4.

Angle Measurement (angles, bearing and azimuths)

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Determining the locations of points and orientations of lines frequently depends on

measurements of angles and directions. In surveying, directions are given by
bearings and azimuths.

4.2 ANGLES

Depending on the plane in which they are measured, angles are classified as
horizontal and vertical angles.

 In surveying angles are measured either

 Horizontal angle - Basic measurement for determining bearing and azimuths.

 Cont’d

 Vertical angle - angles are commonly measured for stadia and trigonometric

leveling surveying also for electronic distance measuring (EDM) surveys where

the slope distances must be reduce to horizontal distances.

• So vertical angles are useful in case we need to reduce slope distances, determine

vertical distance between two or more points, determine the elevation of one or

more point referring to a horizontal plane.

Zenith angle- is also measured in a vertical plane

 Angles are measured by - Total station, theodolite, transit, Compass and by tape: -

indirect measurement.
 4.2 Principle of Angle measurement
There are three basic requirements to determine an angle. They are

1. Reference/starting lines

2. Direction of turning.

3. Angular distances (Values of the angle)

Fig. 4.1 The three determinants of an angle.

 Cont’d
Measurement of horizontal angles
• A horizontal angle is formed by the directions to two objects in a horizontal plane

• The value of horizontal angle ranges from 0⁰ to 360⁰

Let as shown below fig. measure the angle ABC (ᴓ)

 the instrument is set up at B and carefully levelled By means of foot screw

 Cont’d

• Pointing the telescope to the left or to the right (known as face of the instrument) & using the upper
and lower clamps by locked or unlocked system.

 Kinds of Horizontal Angles

• Interior angles measured clockwise or counter-clockwise between two adjacent lines on the
inside of a closed polygon figure.

• Then a check can be made on their value because the sum of all angles equals (n-2)180

• Exterior angles - are measured clockwise or counter-clockwise between two adjacent lines on
the outside of a closed polygon figure.

Note: Exterior angles are located outside a closed polygon and they provide a check, i.e. the sum of
interior and exterior angles at any station must total 360 degree.
 Cont’d
 Deflection angles (angels to the right or left) - are measured from an extension of the preceding course and
the ahead line. It must be noted when the deflection is right (R) or left (L). They are always smaller than 180
degree. The most common angels are interior angel, angles to the right & deflection angles

In general, the types of measuring angles in horizontal directions are;

 Vertical angles
• A vertical angle is measured in the vertical plane using a horizontal plane as a reference plane.

• An angle of elevation : is when the point is sighted above a horizontal plane

• An angle of depression : is when the point being sighted below a horizontal plane and considered
as negative angle

• The value of vertical angle ranges from -90° to 90° (-100 grad to + 100 grad)

 See the Sketch below

Fig. Vertical angles

 zenith angles
• A zenith angle is also measured in a vertical plane using the overhead extension of plumb line as reference
lines. Or
• Is the complementary angle to the vertical angle and is formed by two intersecting lines in a vertical plane.
• Its value ranges from 0° to 180° (0 grad to 200 grad)
• Most of the theodolite gives the zenith angle
N.B: Zenith angles and Vertical angles are both measured in a vertical plane. Zenith angles are measured
downward from the vertical, and Vertical angles are Measured up or down from the horizontal.
• In figure below, the zenith angles measured
at station A to targets at station
B and C are 70 and 120.
• The corresponding vertical
angles are 20 and -30.
 Cont’d
The vertical angle is classified according to the position of 00 in the vertical circle of the theodolite so
that, basically, there are three position of the 00 in the vertical circle:

1 – 00 on the Zenith (Zenithal angle)

2 – 00 on the Horizontal Plane (Vertical angle)

3 – 00 on the Nadir (Nadiral angle)

00 900 1800

900 00 900

1800 - 900 00

Zenithal angle Vertical angle Nadiral angle

 4.3 Field Procedure for Measuring Vertical Angles
• Before starting explaining the procedure for measuring vertical angle, we must to
be familiarized with the theodolite reticule, it is made of three cross hairs:
Direct Telescope Upper hair cross : U

Mid hair cross

M Reverse Telescope
Lower hair cross: L

• Measure the Vertical or Zenithal angle is very simple since the only one operation
that have to be accomplished is to set the mid cross hair at the point or target by
moving the telescope with its fine motion crew.
 Cont’d
• When Vertical or Zenithal angles are measured for determine elevation and vertical distance (∆z)
the instrument height is required as well as the reading on the staff where the vertical or Zenithal
angle was taken.

Reading on
staff at mid
00 Zenithal
angle cross hair

B M
SD
∆Z
00
IH

A HD
Vertical angle

If we want to determine ∆z or vertical distance between A and B, then let’s apply the formula:
∆z = ½ SD x sin 2 va + IH - M
 Cont’d
If we take the reading on the staff at mid cross hair MH at the instrument height (IH = MH) then the
formula is reduced to:

∆z = ½ SD x sin 2 va

If we want to determine the Horizontal distance HD we can apply the formula

HD = SD x cos2 (va)

If we know the horizontal distance HD we can determine ∆z applying next formula:

∆z = SD x tan (va) + IH – M

If we take the reading on the staff at mid cross hair MH at the instrument height (IH = MH) then the
formula is reduced to:

∆z = SD x tan (va)
 4.4 Measuring distance by mean of stadia method

The slope distance can be obtained through the telescope’s reticule applying the
stadia method so that:
SD = U – L x 100
SD = U – M x 200
SD = M – L x 200
Where :

SD = Slope Distance

U = Upper Cross Hair

M = Mid Cross Hair

L = Lower Cross Hair

100 = Stadimetric constant

 Cont’d
Since the U and L are equidistant from M, is to say, the distance from U and M is the same to the
distance M to L, when we multiply :
U – M x 100 or M – L x 100 we will obtain half of the distance between the theodolite and the staff,
therefore we need to multiply this result by 2 for obtaining the total distance between the theodolite
and the staff, is to say:
U – M x 100 x 2 = U – M x 200
M – L x 100 x 2 = M – L x 200
Let’s see an example:
We’ve got the follow reading on the staff:
U = 1.914
M = 1.708
L = 1.502
SD = U – L x 100 = 1.914 – 1,502 x 100 = 41.2
SD = U – M x 200 = 1.914 – 1.708 x 200 = 41.2
SD = M – L x 200 = 1.708 – 1.502 x 200 = 41.2
 Cont’d
• Most of the time in the real practice the resulted distance that we obtain by mean of applying the
three formula are not exactly the same, but very close one to another, thereby we find the average
of them, assuming this one as the final result.

• In tacheometric survey when a larger number of data is desired to collected in a relative short time,
the surveyor use to set the Lower cross hair at 1 meter on the staff by means of the fine motion
screws of the instrument, so, the surveyor has the chance to read the distance directly since the
calculation process can be made mentally in few seconds.

For example:

When lower cross hair is on 1m and Upper cross hair is at 1.678, distance is 67.8m since 1.678 – 1.00
x 100 = 67.8

Subtracting 1 meter and running the point two places to the right is a mental operation that can be
done in two or three seconds.
Examples:
1790 =79 m; 1982 = 98.2m; 2345 = 134.5 m; 2667 = 166.7m 3425 =242.5 m
 4.5 Azimuth and bearings of lines
• The direction of a line is the horizontal angle between it and an arbitrary closed reference line
called a Meridian. (It is a line on the mean surface of the earth joining the north and south poles).

• Azimuth and bearing are commonly called orientation angles, theses angles are referred to a north
south meridian, this meridian line can be referred to:
• True North – South meridian
• Magnetic North – South meridian
• Grid North – South meridian
 True North – South meridian: is the line joining the earth’s north pole with any point on the
earth’s surface.

• Thus at every point on the earth corresponds an specific meridian, in addition on one meridian line
there could be an infinite number of points.

• The true North meridian can be measured by astronomic observations made to the stars and sun.
 Cont’d
• Magnetic North – South Meridian: is the line joining the earth’s magnetic pole with any point on the
earth’s surface. The position of the earth’s magnetic north pole varies cyclically. It can determine with a
compass.

• Grid North – South meridian: is the line joining the line north – south meridian coinciding with the Y axis
on a specific cartographic grid, this cartographic grid is referred to a cartographic projection such as Mercator
projection or Lambert projection. Is also called an Assumed Meridian; can be established by merely assigning
any arbitrary directions. For example, taking certain street line to be true north.
True
North
Magnetic
North Grid North

β
α
α Magnetic declination β Meridian Convergence
 Cont’d

• The Ethiopian National Mapping is arranged according to Mercator Cylindrical

Projection,

• Therefore, the azimuth and bearing we apply when we use Ethiopian National
maps and coordinates are referred to a Grid North – South meridian, but
commonly when the surveying is done with an arbitrary coordinate system the
magnetic meridian is used as a reference line.

Then an azimuth is measured directly at the field site by means of a compass and
theodolite.
 Cont’d

Let’s assume as a concept that:

A. Azimuth (The whole Circle bearing system (W. C. B)

is the angle measured from the North to a specific line on the earth’s surface, its value is between 00
and 3600 and it is always clockwise measured.

The azimuth is identified by its quadrant as follow:

North B
B
• Azimuth between 00 and 900 - First quadrant (Forth Quadrant)
(First Quadrant)

• Azimuth between 900 and 1800 - Second quadrant

East
West
• Azimuth between 1800 and 2700 - Third quadrant

• Azimuth between 2700 and 3600 - Fourth quadrant B

B
( Second Quadrant)
(Third Quadrant) South
 Cont’d
Inverse Azimuth:

• The forward direction of a line can be given by its Forwarding Azimuths and its reverse direction by its Back
tangent.

• Forward (direct) azimuths are converted to Inverse (back) azimuths, and vice versa, by adding or subtracting 180.

 back Azimuth = forward Azimuth ± 180◦

i.e. Back Azimuth = forward Azimuth +180◦ for forward azimuth < 180◦

i.e. back Azimuth = forward Azimuth - 180◦ for forward azimuth >180◦

Examples 1: Azimuths of BA = 70°

Azimuths of AB = 70° + 180° =250° (back azimuths)

Azimuths of BC = 235°

Azimuths of CB = 235° – 180° = 55° (back azimuths)

Azimuths can be read directly by theodolite or EDM

 Cont’d

• Example 2: If direct azimuth of the line A-B is 230 30’ then we can say that
inverse azimuth of the line A-B is its direct Azimuth + 1800 , if we consider B-A
as direct Azimuth can say that inverse Azimuth is 2030 30’ - 1800. Thus:

Inverse Azimuth = Direct azimuth ± 1800

N B

α
α
+1800
A
 Cont’d
B. Bearing ( The quadrantal bearing (Q.B))

It is the angle measured from the north or south of the meridian, clockwise or anticlockwise
depending on its quadrant, it is an oriented angle, its orientation also depend upon its quadrant as
follow:

• NE (clockwise)

• SE (anti clockwise)

• SW (clockwise)

• NW (anti clockwise)

The quadrantal bearing (Q.B) of a line varies from 0 to 90 degree

 Cont’d
Inverse Bearing:

The inverse (back) bearing is easier to find since its value is the same than direct bearing but the orientation changes to the
opposite quadrant. The bearing of a line can be very easily converted from one system to the other, with the aid of diagram.
For example:

SE - NW and vice versa

NE - SW and vice versa

• To every azimuth correspond a bearing and vice versa just by knowing one of them the other can be determine, most of the
time the azimuth is measured with the compass at the field site and the bearing is compute (when magnetic meridian is
used as reference)

• When the azimuth is taken from coordinate (grid meridian as reference) then the bearing is compute first and azimuth is
obtained from bearing.
 The relation of Azimuth and Bearing:

Quadrant 1: Northeast Quadrant Quadrant 4: Northwest Quadrant

Azimuth = Bearing Azimuth = 360 – Bearing
Bearing = Azimuth Bearing = 360 - Azimuth
Quadrant 2: Southeast Quadrant
Azimuth = 180- Bearing
Bearing = 180 – Azimuth
Quadrant 3: Southwest Quadrant
Azimuth = 180 + Bearing
Bearing = Azimuth -180
Comparison of Bearings and Azimuths
Table: Comparison of bearings and azimuths