Embedded System in Automobiles 2022-23

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
An embedded system is typically a micro-computer system with one or few dedicated
functions, usually with real-time computation constraints. Different from a general purpose
personal computer, it is often embedded as part of a complete device. The usage of embedded
systems is so widespread today, e.g., smart phones, programmable systems on chip (SoC),
smart sensors, etc. These types of embedded systems include microprocessors, DSPs (digital
signal processors), ASICs (application-specific integrated circuits), and FPGAs (field-
programmable gate arrays).

Nowadays, considering the high competition in market, cost and time-to-market of the
development process of embedded systems must be minimized, while the customers’ demand
for computation power and speed is ever increasing. Other factors such as the ease of
development, power consumption, and sophistication of algorithms also need attention from
embedded system developers. Generally, designers have the choice of two main families of
digital device technologies: The first family consists of microcontrollers and DSPs, based on
a pure software platform. The typical constitution of this family is a performing
microprocessor core along with several peripherals. The alternative family is FPGAs, based
on configurable hardware elementary cells, and interconnections. End users build specific
hardware architecture to meet their requirements.

Compared with software based digital devices, FPGAs gain great advantages in high-speed
demanding applications. In safety critical industries such as automotive and aircraft
manufacturing, it imposes significant challenges for digital electronics.

Power consumption becomes a key design concern for handheld embedded systems. For the
subject of power consumption reduction, several studies have been conducted. In, a thorough
discussion of the source of power consumption and schemes for its minimization are
presented. It is worth mentioning that an embedded controller based on Artificial Intelligence
is becoming more and more popular, intensive research in this domain has evolved.

1.1 CAN (Controller Area Network)

CAN is a hardware and software communication protocol originally developed by Robert

Bosch GmbH in 1986 for in-vehicle networks in cars. CAN buses employing twisted wire
pairs were specifically designed to be robust in electromagnetically noisy environments. The
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applications of CAN in automobiles include engine control communications, body control,

and on-board diagnostics. CAN buses can also be found in other embedded control
applications such as factory automation, building automation, and aerospace systems.

A CAN bus enables microcontrollers in a car to talk to each other without the need for a
network host. A typical automobile today has dozens of microcontrollers that communicate
with each other via various CAN buses.

1.1.1 Key Features

 Maximum Data Rates: 1Mbps at 40m, 125Kbps at 500m, 50kbps at 1000m

 Circuit Type: Differential
 Physical Layer: Twisted Wire Pair, 9 pin D-Sub
 Transmission Format: Asynchronous
 Drive Voltage: High: 2.75v ~ 4.5v; Low: 0.5v ~ 2.25v; Differential: 1.5v ~ 3.0v
 Network Topology: Point to Point
 Standards: ISO 11898/11519

1.2 Organization of the Report

The seminar report is organized as mentioned below:

Chapter 1: This chapter gives brief introduction on the topic chosen and gives
overview on the concept.

Chapter 2: This chapter gives brief idea about Background of Automotive

Embedded Systems.

Chapter 3: This chapter describes the Literature Survey conducted on this

topic.

Chapter 4: This chapter explains brief idea about the applications of embedded
system in a car and recent advances in in-vehicle embedded systems.

Chapter 5: The Summary of the entire report is mentioned in this chapter.

CHAPTER 2
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BACKGROUND OF AUTOMOTIVE EMBEDDED

SYSTEM
Every year, automobile manufacturers worldwide pack new embedded system into their
vehicles. Tiny processors under the hood and in the deep recesses of the car gather and
exchange information to control, optimize, and monitor many of the functions that just a few
years ago were purely mechanical. The technological advancements of embedded system and
electronics within the vehicle are being driven by the challenge to make the vehicle safer,
more energy efficient and networked. Flash-based microcontrollers, from on-chip system to
FPGA, are the command center for embedded system design.

In 1968, the Volkswagen 1600 used a microprocessor in its fuel injection system, launching
the first embedded system in the automotive industry. Historically, low-cost 8 and 16-bit
processors were the norm in automotive controllers, and software engineers developed most
of the code in assembly language. However, today's shorter development schedules and
increased software complexity have forced designers to resort to select the more advanced
CPUs and a higher level language in which designers can easily reuse modules from project
to project. A successful automotive-electronic design depends on careful processor selection.
Modern power train controllers for the engine and transmission generally require 32-bit CPUs
to process the real-time algorithms. Other areas of the automobile, such as safety, chassis, and
body systems, use both 16-bit and 32-bit processors, depending on control complexity.
Although some critical timing situations still use assembly language, the software trend in
automotive embedded systems is toward C. The control software is more complicated and
precise for the current vehicles.

Advanced usage of embedded system and electronics within the vehicle can aid in controlling
the amount of pollution being generated and increasing the ability to provide systems’
monitoring and diagnostic capabilities without sacrificing safety/security features that
consumers demand. The electronic content within the vehicle continues to grow and more
systems become intelligent through the addition of microcontroller based electronics. A
typical vehicle today contains an average of 25-35 microcontrollers with some luxury
vehicles containing up to 70 microcontrollers per vehicle. Flash-based microcontrollers are
continuing to replace relays, switches, and traditional mechanical functions with higher-
reliability components while eliminating the cost and weight of copper wire.

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Embedded controllers also drive motors to operate power seats, windows, and mirrors.
Driver-information processors display or announce navigation and traffic information along
with vehicle diagnostics. Embedded controllers are even keeping track of your driving habits.
In addition, enormous activity occurs in the entertainment and mobile-computing areas.
Networks are a recent addition to embedded controllers which are the challenge of squeezing
in the hardware and code for in-car networking. To satisfy new government emissions
regulations, vehicle manufacturers and the Society of

Automotive Engineers (SAE) developed J1850, a specialized automotive-network protocol.

Although J1850 is now standard on US automobiles, European manufacturers support the
controller-area network (CAN). High-bandwidth, real-time control applications like power
train, airbags, and braking need the 1Mbps speed of CAN and their safety critical nature
requires the associated cost. Local Interconnect Network (LIN) typically is a sub-bus network
that is localized within the vehicle and has a substantially lower implementation cost when
compared to a CAN network. It serves low-speed, low-bandwidth applications like mirror
controls, seat controls, fan controls, environmental controls, and position sensors. Embedded
system in the automotive shares the general characters of common embedded system, but it
has its own primary design goals of automotive industry. Reliability and cost may be the
toughest design goal to achieve because of the rugged environment of the automobile. The
circuitry must survive nearby high-voltage electronic magnetic interference (EMI),
temperature extremes from the weather and the heat of the engine, and severe shock from bad
roads and occasional collisions. The electronic control units (ECUs) should be developed and
tested on the all kinds of situations with low cost. Although testing time grows with the
complexity of the system, a reliable controller also requires complete software testing to
verify every state and path. A single bug that slips through testing may force a very expensive
recall to update the software. Therefore the development of high-ability tools is also active in
the field of automotive embedded system.

CHAPTER 3

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LITERATURE SUVRVEY
[1] Chetan Kathepuri et al., explained about embedded system for automotive, the agenda
of this proposed work is to suggest a solution to improve a driver's safety while
changing lane, which focuses on the low-end vehicle. A blind spot detection system
for protection against misshapen like vehicle collisions that causes loss of human
lives. The system uses two different sensing positions in right and left side of the car.
Ultrasonic sensors, Raspberry pi and a alarm are used to implement the design. The
blind spot detection system will be useful while changing the lane, and with the help
of this system the driver will come to know about presence of vehicle in blind spot
which gives warning through alarm to driver.
[2] Adnan Shaout et al., explained about the use of Model-Based Development to
accelerate development process of embedded control systems and technologies and
tools used to support model-based development (MBD) from functional requirements
to automated testing and Model based testing process.
[3] Siva V.G. Kumar et al., explained about the architecture and implementation of a
system so as to assist the owner of the vehicle approximately any unauthorized access.
This is completed with the aid of sending an auto-generated SMS to the proprietor and
in turn, the owner can ship back the SMS as a way to disable the ignition of the car.
On this machine, if a person tries to steal the car, the microcontroller receives an
interrupt through a switch mechanism related to the system and commands the GSM
modem to ship an SMS. The proprietor receives the SMS that his automobile is
stolen. He can then ship returned an SMS to the GSM modem to "prevent the engine".
The GSM modem interfaced to the microcontroller gets the message, the output of
which activates a mechanism that disables the ignition of the automobile ensuring in
stopping the automobile. This work makes use of a lamp to signify the engine on/off
situation. Consequently, the proprietor of the automobile from anywhere can switch
off the ignition of his vehicle.

CHAPTER 4

EMBEDDED SYSTEM IN A CAR

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Fig. 4.1 Embedded Systems in a car

Fig. 4.2 Basic Block diagram

As shown in figure 4.1 and 4.2, a typically automobile on the road today has dozen of
computer controlled electronic system like Airbags, anti-lock braking system, black box,
adaptive cruise control, drive by wire, satellite radio, telematics, emission control, traction
control, automatic parking, in-vehicle entertainment systems, night vision, heads up display,
back up collision sensors, navigational systems, tyre pressure monitor, climate control, etc.

4.1 Airbag Deployment Systems

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Airbags are passive safety devices that are mandatory on all vehicles sold in the United
States. Airbags are a critical part of the Supplemental Restraint System (SRS) in most
vehicles. The objective of the airbag, which is deployed when the vehicle suddenly
decelerates (as in a collision), is to prevent the vehicle occupants from hitting any rigid
surfaces and cushion the forces on their heads and upper or lower bodies [3]. Airbags are
typically made of nylon fabric and are hidden behind panels at various locations in the
vehicle, including the steering wheel.

Fig. 4.3 Working of ADS

Depending on the crash severity, the rate at which the airbags are deployed is decided by the
airbag control unit. As shown in the figure 4.3, In the event of a crash, the crash sensor (an
accelerometer) sends a signal to the airbag control unit. This control unit triggers the inflation
device, which generates nitrogen gas by igniting a mixture of sodium azide (NaN3) and
potassium nitrate (KNO3). The time between crash detection and complete deployment of the
airbag is approximately 0.05 seconds. The airbag speed is about 200 mph, which itself can be
harmful in certain cases. This has given rise to adaptive airbag systems that employ multiple
inflators to produce either low-level or high-level deployments. These systems can adjust the
airbag pressure depending on factors such as seat position, size of passenger, crash severity
and seat belt use.

Most systems use a weight sensor in the front passenger seat to determine if the seat is
unoccupied. If it is, the passenger airbag will not deploy. The weight sensor can also

discriminate between children and adults who may be occupying the seat. The U.S. Federal

Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 208 requires airbag deployment systems to detect whether a

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child is seated in the front passenger seat. Typically, airbag deployment will be suppressed if
a

sensor identifies a low-weight condition. Additionally some systems can detect child's safety
seats that are equipped with special sensors as defined by the technical specification ISO/TS
22239 [4].

In 2012, Volvo became the first automotive manufacturer to introduce a Pedestrian Airbag
System in its V40 model. It uses a pedestrian contact sensing system. When impact with a
pedestrian is sensed, the hood opens from the back and an airbag is inflated over the
windshield-wiper area [4].

In 2013, GM announced a new airbag for side impact crashes. It inflates near the center
console and provides padding between the front passengers or support for the solo driver.
GM has also modified the front airbag to include a vent which opens when the passenger
compresses the bag. This provides a similar effect to the more expensive dual stage airbags
without the increased cost. Due to the vent being closed during initial deployment, it can
inflate with lower pressure. This will reduce some inflation-related injuries with smaller
drivers who sit closer to the steering wheel and benefit drivers who sit further back due to
reduced premature deflation.

 Sensors
Accelerometers, wheel speed sensors, brake pressure sensors, seat occupancy sensor
 Actuators
Airbag inflation device, passenger airbag ON/OFF indicator
 Data Communications
Typically CAN

4.1.1 Event Data Recorders

Event data recorders (EDRs), sometimes referred to as automotive "black boxes", are systems
that constantly record information related to the vehicle operation. In the event of an accident,
the recorder saves the information that was recorded several seconds just before and/or just
after the collision. EDRs may be independent electronic control units or they may reside
within other control modules such as the engine control (ECM) or airbag control module [3].

Unlike Accident Recorders, which are after-market systems that usually record video and
GPS location data, EDRs are installed by the vehicle manufacturer and integrated with

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existing systems and sensors. Although automotive EDRs have existed in one form or another
since the mid-1970s, they have only recently become standard equipment in most vehicles.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) estimates that about 96% of
model year 2013 cars and light trucks are equipped with EDRs [4]. Modern EDRs record
various vehicle operation parameters such as vehicle speed, pedal positions, steering wheel
position and other information that may be relevant to a crash investigation. There is some
consumer resistance to vehicle black boxes due to privacy concerns, and the fear that
information recorded by a black box could be used against the vehicle owner in a lawsuit
resulting from an accident.

In 2006, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) published standards
for EDR practices, but did not require EDRs as standard equipment. It only specified which
data EDRs should collect and how it should be stored. The NHTSA standard would require
all cars with EDRs to record the following information:

 Change in forward crash speed

 Maximum change in forward crash speed
 Time from beginning of crash at which the maximum change in forward crash speed
occurs
 Speed vehicle was traveling
 Percentage of engine throttle, percentage full (how far the accelerator pedal was
pressed)
 Whether or not brake was applied and the anti-lock brakes were activated
 Ignition cycle (number of power cycles applied to the EDR) at the time of the crash
 Ignition cycle (number of power cycles applied to the EDR) when the EDR data is
downloaded
 Whether or not driver was using a safety belt
 Whether or not frontal airbag warning lamp was on
 Driver frontal airbag deployment: time to deploy for a single stage airbag, or time to
first stage deployment for a multistage airbag
 Right front passenger frontal airbag deployment: time to deploy for a single stage
airbag, or time to first stage deployment for a multistage airbag
 Number of crash events
 Steering wheel angle

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 Vehicle roll angle, in case of a rollover

 Front seat positions
 Time between first two crash events, if applicable
 Whether or not stability control was engaged
 Whether or not EDR completed recording

Fig. 4.4 EDR System Connectivity Block Diagram

As shown in Figure 4.4, five types of data measurement connections or sensors make up the
entire EDR measuring chain:

i. Internal Sensors – Internal sensors are located inside an EDR when data is not
available to be read directly from other sources on the truck. These sensors typically include:
longitudinal, lateral, and vertical accelerometers; yaw, pitch, and roll angular sensors; and a
GPS receiver, if the vehicle does not have a GPS receiver on its in-vehicle data network.

ii. Analog Input from Sensors – Analog input from sensors refers to the electrical output
of analog (i.e., continuous, 1 to 5 Volts Direct Current (VDC)) sensors that can be located in

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various locations on the vehicle. An example of an analog sensor is the throttle position
sensor.

Any analog inputs from the vehicle directly into an EDR are undesirable, because the analog
signal may degrade due to long wire lengths, which will reduce the signal strength, place an
additional load on the sensor which may alter its reading, and increase noise on the line. Most
analog sensors used for engine control have data placed on the in-vehicle data network.

iii. Discrete Digital Inputs – Discrete digital inputs refer to connections throughout the
vehicle to on/off devices. Brake lights, turn signals, horn, running lights, and headlights are
examples of this type of signal. Determining the state of discrete digital inputs is cost
effective and will not affect the operation of the device. The wiring required to tap into the
signals is simple, and the physical connection can be made by the use of a simple crimp-style
wire splice.

iv. Vehicle Network – Another cost effective method of obtaining vehicle data is via the
vehicle network. Two in-vehicle data networks commonly found in large trucks: 1) a low-
speed network (SAE J1708/J1587) and 2) a high-speed network (SAE J1939). When both
networks are present, the low-speed network conveys general vehicle operating data, and the
high-speed network carries engine control data.

Obtaining vehicle data via the vehicle networks is cost efficient, because one network
interface allows all operating data available on the network to be accessed by an EDR. Since
the network protocols are well-defined and standardized, the same network messages will
exist across many types of vehicles.

v. Data Download – Data download is the process of transferring data stored in an EDR to
another device, which serves as the only two-way connection interface. Using a data
download connection, an EDR receives commands from a device (e.g., a laptop), and
transmits data to it. Checksums are transferred by an EDR and analyzed by the off-loading
device to ensure there are no errors in data transmission. In addition, this link can be used to
upload new operating software to an EDR. This connection is a type of serial link (e.g., RS-
232, USB, Firewire, etc.), which could be a wireless link.

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Fig. 4.5 EDR Data Retrieval

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4.2 Anti-Lock Brake System (ABS)

Anti-lock Braking Systems (ABS) prevent wheel lockup by modulating the braking pressure.
These systems play a significant role in improving the safety of modern vehicles. In slippery
road conditions on smooth surfaces, a driver may hit the brake so hard that one or more
wheels locks and begins to skid over the surface. This results in longer stopping distances, a
loss of steer-ability, and vehicle instability. ABS systems monitor the wheel speed in real
time and regulate the brake pressure automatically in order to prevent wheel lockup and
improve the driver's control of the vehicle. They are now often paired with other systems
such as Electronic Stability Control (ESC) and Traction Control to further increase vehicle
control and driver safety. The main components of these systems include regular brake parts
(such as the brake pedal, hydraulic cylinders and lines), wheel speed sensors, and a hydraulic
modulator operated by an electronic control unit [3]. The architecture of the ABS system
(including the hydraulic modulator) is illustrated in figure 4.6 and 4.7.

Fig. 4.6 Architecture of The ABS System

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Fig. 4.7 Operation of ABS System

(From fig. 4.7) When operating in normal conditions, the outlet valve (C) of the hydraulic
modulator is closed and the inlet valve (A) stays open until the pressure reaches the desired
value. Then both the inlet and outlet valves remain closed to hold this pressure and provide
sufficient brake torque for wheel brake cylinders. Once the control unit detects any excessive
wheel slip, the corresponding outlet valve is opened to release the pressure to the accumulator
(D) and prevent possible wheel lockup. The excess brake fluid is returned to the master
cylinder through the return pump (E). After the wheel slip returns to normal, the valve
solenoids are de-energized and the hydraulic modulator resumes the regular braking process
[5].

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Fig. 4.8 Actuator in ABS System

Anti-lock braking systems can be classified based on the number of channels and number of
sensors employed.

i. Four Channel, Four Sensor ABS - This type of ABS uses a speed sensor and
separate valves for each of the four wheels. Maximum braking force is achieved with
this type.
ii. Three Channel, Three Sensor ABS - The front wheels each have a sensor and a
valve. There is one valve and one sensor for both the rear wheels.
iii. One Channel, One Sensor ABS - One valve and speed sensor located on the rear
axle monitor both the rear wheels. This type of ABS is commonly seen in pickup
trucks.

4.2.1 Slip Ratio

Slip ratio is a means of calculating and expressing the locking status of a wheel. It is the ratio
of the difference between the vehicle speed and the wheel speed to the vehicle speed. For
example, when the vehicle is running normally on an ideal road surface, the slip ratio is 0;

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when the wheels are locked, the slip ratio is 1. During braking, as the slip ratio rises, the ABS
system maintains an ideal slip ratio of 0.10 to 0.30 based on the road-tire friction
characteristics [5]. In this way, the vehicle maintains a maximum deceleration without a total
loss of steering capability.

 Sensors
Wheel speed sensor
 Actuators
Hydraulic modulator, master cylinder, wheel brake cylinders, warning light
 Data Communications
High-speed CAN bus

4.3 Electronic Stability Control System

Electronic Stability Control (ESC), also called Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC), Dynamic
Stability Control (DSC), Electronic Stability Program (ESP), Vehicle Stability Control (VSC)
or Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA), is one of the most significant active safety systems in
modern automobiles. The main function of this system is to improve the handling
performance of the vehicle and prevent possible accidents during severe driving maneuvers
(e.g., fast cornering or lane changing with emergency braking). Generally, these systems
stabilize the vehicle by applying the necessary yaw moment (generated by individual braking
force on each wheel) and regulating the side slip angle of the vehicle based on a comparison
between the vehicle state and the driver's demand. Some ESC systems also reduce the power
from the engine during excessive steering.

A vehicle may go in a direction different from the one the steering wheel position indicates
when the driver tries to turn very hard or turn on a slippery road. In these situations, the
vehicle may understeer or oversteer. In an oversteer situation, the vehicle turns more than the
driver intended because the rear end loses traction and slides out. Understeer occurs when the
front wheels lose traction and the vehicle turns less than the driver intended [3]. This
condition is shown neatly in the figure 4.10.

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Fig. 9 Architecture of a Typical Stability Control System

The figure 4.9 shows the architecture of a typical stability control system, incorporating three
fundamental elements: the driver, the vehicle and the environment. In the normal control
loop, the driver detects the deviation of the vehicle from the current road trajectory and
corrects it through the steering system. When the electronic stability control system senses
that the driver is about to lose control of the vehicle, it generates the necessary yaw moment
automatically based on the difference between the driver's demand and actual vehicle state
and helps to pull the vehicle back to the desired trajectory.

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Fig. 4.10 With and Without Electronic Stability Control

 Sensors
Steering wheel angle sensor: detects the steering wheel position and provides a
reference input for the ESC controller. Yaw rate sensor: measures the actual yaw rate
of the vehicle and can also estimate the yaw angle by integrating. Lateral
acceleration sensor: measures the lateral acceleration of the vehicle (also called a G-
force sensor). Wheel speed sensor: measures the spin speed of each wheel for
individual braking control.
 Actuators
The main actuator of the stability control system is the application of the anti-lock
brakes to each wheel individually. Electronic throttle, fuel injector and spark plugs
may also be actuated in order to control the engine output.
 Data Communications
High-speed CAN or FlexRay bus.

4.4 Adaptive Cruise Control Systems

Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) extends existing cruise control systems to include a headway
sensor that monitors the distance between your vehicle and the vehicle ahead. The system is
also sometimes called Active Cruise Control (ACC) or Intelligent Cruise Control (ICC).

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Fig 4.11 Schematic of Intelligent Cruise Control. The red car automatically maintains a safe distance from the

blue car .

Fig. 4.12 Principle of Operation of Adaptive Cruise Control

There are two key types of headway sensors. Radar sensors employ microwave signals
(typically at 35 or 76 GHz). Lidar sensors employ a laser diode to produce infrared light
signals. Both types of sensors send a signal and monitor the time required for the signal to
reflect off the object ahead. Optical or infrared image sensors are also being introduced for

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the purpose of detecting vehicles in the road ahead. These sensors can replace or supplement
the information from radar or lidar sensors.

As shown in the figure 4.12, when ACC systems determine there is a need to slow the
vehicle, they may use the engine, transmission and/or brakes to decrease the vehicle's speed
and maintain a safe following distance. Many systems limit the maximum deceleration to no

more than 3 m/s2 (10 ft/s2), although systems are beginning to appear that allow more
aggressive braking (see Automatic Braking). The ACC user interface typically has both
visual and audible indications that are provided to the driver depending on the severity of the
situation. ACC systems can always be disengaged through the use of the brake pedal or the
primary ACC user interface. In addition, certain stability systems such as traction control, and
electronic stability control may also turn the ACC system off. ACC systems are evolving
rapidly and are currently available on many mid- to high-end passenger cars as well as many
heavy duty commercial trucks.

4.4.1 Cruise Control System

The cruise control system controls the speed of the car by adjusting the throttle position, so it
needs sensors to tell it the speed and throttle position.

It also needs to monitor the controls so it can tell what the desired speed is and when to
disengage.

Fig. 4.13 Cruise Control System

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The system is a servomechanism that takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady
speed as set by the driver, as shown in the figure 4.13.

The cruise control system actually has a lot of functions other than controlling the speed of
car. For instance, the cruise control can accelerate or decelerate the car by 1 mph with the tap
of a button.

 Sensors
Headway sensor (radar, lidar or image), vehicle speed sensor, accelerator pedal
position, brake pedal position
 Actuators
Throttle, brakes
 Data Communications
Control Unit Communication: Typically Control Area Network (CAN) Bus System

4.4.2 Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control -CACC

The CACC system is an embedded control system for automobiles which automatically
monitors and adjusts a vehicle speed according to the traffic conditions in its immediate
vicinity. The CACC system on a vehicle will receive the necessary data from sensors on the
vehicle, will maintain communication with the CACC system in another vehicle directly in
front of it and communication with a central Street Monitoring Data Center. In order to effect
a change in the vehicle speed, the system issues commands to the throttle device as well as to
the brake pedal. It includes all related components of a generic embedded system [1].

CACC improve stability, by reducing the delay of the response to the preceding vehicle. In
human drivers this delay depends on reaction time and actions such as moving the foot from
throttle to brake pedal. In ACC this delay is reduced, but there still is a large phase delay
because of the estimation algorithm needed to translate the discrete range measurements
(supplied by radar or lidar) to a metric of change in range over time (i.e., acceleration and
deceleration of the lead vehicle). CACC utilizes vehicle-to-vehicle communications so that
the vehicle has information not just on the vehicle immediately in front (through sensors), but
also on a leading vehicle or vehicles further in front, through vehicle-to-vehicle
communications of key parameters such as position, velocity, acceleration. General view of
CACC is shown in fig. 4.14.

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Fig. 4.14 General View of a Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) System and Its Interfaces.

Fig. 4.15 Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control

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4.4.3 Dedicated Short Range Communications

Dedicated Short Range Communications (DSRC) is a data-only automotive communication

protocol. It is a wireless communication technology designed to allow automobiles in the
intelligent transportation system (ITS) to communicate with other automobiles or
infrastructure technology. There are two broad categories of DSRC: Vehicle-to-Vehicle
(V2V) communication and the Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) communication (Shown in the
figure 4.16).

Fig. 4.16 DSRC

Typical or potential applications of DSRC include:

 Electronic toll collection

 Cooperative adaptive cruise control
 Intersection collision avoidance
 Approaching emergency vehicle warning
 Automatic vehicle safety inspection
 Transit or emergency vehicle signal priority
 Electronic parking payments
 Commercial vehicle clearance
 In-vehicle display of road signs and billboards
 Traffic data collection
 Rail intersection warning

DSRC is widely used for electronic toll collection (a V2I application) today. V2V
applications will not be fully functional until a significant percentage of cars on the road are
equipped with DSRC systems.

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4.5 Drive by Wire

There is a trend in the automotive industry towards eliminating mechanical and hydraulic
control systems and replacing them with electronic controls. Many traditional mechanical
components can be eliminated such as shafts, pumps, hoses, fluids, coolers, cylinders, etc.,
which reduces the weight of the vehicle and improves efficiency. Electronic controls can also
improve safety by facilitating more automated control functions like stability control. They
also enhance the flexibility of automotive systems, making it easier to modify or upgrade
vehicles. Electronic controls improve handling, enable better fuel efficiency and exhibit
shorter response times in emergency situations.

The complexity of the system control functions enabled by electronic systems can make
vehicle performance more difficult to model. Integrating these complex systems, while
achieving predictable, fail-safe performance represents a significant challenge for the
automotive industry.

Fig. 4.17 Drive by Wire

Drive by wire involves 3 main systems:

1. Steer by Wire
2. Throttle by Wire
3. Brake by Wire

4.5.1 Steer by Wire

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As shown in figure 4.18, Steer-by-Wire systems do not have a direct mechanical connection
between the steering wheel and the wheels of the vehicle. Instead, turning the steering wheel
sends instructions to an electronic control unit, the control unit actuates an electric motor that
controls the steering angle of the wheels.

Steer-by-Wire systems have the following advantages:

 Interior styling is easier and more versatile due to the absence of the steering column.
 There is more space available in the engine compartment.
 This system can be modeled and installed as a modular system.
 Allows designs that prevent the steering wheel from rigidly impacting the driver
during a frontal crash.
 Driving characteristics can be monitored and the steering response can be easily
adjusted.
 Simplifies designs and lowers manufacturing costs.

There are different models for steer-by-wire systems. Below is an illustration of one such
system:

Fig. 4.18 Steer by Wire

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Steering wheel position and angle is measured by hand wheel sensor which is linked to ECM
through an ECU linkage which generates torque. Environmental sensors analyze
environmental factors like Yaw, roll over position and positions using cameras which are
translated into the engine control module. Using all these inputs tires are actuated using
steering sensors and the angle of the steering rod is controlled and monitored by the ECM.

 Sensors
Torque sensor, steering angle sensors, yaw sensor, wheel speed sensor, and wheel
angle sensor
 Actuators
Steering actuator, feedback actuator, pinion actuator

4.5.2 Throttle by Wire

Throttle-by-wire is an automotive technology that is widely used on vehicles today. In the

figure 4.19 we can see that the replacement of the traditional throttle linkage (a cable between
the accelerator pedal and the throttle) with an accelerator pedal position sensor and an
electronically operated throttle. It provides several advantages over mechanical systems:

 Eliminates binding problems in mechanical linkages preventing the throttle from

sticking.
 Allows automated control of the throttle that helps to reduce emissions and improve
fuel economy.
 This system can be modeled and installed as a modular system.
 Allows the ECM to integrate torque management with cruise control, traction control
and stability control.

Fig. 4.19 Throttle by Wire

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The accelerator pedal sensor senses the position of the accelerator pedal. This information is
conveyed to the ECM as a change in the electrical resistance. The ECM actuates a servo-
motor, which actuates the butterfly valve in the throttle assembly. The position of the throttle
is continuously monitored and the information is conveyed to the ECM using a feedback
circuit.

 Sensors
Accelerator pedal position sensor, throttle valve position sensor
 Actuators
Motor controlling throttle valve position

4.5.3 Brake by Wire

In the automotive industry, brake-by-wire technology is the ability to control brakes through
electrical means. It can be designed to supplement ordinary service brakes or it can be a
standalone brake system. This technology is widely used on all hybrid and battery electric
vehicles, including the Toyota Prius.

Brake-by-wire is an automotive technology that completely eliminates traditional mechanical

and hydraulic components and replaces them with electronic sensors and actuators to control
the brakes in vehicles.

Some of the advantages of brake-by-wire systems are:

 Reacts more quickly resulting in shorter stopping distance and time.

 Loss of mechanical systems results in noiseless operation and elimination of
vibration.
 Lesser space consumed making the engine compartment and compact and helping in
better space utilization.
 Allows the ECM to integrate torque management with cruise control, traction control
and stability control.
 Reduces the weight of the overall system thus improving fuel efficiency.
 Lack of mechanical power may facilitate the need the introduction of hybrid and fuel
cells based vehicles.

Brake-by-wire systems are still under development and cannot be found on passenger cars
that are currently on the market. One of several concepts for a brake-by-wire systems is
illustrated in figure 4.20.

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Fig. 4.20 Brake by Wire

This system consists of a rheostat that senses the position of the brake pedal. This signal is
interpreted by the brake computer, which generates signals to operate a servo pump. The
pump pressurizes the secondary circuit and brake fluid pushes against a slave piston that
activates the brake. The pressure is monitored and a signal is sent back to the brake computer,
which applies a mechanical force to the pedal as feedback to the driver.

 Sensors
Brake pedal position sensor
 Actuators
Servomotor/pump

The complexity of drive-by-wire systems is a concern to many automotive customers who

worry about the failure of software and possible electronic malfunctions in sensors resulting
in car accidents and passenger injury. On the other hand drive-by-wire systems have been
used by commercial aircraft for many years and have an excellent safety record. Ultimately,
the enhanced safety features and the other benefits of automated electronic controls are
expected to outweigh concerns about the complexity and reliability of these controls and
drive-by-wire systems will be widely used in automotive designs.

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4.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Embedded System

 Advantages:
i. An embedded system used in automobiles can assist in pollution control,
system monitoring.
ii. An embedded system used in automobiles can increase the efficiency of the
vehicle.
iii. Embedded system used in automobiles increase the safety of the passengers in
a vehicle.
iv. By using embedded system in automobiles, we can decrease the damages. The
embedded system is small in size which will fit anywhere in automobiles.

 Disadvantages:
i. The embedded systems are hard for maintenance as it is use and throw device.
ii. It has no technological improvement.
iii. Less power supply durability if it is battery operated.
iv. It has hard to take backup of embedded files.

4.7 RECENT ADVANCES IN IN-VEHICLE EMBEDDED SYSTEM

The recent two decades has witnessed a trend in the automotive industry, a rapid growth in
the percentage of cost of embedded electronic systems, more precisely the software
components [1]. In 2006, the electronic embedded system constituted at least 25% of the total
cost of a car and more than 35% for a high-end model. Top-line cars today may contain up to
100 ECUs (Electronic Control Unit). Each controls one or more of the electrical systems or
subsystems in a motor vehicle networked over standard communication buses. Local area
networks such as LIN, CAN, FlexRay, Most and IDB-1394 are developed as such links.
Considering the increase of complexity of embedded electronic architecture, the development
of it has to integrate different hardware and software units provided by different vendors,
which raises the question of “composability” [4].

 Temporal Interoperability

The development of embedded automotive software plays a key role in pushing the
improvement of the automotive industry in terms of safety, cost, performance, and comfort.

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Several new functions are made possible with reasonable costs thanks to the development of
software technology, such as multimedia and telematics in vehicles. Electronic control units
(ECUs) are the specialized programmable hardware platforms which automotive software
runs on. ECUs have a real-time operating system and domain specific basic software, e.g., for
engine control. Different software components are potentially developed by different OEMs
(Original Equipment Manufacturer, or carmaker) and several Tier 1 suppliers. This raises the
question of how to integrate all the software components in an efficient and secure way, in
particular for safety-critical functions.

Modeling languages are one way to reach this goal, e.g., AIL transport, EAST-ADL, EAST-
ADL2. These modeling languages are capable of representing the system at all its design
steps and common to all the actors involved in the design process. EAST-ADL is a domain
specific language using meta-modeling constructs such as classes, attributes, and
relationships. EAST-ADL can be used to model the structural aspects of automotive elements
and describe the dependencies between them. The EAST-ADL scope includes early analysis
via functional design to the implementation perspective and back to integration and
acceptance testing on vehicle level.

The international program AUTOSAR also addresses the same target. Automobile
manufacturers, suppliers, and tool developers jointly develop an open and standardized
automotive software architecture—AUTOSAR (AUTomotive Open System ARchitecture),
with the objective of creating and establishing open standards for automotive E/E
(Electrics/Electronics) architectures that will provide a basic infrastructure to assist with
developing vehicular software, user interfaces, and management for all application domains.
This includes the standardization of basic systems functions, scalability to different vehicle
and platform variants, transferability throughout the network, integration from multiple
suppliers, maintainability throughout the entire product life-cycle, and software updates and
upgrades over the vehicle's lifetime as some of the key goals [2].

Specification of components that implement complicated and distributed functions in an in-

vehicle embedded system is allowed in AUTOSAR. Interfaces between different components
are formally defined, and thus facilitate functional integration of components. Software
components are atomic (i.e., not distributed) pieces of functionality. Components are
composed of software components and can be deployed to the physical nodes in the vehicle
system. Thanks to components and software components, vehicle manufacturers are allowed

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to structure the functions of a vehicle and to get the efforts required to implement the
functions partitioned [4].

However, vehicle functions often have stringent real-time requirements, which means that
only functional correctness cannot guarantee their correct behavior, but also their temporal
correctness needs to be taken into account. That is, the right values (or right actions) have to
be delivered (taken) at the right time. Unexpected problems may occur when integrating
different individually developed functions on a single ECU. Due to interference from other
software components, functions that work nicely when running on an ECU exclusively may
exhibit incorrect behavior when they have to share an ECU with other functions. The
integration processes are in the late phases of the whole development process for a vehicle;
any incorrectness in this phase may be very costly.

To tackle this late integration problem, the use of server-based scheduling techniques in
AUTOSAR is proposed. The server technology is provided by a Hierarchical Scheduling
Framework (HSF), implemented as a layer between the AUTOSAR OS and the AUTOSAR
Runtime Environment (RTE). CPU allocates a part of its total capacity to a server, which is
an operating-system level object. By mapping a software component or set of components to
one server, access to its allocated share of computing resources can be guaranteed without
worries about the need of resources of any other functions in the system. Via servers,
functions’ computational resource will remain the same even if other components or
functions are added or removed from the system. Thus, “temporal firewalls” can be
implemented by servers between functions of components. In this way the temporal
correctness of a software function can be preserved no matter in what context it is integrated.

4.8 Chapter Summary

Chapter 1, Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 gives brief explaination about the introduction and the
applications of the embedded system in automobiles. Today, a typical automobile on the road
has computer controlled electronic systems, and the most commonly used embedded systems
in a vehicle include Airbags, anti-lock braking system, black box, adaptive cruise control,
drive by wire, satellite radio, telematics, emission control, traction control, automatic parking,
in-vehicle entertainment systems, night vision, heads up display, back up collision sensors,
navigational systems, tyre pressure monitor, climate control, etc.

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CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY
In the recent years, more and more equipment in automotive are changing from mechanical
systems to electronic systems. Embedded system is a core of vehicle electronic systems
because of its flexibility and versatility. The electronics revolution has influenced almost
every aspect of automotive design including the powertrain, fuel combustion, crash
protection and the creation of a comfortable cabin and nearly wireless environment. It is
necessary to pay more attention to the fields of environments, safety and security, which are
the most significant and challenge field of automotive embedded system design.

Embedded systems, especially in-vehicle embedded systems, are ubiquitously related to our
everyday life. The development of embedded systems greatly facilitates the comfort of
people’s life, changes our view of things, and has a significant impact on society. On the
other hand, even though embedded systems technologies are becoming more and more
mature, currently there still exist many challenges in technique and will be more with the ever
growing speed and reliability demand from market. We expect more enlightening researches
in this area.

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BIBILOGRAPHY
[1] V. S. Maruthi Revanth Pasupuleti, Balagi Manoj Jollu, Krishna Chaithanya Janapati,
Amreen Naseeha, Paragi Chandana, “Partial Automation of Automobiles using
Embedded System” in Proceedings of IEEE, 2020.

[2] Chetan Kathepuri, A. V. Nyayanit, Jayesh Joglekar, Mangesh Kale, “Embedded

System for Automotive” in Proceedings of IEEE, 2016.

[3] https://www.watelectronics.com/importance-of-embedded-systems-in-automobiles-
with-applications/

[4] Jiao Yu, Bogdan M. Wilamowski, “Recent Advances in In-vehicle embedded

systems” in Proceedings of IEEE, 2011.

[5] https://cecas.clemson.edu/cvel/auto/systems/braking.html

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