in
the ecosystem, beavers are considered a keystone species. Adult males and
females live in monogamous pairs with their offspring. After their first year,
the young help their parents repair dams and lodges; older siblings may also
help raise newly born offspring. Beavers hold territories and mark them using
scent mounds made of mud, debris, and castoreum—a liquid substance
excreted through the beaver's urethra-based castor sacs. Beavers can also
recognize their kin by their anal gland secretions and are more likely to
tolerate them as neighbors.
Historically, beavers have been hunted for their fur, meat, and castoreum.
Castoreum has been used in medicine, perfume, and food flavoring; beaver
pelts have been a major driver of the fur trade. Before protections began in
the 19th and early 20th centuries, overhunting had nearly exterminated both
species. Their populations have since rebounded, and they are listed as
species of least concern by the IUCN Red List of mammals. In human culture,
the beaver symbolizes industriousness, especially in connection with
construction; it is the national animal of Canada.
Etymology
The English word beaver comes from the Old
English word beofor or befor and is connected to the German word biber and
the Dutch word bever. The ultimate origin of the word is an Indo-
European root for 'brown'. Cognates of beaver is the source for several
European placenames, including those
of Beverley, Bièvres, Biberbach, Biebrich, Bibra, Bibern, Bibrka, Bobr, Bober,
Bóbrka, Bjurholm, Bjurälven, and Bjurum. The genus name Castor has its
origin in the Greek word κάστωρ kastōr and translates as 'beaver'.
Taxonomy
Carl Linnaeus coined the genus name Castor in 1758 as well as the specific
(species) epithet fiber for the Eurasian species. German zoologist Heinrich
Kuhl coined C. canadensis in 1820, many scientists considered both names
synonymous for one same species until the 1970s,
when chromosomal evidence became available confirming both as separate
where the Eurasian has 48 chromosomes, while the North American has 40.)
The difference in chromosome numbers prevents them from
interbreeding. Twenty-five subspecies have been classified for C. canadensis,
and nine have been classified for C. fiber.
There are two extant species: the North American beaver (Castor canadensis)
and the Eurasian beaver (C. fiber). The Eurasian beaver is slightly longer and
has a more lengthened skull, triangular nasal cavities (as opposed to the
square ones of the North American species), a lighter fur color, and a
narrower tail.
Evolution
North American beaver (Castor canadensis)

Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber)

Castorimorp Castoroi Castor

ha dea idae Agnotocastor
coloradensis
 Geomyo Heteromyidae
idea
Phylogeny of extant and extinct
and allies)
relatives of modern beavers based
on genetics and morphology.
Beavers belong to the rodent suborder Castorimorpha, along
with Heteromyidae (kangaroo rats and kangaroo mice), and the gophers.
Modern beavers are the only extant members of the family Castoridae. They
originated in North America in the late Eocene and colonized Eurasia via
the Bering Land Bridge in the early Oligocene, coinciding with the Grande
Coupure, a time of significant changes in animal species around 33 million
years ago (myr).
The more basal castorids had several unique features: more
complex occlusion between cheek teeth, parallel rows of upper teeth,
premolars that were only slightly smaller than molars, the presence of a third
set of premolars (P3), a hole in the stapes of the inner ear, a smooth palatine
bone (with the palatine opening closer to the rear end of the bone), and a
longer snout. More derived castorids have less complex occlusion, upper
tooth rows that create a V-shape towards the back, larger second premolars
compared to molars, absence of a third premolar set and stapes hole, a more
grooved palatine (with the opening shifted towards the front), and
reduced incisive foramen. Members of the
subfamily Palaeocastorinae appeared in late-Oligocene North America. This
group consisted primarily of smaller animals with relatively large front legs, a
flattened skull, and a reduced tail—all features of a fossorial (burrowing)
lifestyle.
In the early Miocene (about 24 mya),
castorids evolved a semiaquatic lifestyle. Members of the
subfamily Castoroidinae are considered to be a sister group to modern
beavers, and included giants like Castoroides of North America
and Trogontherium of Eurasia. Castoroides is estimated to have had a length
of 1.9–2.2 m (6.2–7.2 ft) and a weight of 90–125 kg (198–276 lb). Fossils of
one genus in Castoroidinae, Dipoides, have been found near piles of chewed
wood, though Dipoides appears to have been an inferior woodcutter
compared to Castor. Researchers suggest that modern beavers and
Castoroidinae shared a bark-eating common ancestor. Dam and lodge-
building likely developed from bark-eating, and allowed beavers to survive in
the harsh winters of the subarctic. There is no conclusive evidence for this
behavior occurring in non-Castor species.
The genus Castor likely originated in Eurasia. The earliest fossil remains
appear to be C. neglectus, found in Germany and dated 12–10
mya. Mitochondrial DNA studies place the common ancestor of the two living
species at around 8 mya. The ancestors of the North American beaver would
have crossed the Bering Land Bridge around 7.5 mya. Castor may have
competed with members of Castoroidinae, which led to niche
differentiation. The fossil species C. praefiber was likely an ancestor of the
Eurasian beaver. C. californicus from the Early Pleistocene of North America
was similar to but larger than the extant North American beaver.'
Characteristics
Mounted North American beaver skeleton
Beavers are the second-largest living rodents, after capybaras. They have a
head–body length of 80–120 cm (31–47 in), with a 25–50 cm (9.8–19.7 in) tail,
a shoulder height of 30–60 cm (12–24 in), and generally weigh 11–30 kg (24–
66 lb), but can be as heavy as 50 kg (110 lb). Males and females are almost
identical externally. Their bodies are streamlined like marine mammals and
their robust build allows them to pull heavy loads. A beaver coat has 12,000–
23,000 hairs/cm2 (77,000–148,000 hairs/in2) and functions to keep the animal
warm, to help it float in water, and to protect it against predators. Guard
hairs are 5–6 cm (2.0–2.4 in) long and typically reddish brown, but can range
from yellowish brown to nearly black. The underfur is 2–3 cm (0.79–
1.18 in) long and dark gray. Beavers molt every summer.
Beavers have large skulls with powerful chewing muscles. They have four
chisel-shaped incisors that continue to grow throughout their lives. The
incisors are covered in a thick enamel that is colored orange or reddish-
brown by iron compounds. The lower incisors have roots that are almost as
long as the entire lower jaw. Beavers have one premolar and three molars on
all four sides of the jaws, adding up to 20 teeth. The molars have meandering
ridges for grinding woody material. The eyes, ears and nostrils are arranged
so that they can remain above water while the rest of the body is submerged.
The nostrils and ears have valves that close underwater, while nictitating
membranes cover the eyes. To protect the larynx and trachea from water
flow, the epiglottis is contained within the nasal cavity instead of the throat.
In addition, the back of the tongue can rise and create a waterproof seal. A
beaver's lips can close behind the incisors, preventing water from entering
their mouths as they cut and bite onto things while submerged.
The fore foot, hind foot, and tail of a beaverBeaver tail and feet prints on
snow
The beaver's front feet are dexterous, allowing them to grasp and manipulate
objects and food, as well as dig. The hind feet are larger and have webbing
between the toes, and the second innermost toe has a "double nail" used for
grooming. Beavers can swim at 8 km/h (5.0 mph); only their webbed hind
feet are used to swim, while the front feet fold under the chest. On the
surface, the hind limbs thrust one after the other; while underwater, they
move at the same time. Beavers are awkward on land but can move quickly
when they feel threatened. They can carry objects while walking on their hind
legs.
The beaver's distinctive tail has a conical, muscular, hairy base; the
remaining two-thirds of the appendage is flat and scaly. The tail has multiple
functions: it provides support for the animal when it is upright (such as when
chewing down a tree), acts as a rudder when it is swimming, and stores fat
for winter. It also has a countercurrent blood vessel system which allows the
animal to lose heat in warm temperatures and retain heat in cold
temperatures.
The beaver's sex organs are inside the body, and the male's penis has a
cartilaginous baculum. They have only one opening, a cloaca, which is used
for reproduction, scent-marking, defecation, and urination. The cloaca
evolved secondarily, as most mammals have lost this feature, and may
reduce the area vulnerable to infection in dirty water. The beaver's intestine
is six times longer than its body, and the caecum is double the volume of its
stomach. Microorganisms in the caecum allow them to process around 30
percent of the cellulose they eat. A beaver defecates in the water, leaving
behind balls of sawdust. Female beavers have four mammary glands; these
produce milk with 19 percent fat, a higher fat content than other rodents.
Beavers have two pairs of glands: castor sacs, which are part of the urethra,
and anal glands. The castor sacs secrete castoreum, a liquid substance used
mainly for marking territory. Anal glands produce an oily substance which the
beaver uses as a waterproof ointment for its coat. The substance plays a role
in individual and family recognition. Anal secretions are darker in females
than males among Eurasian beavers, while the reverse is true for the North
American species.
Eurasian beaver swimming
Compared to many other rodents, a beaver's brain has a hypothalamus that
is much smaller than the cerebrum; this indicates a relatively advanced brain
with higher intelligence. The cerebellum is large, allowing the animal to move
within a three-dimensional space (such as underwater) similar to tree-
climbing squirrels. The neocortex is devoted mainly to touch and hearing.
Touch is more advanced in the lips and hands than the whiskers and tail.
Vision in the beaver is relatively poor; the beaver eye cannot see as well
underwater as an otter. Beavers have a good sense of smell, which they use
for detecting land predators and for inspecting scent marks, food, and other
individuals.
Beavers can hold their breath for as long as 15 minutes but typically remain
underwater for no more than five or six minutes. Dives typically last less than
30 seconds and are usually no more than 1 m (3 ft 3 in) deep. When diving,
their heart rate decreases to 60 beats per minute, half its normal pace, and
blood flow is directed more towards the brain. A beaver's body also has a
high tolerance for carbon dioxide. When surfacing, the animal can replace 75
percent of the air in its lungs in one breath, compared to 15 percent for a
human.
Distribution and status
North American beaver in Yellowstone National Park

The IUCN Red List of mammals lists both beaver species as least
concern. The North American beaver is widespread throughout most of the
United States and Canada and can be found in northern Mexico. The species
was introduced to Finland in 1937 (and then spread to northwestern Russia)
and to Tierra del Fuego, Patagonia, in 1946. As of 2019, the introduced
population of North American beavers in Finland has been moving closer to
the habitat of the Eurasian beaver. Historically, the North American beaver
was trapped and nearly extirpated because its fur was highly sought after.
Protections have allowed the beaver population on the continent to rebound
to an estimated 6–12 million by the late 20th century; still far lower than the
originally estimated 60–400 million North American beavers before the fur
trade. The introduced population in Tierra del Fuego is estimated at 35,000–
50,000 individuals as of 2016.
The Eurasian beaver's range historically included much of Eurasia, but was
decimated by hunting by the early 20th century. In Europe, beavers were
reduced to fragmented populations, with combined population numbers
being estimated at 1,200 individuals for the Rhône of France, the Elbe in
Germany, southern Norway, the Neman river and Dnieper Basin in Belarus,
and the Voronezh river in Russia. The beaver has since recolonized parts of
its former range, aided by conservation policies and reintroductions. Beaver
populations now range across western, central, and eastern Europe,
and western Russia and the Scandinavian Peninsula. Beginning in 2009,
beavers have been successfully reintroduced to parts of Great
Britain. In 2020, the total Eurasian beaver population in Europe was
estimated at over one million. Small native populations are also present in
Mongolia and northwestern China; their numbers were estimated at 150 and
700, respectively, as of 2016. Under New Zealand's Hazardous Substances
and New Organisms Act 1996, beavers are classed as a "prohibited new
organism" preventing them from being introduced into the country.
Ecology
Eurasian beavers swimming and foraging
Beavers live in freshwater ecosystems such as rivers, streams, lakes and
ponds. Water is the most important component of beaver habitat; they swim
and dive in it, and it provides them refuge from land predators. It also
restricts access to their homes and allows them to move building objects
more easily. Beavers prefer slower moving streams, typically with
a gradient (steepness) of one percent, though they have been recorded using
streams with gradients as high as 15 percent. Beavers are found in wider
streams more often than in narrower ones. They also prefer areas with no
regular flooding and may abandon a location for years after a significant
flood.
Beavers typically select flat landscapes with diverse vegetation close to the
water. North American beavers prefer trees being 60 m (200 ft) or less from
the water, but will roam several hundred meters to find more. Beavers have
also been recorded in mountainous areas. Dispersing beavers will use certain
habitats temporarily before finding their ideal home. These include small
streams, temporary swamps, ditches, and backyards. These sites lack
important resources, so the animals do not stay there permanently. Beavers
have increasingly settled at or near human-made environments, including
agricultural areas, suburbs, golf courses, and shopping malls.
North American beaver eating lily pads
Beavers have an herbivorous and a generalist diet. During the spring and
summer, they mainly feed on herbaceous plant material such as leaves,
roots, herbs, ferns, grasses, sedges, water lilies, water shields, rushes,
and cattails. During the fall and winter, they eat more bark and cambium of
woody plants; tree and shrub species consumed
include aspen, birch, oak, dogwood, willow and alder. There is some
disagreement about why beavers select specific woody plants; some
research has shown that beavers more frequently select species which are
more easily digested, while others suggest beavers principally forage based
on stem size. Beavers may cache their food for the winter, piling wood in the
deepest part of their pond where it cannot be reached by other browsers.
This cache is known as a "raft"; when the top becomes frozen, it creates a
"cap". The beaver accesses the raft by swimming under the ice. Many
populations of Eurasian beaver do not make rafts, but forage on land during
winter.
Beavers usually live up to 10 years. Felids, canids, and bears may prey upon
them. Beavers are protected from predators when in their lodges, and prefer
to stay near water. Parasites of the beaver include the bacteria Francisella
tularensis, which causes tularemia; the protozoan Giardia duodenalis, which
causes giardiasis (beaver fever); and the beaver beetle and mites of the
genus Schizocarpus. They have also been recorded to be infected with
the rabies virus.
Infrastructure
"Beaver lodge" redirects here. For the town in Alberta, Canada, see Beaverlodge.

Further information: Beaver dam

North American beaver chewing down a tree

Beavers need trees and shrubs to use as building material for dams, which
restrict flowing water to create a pond for them to live in, and for lodges,
which act as shelters and refuges from predators and the elements. Without
such material, beavers dig burrows into a bank to live. Dam construction
begins in late summer or early fall, and they repair them whenever needed.
Beavers can cut down trees up to 15 cm (5.9 in) wide in less than 50 minutes.
Thicker trees, at 25 cm (9.8 in) wide or more, may not fall for hours. When
chewing down a tree, beavers switch between biting with the left and right
side of the mouth. Tree branches are then cut and carried to their destination
with the powerful jaw and neck muscles. Other building materials, like mud
and rocks, are held by the forelimbs and tucked between the chin and chest.
Beavers start building dams when they hear running water, and the sound of
a leak in a dam triggers them to repair it. To build a dam, beavers stack up
relatively long and thick logs between banks and in opposite directions.
Heavy rocks keep them stable, and grass is packed between them. Beavers
continue to pile on more material until the dam slopes in a direction facing
upstream. Dams can range in height from 20 cm (7.9 in) to 3 m (9.8 ft) and
can stretch from 0.3 m (1 ft 0 in) to several hundred meters long. Beaver
dams are more effective in trapping and slowly leaking water than man-made
concrete dams. Lake-dwelling beavers do not need to build dams.
Open-water beaver lodge in Canada
Beavers make two types of lodges: bank lodges and open-water lodges. Bank
lodges are burrows dug along the shore and covered in sticks. The more
complex freestanding, open-water lodges are built over a platform of piled-up
sticks. The lodge is mostly sealed with mud, except for a hole at the top
which acts as an air vent. Both types are accessed by underwater
entrances. The above-water space inside the lodge is known as the "living
chamber", and a "dining area" may exist close to the water
entrance. Families routinely clean out old plant material and bring in new
material.
North American beavers build more open-water lodges than Eurasian
beavers. Beaver lodges built by new settlers are typically small and sloppy.
More experienced families can build structures with a height of 2 m (6 ft
7 in) and an above-water diameter of 6 m (20 ft). A lodge sturdy enough to
withstand the coming winter can be finished in just two nights. Both lodge
types can be present at a beaver site. During the summer, beavers tend to
use bank lodges to keep cool. They use open-water lodges during the winter.
The air vent provides ventilation, and newly added carbon dioxide can be
cleared in an hour. The lodge remains consistent in oxygen and carbon
dioxide levels from season to season.
Beavers in some areas will dig canals connected to their ponds. The canals fill
with groundwater and give beavers access and easier transport of resources,
as well as allow them to escape predators. These canals can stretch up
to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) wide, 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) deep, and over 0.5 km (0.31 mi) long.
It has been hypothesized that beavers' canals are not only transportation
routes but an extension of their "central place" around the lodge and/or food
cache. As they drag wood across the land, beavers leave behind trails or
"slides", which they reuse when moving new material.
Environmental effects
Main article: Environmental impacts of beavers

Beaver dam enlargement

September 2009

December 2009

Images of a beaver dam over a four-month period. Dams block rivers and create ponds.

The beaver works as an ecosystem engineer and keystone species, as its

activities can have a great impact on the landscape and biodiversity of an
area. Aside from humans, few other extant animals appear to do more to
shape their environment. When building dams, beavers alter the paths of
streams and rivers, allowing for the creation of extensive wetland habitats. In
one study, beavers were associated with large increases in open-water areas.
When beavers returned to an area, 160% more open water was available
during droughts than in previous years, when they were absent. Beaver dams
also lead to higher water tables in mineral soil environments and in wetlands
such as peatlands. In peatlands particularly, their dams stabilize the
constantly changing water levels, leading to greater carbon storage.
Beaver ponds, and the wetlands that succeed them, remove sediments and
pollutants from waterways, and can stop the loss of important soils. These
ponds can increase the productivity of freshwater ecosystems by
accumulating nitrogen in sediments. Beaver activity can affect the
temperature of the water; in northern latitudes, ice thaws earlier in the
warmer beaver-dammed waters. Beavers may contribute to climate change.
In Arctic areas, the floods they create can cause permafrost to
thaw, releasing methane into the atmosphere.
As wetlands are formed and riparian habitats are enlarged, aquatic plants
colonize the newly available watery habitat. One study in
the Adirondacks found that beaver engineering lead to an increase of more
than 33 percent in herbaceous plant diversity along the water's
edge. Another study in semiarid eastern Oregon found that the width of
riparian vegetation on stream banks increased several-fold as beaver dams
watered previously dry terraces adjacent to the stream. Riparian ecosystems
in arid areas appear to sustain more plant life when beaver dams are
present. Beaver ponds act as a refuge for riverbank plants during wildfires,
and provide them with enough moisture to resist such fires. Introduced
beavers at Tierra del Fuego have been responsible for destroying the
indigenous forest. Unlike trees in North America, many trees in South
America cannot grow back after being cut down.
Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) jumping a beaver dam

Beaver activity impacts communities of aquatic invertebrates. Damming

typically leads to an increase of slow or motionless water species,
like dragonflies, oligochaetes, snails, and mussels. This is to the detriment
of rapid water species like black flies, stoneflies, and net-spinning
caddisflies. Beaver floodings create more dead trees, providing more habitat
for terrestrial invertebrates like Drosophila flies and bark beetles, which live
and breed in dead wood. The presence of beavers can increase
wild salmon and trout populations, and the average size of these fishes.
These species use beaver habitats for spawning, overwintering, feeding, and
as havens from changes in water flow. The positive effects of beaver dams on
fish appear to outweigh the negative effects, such as blocking of
migration. Beaver ponds have been shown to be beneficial
to frog populations by protecting areas for larvae to mature in warm
water. The stable waters of beaver ponds also provide ideal habitat for
freshwater turtles.
Beavers help waterfowl by creating increased areas of water. The widening of
the riparian zone associated with beaver dams has been shown to increase
the abundance and diversity of birds favoring the water's edge, an impact
that may be especially important in semi-arid climates. Fish-eating birds use
beaver ponds for foraging, and in some areas, certain species appear more
frequently at sites where beavers were active than at sites with no beaver
activity. In a study of Wyoming streams and rivers, watercourses with
beavers had 75 times as many ducks as those without. As trees are drowned
by rising beaver impoundments, they become an ideal habitat
for woodpeckers, which carve cavities that may be later used by other bird
species. Beaver-caused ice thawing in northern latitudes allows Canada
geese to nest earlier.
Other semi-aquatic mammals, such as water voles, muskrats, minks,
and otters, will shelter in beaver lodges. Beaver modifications to streams in
Poland create habitats favorable to bat species that forage at the water
surface and "prefer moderate vegetation clutter". Large herbivores, such as
some deer species, benefit from beaver activity as they can access
vegetation from fallen trees and ponds.
Behavior
North American beaver family, with the center pair grooming one another

Eurasian beaver parent and kit

Beavers are mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, and spend the daytime in
their shelters. In northern latitudes, beaver activity is decoupled from the 24-
hour cycle during the winter, and may last as long as 29 hours. They do
not hibernate during winter, and spend much of their time in their lodges.
Family life
The core of beaver social organization is the family, which is composed of an
adult male and an adult female in a monogamous pair and their
offspring. Beaver families can have as many as ten members; groups about
this size require multiple lodges. Mutual grooming and play fighting maintain
bonds between family members, and aggression between them is
uncommon.
Adult beavers mate with their partners, though partner replacement appears
to be common. A beaver that loses its partner will wait for another one to
come by. Estrus cycles begin in late December and peak in mid-January.
Females may have two to four estrus cycles per season, each lasting 12–24
hours. The pair typically mate in the water and to a lesser extent in the
lodge, for half a minute to three minutes.
Up to four young, or kits, are born in spring and summer, after a three or
four-month gestation. Newborn beavers are precocial with a full fur coat, and
can open their eyes within days of birth. Their mother is the primary
caretaker, while their father maintains the territory. Older siblings from a
previous litter also play a role.
After they are born, the kits spend their first one to two months in the lodge.
Kits suckle for as long as three months, but can eat solid food within their
second week and rely on their parents and older siblings to bring it to them.
Eventually, beaver kits explore outside the lodge and forage on their own, but
may follow an older relative and hold onto their backs. After their first year,
young beavers help their families with construction. Beavers sexually mature
around 1.5–3 years. They become independent at two years old, but remain
with their parents for an extra year or more during times of food shortage,
high population density, or drought.
Territories and spacing
Eurasian beaver near its dam
Beavers typically disperse from their parental colonies during the spring or
when the winter snow melts. They often travel less than 5 km (3.1 mi), but
long-distance dispersals are not uncommon when previous colonizers have
already exploited local resources. Beavers are able to travel greater
distances when free-flowing water is available. Individuals may meet their
mates during the dispersal stage, and the pair travel together. It may take
them weeks or months to reach their final destination; longer distances may
require several years. Beavers establish and defend territories along the
banks of their ponds, which may be 1–7 km (0.62–4.35 mi) in length.
Beavers mark their territories by constructing scent mounds made of mud
and vegetation, scented with castoreum. Those with many territorial
neighbors create more scent mounds. Scent marking increases in spring,
during the dispersal of yearlings, to deter interlopers. Beavers are generally
intolerant of intruders and fights may result in deep bites to the sides, rump,
and tail. They exhibit a behavior known as the "dear enemy effect"; a
territory-holder will investigate and become familiar with the scents of its
neighbors and react more aggressively to the scents of strangers passing
by. Beavers are also more tolerant of individuals that are their kin. They
recognize them by using their keen sense of smell to detect differences in the
composition of anal gland secretions. Anal gland secretion profiles are more
similar among relatives than unrelated individuals.
Communication
Beavers within a family greet each other with whines. Kits will attract the
attention of adults with mews, squeaks, and cries. Defensive beavers
produce a hissing growl and gnash their teeth. Tail slaps, which involve an
animal hitting the water surface with its tail, serve as alarm signals warning
other beavers of a potential threat. An adult's tail slap is more successful in
alerting others, who will escape into the lodge or deeper water. Juveniles
have not yet learned the proper use of a tail slap, and hence are normally
ignored. Eurasian beavers have been recorded using a territorial "stick
display", which involves individuals holding up a stick and bouncing in
shallow water.
Interactions with humans
Grey Owl feeding his beaver
Beavers sometimes come into conflict with humans over land use; individual
beavers may be labeled as "nuisance beavers". Beavers can damage crops,
timber stocks, roads, ditches, gardens, and pastures via gnawing, eating,
digging, and flooding. They occasionally attack humans and domestic pets,
particularly when infected with rabies, in defense of their territory, or when
they feel threatened. Some of these attacks have been fatal, including at
least one human death. Beavers can spread giardiasis ('beaver fever') by
infecting surface waters, though outbreaks are more commonly caused by
human activity.
Flow devices, like beaver pipes, are used to manage beaver flooding, while
fencing and hardware cloth protect trees and shrubs from beaver damage. If
necessary, hand tools, heavy equipment, or explosives are used to remove
dams. Hunting, trapping, and relocation may be permitted as forms of
population control and for removal of individuals. The governments of
Argentina and Chile have authorized the trapping of invasive beavers in
hopes of eliminating them. The ecological importance of beavers has led to
cities like Seattle designing their parks and green spaces to accommodate
the animals. The Martinez beavers became famous in the mid-2000s for their
role in improving the ecosystem of Alhambra Creek in Martinez, California.
Zoos have displayed beavers since at least the 19th century, though not
commonly. In captivity, beavers have been used for entertainment, fur
harvesting, and for reintroduction into the wild. Captive beavers require
access to water, substrate for digging, and artificial shelters. Archibald
Stansfeld "Grey Owl" Belaney pioneered beaver conservation in the early
20th century. Belaney wrote several books, and was first to professionally
film beavers in their environment. In 1931, he moved to a log cabin in Prince
Albert National Park, where he was the "caretaker of park animals" and raised
a beaver pair and their four offspring.
Commercial use
Depiction of a beaver hunt from a medieval bestiary with the beaver depicted as biting off its
testicles

Beaver pelts were the driving force of the North American fur trade.
Beavers have been hunted, trapped, and exploited for their fur, meat, and
castoreum. Since the animals typically stayed in one place, trappers could
easily find them and could kill entire families in a lodge. Many pre-modern
people mistakenly thought that castoreum was produced by the testicles or
that the castor sacs of the beaver were its testicles, and females
were hermaphrodites. Aesop's Fables describes beavers chewing off their
testicles to preserve themselves from hunters, which is impossible because a
beaver's testicles are internal. This myth persisted for centuries, and was
corrected by French physician Guillaume Rondelet in the 1500s. Beavers
have historically been hunted and captured using deadfalls, snares, nets,
bows and arrows, spears, clubs, firearms, and leg-hold traps. Castoreum was
used to lure the animals.
Castoreum was used for a variety of medical purposes; Pliny the
Elder promoted it as a treatment for stomach problems, flatulence,
seizures, sciatica, vertigo, and epilepsy. He stated it could stop hiccups when
mixed with vinegar, toothaches if mixed with oil (by administering into the
ear opening on the same side as the tooth), and could be used as
an antivenom. The substance has traditionally been prescribed to
treat hysteria in women, which was believed to have been caused by a
"toxic" womb. Castoreum's properties have been credited to the
accumulation of salicylic acid from willow and aspen trees in the beaver's
diet, and has a physiological effect comparable to aspirin. Today, the medical
use of castoreum has declined and is limited mainly to homeopathy. The
substance is also used as an ingredient in perfumes and tinctures, and as a
flavouring in food and drinks.
Various Native American groups have historically hunted beavers for
food, they preferred its meat more than other red meats because of its
higher calorie and fat content, and the animals remained plump in winter
when they were most hunted. The bones were used to make tools. In
medieval Europe, the Catholic Church considered the beaver to be part
mammal and part fish, and allowed followers to eat the scaly, fishlike tail on
meatless Fridays during Lent. Beaver tails were thus highly prized in Europe;
they were described by French naturalist Pierre Belon as tasting like a "nicely
dressed eel".
Beaver pelts were used to make hats; felters would remove the guard hairs.
The number of pelts needed depended on the type of hat,
with Cavalier and Puritan hats requiring more fur than top hats. In the late
16th century, Europeans began to deal in North American furs due to the lack
of taxes or tariffs on the continent and the decline of fur-bearers at home.
Beaver pelts caused or contributed to the Beaver Wars, King William's War,
and the French and Indian War; the trade made John Jacob Astor and the
owners of the North West Company very wealthy. For Europeans in North
America, the fur trade was a driver of the exploration and westward
exploration on the continent and contact with native peoples, who traded
with them. The fur trade peaked between 1860 and 1870, when over 150,000
beaver pelts were purchased annually by the Hudson's Bay Company and fur
companies in the United States. The contemporary global fur trade is not as
profitable due to conservation, anti-fur and animal rights campaigns.
In culture
Beaver sculpture over entrance to the Canadian Parliament Building
The beaver has been used to represent productivity, trade, tradition,
masculinity, and respectability. References to the beaver's skills are reflected
in everyday language. The English verb "to beaver" means working with
great effort and being "as busy as a beaver"; a "beaver intellect" refers to a
way of thinking that is slow and honest. Though it typically has a wholesome
image, the beaver's name has been used as a sexual term for the
human vulva.
Native American myths emphasize the beaver's skill and industriousness. In
the mythology of the Haida, beavers are descended from the Beaver-Woman,
who built a dam on a stream next to their cabin while her husband was out
hunting and gave birth to the first beavers. In a Cree story, the Great Beaver
and its dam caused a world flood. Other tales involve beavers using their tree
chewing skills against an enemy. Beavers have been featured as companions
in some stories, including a Lakota tale where a young woman flees from her
evil husband with the aid of her pet beaver.
Europeans have traditionally thought of beavers as fantastical animals due to
their amphibious nature. They depicted them with exaggerated tusk-like
teeth, dog- or pig-like bodies, fish tails, and visible testicles. French
cartographer Nicolas de Fer illustrated beavers building a dam at Niagara
Falls, fantastically depicting them like human builders. Beavers have also
appeared in literature such as Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy and the
writings of Athanasius Kircher, who wrote that on Noah's Ark the beavers
were housed near a water-filled tub that was also used by mermaids and
otters.
The beaver has long been associated with Canada, appearing on the first
pictorial postage stamp issued in the Canadian colonies in 1851 as the so-
called "Three-Penny Beaver". It was declared the national animal in 1975.
The five-cent coin, the coat of arms of the Hudson's Bay Company, and the
logos for Parks Canada and Roots Canada use its image. Frank and
Gordon are two fictional beavers that appeared in Bell
Canada's advertisements between 2005 and 2008. However, the beaver's
status as a rodent has made it controversial, and it was not chosen to be on
the Arms of Canada in 1921. The beaver has commonly been used to
represent Canada in political cartoons, typically to signify it as a friendly but
relatively weak nation. In the United States, the beaver is the state
animal of New York and Oregon. It is also featured on the coat of arms of
the London School of Economics.
See also
 Beaver drop

References
Further reading
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