IOP PUBLISHING JOURNAL OF PHYSICS D: APPLIED PHYSICS

J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 045301 (5pp) doi:10.1088/0022-3727/43/4/045301

A novel and inexpensive technique for

Received 10 June 2009, in final form 14 August 2009

Abstract
Considerable efforts have been spent over the last decade developing hydrophobic surfaces
exhibiting very large contact angles with water. Many of these methods require complex and
expensive fabrication techniques. We demonstrate that sanding Teflon can produce
superhydrophobic surfaces with advancing contact angles of up to 151◦ and contact angle
hysteresis of less than 4◦ . Furthermore, we show that a wide range of both advancing contact
angles and contact angle hysteresis can be achieved by varying the grit size of the sandpaper,
allowing for future hysteresis and contact angle studies. Scanning electron microscopy images
of the roughened surfaces depict the range and amplitude of length scales imparted on the
surface by the sandpaper, which leads to deeper understanding of the state of wetting on the
surface.

A great deal of effort has been spent over the last decade surfaces found throughout nature in both the plant and insect
developing hydrophobic surfaces exhibiting very large contact world [20]. When properly designed, these bio-mimetic
angles with water [1–17]. A number of strategies have been surfaces can reduce the contact angle hysteresis of water
employed to increase the average contact angle between a by maintaining an air–water interface above the depressions
substrate and water, including chemical modification of the between the peaks of the surface roughness. Moreover, it
substrate to lower the surface energy between the water and the has been shown that it is often advantageous to have multiple
surface [1]. However, it has been shown both theoretically [8] length scales of roughness in order to increase both advancing
and experimentally with water [12] that chemical alteration of and receding contact angles while simultaneously minimizing
a smooth surface can only achieve advancing contact angles, hysteresis [21].
θA , with water up to about θ  130◦ [11]. A surface Superhydrophobic surfaces have demonstrated the ability
is considered to be superhydrophobic if it has both a large to be self-cleaning. As water droplets move along
advancing contact angle, greater than θA > 150◦ , and minimal these surfaces, they roll, collecting dust and particulates
contact angle hysteresis [17]. The contact angle hysteresis is from the surface [22]. Droplets move very easily
defined as the difference between the advancing and receding, along superhydrophobic surfaces because the drag force
θR , contact angles. Reducing contact angle hysteresis is is proportional to the contact angle hysteresis, FD ∝
widely accomplished in practice by introducing either random
cos (θA − θR ). Minimizing the hysteresis allows drops to
or precisely patterned surface roughness to a hydrophobic
be easily dislodged by even the smallest perturbations [9,
substrate. For an excellent review of modern techniques please
16, 23, 24]. The high level of water droplet mobility on
see Nakajima et al or Zhang et al [11, 18].
superhydrophobic surfaces is desirable in many industrial
Superhydrophobic surfaces were first inspired by the
applications. Some notable areas where the application of
characteristic water repellency of the lotus leaf [19].
superhydrophobic surfaces is emerging include automotive,
Additionally, there are a number of other superhydrophobic
transportation, communication hardware, marine technology,
1 Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed. textiles and biological applications. Specific examples of these

0022-3727/10/045301+05$30.00 1 © 2010 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK

applications being self-cleaning windows or antennas, stain- Table 1. Characterization of both the sandpaper used and the
proof and water-repellent clothing and snow repellent satellite resulting surface roughness and wetting properties of water and the
sanded Teflon surfaces.
dishes [5, 11, 14, 15, 25, 26]. These surfaces also facilitate the
control and manipulation of individual drop-directed motion, Grit Mean particle RMS roughness Contact
allowing for the possible use of these surfaces in microfluidic designation diameter (µm) Teflon (µm) angle (θA /θR )
applications. Smooth — 5.6 128◦ /78◦
The two major models for describing water contact angles 600 25.8 7.6 132◦ /71◦
on rough surfaces are the Cassie and the Wenzel models. In 400 35.0 4.6 140◦ /80◦
360 40.5 5.5 136◦ /99◦
the Cassie state, an air–water interface is supported between 320 46.2 10.9 150◦ /119◦
the surface roughness [27]. This phenomenon modifies the 240 58.5 13.7 150◦ /146◦
contact angle, θC , such that 180 82 15.4 148◦ /141◦
120 125 16.3 151◦ /134◦
cos (θC ) = γ (cos (θ ) + 1) − 1. (1) 80 201 14.5 146◦ /129◦
60 269 18.2 146◦ /125◦
Here θ is the equilibrium contact angle between a smooth 40 425 17.5 143◦ /108◦
surface sample and the liquid as defined by Young’s law and
γ is the area fraction of the solid–liquid interface. In order to
maximize the equilibrium contact angle, the percent coverage This paper presents a simple and inexpensive method
of the air–water interface must similarly be maximized. It of creating a superhydrophobic surface, possessing a high
is also important to note that the shape and size of the surface advancing contact angle, and a hysteresis comparable to
protrusions affect the contact angle and the resulting hysteresis surfaces produced via more complicated and costly methods.
[13]. At sufficiently large microfeature spacing and liquid The primary method used was simple sanding and subsequent
pressures, the air–water interface can collapse, resulting in a cleaning of solid Teflon. We mounted each Teflon sample to
fully wetted Wenzel state [28]. The equilibrium contact angle pieces of aluminium using epoxy, in order to ensure a generally
for the Wenzel state, θW , is given by flat and secure Teflon surface. After letting the epoxy set, each
sample was held stationary, and sanded by hand. Reasonable
cos (θW ) = r cos (θ ) . (2) force is applied to impart a good representation of the grit size
of the sandpaper onto the Teflon. Sanding is performed in a
Here r is the ratio of the wetted area to the projected random manner, as to show no preference in any particular
surface area. For a smooth surface, r = 1, and increases direction. After approximately 20 s of sanding, the sanded
with increasing roughness. For a hydrophobic surface, the surface is then cleaned with acetone briefly, then rinsed with
equilibrium angle will increase in the Wenzel state; however, reverse-osmosis deionized water and dried with pressurized
the contact angle hysteresis is also typically very large. This is air. It is important to note that the final hydrophobic properties
due to the contact line being pinned at each wetted feature were not sensitive to additional sanding, excess pressure when
as it recedes [29]. Furthermore, it has been shown that, sanding or the use of a mechanical sander. The cost of a
even with proper spacing of surface features, at a small Teflon surface and sandpaper is on the order of dollars, while
scale the roughness cannot sufficiently ‘trap’ air, and an more complicated methods can be on the order of hundreds to
increased hysteresis is experienced [10]. Therefore, true thousands of dollars for the materials and equipment required
superhydrophobic surfaces exist in the Cassie, not the Wenzel for production.
state. A range of commercial sandpaper grit designations
There are many methods by which roughness may be between 40-grit and 600-grit were used, with each sample
introduced into a material, including chemical or mechanical being sanded by only one grit designation. Table 1 shows
processes, oftentimes in concert with each other [1, 9, 10, 12, the common grit designation for the sandpaper used, the
13, 16, 22–24, 29, 30]. These methods generally necessitate average particle size on the paper and the average RMS
extensive material or facility costs; however, there have been roughness of the Teflon surface following sanding. Surface
efforts made in minimizing these requirements [6, 7]. This roughness measurements were taken using a Zygo 7300 optical
paper focuses on the simple mechanical surface alteration profilometer, with each surface measured three times at three
of polytetraflouroethylene (PTFE), commercially known as different locations over an area of 0.045 mm2 . The resulting
Teflon, renowned for its water-repellent properties. Biological, surface roughness imparted by the sanding exhibits a wide
commercial and industrial applications comprise a few of disparity between the various grit sizes. The smooth Teflon
Teflon’s various uses. Teflon is naturally hydrophobic, had the lowest average RMS roughness of 5.6 µm. As coarser
featuring a smooth surface with contact angles, θA /θR , of sandpapers are used, the RMS roughness increased as is
128◦ /78◦ , the average contact angle being 103◦ . The unaltered expected. As seen in equations (1) and (2), this increase in
surface has large hysteresis, θA − θR = 50◦ , restricting drop surface roughness is a mechanism by which contact angle can
movement. Teflon’s low coefficient of friction with many be increased.
materials and consequently its ‘non-stick’ properties are its The contact angle was measured photographically using
primary appeal for its wide use in cookware. Teflon is also an in-house constructed goniometer and is listed in table 1
applied to fabrics (Goretex) and structural components (dome and presented graphically in figure 1. Each contact angle
roofs) which take advantage of its water repellency. measurement was taken three times, each at a different location

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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 045301 M A Nilsson et al

Figure 1. Hysteresis as a function of advancing contact angle for smooth Teflon, as well as a series of Teflon surfaces, sanded with
sandpaper of grit designation • 600,
400,  360,  320,  240, ♦ 180,  120,  80, ◦ 60 and   40.

on the Teflon surface. The volume of each drop was kept increase for grit designations smaller than 120-grit. The
constant, and in each case the drop was well below a Bond largest grit designation tested, 40-grit, still possessed a highly
number of one to ensure gravitational effects were negligible. hydrophobic advancing contact angle, although their contact
The Teflon prepared with the finest sandpaper, 600-grit, angle hysteresis approached that of smooth Teflon. Scanning
exhibited greater hysteresis than the smooth Teflon, as well electron microscopy (SEM) in figure 2 shows that this
as a larger advancing contact angle, suggesting that the added deterioration of superhydrophobic character is likely caused
roughness exists primarily in the Wenzel state. As the grit size by the large spacing between the surface features resulting
was increased from 600-grit to 360-grit, the advancing contact from the large grit size and a suspected transition back to the
angle continued to increase with little change in the contact Wenzel state from the Cassie state achieved for grits between
angle hysteresis. At a grit size of 320-grit, corresponding 240- and 120-grit.
to a RMS roughness of 10 µm, the advancing contact angle SEM images were taken of a subset of the surfaces listed
reached a maximum value of θA = 151◦ and the contact in table 1 and are shown in figure 2. The Teflon surfaces
angle hysteresis showed a significant decrease. These data are were sputter-coated with gold and measurements were taken at
suggestive of a transition from a mostly Wenzel to a mostly 20 kV. While the untreated Teflon is relatively smooth, sanding
Cassie state of wetting. The contact angle hysteresis is further with the 600-grit sandpaper introduces surface roughness by
minimized as the grit size is increased from the 320-grit to the coarsening the Teflon surface. While this roughness serves
180-grit. Of the surfaces with lower contact angle hysteresis, to increase the advancing contact angles, the valleys are not
the 240-grit sanded Teflon has the least amount of hysteresis, deep enough to maintain an air–water interface, giving further
4◦ , which competes well with many of the published surface support to the hypothesized Wenzel state of wetting. This
results in lower receding contact angles because the water is
preparation techniques that possess similar hysteresis but are
pinned to the surface along the receding contact, increasing the
either much more expensive or require more complicated
hysteresis substantially, as shown in figure 1. As the sandpaper
methods to produce [11]. As seen in figure 1, two distinct
increases in grain size (or decreases in grit designations), the
regimes in the data become clearly apparent. The first at
amplitude of the surface peaks and valleys increases, while the
large sandpaper grits where the hysteresis remains fixed and
second level of roughness becomes more obvious on the Teflon
advancing contact angle varies over a range of about 30◦ ,
substrate. This is shown with the 320-grit sanded Teflon with
and the second at lower sandpaper grits where the advancing
noticeably deeper depressions on the surface, and furthermore
contact angle is nearly constant at θA  150◦ and the contact with the 240-grit sanded Teflon. These deeper surface features
angle hysteresis varies over more than 60◦ . It is important to and more pronounced secondary roughness likely allow for the
note that contact angle hysteresis is a key component when formation of air–water interfaces typical of the Cassie state,
determining whether a droplet will move freely on a surface, resulting in even higher contact angles and reduced contact
or adhere [1, 29, 30]. The large variation of contact angle angle hysteresis. However, as the surface roughness increases
hysteresis in the second regime suggests that this surface even further, as seen with the 80-grit in figure 2, some of
preparation technique is well suited for systematically studying the valleys and depressions become large, making the support
the effect of hysteresis on drop dynamics. of an air–water interface less likely, resulting in the gradual
The advancing contact angle only marginally decreased transition back into the Wenzel state. The effect of sanding
as the grit size was increased from the 120-grit to the other naturally hydrophobic surfaces will be investigated in
40-grit; however, the contact angle hysteresis began to the near future.

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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 045301 M A Nilsson et al

Figure 2. SEM images of a series of Teflon surfaces sanded with sandpapers of various grit designations: (a) smooth at 100×, (b) smooth at
200×, (c) smooth at 1000×, (d) 600-grit at 100×, (e) 600-grit at 200×, (f ) 600-grit at 1000×, (g) 320-grit at 100×, (h) 320-grit at 200×,
(i) 320-grit at 1000×, (j ) 240-grit at 100×, (k) 240-grit at 200×, (l) 240-grit at 1000×, (m) 80-grit at 100×, (n) 80-grit at 200× and (o)
80-grit at 1000×.

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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 045301 M A Nilsson et al

In this paper, we have shown that by sanding Teflon [10] Miwa M, Nakajima A, Fujishima A, Hashimoto K and
with various grits of sandpaper, it is straightforward to create Watanabe T 2000 Effects of the surface roughness on
surfaces with a wide range of hydrophobic properties. It sliding angles of water droplets on superhydrophobic
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[11] Nakajima A, Hashimoto K and Watanabe T 2001 Recent
characteristics, from low contact angles and high hysteresis,
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to ones with very high contact angles and low hysteresis 31–41
competitive with those produced my more expensive and [12] Nishino T, Meguro M, Nakamae K, Matsushita M and Ueda Y
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surfaces possess relatively short regions of continuous air– alignment Langmuir 15 4321–3
[13] Oner D and McCarthy T J 2000 Ultrahydrophobic surfaces.
water interfaces which are ideal for modifying the ease of drop
Effects of topography length scales on wettability Langmuir
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[14] Ou J and Rothstein J P 2005 Direct velocity measurements of
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Acknowledgments Fluids 17 103606
[15] Saito H, Takai K and Yamauchi G 1997 Water- and
The authors acknowledge the Office of Naval Research for the ice-repellent coatings Jocca—Surf. Coat. Int. 80 168
support provided for this research under grant N00014-06-1- [16] Shastry A, Case, M J and Bohringer K F 2006 Directing
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22 6161–7
profilometer. Finally, the authors thank the UMASS MRSEC [17] Tadanaga K, Morinaga J, Matsuda A and Minami T 2000
for use of its SEM and J Feng for his assistance in performing Superhydrophobic–superhydrophilic micropatterning on
the SEM measurements. flowerlike alumina coating film by the sol–gel method
Chem. Mater. 12 590
[18] Zhang X, Shi F, Niu J, Jiang Y G and Wang Z Q 2008
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