Arihant NCERT Notes India & World Geography - Nihit Kishore

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NCERT
NOTES
India & World
Geography
Class 6-12 (Old+New)
Authors
Nihit Kishore
Amibh Ranjan
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CONTENTS
WORLD GEOGRAPHY l Evaporation 59

l Condensation 59
Chapter 1. Geography as a Discipline 1-3
l Clouds 60
l Geography 1
l Precipitation 61
l Branches of Geography 2
l Air Masses 63
Chapter 2. The Universe 4-9 l Fronts 63
l Universe 4 l Koeppen’s Scheme of
l Our Solar System 6 Classification of Climate 64
Chapter 3. The Earth 10-17 Chapter 6. Oceanography 67-86

l Origin of the Earth 10 l Water and Its Distribution 67
l Evolution of the Earth 11 l Oceans and Seas 67
l Latitude and Longitude 13 l Oceans of the World 69
l Motions of the Earth 15 l Oceanic Circulation and
Ocean Currents 69
Chapter 4. Geomorphology 18-43 l Salinity of the Ocean 73
l Interior of the Earth 18 l Ocean Density 74
l Earthquake 20 l Ocean Temperature 74
l Volcanoes 22 l Ocean Tides 77
l Rocks 25 l Ocean Deposits 78
l Major Theories for the Evolution l Coral Reefs 80
of Landforms 27 l Marine Resources 81
l Movements of the Indian Plate 30 l Maritime Zone 82
l Geomorphic Processes 30 l Lakes 84
l Earth Movements 31 l Wetlands 85
l Landforms 36
l Mountains 41 Chapter 7. Soil and Natural Vegetation 87-93
l Plains 43 l Soil 87
l Islands 43 l Natural Vegetation 91
Chapter 5. Climatology 44-66 Chapter 8. Agriculture and Animal

l Atmosphere 44 Husbandry 94-103
l Insolation and Temperature 47 l Hunting and Gathering 94
l Heat Budget of the Earth 49 l Agriculture 94
l Wind 53 l Major Crops of the World 97
l Jet Streams 57 l Animal Husbandry 102
l Cyclone 57 Chapter 9. Mineral Resources 104-108
l Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 58 l Minerals 104
l Water in the Atmosphere 58 l Types of Minerals 105
l Humidity 58 l Conservation of Minerals 108
Chapter 10. Energy Resources 109-113 Chapter 17. Drainage System of India 184-192
l Classification of Energy Resources 109 l Types of Drainage Pattern 184
l Conventional Sources 109 l Classification of Drainage
l Non- Conventional Sources Systems of India 185
of Energy 112 l Drainage System of India 186
l Nuclear or Atomic Energy 113 l Lakes 191
Chapter 11. Industries 114-125 Chapter 18. Climate in India 193-202

l Manufacturing 114 l Climate and Weather 193
l Classification of Manufacturing l Climate of India 193
Industries 116 l Indian Monsoon 196
l Industrial System 117 l Nature of Indian Monsoon 196
l Industrial Regions 117 l Seasons 200
l Iron and Steel Industry 119
Chapter 19. Natural Vegetation and
Chapter 12. Transport and Soil in India 203-218
Communication 126-133 l Natural Vegetation 203
l Transport 126 l Types and Distribution of Forest 208
l Communication 132 l Forest Conservation 208
Chapter 13. Population and Settlement 134-146
l Community and Conservation 210
l World Population 134
l Soil 210
l Trends in Population Growth 137 Chapter 20. Natural Resources of India 219-230
l Demographic Transition 138 l Natural Resources 219
l Human Development 140 l Land Resource in India 220
l Settlement 142 l Water Resource 224
l Human Race 145
Chapter 21. Indian Agriculture and
Chapter 14. Continents 147-168 Irrigation 231-248
l Asia 147 l Agriculture 231
l Africa 152 l Major Crops Grown in India 233
l Australia 155 l Animal Husbandry/Cattle
l North America 157 Rearing/Livestock Farming 243
l South America 160 l Irrigation 244
l Europe 164 Chapter 22. Energy and Mineral
l Antarctica 167 Resources in India 249-258
l Mineral Resources 249
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY l Energy Resources 253
l Conservation of Resources 258
Chapter 15. Location and Structure
of India 169-172 Chapter 23. Transport and
l Geographical Location 169 Communication in India 259-272
l India and Its Neighbourhood 170 l Transport 259
l India and the World 172 l Land Transport 259
1. Road Transport in India 259
Chapter 16. Geological History and 2. Indian Railways 262
Physiography of India 173-183 3. Ports and Waterways 265
l Geological History of India 173 4. Pipelines 269
l Geological Aspects of India 173 5. Airways 269
l Physical Divisions of India 175 l Communication 271
Chapter 24. Industries in India 273-287 Chapter 30. Biosphere Reserves,
l Major Industries 275 National Parks and Wildlife
l Industrial Regions in India 284 Sanctuaries 323-327
l National Park 323
Chapter 25. Population and Human
l Wildlife Sanctuary 323
Settlement 288-298
l Biosphere Reserves 323
l Human Settlement 288
l Population 292
l Wildlife Conservation Schemes 325
l Demographic Composition 294 l Ramsar Convention for
Wetland Conservation 327
l Migration 296
l Tribes of India 297 Chapter 31. Climate Change,
Chapter 26. Map Studies 299-301 Greenhouse Effect and
l Map 299 Ozone Depletion 328-334
l History of Map Making 299
l Climate Change 328
l Types of Maps 300 l Global Warming 329
l Uses of Maps 300 l Greenhouse Effect 333
l Essentials of Map Making 301 l Ozone Layer Depletion 334
l Acid Rain 334
ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY Chapter 32. Environmental Issues 335-340

Chapter 27. Environment 302-304 l Environmental Pollution 335
l Types of Environment 302 l Types of Pollution 335
l Parts of Environment 302 l Soil Erosion and Desertification 339
l Human Impact on Environment 304 l Strategies to Control
l Impact of Environment on Human 304 Environmental Pollution 340
l International Efforts to Control
Chapter 28. Ecology, Ecosystem Environment Pollution 340
and Biome 305-316
l Ecology 305 Chapter 33. Sustainable Development 341-343
l Ecosystem 306 l Meaning of Sustainable
l Trophic Level 311 Development 341
l Food Chain 311 l Objectives of Sustainable
l Food Web 312 Development 341
l Ecological Niche 312 l Sustainable Development Goals 343
l Biogeochemical Cycles 312
Chapter 34. Disaster Management 344-350
l Bioindicators 313
l Disaster 344
l Ecological Succession 313
l Natural Disasters in India 344
l Biomes 315
l Inter-species Interactions 316
l Man-Made Disasters 349
l Disaster Management in India 349
Chapter 29. Biodiversity 317-322 l Government Initiatives for
l Meaning of Biodiversity 317 Disaster Management 350
l Geographical Biodiversity 319
l Biodiversity Hotspots 320 l APPENDIX 351-362
l Biodiversity Conservation 321
NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
World Geography 01
CHAPTER 01
Geography as a Discipline
Sources Class-XI New NCERT Chap 1 (Geography as a Discipline), Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 1 (Geography as a Discipline),
Class-XII New NCERT Chap 1 (Human Geography : Nature and Scope)
Geography Geography as an Integrating Discipline

Geography is the description of the Earth. The term Geography is a discipline of synthesis. It attempts spatial
geography was first coined by a Greek scholar synthesis and history attempts temporal synthesis. Its
Eratosthenes in 276-194 BC. approach is holistic in nature. It recognises the fact that
the world is a system of interdependencies.
The word has been derived from Greek language,
geo (Earth) and graphos (description), which Geography attempts to comprehend the associations of
together mean description of the Earth. phenomena as related in sections of reality.
The geographical phenomena, both the physical Every discipline, concerned with scientific knowledge is
and human, are not static but highly dynamic. They linked with geography as many of their elements vary
change over time as a result of the interactive over space. Geography helps in understanding the
processes between ever changing the Earth and reality in totality in its spatial perspective.
untiring and ever-active human beings. Thus, geography not only takes note of the differences in
Thus, geography, is concerned with the study of the phenomena from place to place but integrates them
nature and human interactions as an integrated holistically, which may be different at the places.
whole, ‘human’ is an integral part of ‘nature’ and
Geography as Relation to
‘nature’ has the imprints of ‘human’. ‘Nature’ has
influenced different aspects of human life. Human and Environment
Its imprints can be noticed on food, clothing, shelter In early 20th century, geography developed as a mutual
and occupation. Human beings have come to term relationship between human and environment.
with nature through adaptation and modification. There are two different ideologies related to this, which are
as follows :
Definitions of Geography (i) Possibilism According to this, humans can transform
According to Richard Hartshorne, ‘‘Geography is their environment accordingly. This ideology was
concerned with the description and explanation of supported by Vedal de La Blache.
the areal differentiation of the Earth’s surface.’’ (ii) Determinism According to this, every human
According to Alfred Hettner, ‘‘Geography studies activity is decided by environment. This ideology
the differences of phenomena usually related in was supported by Friedrich Ratzel and Ellsworth
different parts of the Earth’s surface.’’ Huntington.
02
Concept of Human Environment Physical Geography

There are three concepts of human environment : Geomorphology It is devoted to the
(i) Concept of Determinism Determinism is based on the notion that study of landforms, their evolution and
the physical environment has a massive and controlling impact on related process.
human being. Humans have no option but to follow the dictates of Climatology It encompasses the study
nature. of structure of atmosphere, elements of
(ii) Concept of Possibilism Possibilism came as a reaction to weather, climate, its types and regions.
environmental determinism. This approach attempts to explain the Hydrology It studies the realm of water
man-environment relationship in a different way, taking man as an i.e., oceans, lakes, rivers and other
active agent. water bodies and its effect on different
(iii) Concept of Neo-Determinism (Geographer, Griffith Taylor) life forms including human life and
introduced the concept in 1920s which reflects a middle path their activities.
between the two ideas of environmental determinism and Soil Geography The geography of soil
possibilism. He termed it as neo-determinism or ‘stop and go is concerned with the distribution and
determinism’. variability of soils on terrestrial
landscapes ranging from local to global
Branches of Geography scales.
Geography is an interdisciplinary subject of study. The study of every Human Geography

subject is done according to some approach. The major approaches to Social/Cultural Geography
study Geography have been as follows : It encompasses the study of society and
its spatial dynamics as well as the
Systematic Approach cultural elements contributed by the
The systematic geography approach is the same as that of general society.
geography. This approach was introduced by a German Geographer, Population and Settlement Geography
Alexander Von Humboldt (1769-1859). (Rural and Urban). It studies
In systematic approach, a phenomenon is studied world over as a population growth, distribution,
whole, and then the identification of typologies or spatial patterns is density, sex ratio, migration and
done. occupational structure etc. Settlement
geography studies the characteristics of
For example, if one is interested in studying natural vegetation, the
rural and urban settlements.
study will be done at the world level as a first step.
Economic Geography It studies
Branches of Geography on the Basis of economic activities of the people
Systematic Approach including agriculture, industry,
tourism, trade and transport,
Branches of Geography
infrastructure and services etc.
(Based on Systematic Approach)
Historical Geography It studies the
historical processes through which the
Physical Principles/Philosophy Methods and Techniques Human
space gets organised. Every region has
undergone some historical experiences
Geographical Human Quantitative Field Survey Geo before attaining the present day status.
Thought Ecology Techniques Methods Informatics
(Land and The geographical features also
Human Cartography experience temporal changes and these
Interaction) GIS GPS LIS form the concerns of historical
Interface Biogeography geography.
Political Geography It studies political
Hydrology Soil Social/ Historical Population Political Economic
Climatology Geography
boundaries, space relations between
Cultural and Settlements
Geomorphology neighbouring political units,
delimitation of constituencies, election
Ecology Plant Environmental Zoo
Rural Urban scenario and develops theoretical
Geography Geography Geography
framework to understand the political
Agriculture Industrial Trade and Infrastructure Services Tourism behaviour of the population.
Transport
03
Political geography studies the spatial distribution of Regional Studies / Area Studies Comprising Macro,
political processes and how these processes are Meso and Micro Regional Studies.
impacted by one’s geographical location. Regional Planning Comprising Country/Rural and
Biogeography Town/Urban Planning.
Plant Geography It studies the spatial pattern of Regional Development It is about geography of
natural vegetation in their habitats. welfare and its evolution.
Zoo Geography It studies the spatial patterns and Regional Analysis There are two aspects, which are
geographic characteristics of animals and their common to every discipline. These are :
habitats. (i) Philosophy
Ecology / Ecosystem It deals with the scientific study of (a) Geographical Thought
the habitats characteristics of species. (b) Land and Human Interaction / Human Ecology
Environmental Geography It deals the spatial aspects (ii) Methods and Techniques
of interaction between humans and the natural world (a) Cartography Including Computer Cartography
and its impact of human presence on the environment (b) Quantitative Techniques / Statistical Techniques
such as land degradation, pollution, etc. It also raises (c) Field Survey Methods
concerns for conservation which has resulted in the (d) Geo - Informatics Comprising Techniques,
introduction of this new branch in geography. such as Remote sensing, GIS, GPS, etc
The above classification gives a comprehensive
Regional Approach format of the branches of geography.
In the regional approach, the world is divided into
regions at different hierarchical levels and then all the Physical Geography and Its Importance
geographical phenomena in a particular region are Physical geography comprises the study of Lithosphere,
studied. These regions may be natural, political or Atmosphere, Hydrosphere and Biosphere.
designated region.
Lithosphere It is the solid crust or the hard top layer
This approach was developed by German Geographer of the Earth. It is an irregular surface with various
and a contemporary of Humboldt, Karl Ritter landforms such as mountains, plateaus, plains,
(1779-1859). valleys, etc.
Branches of Geography on the Basis of Hydrosphere It refers to the domain of water. It
Regional Approach comprises various sources of water and different
types of water bodies like river, lakes, seas, oceans,
Branches of Geography etc.
(Based on Regional Approach)
Atmosphere The atmosphere is the thin layer of air
that surrounds the Earth. The gravitational force of
Regional Studies/ Regional Regional Regional the Earth holds the atmosphere around it.
Area Studies Development Analysis Planning
Biosphere Plant and animal kingdom together make
Macro Meso Micro Country/Rural Town/Urban
biosphere or the living world. It is a narrow zone of
Regional Regional Regional Planning Planning the Earth where land, water and air interact with
Studies Studies Studies each other to support life.
CHAPTER
04 02
The Universe
Sources Class-VI New NCERT Chap 1 (The Earth in the Solar System), Class-VI Old NCERT Chap 1 (The Earth in our Solar System),
Class-XI New NCERT Chap 2 (Origin and Evolution of Earth)
It is now generally accepted that the event of Big

Universe Bang took, place 13.7 billion years before the present.
The vast and infinite space having millions of galaxies The expansion continues even to the present day.
is called universe.
As it grew, some energy was converted into matter.
Star is a celestial body having its own heat and light.
There was a particularly rapid expansion within
Galaxy is a family or system of millions and millions of
fractions of a second after the bang.
stars.
The light of the nearest star (Proxima Centauri) to the Thereafter, the expansion has slowed down. Within
Sun reaches us in about four years. first three minutes from the Big Bang event, the first
atom began to form.
The study of universe is called Cosmology.
Within 3,00,000 years from the Big Bang,
Origin of the Universe temperature dropped to 4,500K (Kelvin) and gave
rise to atomic matter. The universe became
There are following theories related to the origin of the
transparent.
universe :
Big Bang Theory Steady-State Theory

The most popular argument regarding the origin of the This was an alternative to Big Bang Theory. The most
universe is the Big Bang Theory. It is also called influential papers on steady-state theory were
expanding universe hypothesis. published by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold and
Fred Hoyle in 1948.
In 1920, Edwin Hubble provided evidence that the
universe is expanding. As time passes, galaxies move It considered the universe to be roughly the same at
further and further apart. This theory was proposed by any point of time.
Georges Edouard Lemaitre in 1960-1970. However, with greater evidence becoming
Scientists believe that only the space between the available about the expanding universe, scientific
galaxies is increasing, the galaxies themselves are not community at present favours argument of
expanding. expanding universe.
Stages in the Development of the Universe Pulsating Universe Theory

The Big Bang Theory considers the following stages in It is a variation of the Big Bang theory, in which the
the development of the universe : universe goes through successive periods of
— In the beginning, all matter forming the universe expansion and contraction.
existed in one place in the form of a ‘tiny ball’ Thus, according to this theory, the universe pulsates
(singular atom) with a small volume, infinite endlessly between the Big Bang and the ‘Big
temperature and infinite density Squeeze’.
— At the Big Bang the ‘tiny ball’ exploded violently and This theory was proposed by Allan Sandage.
it led to a huge expansion.
05
Celestial Bodies Andromeda Galaxy It is also known as Messier 31. It is a

barred spiral galaxy approximately 2.5 million light years
The Sun, the Moon and all those objects shining in from the Earth and the nearest large galaxy to the Milky
the night sky are called celestial bodies. Way.
These are also called heavenly bodies.
Galaxy and the Star Formation
The one who study the celestial bodies and their
movement is called as astronomer. The Earth on The distribution of matter and energy was not even in
which we live is also a celestial body. the early universe.
There are mainly two types of celestial bodies : These initial density differences gave rise to differences
in gravitational forces and it caused the matters to get
— Some celestial bodies have their own heat and
drawn together.
light and are called stars. They are actually very
big and hot bodies made of gases. These formed the basis for development of galaxies.
— Some celestial bodies do not have their own heat Galaxies spread over vast distances that are measured in
and light. They only reflect the light, which they thousands of light years.
receive from a star like the Sun. These are called A light year is a measure of distance.
planets. The distance, the light will travel in one year is taken to
The word planet means wanderer. be one light year. This equals to 9. 461 × 1012 km.
Our Earth is also a planet, which receives its light The mean distance between the Sun and the Earth in
and heat from the Sun. terms of light years is 8.311 minutes. This implies that it
takes 8.311 minutes for the light to reach the Earth from
Galaxies the Sun.
Galaxy is a system of stars held together by mutual A galaxy starts to form by accumulation of hydrogen gas
gravitation and is isolated from similar systems in in the form of a very large cloud called nebula.
the vast region of space.
Eventually, growing nebula develops localised clumps of
It also contains a large number of gas clouds, some gas. These clumps continue to grow into even denser
of which are quite huge. In these gas clouds new gaseous bodies, giving rise to formation of stars.
stars are born. A galaxy has billions of stars very
The formation of stars is believed to have taken place
close to one another.
some 5-6 billion years ago.
Dimensions of Galaxies may be 80,000 to 1,50,000
light years. Stars
Types of Galaxies Stars are huge bodies of glowing gases which have heat
and light of their own. The distances of stars are expressed
Galaxies are of three types :
in terms of light years (one light year is the distance
(i) Elliptical Galaxies These are like flattened balls travelled by light in 1 year at the speed of light which is
of old stars and contain very little gas. It also about 3,00,000 km/s).
includes the most massive galaxies containing a
The colour of a star is determined by its surface
trillion stars.
temperature. Stars which have low temperature appear red,
(ii) Spiral Galaxies These have a flattened shape. those with higher temperature appear yellow and those with
They have a projection in the centre composed of very high temperature are blue.
old stars surrounded by a disk of young stars and With high speed, the stars appear to move from East to
all arranged in spiral arms. West. This is because the Earth rotates from West to East
(iii) Irregular Galaxies These have no particular about an imaginary axis that passes through its center.
shape. There are billions of galaxies in the The Earth completes one rotation in 24 hours. Therefore,
universe, the centre of the galaxy releases a huge a star travels an angle of about one degree in 4 minutes.
amount of heat, radiation, radio waves and
X-rays. Life Cycle of Stars
The age of the stars ranges from millions to billions of
Major Galaxies years. Stars are like gigantic nuclear furnace.
Major galaxies are as follows : The nuclear reactions inside the star convert the
The Milky Way Our solar system is a part of the hydrogen into helium by the process of fusion and this
Milky Way. It is known as Milky Way because it nuclear reaction gives stars their energy. Stars begin
appears as a milky band of light in the sky. Our their lives as clouds of dust and gases and are called
Milky Way is a large barred spiral galaxy. nebula.
06
The gravity of a passing star and the shockwave Pole Star

from a nearby supernova (explosion of a star) may
Since, the Pole Star indicates the North direction, it is
cause the nebula to contract. Matter in the gas
also called the North star.
cloud will begin to coalesce into a dense region
called Proto star. It always remains in the same position in the sky.
As the Proto star continues to condense, it heats up. We can locate the position of the Pole Star with the help
Eventually, it reaches a critical mass and nuclear of the saptarishi.
fusion begins. Thus, begins the main phase of the
star. It will spend most of its life in this stable phase. Chandrasekhar Limit
The life span of stars depend upon their size. n The size of a white dwarf star is comparable to that of a
Massive stars burn their fuel much faster than planet. The mass of such stars is always less than about
smaller stars. Eventually, stars’ fuel will begin to 1.44 times the mass of the Sun. This result was proved by
run out. Then they will expand to form the red S. Chandrasekhar. The maximum mass is, therefore,
giant. called the Chandrasekhar limiting mass.
This phase lasts until the star exhausts its

remaining fuel. At this point, the pressure of the
nuclear reaction is not strong enough to equalise
Our Solar System
the force of gravity and the star collapses. ‘Sol’ in Roman mythology is the ‘Sun God’, ‘Solar’ means
related to the Sun’. The family of the Sun is, therefore,
Constellations called the solar system.
Constellations are various patterns formed by Our solar system consists of the Sun (the star), 8 planets,
different groups of stars in the night sky. 63 moons, millions of smaller bodies like asteroids,
Ursa Major or Big Bear is one such constellation. meteoroids and comets and huge quantity of dust-grains
One of the most easily recognisable constellation is and gases.
the Saptarishi (sapta - seven, rishi stages). It is a Our solar system is a part of milky way galaxy. It is also
group of seven stars that forms a part of Ursa Major known as Akash Ganga.
Constellation.
Solar System
Sun
Venus
108
Mercury 58
8
77
50 iter
th 1 Jup
Ear
69
Mars 228 2.8
us
ar an
ouse b 7 Ur
Pure h rn 1.42
Satu 6
.49
e4
tun
Nep
Distance in million
1 million = 10 lakh (10,00,000)
Solar System
07
The Sun Earth

The Sun is in the centre of the solar system. The Earth is slightly flattened at the poles. That is
why, its shape is described as a Geoid. Geoid means
It is made up of extremely hot gases.
an Earth-like shape.
The Sun is the ultimate source of all energy i.e heat and
From the outer space, the Earth appears blue
light for the entire solar system.
because its two-thirds surface is covered by water. It
The Sun is about 150 million kilometres away from the is therefore, called a blue planet.
Earth.
The Earth is a unique planet in the solar system
because conditions favourable to support life are
Planets probably found only on the Earth. The Earth is
There are eight planets in our solar system. neither too hot nor too cold.
In order of their distance from the Sun, they are It has water and air, which are very essential for
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus our survival. The air has life supporting gases like
and Neptune. oxygen.
All the eight planets of the solar system move around the
Sun elongated in fixed paths called orbits. Jupiter
All of them move in the same direction in their It is the fifth planet from the Sun.
revolution. It is the largest of all planets.
The planets also rotate on their own axes. It is also known as winter planet as its average
Except Venus and Uranus, all other planets rotate in the temperature is very low.
same direction in which they revolve. It lacks well-defined solid surface.
As the distance of the planet from the Sun increases, the
time taken by it to complete one revolution also increase.
Saturn
Saturn has bright concentric rings, which are made
Since, Mercury is nearest to the Sun, it takes only about
up of ice and ice-covered dust particles, which
88 days to complete one round along its orbit.
revolve around it.
Our Earth revolves once in about 365 days and six
It is second largest planet and 95 times massive
hours. The amount of heat received by a planet is
than the Earth.
controlled by the distance of that planet from the Sun.
In other words, the closer planet to the Sun, the higher Uranus
its temperature. As Mercury is nearest to the Sun, it It is about four times the size of the Earth. It is also
receives a great amount of heat from it. called as God of Heavens.
Out of the eight planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and This planet appears greenish in colour because of
Mars are called as the inner planets as they lie between methane gas present in its atmosphere.
the Sun and the belt of asteroids.
The other four planets i.e Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
Neptune are called the outer planets. Neptune is very similar to Uranus and can be
considered as its twin.
Mercury
It is surrounded by methane rings of sub-zero
This planet has no water and no gases like CO 2, H 2 , N 2 temperature.
and O 2 on it.
It is devoid of protective blanket like ozone.
Pluto : A Dwarf Planet
Venus Pluto was also considered a planet. However, in a
It is considered as ‘Earths-turn’ because its size and meeting of the International Astronomical Union, (In
shape are very similar to that the Earth. August, 2006) a decision was taken that Pluto like other
celestial objects (Ceres, 2003 UB 313) discovered in
Venus is known as the ‘evening star’ and morning star. recent past may be called ‘dwarf planet’.
It is the hottest planet.
08
Terrestrial Planets vs Jovian Planets In the final stage, these large number of small
Terrestrial Planets Jovian Planets
planetesimals accrete to form a fewer large bodies in
the form of planets.
Terrestrial means Earth-like. Jovian means Jupiter-like.
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Satellites
are called terrestrial planets. Neptune are called jovian
The word ‘satellite’ means a ‘smaller companion to
planets.
anything’.
They are made up of rock and They have thick atmosphere,
metals. mostly of helium and
A satellite is a celestial body that moves around the
hydrogen. planets in the same way as the planets move around
the Sun.
They have relatively high Most of them are much
densities. larger than the terrestrial They also follow them in their revolution around the
planets. Sun.
These planets were formed in the Jovian planets were formed For instance, the Moon, is a satellite of the Earth,
close vicinity of the parent star at quite a distant location. which moves around the Earth and around the Sun
where it was too warm for gases to along with the Earth.
condense to solid particles.
Except Mercury and Venus, all the other planets have
The solar wind was most intense The solar winds were not all
one or more than one satellites.
near the Sun so, it blew off lots of that intense to cause similar
gas and dust from the terrestrial removal of gases from the Like planets, the satellites too have no light of their
planets. jovian planets. own.
They just reflect the light received from the Sun.
Planets of the Solar System
Man-made Satellite
Planet Revolution Rotation Moons
A man-made satellite is an artificial body.
Mercury 88 days 58.65 0 It is designed by scientists to gather information about
Venus 243.02 days 243.02 days 0 the universe or for communication.
Earth 365 days 24 hrs 1 It is carried by a rocket and placed in the orbit around
the Earth.
Mars 687 days 24.6 hrs 2
Some of the Indian satellites in space are INSAT, IRS,
Jupiter 12 years 9.8 hrs About 53 EDUSAT etc.
Saturn 29 years 10.3 hrs About 53
The Moon - The Earth’s Companion
Uranus 84 years 17.9 hrs About 27 The Moon is the only natural satellite of the Earth.
Neptune 165 years 19.1 hrs 13 Its diameter is only one-fourth of that of the Earth.
It appears so big because it is nearer to our planet than
Formation of Planets other celestial bodies.
The following are considered to be the stages in the It is about 3,84,000 km away from us.
development of planets : The light reflected by the Moon reaches us in just one
The stars are localised clumps of gas within a nebula. and a quarter seconds.
The gravitational force within the clumps leads to the The Moon revolves around the Earth in about 27 days
formation of a core to the gas cloud and a huge and 8 hours.
rotating disc of gas and dust develops around the gas
It takes exactly the same time for it to complete one
core.
rotation about its axis.
In the next stage, the gas cloud starts getting
As such we always see only one side of the Moon while
condensed and the matter around the core develops
the other side always remains away from us.
into small-rounded objects.
The Moon does not have conditions favourable for life.
These small-rounded objects by the process of
There is no air or water on the Moon.
collision develop into planetesimals.
It is very hot during the day and very cold during the
Larger bodies start forming by collision and
night.
gravitational attraction causes the material to stick
together. There is no soil on the surface of the Moon. The
surface of the Moon is very uneven.
09
It has mountains, plains and depressions on its It blasted a large part of the Earth into space.
surface. This portion of blasted material then continued to orbit
These cast shadows on the Moon’s surface. the Earth and eventually formed into the present Moon
Neil Armstrong was the first man to step on the about 41.44 billion years ago.
surface of the Moon on 20th July, 1969.
We can see the full Moon only once in about a
Other Celestial Objects of the
month’s time. It is full Moon night or Poornima. Solar System
A fortnight later, we cannot see it at all. It is a new Asteroids They are a group of small bodies in between
Moon night or Amavasya. the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, which revolve around the
On this day, we can watch the night sky best, Sun. They are believed to be the pieces of a planet,
provided it is a clear night. which probably exploded after its birth.
Meteoroids The small pieces of rocks which move
Theories Related to the Formation of Moon
around the Sun are called meteoroids. Sometimes these
There are following three theories related to the meteoroids come near the Earth and tend to drop upon
formation of the Moon : it. During this process, due to friction with the air they
(i) Fusion Theory According to this theory, the get heated up and burn.
Earth was spinning very rapidly and inside 2900 It causes a flash of light. Sometimes, a meteor without
km its surface, an extent of a part was broken being completely burnt, falls on the Earth and creates a
away due to fusion. This broken part led to the hollow.
formation of the Moon. Comets A comet is an icy and smaller celestial body
(ii) Capture theory According to this theory, a small which revolves around the Sun in highly elliptical orbit.
planet while moving in an elliptical orbit came However, their period of revolution around the Sun is
very close to the Earth, got capture and put to a usually very long. They become visible from the Earth
circular orbit around the Earth. only when they come close to the Sun.
(iii) Theory of Co-existence and Growth According A comet appears generally as a bright head with a long
to this theory, the Earth and Moon are formed tail. The length of the tail grows in size as it approaches
together by the accretion of gravitating debris and the Sun. The tail disappears again when the comet moves
dust. away from the Sun. The tail of a comet is always directed
away from the Sun.
Formation of the Moon
Many comets are known to appear periodically. One such
There have been many attempts to explain how the comet is Halley’s Comet which appears after nearly every
Moon was formed three explanations were 76 years. It was last seen in 1986. The study of comet tail
suggested in this regard. has shown the existence of molecules of carbon, nitrogen
In 1838, Sir George Darwin suggested that initially, and hydrogen.
the Earth and the Moon formed a single rapidly Kuiper Belt It is region of the solar system beyond the
rotating body. orbit of Neptune. It is believed to contain many asteroids,
The whole mass become a dumb-bell shaped body comets other smaller bodies made of ice.
and eventually it broke.
It was suggested that the material forming the
Moon was separated from what we have at present
Black Hole
n It is a region of space time where gravity is so strong that
the depression occupied by the Pacific ocean.
nothing (no particles or even electromagnetic radiation
However, the present scientists do not accept either such as light) can escape from it.
of the above explanations. n The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently
It is now generally believed that the formation of compact mass can deform space time to form a black hole.
Moon, as a satellite of the Earth, is an outcome of Pulsar
‘giant impact’ or what is described as ‘the big n It is rotating neutron star observed to have pulses of
splat’. radiation at very regular intervals that typically range
A body of the size of one to three times that of Mars from milliseconds to seconds. A pulsar is formed when a
collided into the Earth sometime shortly after the massive star collapses exhausts its supply of fuel.
Earth was formed.
CHAPTER
10 03
The Earth
Sources Class-VI New NCERT Chap 2 (Globe: Latitudes and Longitudes), Chap 3 (Motions of the Earth), Class-VI Old NCERT
Chap 3 (Latitudes and Longitudes), Chap 4 (Motions of the Earth), Class-XI New NCERT Chap 3 (The Origin and
Evolution of the Earth), Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 2 (The Earth: Its Origin and Evolution)
Earth is not a sphere. It is slightly flattened at the North and In 1950, Otto Schmidt and Carl, Weizascar revised
the South Poles and bulge in the middle. It moves around its the ‘nebular hypothesis.
axis, from West to East, which is an imaginary line. They considered that the Sun was surrounded by
Solar Nebula containing mostly the hydrogen and
Origin of the Earth helium along with what check to be termed as dust.
The friction and collision of particles led to
A large number of hypothesis were put forth by different
formation of a disc-shaped cloud and the planets
philosophers and scientists regarding the origin of the
were formed through the process of accretion.
Earth.
Some of the important hypothesis are as follows : Dualistic Concept
Monistic Concept (One Star Hypothesis) According to dualistic concept (binary hypothesis),
the Solar System originated from two stars. The
According to this hypothesis, the Solar System originated hypothesis of James Jeans, Chamberlain and
from one star due to the gradual evolutionary process. Moulton, Weitzacker’s and Russell comes under
The hypothesis of Kant and Laplace comes under this this category.
category.
Planetesimal Hypothesis
Gaseous Hypothesis
The Planetesimal Hypothesis of Chamberlain
One of the earlier and popular arguments was given by (1905) belongs to the dualistic concepts of the
German philosopher Immanuel Kant in 1755. origin of the Earth.
His argument is known as Gaseous Hypothesis. According to Chamberlain initially there were
According to this hypothesis, a system of a few two heavenly bodies (stars) in the universe i.e.
concentric rings separated from a hot and moving nebula Proto-Sun and its Companion Star or Intruding star
due to centrifugal force. By the process of condensation This theory states that when the intruding star
of these rings, the planets of the solar system including came very close to the the Proto-Sun
the Earth were formed. infinite number of small particles were detached
Nebular Hypothesis from the outer surface of Proto-Sun due to massive
gravitational pull exerted by the giant intruding
It was first put forward by Immanuel Kant and later
star.
revised by Laplace in 1796.
The matter which is dust, gases, rock fragments
The hypothesis considered that the planets were formed
eventually accrete forming planets and other
out of a cloud of material associated with a youthful Sun,
celestial bodies that revolve around the Proto-Sun.
which was slowly rotating.
11
Tidal Theory or Hypothesis The Earth was mostly in a volatile state during its
This theory is somewhat similar to Chamberlain’s initial stage. Due to gradual increase in density, the
theory that an intruding star ejects matter from the temperature inside it has increased. As a result, the
proto-sun. Chamberlain, in his theory, had assumed material inside started getting separated on the basis of
the Proto-Sun to be initially as a cold body whereas their densities.
the Tidal theory assumes the Proto-Sun to be hot and Heavier materials to sink towards the centre of the
incandescent. Earth and the lighter ones to move towards the
According to Tidal theory, the matter ejected are not surface. With the passage of time, it cooled, solidified
randomly thrown dust, gases or planetesimal. and condensed into a smaller size. It later led to the
development of the outer surface in the form of a
This theory is the best interpretation in explaining the
crust.
sizes of the planets as they have arranged themselves
away from the sun. Through the process of differentiation and partial
melting, the Earth forming materials got separated
Binary Star Hypothesis into different layers. Starting from the surface to the
There is a binary star system (two stars coupled center, there are layers like the crust, mantle and core.
together and rotating around a fixed centre of mass). The last phase in the evolution of the Earth relates to
This theory is convenient to explain why the the origin and evolution of life. The evolution of life
composition of planets is different from the Sun. from unicellular bacteria to the modern man can be
easily defined by the help of Geological Time Scale.
Supernova Hypothesis The Earth is the only planet where some special
According to Hoyle initially there were two stars in environmental conditions are responsible for the
the universe i.e. primitive Sun and companion star. existence and continuation of life.
The companion star was giant and later on became These include the right distance from the Sun, so it
supernova due to nuclear reaction. has the right temperature range, the presence of
Over time, all of the hydrogen nuclei of companion water, soil, minerals, suitable atmosphere and a
star were consumed in the process of nuclear reaction blanket of ozone.
and it collapsed and violently exploded.
The violent explosion of companion star resulted in Evolution of Earth’s Lithosphere
the spread of enormous mass of dust which started The main stages in the development of Earth’s
revolving around the primitive Sun in the form of a lithosphere are given as under :
circular disc. In its primordial stages, Earth was in volatile state.
Thus, the planets of our solar system were formed due With increase in density, the temperature inside the
to condensation of the matter of the disc. Earth also increased. It resulted into separation of
Interstellar Hypothesis material according to their densities.
According to this theory, the initial universe The heavier materials like iron sank towards Earth’s
comprised of stars and randomly distributed matter center whereas lighter ones moved towards Earth’s
filling up the space in between. surface.
According to Schmidt, this dark matter, started to As time passed, Earth cooled down further, solidified
revolve around the primitive rotating Sun and and condensed into smaller size. The outer surface of
gradually the dark matter stars accreting and the Earth took the form of crust.
condensing and thus forming the solar system. The Earth’s interior divided into different layers viz.
crust, mantle and core.
Evolution of the Earth Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere
The Earth has a layered structure. Initially, Earth was In its process of evolution, the Earth’s atmosphere has
a barren, rocky and hot object with a thin atmosphere gone through three different stages :
of hydrogen and helium. This is far from the present
Stage-I The early atmosphere of the Earth was
day picture of the Earth.
primarily composed of Hydrogen and Helium.
From the surface to deeper depths, the Earth’s interior It was stripped off from the Earth by solar winds.
has different zones and each of these contains It happened with all terrestrial planets.
materials with different characteristics.
12
Stage-II As Earth cooled down, many gases were released from inside. It contained water vapour, nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, methane, ammonia and small amount of oxygen, this process was known as degassing.
Stage-III As Earth cooled down further, the water vapour began to condense and heavy rainfall started.
It dissolved carbon dioxide into rain water. Therefore, atmosphere lost much of its carbon dioxide.
As photosynthesis began on the Earth, further absorption of CO2 occurred and oxygen was released and filled in the
atmosphere. That’s how, the present compositions of atmosphere came into being.
Evolution of Earth’s Hydrosphere

The earlier rainwater containing carbon dioxide filled the large basins and depressions on the Earth’s surface.
These water filled basins are known as oceans.
The oceans were formed within 500 million years from the formation of the Earth.
Evolution of Life on the Earth

Around 3.8 billion years ago from present, the first sign of life emerged as a result of chemical reactions.
It generated complex organic molecules and assembled them. This assemblage had the capacity to duplicate
themselves.
The photosynthesis was started around 3 billion years ago from present. The first life began in form of unicellular
blue algae.
Geological Time Scale

Eons Era Period Epoch Age/Years Before Present Life/Major Events
Quaternary Holocene 0-10,000, 10,000-2 million Modern Man
Pleistocene Homo Sapiens
Cenozoic (From Tertiary Pliocene 2-5 million Early Human Ancestor
65 million years Miocene 5-24 million Ape Flowering Plants and Trees
to the present
Oligocene 24-37 million Anthropoid Ape
times)
Eocene 37-58 million Rabbits and Hare
Palaeocene 57-65 million Small Mammals
Rats - Mice
Mesozoic Cretaceous — 65-144 million Extinction of Dinosaurs
65-245 million Jurassic 144-208 million Age of Dinosaurs
Mammals
Triassic 208-245 million Frogs and turtles
Palaeozoic Permian — 245-286 million Reptile dominate replace
245-570 million Carboniferous 286-360 million amphibians
Devonian 360-408 million First Reptiles
Silurian 408-438 million Vertebrates Coal beds
Ordovician 438-505 million Amphibians
Cambrian 505-570 million First trace of life on land Plants
First Fish
No terrestrial Life
Marine Invertebrate
Proterozoic Pre Cambrian — — 570-2,500 million Soft-bodies arthropods
Archean 570 million - 2,500-3,800 million Blue-green Algae
4.800 million
Hadean 3,800-4,800 million Unicellular bacteria
Oceans and Continents form -
Ocean and Atmosphere are rich
in Carbon dioxide
Origin of Stars 5,000-13.700 — — 5,000 million Origin of the Sun
Supernova million 12,000 million Origin of the Universe
Big Bang 13,700 million
13
1
Latitude and Longitude Tropic of Capricorn It is at a distance of 23 ° (23°
2
Both latitudes and longitudes define the relative 30′) South of the Equator.
position of a point in terms of angular distances from 1
Centre of the Earth from North to South and East to Arctic Circle It lies at a distance of 66 ° (66° 30′ N)
2
West. North of the Equator.
1
Latitude Antarctic Circle It lies at a distance of 66 ° (66° 30′
2
Latitude is a measure of the angular distance of a given S) South of the Equator.
point from the Equator. It is measured in degrees from
North Pole
the Equator toward either pole. 75°
90°
75°
North
Latitude
One degree (°) is divided into sixty equal parts and 60° 60°
45° 45°
each unit is called a minute (’). A minute is further 30° 30°
divided into sixty equal parts and each unit is called a 15° 15°
second (”). Equator 0° 0° Equator

15°
150°
Equator 30°
45° 45°
30°
The Equator is an imaginary circular line that divides 60° 60° South
75°
90° 75° Latitude
the Earth into two equal halves.
South Pole
The Northern half of the Earth is known as the Latitudes on the Earth
Northern Hemisphere and the Southern half is known
as the Southern Hemisphere.
Heat Zones of the Earth
The Equator represents the zero degree latitude. Since
Torrid and temperate zones are the heat zones of the
the distance from the Equator to either of the poles is
Earth.
one-fourth of a circle round the Earth, it will measure
1/4th of 360°, i.e 90°. Torrid Zone
Thus, 90° North latitude marks the North Pole and 90° 1 1
The extent of this zone is (23 ° N − 23 ° S).
South latitude marks the South Pole. 2 2
As such, all parallels North of the Equator are called The mid-day Sun is exactly overhead atleast once a
‘North latitudes and all parallels South of the Equator year on all latitudes in between the Tropic of Cancer
are called South latitudes. and the Tropic of Capricorn.
The value of each latitude is, therefore, followed by Therefore, this area receives the maximum heat and
either the word North or South. Generally, this is is called the torrid zone.
indicated by the letter ‘N’ or ‘S’.
Temperate Zone
The Equator is the largest possible circle which can be
1 1
drawn around the Earth. The extent of this zone is (23 ° N - 66 ° N and
2 2
Important Parallels of Latitudes 1 1
23 ° S - 66 ° S). The mid-day Sun never shines
2 2
All parallel circles drawn in East-West direction from the
overhead on any latitude beyond the Tropic of
Equator up to the poles are called parallels of latitudes.
Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
Besides the Equator (0°), the North Pole (90°N) and the
The angle of the Sun’s rays goes on decreasing
South Pole (90°S), there are following four important
towards the poles.
parallels of latitudes :
The areas bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Cancer It is an important parallel of latitude
Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere, and the
in the Northern Hemisphere. It is at an angular
Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic circle in the
distance of 23 1/2 (23° 30′ N) from the Equator.
Southern Hemisphere, have moderate temperatures.
14
Therefore, these are called temperate zones. Prime Meridian

North P
ole
It was difficult to number the meridians. Hence, all
Northern
Frigid 66½º G.
countries decided that the count should begin from
Zone the meridian, which passed through Greenwich,
Northern where the British Royal observatory is located. This
Temperat
e Zone meridian is called the Prime Meridian.
Tropic of C
ancer
23½º G. Its value is 0° longitude and from it we count 180°
Torrid Zo
ne Eastward as well as 180° Westward.
Equator
0º The Prime Meridian and 180° meridian divide the
Tropic o
f Caprico
rn Earth into two equal halves, the E-Hemisphere and
Southern
Tempera
te Zone the W-Hemisphere.
23½º G.
Therefore, the longitude of a place is followed by the
Southern
Frigid letter E for the East and W for the West.
zone
South P 66½º G. It is however, interesting to note that 180° East and
ole
Heat Zones of the Earth 180° West Meridians are on the same line.
80º N
Longitude 60º N North Pole
Longitude is an angular distance of a place from the 40º N

Prime Meridian.
The lines running from the North Pole to the South 20º N
Pole are called the meridians of longitude and the
distances between them are measured in degrees of
Prime Meridian
longitude. 0º
60º
They are semi-circles and the distance between them E
0º
decreases steadily polewards until it becomes zero at
20º S
the poles, where all the meridians meet.
Unlike parallels of latitude, all meridians are of equal
length.
40º S
North Pole
Grid of
Prime Meridian
Longitude and Time

Local time is the time reckoned by the noon-Sun at a
given place.
In other words, local time can be considered by the
shadow East by the Sun, which is the shortest at noon
and longest at sunrise and sunset.
When the Prime Meridian of Greenwich has the Sun at
the highest point in the sky, all the places along this
meridian will have mid-day or noon.
As the Earth rotates from West to East, those places
East of Greenwich will be ahead of Greenwich time
and those to the West will be behind it.
The rate of difference can be calculated as follows :
— The Earth rotates 360° in about 24 hours, which
means 15° an hour or 1° in four minutes.
— Thus, when it is 12 noon at Greenwich, the time at
West East
Longitude South Pole Longitude 15° East of Greenwich will be 15 × 4 = 60 minutes, i.e,
1 hour ahead of Greenwich time, which means 1 pm.
Longitudes on the Earth
15
— But at 15° West of Greenwich’ the time will be behind

International Date Line
Greenwich time by one hour, i.e, it will be 11:00 am.
International Date Line (IDL) marks the place where
— Similarly, at 180°, it will be midnight when it is 12
each day officially begins. At the International Date
noon Greenwich.
Line, the West side of the line is always one day ahead
— At any place a watch can be adjusted to reach 12 ‘O’ of the East side, no matter what time of day it is when
clock when the Sun is at the highest point in the sky, the line is crossed.
i.e., when it is mid-day.
The International Date Line has no astronomical or
— The time shown by such a watch will give the local
physical meaning. It is an imaginary line drawn at the
time for that place. 180° longitude, avoiding the continuous land parts.
All the places on a given meridian of longitude have It is bent at 75° North latitude towards East to avoid
the same local time. division of Siberia and to separate Siberia and Alaska.
68º E 82½º E 97º E Again, it is bent over the Bering Strait towards West.
To maintain the continuity of land in the Island of Fiji
and New Zealand, the International Date Line (IDL)
bends towards East in the Southern Pacific Ocean.
There is a difference of 24 hours in East and West
therefore, one day is either gained or lost while
Standard Meridian
crossing this line.

In the year 2011, Samoa Islands and Tokelau (South
Pacific Islands) as 29th December ended, then fast
forwarded by 31st December, missing out on 30th
December entirely. It is because of shifting towards
West side of IDL for better trading with its
neighbours, Australia and New Zealand.
India : Extent and Standard Meridian

Motions of the Earth
Standard Time Rotation and Revolution are the two motions of the Earth.
Standard time is the local time of the Standard
meridian of a country.
Rotation
1 Rotation is the movement of the Earth on its axis.
In India, the longitude of 82 °E (82° 30′ E) is treated The Earth takes about 24 hours to complete one
2
as the Standard Meridian. rotation around its axis. The period of rotation is
known as the Earth day.
The local time at this meridian is taken as the standard
time for the whole country. It is known as the Indian The ancient Indian astronomer Aryabhata had stated
Standard Time (IST). that ‘the Earth is round and rotates on its own axis’.
1
India is located East of Greenwich at 82° 30′E is 5 The Earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of 23 ° from a
hours and 30 minutes ahead of Greenwich Mean Time 2
(GMT). perpendicular to the orbital plane.
Some countries have a great longitudinal extent and so In other words, the Earth’s axis makes an angle of
1
they have adopted more than one standard time. For 66 ° with the plane of the Earth’s orbit.
example, in Russia, there are as many as eleven 2
standard Times. This tilting of the Earth’s axis is referred to as the
The Earth has been divided into twenty-four time inclination of the Earth’s axis.
zones of one hour each. Each zone thus covers 15° The Northern end of this axis is called the North Pole
longitude. and the Southern end the South Pole.
16
Perpendicular on
Thus, every fourth year, February is of 29 days instead
the Earth’s Orbit
of 28 days.
North Pole
Such a year with 366 days is called a leap year the
23½º
North Pole Earth goes around the Sun in an elliptical orbit.
Trop
ic of
Can On its path around the Sun, the Earth’s axis always
c er
Equ remains include to one side. i.e. in the same direction.
a tor 66
½º Because of this constant inclination in one direction,
Parallel on
the Northern Hemisphere remains inclined towards
Trop the Earth’s Orbit
ic o
f Ca the Sun or faces the Sun during one half of the year.
pric Therefore, a larger part of this hemisphere receives
or n
sunlight.
Every point in this hemisphere takes a longer time to
go out of the sunlight, with the result that the days are
South Pole longer.
Tilt of the Earth Axis
The North pole will always be in Sunlight, which means
The Earth receives its light and heat from the Sun. that it will have a 24 hour day with no night at all.
When the Earth rotates on its axis, one half of it, In contrast, the Southern hemisphere is away from the
facing the Sun is lit. The other half remains in Sun. Therefore, it has shorter days and longer night.
darkness. The South Pole will have a 24 hour night with no day
Thus each part of the Earth’s surface comes into the at all.
sunlight for a certain period and then turns away from During the other half of the year, the Southern
it in 24 hours. Hemisphere is inclined towards the Sun.
The lighted part of the Earth has day, and the other Hence, it has longer days and shorter nights.
half in darkness has night. Now the South Pole will have no night and the North
If the Earth stops rotating the portion of the Earth Pole will have no day.
facing the Sun would always a experience day, thus
It is only on the Equator that the day and the night are
bringing continuous warmth to the region. The other
always of equal length.
half would remain in darkness and be freezing cold all
the time. On moving away from the Equator, either Northward
or Southward, the difference between the length of
Thus, it is because of the rotation of the Earth that day
day and that of night generally goes on increasing.
and night follow each other in regular succession in
all parts of the Earth.
Slanting and Direct Rays of the Sun
Perihelion
It is our common experience that the rays of the Sun

Aphelion
January
152 million km 147 million km

July
at noon gives more heat than the rays of the Sun in the
Sun morning or in the evening.
Earth Earth
Position of the Earth This is because the rays of the Sun are almost vertical
at noon and slanting in the morning and in the evening.
Revolution Vertical rays of the Sun fall over a small area, giving it
The movement of the Earth around the Sun in a fixed a greater amount of heat.
path or orbit is called revolution. Slanting rays, on the other hand, spread over a wide
While rotating on its axis, the Earth also moves area and give less heat.
around the Sun at a speed of about 1,00,000 kilometre
per hour. Summer Solstice
The Earth completes one revolution in about 365 days On 21st June, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted
and 6 hours. towards the Sun.
For the sake of our convenience, we consider a year as The rays of the Sun fall directly on the Tropic of
consisting of only 365 days, and ignore 6 hours. Cancer. As a result, these areas receive more heat.
Six hours saved every year are added to make one day The areas near the poles receive less heat as the rays
(24 hours) over a span of four years. of the Sun are slanting.
This surplus day is added to the month of February. The longest day and the shortest night at these places
occur on 21st June.
17
The North Pole is inclined towards the Sun and the Eclipse
places beyond the Arctic circle experience continuous
daylight for about six months. An eclipse is a complete or partial obscuration of light
from a celestial body as it passes through the shadow
Since, a large portion of the Northern Hemisphere is
of another celestial body.
getting light from the Sun, it is summer in the regions
North of the Equator. Moon’s orbital plane inclined 5° to the orbital plane of
the Earth, so eclipses do not occur every Full Moon or
At this time in the Southern Hemisphere, all these
New Moon positions.
conditions are reversed. i.e.,
Syzygy is the position of alignment when Earth comes
— It is winter season there.
in between Sun and Moon on a straight line; in such
— The nights are longer than the days.
position, lunar eclipse occurs. The conjunction is the
This position of the Earth is called the summer position when Sun and Moon lie on one side of the
solstice. Earth and then solar eclipse occurs.
The portion of the Sun or Moon covered by the
Winter Solstice vertical shadow of any celestial body like Earth or
On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn receives Moon is called Umbra and it is deep dark whereas the
direct rays of the Sun as the South pole tilts towards it. faint shadow region is called Penumbra.
As the Sun’s rays fall vertically at the Tropic of During a total eclipse, as the Moon’s shadow is short
1 enough to cover the whole of the Sun then the outer
Capricorn (23 ° S), a larger portion of the Southern
2 region of the Sun still glow and looks bright as a ring
Hemisphere gets light. as observed from the Earth. Such phenomena is called
Therefore it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere diamond ring.
with longer days and shorter nights. Solar Eclipse
The reverse happens in the Northern hemisphere.
Solar eclipse occurs near the New Moon position, when
This position of the Earth is called the winter solstice. the Moon is between the Sun and Earth, thus, obscuring
a part of whole of the Sun as viewed from the Earth.
Equinox Umbra
On 21st March and 23rd September, direct rays of the Moon
Sun fall on the Equator.
Sun Earth
At this position, neither of the poles is tilted towards
the Sun; so, the whole Earth experiences equal days
and equal nights. This is called an equinox. Penumbra
On 23rd September, it is autumn season in the Solar Eclipse
Northern Hemisphere and spring season in the
Southern Hemisphere. Lunar Eclipse
On 21st March, the opposite happens and it is spring Lunar eclipse occurs near the Full Moon position,
in the Northern hemisphere and autumn in the when the Earth is between the Sun and the Moon and
Southern hemisphere. Earth’s shadow obscure the Moon as viewed from the
Earth.
Thus, there are days and nights and changes in the
seasons because of the rotation and revolution of the Unlike a solar eclipse, which can only be viewed from
Earth respectively. a certain relatively small area of the world, a lunar
eclipse may be viewed from anywhere on the night
Spring
21st March (equinox) side of the Earth.
Summer
21st June Penumbra
(solstice) Moon
Direct rays Direct rays
Sun
Sun Earth Umbra

Winter 22nd
December
(solstice)
Autumn
23rd September (equinox)
Solstice and Equinox Penumbra
Lunar Eclipse
CHAPTER 04
18
Geomorphology
Sources Class-VI New NCERT Chap 6 (Major Landforms of the Earth), Class-VII New NCERT Chap 2 (Inside Our Earth), Chap 3 our
(Changing Earth), Class-VIII Old NCERT Chap 2 (Inside the Earth), Class-IX Old NCERT Chap 1 (Our Environment : Part and
Processes), Chap 2 (Landforms of the Earth), Class-XI New NCERT Chap 3 (Interior of the Earth), Class-XI New NCERT
Chap 1 (Land forms and their Evolution), Chap 4 (Distribution of Continents and Oceans Chap 5 Minerals and Rocks),
Chap 6 (Geomorphic Processes), Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 5 (Structure of the Earth, Volcanoes and Earthquake)
‘Integrated Ocean Drilling Project’ are the two major

Interior of the Earth Deep Drilling Projects. The deepest drill is at Kola,
The structure of the Earth is the result of Geomorphic in the Arctic Ocean, that has reached a depth of
processes that took place in the interior of the Earth. So, to 12 km.
understand the geomorphology of the Earth, it is important Volcanic Eruption The molten material called
to know about the effect of Geomorphic Processes. magma is thrown out at the time of volcanic
eruption. These are available for laboratory analysis.
Sources to Study Interior of the Earth It indicates that there is a layer which is either
The factual sources concerning the interior of the Earth molten or in a semi-molten state.
are not readily available.
Indirect Sources
Therefore, the study of the interior of the Earth is based
Analysis of properties of matter indirectly provides
on direct and indirect sources.
information about the interior of Earth. The important
Direct Sources sources that provides details about the interior of the
The important direct sources that give information about earth are information from the meteors, density,
the interior of the Earth’s are underground mining, deep gravitation, magnetic field and seismic activity.
drilling projects, volcanic eruption, etc. Meteors The material and the structure observed in
Underground Mines A large part of the Earth’s surface the meteors are similar to that of the Earth. Hence,
is composed of rocks derived from within the Earth’s meteors are an important source of information
body. The most important direct source about the about the interior of the Earth.
interior of the Earth is the solid Earth material in Density The density and temperature of the
surface rock or the rocks we get from mining areas. e.g., material increases with depth. The average density
certain Gold mines in South Africa are as deep as 3-4 of Earth was calculated as 55 g/cm 3 by using the
km. Since, the temperature increases with the depth, it spherical shape, mean radius and mass of the Earth.
is not possible to go beyond more depth. The density of the Earth is higher at core than all
Deep Drilling Project There are a number of projects other parts of the Earth. With the help of rate of
to penetrate deeper depths to explore the conditions in change of density and temperature and the total
the crustal portions. It provides a large volume of thickness of the Earth, it is possible to estimate the
information through the analysis of materials collected values of temperature, pressure and the density of
at different depths. ‘Deep Ocean Drilling Project’ and materials at different depths.
19
Pressure Even though the density increases with Crust

pressure, there is a critical limit beyond, which its density
Crust is the brittle outermost solid part of the
cannot be increased. The high density in the core is the
Earth.
result of the presence of heavy metallic material of high
density there. Crust is mainly divided in two parts, such as
continental crust and oceanic crust.
Temperature Heat flows outwards from the interior of
the Earth in the form of thermal convective currents. The The continental crust is thicker than the oceanic
temperature increases by 1°C for every 32m of depth. This crust. It means thickness of oceanic crust is 5 km
rate of change of temperature is not uniform while going whereas that of the continental is around 30 km.
down the surface of the Earth. Relatively higher It only possesses less than 1% of the total volume
temperatures are found in tectonically active regions. of the Earth.
Gravity The gravitational force (g) is different at different Continental Crust
latitudes on the surface. Since, the distance from the The continental crust is thicker in the areas of
centre to the equator is greater than that from the poles, major mountain systems. It is about 70 km thick in
the gravitational force is greater near the poles and less at the Himalayan region.
the equator. The gravity values also differ according to the
mass of material. The reading of the gravity at different It is composed of SiAl, i.e., Silicon and
places differs from the expected values. Such a difference Aluminium.
is called a gravity anomaly. Gravity anomalies give us SiAl is a light coloured rock, thus it called Felsic.
information about the distribution of mass of the material Continental crust is lighter than oceanic crust.
in the crust of the Earth. Oceanic Crust
Magnetic Field Magnetic surveys provide information It is denser and thinner than continental crust.
about the distribution of magnetic materials in the crustal
portion. This provides information about the distribution It is composed of Sima, made up of Silicon and
of materials in this part. Magnesium. These are dark coloured mafic crocks.
Seismic Activity Seismic waves are generated during Lithosphere
earthquakes. There are various types of earthquake The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle
waves. The nature of these earthquake waves and their together forms lithosphere.
travel speeds reveal the internal layered structure of the It is 100 km thick. It is the outermost mechanical
Earth. layer, which behaves as a brittle, rigid solid.
The lithosphere is broken into a number of plates
Structure of the Earth’s Interior known as the Lithospheric plates.
The structure of the Earth’s interior is layered. It is
broadly classified into three layers such as: Mantle
1. Crust 2. Mantle 3. Core The mantle is the portion of the interior beyond
Lithosphere the crust. It is also known as Pyrosphere.
(crust and uppermost solid mantle)
The thickness of the mantle is about the depth of
2,900 km from Moho’s discontinuity.
Crust 0-100 km
thick It is the bulkiest layer and forms 83% of Earth’s
volume.
Asthenosphere
Mantle This layer is rich in magnesium, calcium
and iron.
The lower mantle extends beyond the
2,900 km
asthenosphere. It is in solid state.
Liquid
5,100 km Core Asthenosphere

Solid Asthenosphere is the upper portion of the mantle.
The word ‘astheno’ means ‘weak’.
Asthenosphere is in a plastic state and is the main
6,378 km source of magma. It is considered to be extending
Layers of the Earth’s interior up to 400 km.
20
Core The point on the surface directly above or nearest to

the focus, is called epicentre. It is the point on the
The core mantle boundary is located at a depth of
surface to experience the waves. It is a point of focus.
2,900 km. It lies between 2900 - 6400 km depth.
It is also known as the Barysphere. It is about 16% of Earthquake Waves
Earth’s volume.
All-natural earthquakes take place in the
The core is mainly divided into two, i.e., lithosphere. An instrument called seismograph
1. Liquid Outer Core 2. Solid Inner Core records the waves reaching the surface.
The core is made up of very heavy material mostly A curve of earthquake waves recorded on the
composed of nickel (Ni) and iron (Fe). It is sometimes seismograph. The curve shows three distinct
referred to as the NiFe layer. sections, each representing different types of wave
The presence of a metallic core gives magnetic fields to patterns.
the Earth. The velocity of waves changes according to the
The heat that keeps the outer core from solidifying is density of material through, which they travel. As
produced by the breakdown of radioactive elements in the density increases the velocity of seismic waves
the inner core. decreases.
This layer has maximum gravitational pull among all When seismic waves pass through materials with
three. different densities, their direction will change as a
result of their reflection or refraction.
Discontinuity
Reflection causes waves to rebound whereas
The change in the speed of P waves at different depths
refraction makes waves move in different directions.
suggests the occurrence of discontinuity.
These variations in the direction of waves are
Important discontinuities are:
studied with the help of their record on
— Conrad discontinuity It separates SiAl from SiMa.
seismographs.
— Mohorovicic discontinuity It separates crust from
Earthquake waves are basically of two types.
mantle. They are body waves and surface waves.
— Repetti discontinuity It is found between upper and
lower Mantle. Body Waves
— Gutenberg-Weichert discontinuity It is located Body waves are generated due to the release of
between mantle and core. energy at the focus and move in all directions
— Lehmann discontinuity It separates liquid outer core travelling through the body of the Earth.
from solid inner core. There are two types of body waves. They are called
P-waves and S-waves.
Earthquake P-Waves
An earthquake is shaking the Earth. It is a natural event These are also called primary waves. They are short
caused due to the release of energy, which generates waves of high frequency.
waves that travel in all directions. P-waves move faster than S-waves. It is the first
This release of energy occurs along a fault. A fault is a wave to arrive at the surface.
sharp break in the crustal rocks. Rocks tend to move in The P-waves are longitudinal similar to sound
opposite directions along a fault. waves so it can travel through gaseous, liquid and
As a result of this fault, the blocks get deformed and solid materials.
eventually, they slide past one another abruptly. P-waves have their highest velocity in solid. But
This causes a release of energy. These energy waves their velocity decreases when they passes through
(Seismic waves) travel in all directions. The study of liquid or gas.
Seismic waves also help to understand about the P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave.
interior of the Earth. When P-waves pass through a material, they exert
pressure on the material in the direction of the
Hypocentre and Epicentre propagation.
The point where the energy is released is called the As a result, they creates density differences in the
focus or the hypocentre of an earthquake. material leading to stretching and squeezing of the
The energy waves released from the focus travels in all material.
directions to reach the surface of the Earth.
21
Epicentre
Shadow Zone
P, There exist some specific areas where the earthquake
Focus waves are not reported. Such a zone is called the
‘shadow zone’.
’s
The seismographs located at any distance within 105°
105° 105° from the epicentre, recorded the arrival of both P and
S-waves.
Mantle The seismographs located beyond 145° from epicentre,
record the arrival of P-waves, but not that of S-waves.
A zone between 105° and 145° from epicentre was
145°
identified as the shadow zone for both P and S waves.
145°
Types of Seismic Waves and Shadow Zones The entire zone beyond 105° does not receive S-waves.
It is known as the shadow zone of S-wave.
S-Waves The shadow zone of the S-wave is much larger than
S-waves are transverse waves which are also called that of the P-waves.
secondary waves. S-waves are that they can travel The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band around
only through solid materials. the Earth between 105° and 145° away from the
This characteristic of the S-waves helped scientists to epicentre.
understand the structure of the interior of the Earth. P-wave shadow zone
The direction of vibrations of S-waves is

perpendicular to the wave direction in the vertical
plane.
10
5
º
Hence, they create troughs and crests in the material
through which they pass.
They arrive at the surface after the P-wave.
Core
P-waves S-waves Surface

waves 105° 105°
P-wave P-wave
shadow shadow
zone zone
No direct
P-waves
Time period Amplitude
145° 145°
Earthquake Graph P-waves received here
S-wave shadow zone

Surface Waves P-wave Quake
ray paths
The body waves interact with the surface rocks and
generate a new set of waves that move along the
surface, hence called surface waves.
The surface waves are the last to report on
seismographs.
These waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction of
Core
propagation.
105° 105°
They cause displacement of rocks and hence, the
collapse of structures occurs. Surface waves are
considered to be the most damaging waves.
S-wave shadow zone
There are two types of surface waves. They are Love
Wave or L-wave and Rayleigh Wave or R-wave.
These are of long wavelength and low frequency. No direct S-waves received here
They travel slower than body waves. Shadow Zone

22
Magnitude and Ground rupture It occurs when the earthquake

movement along a fault actually breaks the Earth’s
Intensity of Earthquake surface.
The magnitude of the earthquake refers to the Land and mudslides They are caused by earthquakes
energy released during the earthquake. both by direct rupture and by sustained shaking of
The magnitude scale is known as the Richter scale. unstable slopes.
The magnitude is expressed in numbers, 0-10. Soil liquefaction Liquefaction is when sediment grains
The intensity scale takes into account the visible are literally made to float in groundwater, which causes
damage caused by the event. the soil to lose all its solidity.
The intensity scale is named after Mercalli, an Avalanches The forces induced by an earthquake can
Italian seismologist. The range of intensity scale is cause an increase in the load down the slope and can
from 1-12. also decrease the shear strength and both effects can
cause the release of an avalanche.
Types of Earthquake Floods from dam and levee failures Ground shaking
Tectonic earthquake The most common ones are from earthquakes can collapse dams.
the tectonic earthquakes. These are generated due to Fires Ground rupture and liquefaction can easily
sliding of rocks along a fault plane. rupture natural gas mains and water mains, both
Volcanic earthquake It is a special class of tectonic contributing to the ignition of fires and hindering the
earthquake. However, these are confined to areas of efforts to control them.
active volcanoes. — Ground displacement — Structural collapse
Collapse earthquake In the areas of intense mining — Falling objects — Tsunami
activity, sometimes the roofs of underground mines
collapse causing minor tremors. These are called Tsunami
collapse earthquake. Tsunamis are waves generated by the tremors and not
Explosion earthquake Ground shaking may also an earthquake in itself.
occur due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear The effect of tsunami would occur only if the epicentre
devices. Such tremors are called explosion of the tremor is below oceanic waters and the
earthquakes. magnitude is sufficiently high.
Reservoir induced earthquake The earthquake that
occur in the areas of large reservoirs are referred to
as reservoir induced earthquakes.
Volcanoes
Volcanism includes all the phenomena associated with
Distribution of Earthquakes movement of molten material from the interior of the
Circum-Pacific areas (70% of earthquakes) with Earth to the surface.
most frequent occurrence along the Pacific ring A volcano is an opening in the Earth’s crust through
of fire. which molten materials come out. It is also the place
Mid-Continental belt (20% of earthquakes) where gases, ashes and molten rock material escape to
includes the Mediterranean- Himalayan belt. the ground.
Mid-Atlantic ridge (10% of earthquakes) includes The mantle contains a weaker zone called the
the earthquakes of New Madrid, Charleston, asthenosphere. From the asthenosphere, molten rock
Boston, etc. material comes out to the surface.
The material in the upper mantle portion is called
Effects of Earthquake magma. Once it starts moving towards the crust or it
reaches the surface, it is referred to as lava.
Though the actual earthquake activity lasts for a few
seconds, its effects are devastating it is more than 5 on The material that reaches the ground includes lava
the Richter scale. flows, pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs, ash and dust
and gases such as nitrogen compounds, sulphur
The immediate hazardous effects of the earthquake are:
compounds and minor amounts of chlorine, hydrogen
Ground Shaking It is a result of the passage of and argon.
seismic waves through the ground and ranges from
Bullet Crater of a volcano is a cylindrical opening
quite gentle in small earthquakes to incredibly
through which magma or lava comes out to the surface
violent in large earthquakes.
of the Earth.
23
The main causes of volcanic eruption are plate-tectonics, Types of Volcano on the Basis of Activity
weak layer of the crust, high temperature of core and
Active Volcano A volcano is called an active
evolution of gases near sea floor.
volcano if the materials mentioned are being
released or have been released in the recent past.
Parts of Volcano These volcanoes constantly eject volcanic lava, gas
Magma chamber It is a large underground pool of and ashes. e.g., Cotopaxi, Mt. Erebus, Mt. Etna,
molten rock under pressure sitting underneath the Strombolian, etc. Due to its recent activity and
Earth’s crust. Generally, magma chambers are located nearby population, Mount Etna has been
close to the Earth’s surface, usually between 1 km to 10 designated a Decade Volcano by the United
km deep. Nations.
Volcanic vent It is the weak point in the Earth’s crust Dormant Volcano These are volcanoes, which
where hot magma has been able to rise from the magma were active in past, but for several years have not
chamber and reach the surface. shown any activity. They can erupt very violently
Volcanic cone It is made of layers of igneous rocks and cause huge damage. e.g., Mt. Krakatoa,
formed from previous eruptions. Each lava flow add a Vesuvius (Italy), Fujiyama (Japan), etc.
new layer to the volcanic cone. Extinct Volcano A volcano which erupted in the
Volcanic crater It is depression or hollow from which distant geological past and there is no longer any
eruptions expel magmatic material (lava, gas, steam, active volcanicity. They show no indications of
ash, etc). future eruptions. e.g., Popa (Myanmar), Mt
Volcanic Vent Volcanic Crater Demvand and Koh-Sultan (Iran).
Volcanic Cone Volcanic Pipe Types of Volcano on the

Basis of Nature of Eruption
Shield Volcanoes Barring the basalt flows, the
shield volcanoes are the largest of all the volcanoes
Parts of Volcano on the Earth. The Hawaiian volcanoes are the most
famous examples. Since, the volcanoes are mostly
Types of Volcano on the Basis of Eruption made up of very fluid basalt, this is the reason,
Hawaiian Type In this type of volcano, extremely fluid these volcanoes are not steep.
lava comes out on the surface of the Earth. It is mostly They are characterised by low-explosivity. When
basaltic and spreads over large areas. water gets into the vent, they become explosive.
Strombolian Type Strombolian type is the most typical The upcoming lava moves in the form of a fountain
volcano which are less explosive. There are several small and throws out the cone at the top of the vent and
explosive activities, where lava is more viscous. develops into a cinder cone.
It has the power to explode the crust. e.g., Stromboli Composite Volcanoes Composite volcanoes are
volcano, Lipari island (North Sicily), Mauna Loa volcano characterised by the eruptions of cooler and more
(Hawaiian island). viscous lavas than basalt. These volcanoes often
Volcanian Type In this type, lava is very viscous and the result in explosive eruptions.
eruptions take place at longer intervals. Large quantities This material accumulates in the vicinity of the vent
of pyroclastic materials are erupted from them. e.g., openings leading to formation of layers and this
volcanoes in Lipari island group of Mediterranean Sea. makes the mounts appear as composite volcanoes.
Vesuvian Type or Plinian Type In this type, long Caldera These are the most explosive of Earth’s
intervals take place between two eruptions. These are volcanoes. When they erupt, they tend to collapse
extremely violent and their lava is highly viscous. on themselves rather than building any tall
e.g., volcano that once existed near Naples in Italy. structure.
Pelean Type In this type, lava is viscous and highly The collapsed depressions are called calderas.
destructive and fast-moving mass gets erupted. e.g., Their magma chamber supplying the lava is not only
Mount Pelee on Martinique island in the West Indies. huge but is also in close vicinity.
Fissure Eruption or Quiet Eruption Large quantity of Flood Basalt Provinces These volcanoes outpour
lava quietly flows up from fissures and spreads out over highly fluid lava that flows for long distances.
the surrounding areas. Successive flow of lava results in There can be a series of flows with some flows
the growth of Lava plateau. e.g., Deccan plateau. attaining thickness of more than 50 m.
24
The Deccan Traps from India, are a much larger flood Sills The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive
basalt province. It is believed that initially the trap igneous rocks are called sill or sheet, depending on
formations covered a much larger area than the the thickness of the material. The thinner ones are
present. called sheets while the thick horizontal deposits are
Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanoes These volcanoes occur called sills.
in the oceanic areas. There is a system of mid-ocean Dykes When the lava makes its way through cracks
ridges more than 70,000 km long that stretches and the fissures developed in the land, it solidifies
through all the ocean basins. The central portion of almost perpendicular to the ground. It gets cooled in
this ridge experiences frequent eruptions. the same position to develop a wall-like structure.
Such structures are called dykes.
Topographic Features of Volcanoes Lava-capped plateau Lava-capped plateau
Magma is of two types i.e., basaltic and granitic.
Basaltic magma is fluid while granitic magma is
Volcanic neck
viscous. Dyke
Sill
Once magma comes to the surface of the Earth, it is Laccolith
Dyke
lighter than the adjoining rocks, moves upward Swarm
Sill Dyke
towards the surface and gives rise to certain

topographic features. Batholith
Stock
Lopolith
The cooling of Magma may take place either on
reaching the surface or also while the lava is still in Intrusive Features of Volcano
the crustal portion.
Depending on the location of the cooling of the lava, Extrusive Features
igneous rocks are classified as volcanic rocks and Some of the important extrusive features are as follows :
plutonic rocks.
Flood Basalts These are formed by fissure eruption.
When rocks are formed by cooling at the surface it is Due to the less viscous basaltic lava it erupts with no
known as volcanic rocks. When by cooling in the explosive activity. e.g., Deccan trap.
crust it is known as plutonic rocks.
Shield Volcanoes These are huge domes of basalt. It is
Intrusive Features formed as a result of continued outpouring of great
quantities of highly fluid basaltic lava.
When the volcanic features are formed beneath the
e.g., Mt Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa on Hawaii.
surface, they are called intrusive features. Some of the
important intrusive features are as follows : Ash or Cinder Cone These are usually of low height
and are formed of volcanic dust, ashes and pyroclastic
Batholiths These are the cooled portion of magma
matter. They are formed when the eruption is of
chambers. A large body of magmatic material that
central type with a predominance of pyroclastic
cools in the deeper depth of the crust develops in the
materials. e.g., Paricutin, Mexico.
form of large domes. These are granitic bodies.
Shield Type These volcanoes vary in size from less
Lacoliths These are large dome-shaped intrusive
than 20 m across. Shield volcanoes are formed from
bodies with a level base and connected by a pipe-like
low viscosity, runny lava. When lava spreads far from
conduit from below. It resembles the surface volcanic
the source and forms a volcano with gentle slopes.
domes of composite volcano, only these are located at
Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa are shield volcanoes.
deeper depths.
Composite or Strata Cone It is the highest of all
Lapolith As and when the lava moves upwards, a
volcanic cones. These are formed due to accumulation
portion of the same may tend to move in a horizontal
of different layers of various volcanic materials and
direction wherever it finds a weak plane. It may get
rested in different forms. In case it develops into a hence, called as strato-cones. These are built up by
saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is called alternate layers of lava and fragmental flows.
lapolith. e.g., Pinatubo of Philippines, Fuji in Japan.
Phacoliths A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is Parasitic Cone Several branches of pipes come out
found at the base of synclines or at the top of anticline from the main centre pipe of the volcano. Lava and
in folded igneous country. Such wavy materials have a other volcanic material will come out from these
definite conduit to source beneath in the form of minor pipes and get deposited around these newly
magma chambers. These are called the phacoliths. formed vents. The smaller cones formed on major
cones are termed as a parasitic cone.
25
Crater The depression formed at the mouth of a It extends across the Kamchatka Peninsula, Kuril
volcanic vent is known as crater or volcanic mouth. Islands, the Islands of Japan, Philippines, New Guinea,
It is usually funnel shaped. New Zealand and the Solomon Islands.
Caldera It is the enlarged form of a crater. These It also passes through Antarctica and the Western coast
are either formed by the subsidence of a crater or by of North and South America.
the violent and explosive eruption of volcanoes.
Mid-Continental Belt
Hot springs These are formed when groundwater
comes in contact with the magma. When ground This belt is formed as a result of convergence between
water gets heated beyond 36° C, it comes to the the Eurasian Plate and the Northward-moving African
surface as a hot spring. e.g., Ladakh, Manali, volcanic Plate.
regions of Iceland, Yellow Stone National Park. It includes volcanoes of the Alpine mountain chain, the
Geyser It is a special type of hot spring. It ejects Mediterranean Sea and the fault zone of Eastern Africa
steam and superheated water at regular intervals of Stromboli, Vesuvius, Etna, Kilimanjaro, etc.
e.g., Old faithful geyser in the USA, which erupts Mid-Atlantic Belt
faithfully after every 66 minutes.
These are located on divergent plate boundaries. The
Fumaroles They are characterised by full-scale Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a volcanic mountain range that
continuous jet-like emission of hot water from a rises from the Atlantic abyssal plain, extending from the
vent. These are the vent through which gases and Arctic to the Antarctic.
water vapour are emitted.
In this belt, the volcanoes are fissure eruption type,
Gentle basaltic Fissure Vent Gentle slope of e.g., Iceland, Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Azores, etc.
slope of Magma Magma basaltic lava
lava flow
Rocks
The Earth’s crust is composed of rocks. A rock is an
aggregate of one or more minerals.
Fissure Volcano Shield Volcano Petrology is the science of rocks. A petrologist studies
Magma Vent Vent Steep convex rocks in all their aspects viz., mineral composition,
slope from
Fine Cinder Magma thick, fast texture, structure, origin, occurrence, alteration and
ash cooling relationship with other rocks.
lava
Types of Rocks
On the basis of mode of formation, rocks are grouped
Ash or Cinder Volcano Dome Volcano under three families. They are:
Vent Magma Caldera
Ash New cone (i) Igneous Rocks (ii) Sedimentary Rocks
Branch pipe Ash Old cone
Lava (iii) Metamorphic Rocks
Magma
Igneous Rock
Igneous rocks form out of magma and lava from the
interior of the Earth. They are known as primary rocks.
Composite Volcano Caldera Volcano The igneous rocks are formed when magma cools and
Extrusive Features of Volcano solidifies. The process of cooling and solidification can
happen inside the Earth’s crust on the surface of the
earth.
Distribution of Volcanic Belts
Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt, volcanic breccia and
Distribution of volcanic belts is uneven in the world. tuff are some of the examples of igneous rocks.
There are following three prominent volcanic belts :
Classification of Igneous Rock Based on Texture
Circum-Pacific Belt Texture depends upon size and arrangement of grains
Circum-Pacific region popularly termed as the or other physical conditions of the materials. Igneous
‘Pacific Ring of Fire’. rocks are classified based on texture as coarse grained,
It has the greatest concentration of active volcanoes. fine grained and intermediate grained.
Volcanic belt and earthquake belt closely overlap — Coarse Grained If molten material is cooled slowly at
along the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’. great depths, mineral grains may be very large.
26
— Fine Grained Sudden cooling (at the surface) results Such fragments are transported by different
in small and smooth grains. exogenous agencies and deposited.
— Intermediate Grained Intermediate conditions of These deposits through compaction turn into rocks.
cooling would result in intermediate sizes of grains This process is called lithification.
making up igneous rocks. In many sedimentary rocks, the layers of deposits
Some igneous rocks have been produced through two retain their characteristics even after lithification.
stage of cooling. The large crystals formed by slow Hence, we see a number of layers of varying thickness
cooling called phenocryst are found embedded in a in sedimentary rocks like sandstone, shale etc.
matrix of very small crystals called porphyry formed Sedimentary rocks are found over about 95% area of
by rapid cooling. the crust, but they contribute only 5% in the
Classification of Igneous Rock formation of the crust.
Based on Occurrence Fossils are generally found in sedimentary rocks.
On the basis of mode of occurrence igneous rocks are Stages in the Formation of Sedimentary Rocks
classified into three types: Stage-I Weathering of any rock whether igneous,
Plutonic or Intrusive Rocks These are formed due to sedimentary or metamorphic.
the cooling of magma very deep inside the Earth. Stage-II Transportation either involves mass
These are coarse grained rocks since, they are formed movement or an agent–river, glacier, wind, waves or
due to slow cooling. e.g., granite. groundwater.
Hypabyssal Rocks Intruded rocks occurring at Stage-III Deposition that takes place in variety of
shallow depths. The magma solidifies in different environments– glacial, arid, deltaic, etc.
forms depending upon the hollow place such as Stage-IV Lithification is the process of converting
batholith, laccolith, phacolith, lopolith, sill, dyke etc. sediments into sedimentary rocks.
Volcanic Rocks These are formed due to the cooling Stage-V Cementation is the process in which various
and solidification of hot and molten lavas at the Earth cementing minerals cause the whole mass to become
surface. Because of the rapid cooling it is made up of tightly bound together.
fine grained crystals.
Pyroclastic Rocks These are accumulated material of Classification of Sedimentary Rock
explosive volcanic activity. e.g., lava clot, ash and dust. Based on Mode of Formation
On the basis of mode of formation sedimentary rocks
Classification of Igneous Rock
are classified into three major groups:
Based on Chemical Composition
Mechanically formed Rock fragments are formed due
On the basis of mineralogical and chemical composition to the mechanical or physical disintegration of
igneous rocks are classified as: previously formed rock.
Felsic or Silica Rocks Acidic in nature with over 65 to e.g., sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess
85% of silica content. e.g., Granite and Granodiorite. etc. are examples.
Acid Igneous Rocks They are hard and relatively Organically formed These rocks are formed from the
resistant to erosion. These are light coloured and light organic sediments derived from the disintegration or
weighted rock. decomposition of plants and animals e.g., geyserite,
Mafic or Basic Rocks Basic in nature with 45 to 60% chalk, limestone, coal etc.
of silica content. e.g., Gabro, Basalt, Dolerite. Chemically formed Chemically derived sediment are
These igneous rocks are dominated by ferro- magnesium formed when chemically active water comes in
minerals. These rocks are heavy and dark coloured. contact with country rocks. Example are chert,
Ultrabasic or Ultramafic Rocks These rocks contain limestone, halite, potash etc. are some examples.
less than 45% silica content. Peridotite is the typical Metamorphic Rocks
example of this group of rock.
The word ‘metamorphic’ means ‘change of form’.
Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic rocks form under the action of pressure,
The word ‘sedimentary’ is derived from the Latin word volume and temperature changes.
sedimentum, which means ‘settling’. Metamorphism is a process by which already
Rocks of the earth’s surface are exposed to consolidated rocks undergo recrystallisation and
denudational agents and are broken up into various reorganisation of materials within original rocks.
sizes of fragments.
27
Metamorphism occurs when rocks are forced down to Metamorphic rocks are classified into two major
lower levels by tectonic processes. groups such as:
Metamorphic rocks are also formed when molten 1. Foliated rocks 2. Non-foliated rocks
magma rising through the crust comes in contact with
the crustal rocks or the underlying rocks are subjected Rock Cycle
to great amounts of pressure by overlying rocks. Rock cycle is a continuous process through which old
Gneissoid, granite, syenite, slate, schist, marble, rocks are transformed into new ones.
quartzite etc., are some examples of metamorphic Igneous rocks are primary rocks and other rocks form
rocks. from these primary rocks. Igneous rocks can be
Metamorphic rocks formed through the igneous rocks changed into metamorphic rocks.
are called meta-igneous or ortho-metamorphic The fragments derived out of igneous and
rocks. Gneiss from Granite, Amphibolite from Basalt, metamorphic rocks form into sedimentary rocks.
Schist from Basalt.
Sedimentary rocks themselves can turn into
Metamorphic rocks formed by the further fragments and the fragments can be a source for
metamorphosis of metamorphic rocks are phyllite formation of sedimentary rocks.
from slate, schist from phyllite, serpentine from
The crustal rocks such as igneous, metamorphic and
gabbro.
sedimentary once formed may be carried down into
Metamorphism is of following two types: the mantle through subduction process.
Dynamic Metamorphism The same melt down due to increase in temperature in
Mechanical disruption and reorganisation of the the interior and turn into molten magma i.e., the
original minerals within rocks due to breaking and original source for igneous rocks.
crushing without any appreciable chemical changes is
called dynamic metamorphism.
Weathering Melting
Thermal Metamorphism and Erosion Metamorphic
Rock
The materials of rocks chemically alter and
recrystallise due to thermal metamorphism. Sedimentary Magma
There are two types of thermal metamorphism : Rock
— Contact Metamorphism In the process of Contact Cooling
Heat and Pressure and Melting
metamorphism, the rocks come in contact with hot
intruding magma and lava and the rock materials
Compaction and
recrystallise under high temperatures. Quite often Cementation Igneous rock
new materials form out of magma or lava are added
to the rocks. Weathering and Erosion
— Regional Metamorphism In regional Rock Cycle
metamorphism, rocks undergo recrystallisation due
to deformation caused by temperature or pressure or
both. In the process of metamorphism, in some Major Theories for the
rocks grains or minerals get arranged in layers or Evolution of Landforms
lines.
Many theories have been given for the explanation of
evolution of landforms on the surface of the Earth.
Foliation
Most important theories for the evolution of landforms
A parallel arrangement of minerals or grains in
are:
metamorphic rocks is called foliation or lineation.
— Continental Drift Theory
Minerals or materials of different groups are arranged
— Sea Floor Spreading Theory
into alternating thin to thick layers appearing in light
and dark shades. Such a structure in metamorphic — Plate Tectonics Theory
rocks is called banding and rocks displaying banding
are called banded rocks. Continental Drift Theory
Types of metamorphic rocks depend upon original In 1912, Alfred Wegener in a book ‘The Origin of
rocks that were subjected to metamorphism. Continents and Oceans’ put forward the idea of lateral
movement of continents or continental drift.
28
In this theory, he claimed that the changes in the Later on, Indo-Australian plate started moving
appearance of the Earth were largely due to the Northward. The Indo-Australian plate and Africa
shifting of continents. caused the sediments deposited in the Tethys to be
There was only one supercontinent called Pangaea crushed and deformed. Thus, the Alpine and
about 250 million years ago. It was surrounded by the Himalayan mountain ranges were formed.
super-ocean named Panthalassa. The Andes and Rockies are formed due to the
About 200 million years ago, the Pangaea began to Westward movement of America. It also led to the
break up into two. They are: formation of Caribbean Island arcs and widening of
— Laurasia that started floating Northward. the Atlantic Ocean.
— Gondwanaland that started floating Southward. Evidence of Continental Drift Theory
Laurasia and Gondwanaland was intervened by a The evidences in support of the theory are :
narrow and shallow water body known as Tethys sea. Jigsaw Fit of continents It refers to the similarities
Laurasia consisted of present North America and between the coastlines of South America and Africa,
Greenland and Eurasia (without India and Arabia). suggest that these were once joined together.
Gondwanaland contained Africa with Arabia attached Structural similarities The continuity of tectonic
with South America, Australia, Antarctica and India. trends of the block of these countries across their
The South Pole was located near Durban, near Natal present boundaries.
in South Africa. Fossil similarities The distribution of the fossil plants
Wegner states that the Northward movement was in Argentina, South Africa, India, Western Australia
caused by gravitational forces, i.e. because of intense and Antarctica.
gravitational pull of the poles. Whereas the Westward — Glacial evidence — Mountain ranges
movement was thought to be caused by the pull of the — Coal deposits — Evidence of glacial striation
Moon or tidal forces.
Eurasian Plate North

American
Mid-Atlantic
Plate
Ridge Eurasian plate
Juan De Fuca
Aleutian Plate
Trench
San Andreas Fault
East Pacific Arabian
Philippine Caribbean
Rise Plate
Plate Plate
Cocos Eurasian plate
Pacific Plate
Caroline Plate
Java Plate South
Trench American
Indo-Australian
Nazca
plate Plate
Plate
Scotia
Plate Divergent plate
Convergent plate
Antarctic Plate Parallel Boundary
Evidence of Continental Drift Theory
Criticism of Continental Drift Theory Sea Floor Spreading Theory

The responsible forces for the whole process of the The Sea Floor Spreading hypothesis was proposed by
continental drift were not sufficient enough. the geophysicist Harry H Hess.
But still the evidence provided by the Continental The theory was based on a concept that the age of the
Drift Theory provided a platform for future work. rocks of the seafloor is not the same.
29
The youngest rocks are found in the central parts of This convection currents in the asthenosphere causes
the oceans while older rocks are found towards the the movement of lithospheric plates.
margins of the oceans. The plates move at a speed of 2 centimetres to 12
The new crust is formed from the central part of the centimetres a year. The speed of this movement has not
ocean and spreads towards the margins of the always been uniform.
ocean, pushing the older rocks towards the
margins. This concept is known as Sea Floor Plate Boundaries
Spreading. Plate boundaries are generally of three types namely:
1. Constructive Margins or Divergent Plate Boundary.
Plate Tectonics Theory 2. Destructive Margin or Convergent Plate Boundary.
The Plate Tectonics Theory deals with the whole 3. Conservative Margin or Parallel Boundary or
mechanism of evolution, nature of motion of plates Transform Fault Boundary.
and resultant reaction.
Destructive Constructive Destructive
Plate Tectonics Theory explains the large-scale boundary boundary boundary
motions of Earth’s lithosphere.
Plate Plate
Though, this theory was proposed by Harry Hess in Plate
1962, the term plate was first coined by JT Wilson Pla
te Transform fault
in 1965.
Later the theory was explained scientifically by
WJ Morgan, Dan McKenzie, Robert I Parker and New plate
material Subducted
Subducted plate
Arthur Holmes. plate
According to this theory, the crust of the Earth is Types of Plate Boundaries
divided into several big and small fragments called
plates. These lithospheric plates are about 100 km Constructive Plate Margin or
thick. Divergent Plate Boundary
These plates are floating over the semi-molten If a plate boundary is said to be Divergent Plate
asthenosphere. Boundary if two plates move away from each other.
As a result of this movement, the molten lava from the
Types of Plates
asthenosphere comes out from the crack that develops
Lithospheric plates are mainly divided into two. between them.
They are Major Plate and Minor Plate.
The surface continuously and after solidification forms a
There are seven major plates on the Earth. They new crust. Hence, such plate boundaries are called
are Eurasian, Antarctican, North American, South constructive plate margins.
American, Pacific, African and Indian Australian
The divergence brings in two results:
plate.
(i) The formation of a new crust
Other minor plates are China, Philippines, Arabian,
(ii) Formation of submarine mountains or ridges
Iran, Nazca, Cocos, Caribbean and Scotia plates.
The Mid Oceanic ridges are formed as a result of the
The plates are continuously in motion with respect
divergence of oceanic plates. As a result of this
to each other.
divergence magma comes out through the gap formed
The Pacific plate is the largest plate, composed due this movement.
almost entirely of oceanic crust and covers about This magma solidifies to form mountains. These types of
1/5th of entire Earth’s surface. mountains are known as Mid Oceanic ridges.
Almost all large plates contain both continental and e.g., Mid-Atlantic ridge, the East-Pacific ridge and the
oceanic crusts. None of the major plates are Chagos- Laccadives ridge in the Indian Ocean.
composed entirely of continental crust. Such plate margins passing through the continents result
Cause of Plate Movement in the formation of rift valleys. For example, the rift,
which broke Arabia away from Africa and grafted it on to
The lithospheric plates are situated above the Asia, changed the appearance of both continents and
asthenosphere which is in a semi plastic state. opened up new seas-the Red sea and the Gulf of Aden.
Due to the high temperature at the Earth’s interior In these areas, earthquakes and volcanoes are frequent,
magma in the asthenosphere undergoes continuous even though of moderate to low intensity.
convection.
30
Destructive Plate Margin or Convergent San Andreas Fault Zone of California is an example
Plate Boundary for this. Shear margins are zones of frequent
earthquakes of varied intensity.
When two plates move towards each other, it is known
as Destructive Plate Margin. It marks the meeting place of two parallel plates, one
carrying North America and the other carrying the
As two plates collide with each other, the denser one is
Pacific Ocean.
subducted below the lighter one. The region where the
subduction takes place is called Benioff zone or
Subduction zone. This plate margin is also known as Movement of the Indian Plate
consuming plate margin. The Indian plate includes Peninsular India and the
The subducting plate is lost in the mantle. It is also Australian continental portions. The subduction zone
called convergent plate margin as two plates converge along the Himalayas forms the Northern Plate
here. boundary in the form of continent-continent
The convergent plates interact with each other in three convergence.
different ways : In the East, it extends through Rakinyoma mountains
Oceanic-Continental Convergent Plate of Myanmar towards the island are along the Java
trench. The Eastern margin is a spreading Site lying
When one oceanic plate and continental plate collide
to the East of Australia in the form of an Oceanic
with each other, the denser oceanic plate gets
ridge in South-West Pacific.
subducted below the lighter continental plate as it is
denser. The Western margin follows Kirthar mountain of
Pakistan. It further extends along the Makrana coast
This zone is known as subduction zone. Magmas
and joins the spreading site from the Red sea rift
created in this zones comes out breaking the weak part
South-Eastward along the Chagos archipelago.
of the crust and results in the formation of volcanoes.
India was a large island situated off the Australian
Trenches are seen associated with these types of
coast, in a vast ocean. The Tethys Sea separated it
margin. For example, the Western side of the
from the Asian continent till about 225 million
American plate, where the Pacific plate is subducted
years ago.
below the American plate. It is the zone of active
volcanoes.
Oceanic-Oceanic Convergent Plate
Geomorphic Processes
When the margins of one oceanic plate collide with The endogenic and exogenic forces causing physical
another, one plate descends under the adjacent plate stresses and chemical actions on Earth materials and
and melt down to form the part of the mantle. This bringing about changes in the configuration of the
may lead to the formation of oceanic trenches. surface of the Earth are known as geomorphic
processes.
Convergence of the Pacific and the Philippines plates
explains the formation of island, festoons and chain of Diastrophism and volcanism are endogenic
volcanoes in that region. e.g., Philippines and geomorphic processes, whereas weathering, mass
Indonesian islands. movement, erosion and deposition are exogenic
geomorphic processes.
Continent-Continent Convergent Plate Any exogenic element of nature (like water, ice, wind,
Due to the collision of the plate margins where etc.,) capable of acquiring and transporting earth
continents occur on both sides of the plate margin fold material can be called a geomorphic agent. When
mountains are formed. these elements of nature become mobile due to
The Himalayan ranges were formed this way. The gradients, they remove the material and transport
collision of the Indian plate with the Eurasian plate them over slopes and deposit them at lower level.
has formed the Himalayas. Gravity besides being a directional force activating all
Conservative Margin or Parallel Boundary downslope movements of matter also causes stresses
on the Earth’s materials. Indirect gravitational
In some regions where two lithospheric plates slide stresses activate wave and tide induced currents and
past one another in opposite directions, noticeable winds.
changes may not occur.
Without gravity and gradients there would be no
But these may cause fissures on the Earth’s crust. mobility and hence, no erosion, transportation and
These are called zones of faulting. deposition are possible.
31
As these diastrophic forces operate very slowly

Earth Movements and their effects become observable after
The lithosphere is broken into a number of plates known thousands and millions of years. These forces are
as the Lithospheric plates. also termed as constructive movements.
The movements of these plates cause changes on the The diastrophic processes are classified as
surface of the Earth. orogenic and epeirogenic.
The Earth movements are divided on the basis of the Orogenic Movement
forces which cause them. They are Endogenic force and
Exogenic force. Orogeny is the mountain-building that causes
deformation in the crust and the Earth’s surface.
The forces which act in the interior of the Earth are called
as Endogenic forces. Orogenic movements are far more localised and
occur in episodes, widely spaced in geologic time
The forces that work on the surface of the Earth are called and are world-wide in extent.
as Exogenic forces.
Orogeny is a horizontal Earth movement.
Endogenic forces sometimes produce sudden movements
Orogeny is tangential in that the movement is
and at other times produce slow movements.
parallel to the Earth’s surface.
Sudden movements like earthquakes and volcanoes cause
Both compression and tension, pushing in and
mass destruction over the surface of the Earth.
pulling out, lead to horizontal movements.
Forces Folding, faulting and continental drift constitute
horizontal movements.
Endogenic Exogenic
Epeirogenic Movement
Weathering
Catastrophic Diastrophic Erosion Epeirogeny refers to regional uplift without
Earthquakes Transportation marked deformation.
Volcanic Epierogenic Orogenic Deposition Epeirogeny is a vertical movement mainly caused
(Continent (Mountain Mass Movement
building) building)
by radial forces, the forces that operate at right
angles to the Earth’s surface.
Submergence
of land Compressional Tensional Vertical movement is either uplift or subsidence.
Emergence forces forces Upwarping and downwarping are the two results
of land
Folding Faulting
of the vertical movement.
Folding
Endogenic Movements The bending of rock strata due to compressional
The endogenic movements are the types of Earth forces acting tangentially or horizontally towards
movements resulting from the works of endogenetic forces. a common point or plane from opposite direction
Endogenetic forces give rise to land upliftment, is known as folding.
subsidence folding, fracturing and volcanic eruptions. It results in the crumbling of strata into folds.
Endogenetic movements are classified into two major Folds occur in a series of troughs and crests
categories : alternating with each other.
The upfolds are termed anticline and the
1. Catastrophic Movements downfolds are termed the syncline.
Catastrophic movements are sudden movements caused On the crest of the anticline, along the axis from
by the action of sudden endogenetic forces which are where the limbs dip away, is a zone of tension and
originating from deep within the Earth. therefore, of weakness.
They cause sudden and rapid events at and below Earth’s The rivers flowing here breach the anticline and
surface. These sudden events are termed as destructive gradually erode the material and deepen the
movements. e.g., volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. valley where the anticline is fully eroded the ridge
2. Diastrophic Movements is replaced by a valley. This is termed as anticlinal
valley.
The diastrophic movements are vertical and horizontal
movements which lead to production of primary It is an example of what is commonly known as
landforms such as mountains, plateau, plains, lakes, big inversion or relief or topography. So are the
faults, etc. synclinal ridges.
32
The sides of both these features correspond to very steep, When the rocks are compressed from two opposite
scarp slopes. Synclines correspond to valleys. directions, the rock blocks move forward or
Between two anticlinal valleys the synclinal portion backward instead of upward or downward. The
stands higher than the valleys. This is termed a synclinal part above the fault plane is known as the hanging
ridge. block and the one below it is termed the foot block.
The surface of the hanging block on the fault plane
Types of Folding
is the hanging wall and that of the foot block on the
The different types of folding are as follows: fault plane is the footwall.
Monocline It formed as a results when horizontally laid Displacement is of two types, the vertical
beds clip and then flatten out producing simple flexure. displacement termed throw and horizontal
Symmetrical fold A fold is said to symmetrical, if both displacement termed as heave.
the limbs are equal and inclined at the same angle. The different types of faults are as follows:
Asymmetrical fold These types of folds are generated
Normal Faults
when one limb in a fold structure is steeper than the
other. When the rock blocks are displaced in opposite
directions and one of the blocks moves
Overturned fold When one limb occupies the normal
downwards.
position, while the other bends more than 90°. It is said to
be an overturned fold. The surface gets stretched during a normal fault.
The fault plane is usually in between and in the
Isoclinal fold Isoclinal fold are formed as a results of
vertical.
continued lateral compression upon an overturned fold.
Here both the limbs dip at equal angles in the same Reverse Faults
direction. When the rock blocks move towards each other and
Recumbent fold These are fold lying down. These are one block overrides the other.
formed as a result of continuation of pressure. The axial During the reverse fault, the faulted area gets
plane and both limbs of a fold lie roughly and compressed. These are also called Thrust faults.
horizontally.
The fault place in this case is usually inclined at an
Nappe This is a result when the pressure exerted upon a angle between 40° and the horizontal (0°).
recumbent fold is sufficiently great to cause it to be torn
from its roots and to be thrust forward. Step Faults
Symmetrical folds Asymmetrical folds Overturned folds When a series of faults occur in any area in such a
way that the slopes of all the fault planes of all the
faults are in the same direction, the resultant faults
are called Step faults.
The Rhine valley in Europe is situated in such
Isoclinal folds Recumbent folds
steep faults.
Normal fault Direction Reverse fault
(dip-slip fault) of force (dip-slip fault)
Types of Folds
Faulting
Faults are formed when tensional forces play a Left-lateral Right-lateral
significant role in it. strike-slip fault strike-slip fault
Excessive stresses and strains produce fracturing and

are usually accompanied by dislocation. This rapid
movement results in the creation of horsts and rift valley
or graben.
Horsts and grabens are found in association with one
another. The plane along which the rocks are displaced Faulting
is called the fault plane.
33
Exogenic Movements Weathering

The exogenic movements derive their energy from Weathering is defined as mechanical disintegration and
the atmosphere determined by the ultimate energy chemical decomposition of rocks through the actions of
from the Sun and also the gradients created by various elements of weather and climate.
tectonic factors. As very little or no motion of materials takes place in
Gravitational force acts upon all Earth materials weathering, it is an in-situ or on-site process.
and tends to produce movement of matter in down Factors affecting weathering are rock, climatic,
slope direction. Stress is produced in a solid by topographic and vegetative factors.
pushing or pulling. This induces deformation. Not only weathering processes but also the depth of the
Shear stresses are forces acting along the faces of weathering differ from climate to climate.
Earth materials that break rocks and other Earth There are three types of weathering:
materials and result in angular displacement or (i) Chemical weathering
slippage.
(ii) Physical or mechanical weathering
Earth materials are also subjected to molecular
(iii) Biological weathering
stresses caused by temperature changes,
crystallisation and melting. Chemical Weathering
Chemical processes lead to loosening of bonds A types of weathering processes viz; solution, carbonation,
between grains, dissolving of soluble minerals or hydration, oxidation and reduction act on the rocks. They
cementing materials. act to decompose, dissolve or reduce them to a fine state
The basic reason that leads to weathering, mass through chemical reactions by oxygen, surface and/or soil
movements and erosion is development of stresses water and other acids.
in the body of the earth’s materials. Water and air along with heat must be present to speed up
all chemical reactions. Over and above the carbon dioxide
Denudation present in the air, decomposition of plants and animals
Denudation is a general term that covered all the increases the quantity of carbon dioxide underground.
exogenic geomorphic processes. The word
Solution
‘denude’ means ‘to strip off or to uncover’.
Sometimes the nitrogen and carbon dioxide in the
Weathering, mass wasting/movements, erosion
atmosphere dissolve in the rain water.
and transportation are included in denudation.
When the rain falls on the rocks chemical action takes
The denudational processes are weathering, mass
place between the minerals in the rocks and the rain
movement, erosion, transportation and
water. As a result of this, there can be disintegration of the
deposition.
rocks.
The exogenic geomorphic processes vary from
Solution is the most potent in limestone regions where
one climatic region to other.
rainwater attacks and carried away the dissolved calcium
Precipitation and temperature also exert influence carbonate.
indirectly on exogenic geomorphic processes.
Joints and cracks in the rock are quickly widened and
whole systems of caves and passages are formed.
Gradation
Gradation is the process by which the original Oxidation
irregularities of the Earth’s surface are removed When rocks with iron content come in contact with air, it
and a level surface is created. is changed to iron oxide that crumbles easily and far more
Gradation is accomplished by the twin process of easily erodes than the original iron.
degradation and aggradation. It is thus removed, loosening the overall structure of the
Degradation constitutes those processes by which rocks and weakening them.
material from a high relief feature is removed by Hydrolysis
exogenous or external processes and geomorphic
Hydrolysis is the reaction between mineral ions and the
agents. Degradation removes material from the
ions of water.
high relief features thus reduce their elevation.
Since, the common silicate and alumino-silicate minerals
Degradation comprises of three processes such as
have electrically charged crystal surfaces, hydrolysis is
weathering, erosion and mass wasting.
especially effective .
34
Reduction Transformation
Reduction is caused by the addition of one or more During the day, the heat of the Sun causes the snow to
electrons producing a more stable compound. melt and water fills the cracks in the rocks. At night,
It is simply the reverse of oxidation. when the temperature drops to below freezing point,
the water in these cracks freezes and becomes ice.
Hydration
The volume of ice is more than that of water. Thus,
Hydration occurs when the chemical bonds of the when the water freezes in the cracks it exerts pressure
mineral are changed as it interacts with water. on the lateral sides of the rock which eventually
Hydration also led to the decomposition reactions by causes the rocks to break.
expanding the crystal lattice offering more surface
Insolation
area for reaction.
During the day, rocks expand due to the heat of the
Carbonation Sun. The different minerals in the rocks expand in
Carbonation is the mixing of water with carbon different magnitudes.
dioxide to make carbonic acid. The main factor On these rocks if suddenly rain falls or at night the
affecting carbonation is climate. temperature drops, the expanded areas contract.
Climatic conditions control the rate of weathering that This type of changes in terms of expansion and
takes place by regulating the catalysts of moisture and contraction cause the rocks to disintegrate in due
temperature. course.
Physical Weathering Slaking
Physical or mechanical weathering processes depend The action of dissolved sodium sulphate can
on some applied forces. disintegrate rock in only twenty cycles of wetting and
The applied forces are: drying.
(i) Gravitational forces such as overburden pressure, Pressure release of rock can cause mechanical
load and shearing stress. weathering due to unloading.
(ii) Expansion forces due to temperature changes, Biological Weathering
crystal growth or animal activity. Biological weathering is the removal of minerals and
(iii) Water pressures controlled by wetting and drying ions and physical changes due to growth or movement
cycles. of organisms.
Physical weathering processes are caused by thermal Burrowing and wedging by organisms like
expansion and pressure release. It causes damage to earthworms, termites, rodents etc., help in exposing
the rocks by repetition of contraction and expansion. the new surfaces to chemical attack and assists in the
Abrasion penetration of moisture and air.
It occurs due to the interaction of two rock surfaces Human beings by disturbing vegetation, ploughing
causing mechanical wearing or grinding of their and cultivating soils, also help in mixing and creating
surfaces. new contacts between air, water and minerals in the
Earth materials.
Collision between rock surfaces results in erosion
which is followed by the transport of material by Decaying plant and animal matter help in the
wind, water or ice. production of humus, carbonic and other acids which
enhance decay and solubility of some elements.
Crystallisation Plant roots exert a tremendous pressure on the earth
It is also known as salt weathering. materials mechanically breaking them apart.
It is mainly due to the growth and expansion of
various salts crystals. Exfoliation
It causes the necessary stresses needed for the Exfoliation is a result but not a process.
mechanical rupturing of rocks and minerals. Exfoliation is the flaking off of more or less curved
sheets of shells from over rocks or bedrock results in
Crystal Growth smooth and rounded surfaces.
It causes stress as a result of a compound or an element’s Exfoliation can occur due to expansion and
change of physical state with change in temperature. contraction induced by temperature changes.
crystals grow and accumulate, putting pressure on the Exfoliation domes and tors result due to unloading
rock and causing it to break apart. and thermal expansion respectively.
35
Erosion Materials over the slopes have their own resistance to

disturbing forces.
Erosion is the process of removal of rock debris from
Weak unconsolidated materials, thinly bedded rocks,
one place to another.
faults, steeply dipping beds, vertical cliffs or steep
When massive rocks break into smaller fragments slopes, abundant precipitation and torrential rains and
through weathering and any other process, erosional scarcity of vegetation etc., favour mass movements.
geomorphic agents remove and transport it to other
The activities that precede mass movements are:
places according to the dynamics of each of the agents.
— Removal of support from below to materials above
The process of abrasion by rock debris carried by
through natural or artificial means.
these geomorphic agents aids greatly in erosion.
— Increase in gradient and height of slopes.
The landscape is worn down by the erosion, relief
— Overloading through addition of materials naturally
degrades. Weathering, mass-wasting and erosion are
degradational processes. or by artificial filling overloading due to heavy
rainfall, saturation and lubrication of slope
Erosion is largely responsible for continuous changes
materials.
on the Earth’s surface.
— Removal of material or load from over the original
The denudational processes like erosion and slope surfaces.
transportation are controlled by kinetic energy.
— Occurrence of earthquakes, explosions or
The erosion and transportation of earth materials is machinery.
brought about by wind, running water, glaciers are
— Excessive natural seepage.
controlled by climatic conditions.
— Heavy drawdown of water from lakes, reservoirs and
The work of the other two agents of erosion-waves rivers leading to slow outflow of water from under
and ground water is not controlled by climate.
the slopes or river banks.
Deposition — Indiscriminate removal of natural vegetation.
The erosional agents lose their velocity and hence, The three forms of movements are heave, flow and
energy on gentler slopes and the materials carried by slide.
them start to settle themselves.
The coarser materials get deposited first and finer Landslides
ones later. By the process of deposition, depressions These are relatively rapid and perceptible movements.
get filled up. The materials involved in landslides are relatively dry.
The same erosional agents viz., running water, Depending upon the type of movement of materials,
glaciers, wind, waves and groundwater act as following types are identified :
aggradational or depositional agents also. — Slump It is the slipping of one or several units of
rock debris with a backward rotation with respect to
Mass Movement the slope over which the movement takes place.
Mass movement is transferring the mass of rock — Debris slide Rapid rolling or sliding of Earth debris
debris down the slopes under the direct influence of without backward rotation of mass is known as
gravity. debris slide.
The movements of mass may range from slow to — Debris fall It is nearly a free fall of Earth debris from
rapid, affecting shallow to deep columns of materials a vertical or overhanging face.
and include creep, flow, slide and fall. — Rockslide Sliding of individual rock masses down
Gravity exerts force on all matter, both bedrock and bedding, joint or fault surfaces is rockslide. Over
the products of weathering. Mass movements are very steep slopes, rock sliding is very fast and destructive.
active over weathered slopes rather than over Slides occur as planar failures along discontinuities
unweathered materials. like bedding planes that dip steeply.
Mass movements are aided by gravity and no — Rock fall It is free falling of rock blocks over any
geomorphic agent like running water, glaciers, wind, steep slope keeping itself away from the slope. Rock
waves and currents participate in the process of mass falls occur from the superficial layers of the rock
movements. face, an occurrence that distinguishes it from
The mass movements do not come under erosion rockslide which affects materials up to a substantial
though the materials shifts from one place to another. depth.
36
Landforms Mature
In the middle stages, streams cut their beds
The erosion and deposition cause changes on the surface
slower and lateral erosion of valley sides becomes
of the Earth.
severe.
Small to medium tracts or parcels of the Earth’s surface are
Gradually, the valley sides are reduced to lower
called landforms. Several related landforms together make
and lower slopes.
up landscapes.
During this stage, valleys are still V-shaped but
Each landform has its own physical shape, size, materials
deep; trunk streams are broad enough to have
and is a result of the action of certain geomorphic
wider floodplains within which streams may flow
processes and agents.
in meanders confined within the valley.
Landforms once formed may change in their shape, size
The flat and broad inter-stream areas, swamps
and nature slowly or fast due to continued action of
and marshes of youth disappear and the stream
geomorphic processes and agents.
divides turn sharp.
Landforms are classified on the basis of the process of
their origin. Old
Smaller tributaries during old age are few with
Fluvial Landforms gentle gradients. Streams meander freely over
Fluvial landforms are carved out or build up by the vast floodplains showing natural levees, oxbow
running water. lakes, etc. Divides are broad and flat with lakes,
swamps and marshes.
There are two components of running water :
Most of the landscape is at or slightly above sea
1. Sheet flow Overland flow on land surface as a sheet.
level.
2. Linear flow Overland flow as streams and rivers.
Depending upon irregularities of the land surface, the Erosional Landforms of River
overland flow may concentrate into narrow to wide paths. Some of erosional landforms of river are as follows :
Because of the sheer friction of the column of flowing Valleys
water, materials are removed from the land surface in the
Valleys start as small and narrow rills; the rills
direction of flow.
will gradually develop into long and wide gullies;
Gradually small and narrow rills will form. These rills will the gullies will further deepen, widen and
gradually develop into long and wide gullies; the gullies lengthen to give rise to valleys.
will further deepen, widen, lengthen and unite.
Depending upon dimensions and shape, many
Gradually, the valley sides are reduced to lower and lower types of valleys like V-shaped valley, gorge,
slopes. canyon, etc. can be recognised.
The divides between drainage basins are likewise lowered
V-shaped Valleys
until, they are almost completely flattened leaving finally,
a lowland of faint relief with some low resistant remnants Deepening on rivers occurs through intense
called monadnocks. erosion resulting from an increase in the velocity
of water flow.
This type of plain forming as a result of stream erosion is
called a peneplain. The valleys take a distinct shape as a result of the
intensity of erosion along the river bed. Such
The different stages of landscape developing by the action of
valleys are called V-shaped valleys.
running water are:
Gorge
Youth
A gorge is a deep valley with very steep to straight
In the early stages, down-cutting dominates.
sides. Gorges form in hard rocks.
Streams are with poor integration and flow over original
slopes showing shallow V-shaped valleys. Canyon
Streams divide are broad and flat, with marshes, swamp It is characterised by steep steplike side slopes
and lakes. and may be as deep as a gorge. A gorge is almost
equal in width at its top as well as its bottom.
Meanders developed during this stage may eventually
entrench themselves into the uplands. In contrast, a canyon is wider at its top than at its
bottom. Canyons commonly form in horizontal
Waterfalls and rapids may exist where local hard rock
bedded sedimentary rocks.
bodies are exposed.
37
Waterfalls The very coarse load carried by streams flowing

Waterfalls are generally formed at the upper course of over mountain slopes becomes too heavy for the
rivers as a result of erosion. streams to be carried over gentler gradients. It gets
dumped and spread as a broad low to high cone
Soft rocks are easily eroded in the valleys where soft and
shaped deposit called alluvial fan.
hard rocks are found intermingled. This results in the
formation of waterfalls. Alluvial fans in humid areas show normally low
cones with gentle slope from head to toe and they
Potholes appear as high cones with steep slope in arid and
More or less circular depressions formed over the rocky semi-arid climates.
beds of hill-streams are called potholes. It is formed Deltas
because of stream erosion aided by the abrasion of rock
The load carried by the rivers is dumped and spread
fragments.
into the sea. If this load is not carried away far into
When pebbles and boulders get collected in these the sea or distributed along the coast, it spreads and
depressions, it gets rotated by flowing water and accumulates as a low cone called delta.
consequently the depressions grow in dimensions.
The deposits making up deltas are very well sorted
A series of such depressions eventually join and the with clear stratification. The coarsest materials
stream valley gets deepened. settle out first and the finer fractions like silts and
Plunge Pools clays are carried out into the sea.
At the foot of waterfalls large potholes of quite deep and As the delta grows, the river distributaries continue
wide are formed because of the sheer impact of water to increase in length and delta continues to build up
and rotation of boulders. into the sea.
Such large and deep holes at the base of waterfalls are Floodplains
called plunge pools. Floodplain is a major landform of river deposition.
Incised or Entrenched Meanders Normally, fine sized materials like sand, silt and
clay are carried by relatively slow-moving waters in
Due to active lateral erosion, streams flowing over gentler channels usually found in the plains.
gentle slopes, develop sinuous or meandering courses. It
They get deposited over the bed and when the
is common to find meandering courses over.
waters spill over the banks during flooding above
Floodplains and delta plains where stream gradients are the bed. A river bed made of river deposits is the
very gentle. active floodplain.
But very deep and wide meanders can also be found cut The floodplain above the bank is an inactive
in hard rocks. floodplain. Inactive floodplain above the banks
Such meanders are called incised or entrenched meanders. basically contains two types of deposits such as
River Terraces flood deposits and channel deposits.
The floodplains in a delta are called delta plains.
River terraces are surfaces marking old valley floor or
floodplain levels.
River terraces are basically products of erosion as they
result due to vertical erosion by the stream into its own
depositional floodplain.
Natural
There can be a number of such terraces at different Levees
heights indicating former river bed levels.
Flood Plain
The river terraces may occur at the same elevation on
Natural Dam
either side of the rivers in which case they are called
paired terraces.
Flood Plains and Natural Levees
Depositional Landforms of River
Some of depositional landforms of river are as follows : Natural Levees
Natural levees are found along the banks of large
Alluvial Fans rivers.
Alluvial fans are formed when streams flowing from They are low, linear and parallel ridges of coarse
higher levels break into foot slope plains of low deposits along the banks of rivers, quite often cut
gradient. into individual mounds.
38
Point Bars The concave bank is known as cut-off bank which

Point bars also known as meander bars. shows up as a steep scarp and the convex bank
present a long, gentle profile. As meanders grow into
They are found on the concave side of meanders of
deep loops, the same may get cut-off due to erosion at
large rivers. They are almost uniform in profile and in
the inflection points and are left as ox-bow lakes.
width and contain mixed sizes of sediments.
Meanders Groundwater
The river flowing through comparatively gentle slopes In rocks like limestones or dolomites rich in calcium
takes deviation when the sediments or rock forms carbonate, the surface water as well as groundwater
create obstruction to the flow. through the chemical process of solution and
The sinuous curves formed along the river course are precipitation deposition develop varieties of
called meanders. landforms.
Meander is not a landform but is only a type of These two processes of solution and precipitation are
channel pattern. The factors affecting the formation of active in limestone or dolomite.
meander are: Limestone or dolomitic region showing typical
(i) Propensity of water flowing over very gentle landforms produced by the action of groundwater
gradients to work laterally on the banks. through the processes of solution and deposition is
called Karst topography.
(ii) Unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits making
up the banks with many irregularities which can be Erosional Landforms of Groundwater
used by water exerting pressure laterally. Swallow holes Small to medium sized round to
(iii) Coriolis force acting on the fluid water deflecting it sub-rounded shallow depression called swallow holes
like it deflects the wind. form on the surface of limestone through solution.
Sinkholes A sinkhole is an opening more or less
circular at the top and funnel-shaped towards the
Slip-off bank Inflection Point bottom.
Doline If the bottom of a sinkhole forms the roof of a
void or cave underground, it might collapse leaving a
Point bars large hole opening into a cave or a void called collapse
sinks. Quite often, sinkholes are covered up with soil
Ox-bow Lake
Point mantle and appear as shallow water pools. The term

bars doline is sometimes used to refer to the collapse sinks.
Undercut Uvalas When sinkholes and dolines join together
bank
Slip-off bank (Concave
because of slumping of materials along their margins
bank) or due to roof collapse of caves, long, narrow to wide
Ox-bow Lake
trenches called valley sinks or Uvalas form.

Lapies Gradually, most of the surface of the limestone
is eaten away by these pits and trenches, leaving it
extremely irregular with a maze of points, grooves and
Slip-off bank ridges or lapies.
Right Limestone pavements Especially, these ridges or
Bank lapies form due to differential solution activity along
Left Bank
parallel to sub-parallel joints. The lapies field may
Meander
eventually turn into smooth limestone pavements.
When the gradient of the channel becomes extremely Caves In areas where there are alternating beds of
low, water flows leisurely and starts working laterally. rocks with limestone or dolomite in between or in
Slight irregularities along the banks slowly get areas where limestone are dense, massive and
transformed into a small curvature in the banks; the occurring as thick beds, cave formation is prominent.
curvature deepens due to deposition on the inside of Water percolates down either through the materials or
the curve and erosion along the bank on the outside. through cracks and joints and moves horizontally along
If there is no deposition and no erosion or bedding planes. The limestone dissolved and long and
undercutting, the tendency to meander is reduced. narrow to wide gaps called caves were formed.
39
Tunnels Caves normally have an opening through Erosional Landforms of Glaciers

which cave streams are discharged. Caves having
Some of erosional landforms of glaciers are as follows :
openings at both the ends are called tunnels.
Swallow hole Stalactites Pillars Cirque
The cirques quite often are found at the heads of
glacial valleys. The accumulated ice cuts these cirques
while moving down the mountain tops.
Cave
They are deep, long and wide troughs or basins with
Sink hole very steep concave to vertically drop high walls at its
head as well as sides.
Stalagmites
A lake of water can be seen quite often within the
Cave mouth
cirques after the glacier disappears. Such lakes are
Doline Uvalas called cirque or tarn lakes.
Collapse Sink
Horns and Serrated Ridges

Cave Cave
If three or more radiating glaciers cut headward until
their cirques meet, high, sharp pointed and steep
Karst Landforms
sided peaks called horns form.
The divides between cirque side walls or headwalls
Depositional Landforms of Groundwater
get narrow because of progressive erosion. They turn
Stalactites It is an icicle-shaped formation that hangs into serrated or saw-toothed ridges sometimes
from the ceiling of a cave having different diameters. referred to as aretes with very sharp crests and a
Normally, they are broad at their bases and taper zig-zag outline.
towards the free ends showing up in a variety of
forms. Glacial Valleys/Troughs
Stalagmites They rise up from the floor of the caves. Glaciated valleys are trough-like and U-shaped with
In fact, stalagmites form due to dripping water from broad floors and relatively smooth and steep sides.
the surface or through the thin pipe of the stalactite, The valleys may contain littered debris or debris
immediately below it. shaped as moraines with swampy appearance. There
Stalagmites may take the shape of a column, a disc, may be lakes gouged out of rocky floor or formed by
with either a smooth, rounded bulging end or a debris within the valleys.
miniature crater like depression. There can be hanging valleys at an elevation on one or
Pillars The stalagmite and stalactites eventually fuse both sides of the main glacial valley.
to give rise to columns and pillars of different Fjords are very deep glacial troughs filled with sea
diameters. water and making up shorelines.
Glaciers Depositional Landforms of Glaciers

Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land or as The unassorted coarse and fine debris dropped by the
linear flows down the slopes of mountains in broad melting glaciers is called glacial till.
trough-like valleys are called glaciers. Glaciers move Most of the rock fragments in the till are angular to
basically because of the force of gravity. sub-angular in form. The glacio-fluvial deposits are
Erosion by glaciers is tremendous because of friction called outwash deposits. Unlike till deposits, the
caused by sheer weight of the ice. outwash deposits are roughly stratified and assorted.
The material plucked from the land by glaciers get Moraines
dragged along the floors or sides of the valleys and They are long ridges of deposits of glacial till. These are :
cause great damage through abrasion and plucking.
Terminal moraines They are long ridges of debris
As glaciers continue to move, debris gets removed and deposited at the end of the glaciers.
divides get lowered. Eventually, the slope is reduced
to such an extent that glaciers will stop moving Lateral moraines These form along the sides parallel
leaving only a mass of low hills and vast outwash to the glacial valleys. The lateral moraines may join a
plains along with other depositional features. terminal moraine forming a horse-shoe shaped ridge.
40
Ground moraines Many valley glaciers retreating rapidly Wavecut terrace At the foot of such cliffs there
leave an irregular sheet of till over their valley floors. may be a flat or gently sloping platform covered by
Such deposits varying greatly in thickness and in surface rock debris derived from the sea cliff behind. Such
topography are called ground moraines. platforms occurring at elevations above the
Medial moraines The moraine in the centre of the glacial average height of waves is called a wavecut terrace.
valley flanked by lateral moraines is called medial Sea caves The lashing of waves against the base of
moraine. They are imperfectly formed as compared to the cliff and the rock debris that gets smashed
lateral moraines. against the cliff along with lashing waves create
hollows and these hollows get widened and
Eskers
deepened to form sea caves.
When glaciers melt in summer, the water accumulate
Sea stacks The roofs of caves collapse and the sea
beneath the glacier and flow like streams in a channel
cliffs recede further inland. Retreat of the cliff may
beneath the ice. Such streams flow over the ground with
leave some remnants of rock standing isolated as
ice forming its banks.
small islands just off the shore. Such resistant
Very coarse materials like boulders and blocks along with masses of rock, originally parts of a cliff or hill are
some minor fractions of rock debris carried into this stream called sea stacks.
settle in the valley of ice beneath the glacier and after the
ice melts can be found as a sinuous ridge called esker. Depositional Landforms of Waves
Outwash Plains Beaches They are characteristic of shorelines that
are dominated by deposition, but may occur as
The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains or beyond
patches along even the rugged shores.
the limits of continental ice sheets are covered with
glacio-fluvial deposits. These deposits are in the form of Most of the sediment making up the beaches comes
broad flat alluvial fans which may join to form outwash from land carried by the streams and rivers or from
plains of gravel, silt, sand and clay. wave erosion.
Sand dunes Just behind the beach, the sands lifted
Drumlins and winnowed from over the beach surfaces will
Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-like features be deposited as sand dunes.
composed mainly of glacial till with some masses of Bar A ridge of sand and shingle formed in the sea
gravel and sand. in the off-shore zone lying approximately parallel
The long axes of drumlins are parallel to the direction of to the coast is called an off-shore bar.
ice movement. Barrier bar An off-shore bar which is exposed due
The end of the drumlins facing the glacier called the stoss. to further addition of sand is termed a barrier bar.
It is blunter and steeper than the other end called tail. The off-shore bars and barriers commonly form
The drumlins form due to dumping of rock debris beneath across the mouth of a river or at the entrance of a
heavily loaded ice through fissures in the glacier. bay.
Spits Sometimes such barrier bars get keyed up to
Waves and Currents one end of the bay when they are called spits.
The coastal landforms depend upon: Spits may also develop attached to
(i) The configuration of land and sea floor. headlands/hills.
(ii) Whether the coast is advancing (emerging) seaward or Lagoon The barriers, bars and spits at the mouth
retreating (submerging) landward. of the bay gradually extend leaving only a small
opening of the bay into the sea and the bay will
Two types of coasts are considered to explain the concept
eventually develop into a lagoon.
of evolution of coastal landforms. They are:
(i) High, rocky coasts (submerged coasts). The lagoons get filled up gradually by sediment
coming from the land or from the beach itself and a
(ii) Low, smooth and gently sloping sedimentary coasts
broad and wide coastal plain may develop
(emerged coasts).
replacing a lagoon.
Erosional Landforms of Waves
Cliffs Wave-cut cliffs and terraces are two forms usually
Winds
found where erosion is the dominant shore process. Wind is the two dominant agent in hot deserts.
Almost all sea cliffs are steep and may range from a few m The heated floors of the desert heat up the air
to more than 30 m. directly above them.
41
It result in upward movements in the hot lighter Barchans They are crescent shaped dunes with the
air with turbulence and any obstructions in its points or wings directed away from wind direction
path sets up eddies, whirlwinds, updrafts and i.e., downwind.
downdrafts. They form where the wind direction is constant and
The wind action creates a number of interesting moderate and where the original surface over which sand is
erosional and depositional features in the deserts. moving is almost uniform.
Parabolic Dunes They are formed when sandy surfaces
Erosional Landforms of Wind
are partially covered with vegetation. That means
Pediments These are gently inclined rocky floors parabolic dunes are reversed barchans with wind direction
close to the mountains at their foot with or being the same.
without a thin cover of debris. Such rocky floors
Seif Dune Seif is similar to barchan with only one wing or
form through the erosion of the mountain front
point. This happens when there is shift in wind conditions.
through a combination of lateral erosion by
The lone wings of seifs can grow very long and high.
streams and sheet flooding.
Longitudinal Dunes These dunes are formed when supply
Once, pediments are formed with a steep wash
of sand is poor and wind direction is constant. They appear
slope followed by a cliff or free face above it, the
as long ridges of considerable length but low in height.
steep wash slope and free face retreat backwards.
This method of erosion is termed as parallel Transverse Dunes They are aligned perpendicular to wind
retreat of slopes through back wasting. direction. These dunes form when the wind direction is
constant and the source of sand is an elongated feature at
Inselberg Through parallel retreat of slopes, the
right angles to the wind direction.
pediments extend backwards at the expense of
the mountain front and gradually, the mountain
gets reduced leaving an inselberg which is a Mountains
remnant of the mountain. Those landforms which have a height of 900 metres or more
Playas They are shallow lakes where water is above sea level are called mountains.
retained only for short duration due to
They are divided into four on the basis of their origin.
evaporation are called playas. Often the playas
They are:
contain good deposition of salts. The playa plain
covered up by salts is called alkali flats. 1. Fold Mountains 2. Block Mountains
Deflation Hollows Weathered mantle from over 3. Residual Mountains 4. Volcanic Mountains
the rocks or bare soil, gets blown out by
Fold Mountains
persistent movement of wind currents in one
direction. This process may create shallow Fold mountains are higher when compared to other
depressions called deflation hollows. mountains. Due to the collision of the plate margins where
continents occur on both sides of the plate margin, fold
Caves The rock faces suffer impact and abrasion
mountains are formed.
of wind-borne sand and first shallow depressions
called blow outs are created and some of the Fold mountains are formed, when a thickly bedded
blowouts become deeper and wider fit to be sedimentary layer is subjected to horizontal compressional
called caves. forces for millions of years.
Mushroom Many rock-outcrops in the deserts are The sediments get bent into up and down-folds. This leads
easily worn out quickly leaving some remnants of to the formation of anticlines and synclines.
resistant rocks polished beautifully in the shape These mountains are characterised by a more developed
of mushroom with a slender stalk and a broad system of anticlines and synclines wherein folds are
and rounded pear-shaped cap above. Sometimes, arranged in a wave-like pattern.
the top surface is broad like a table top and quite
Anticline
often, the remnants stand out like pedestals.
Depositional Landforms of Wind

Depositional landforms of wind are as follows :
Sand Dunes
Obstacles to initiate dune formation are equally Syncline
important. There can be a great variety of dune
forms as follows : Fold Mountains
42
Types of Fold Mountains Residual Mountains

Types of fold mountains based on the period of their Due to the different weathering processes of prolonged
evolution fold mountains are: duration, the rocks that are not very resistant get
Young Fold Mountains The Himalayas, Alps, disintegrated and only those resistant parts remain.
Rockies, Andes, Atlas and Southern Alps. The highest These mountains are called residual mountains. e.g.,
peak in the world, Mt. Everest, is part of the the Aravalli ranges and Nilgiris in India.
Himalayan mountains, one of the youngest fold
mountains of the world. Volcanic Mountains
Mature Fold Mountains The Pennines, Appalachians The continuous deposition of lava over Earth’s surface
and Cape range of South Africa were formed during leads to formation of conical peaks. It is called volcanic
the carboniferous age. peak. e.g., mountains Mauna Kea, Hawaii in Pacific
Ocean.
Old Fold Mountain The high mountain of Scotland
and Norway, Sayan and Stanovai mountains of Russia
and Aravalli and Mahadeo mountain of India.
Plateaus
Comparatively flat areas, but higher than the plains
Block Mountains and water bodies surround it are called plateaus. When
The block mountains are formed as a result of uplift compared to other areas, these places look like tables.
of landforms due to faulting. Steep slopes and flat tops are the characteristic features
The block mountain or horst represents the of this land.
upstanding part of the ground between two faults or They can be divided into three on the basis of the
on either side of a Rift valley or graben. location where they are situated:
These mountains have flat tops and steep sides. e.g., — Intermontane Plateaus Plateaus that are completely
Black Forest in Germany, Vosges in France. surrounded or partially surrounded by mountains.
e.g., Tibetan Plateau.
Horst
— Piedmont Plateaus Plateaus that are found at the foot
of a range of mountains. e.g., Colorado Plateau.
Graben
— Continental Plateaus When compared to the
surrounding plains, some plateaus are found to be
higher. e.g., East African Plateau.
— Dome Shaped Plateau These are formed when the
Block Mountains landmass is uplifted in such a manner that the middle
portion is raised and rounded. e.g., Chhota Nagpur
Major Mountain Ranges Plateau in India.
— Volcanic Plateau Formed due to accumulation of a
Range Location Length (in km)
thick layer of basaltic lavas. Fissure eruption of
(Approx)
volcanoes is the main cause for the formation of these
Andes South America 7,200 plateaus. e.g., Deccan Lava Plateau.
Rockies North America 4,800 Famous Plateaus of the World
Great Dividing East Australia 3,500 Plateau Situation
Range
Tibetan Plateau Between Himalayas and Kunlun Mountains
Himalayas India, Pakistan, Nepal 2,400 Deccan Plateau Peninsular India
Atlas North-West Africa 1,930 Arabian Plateau South-West Asia
Western Ghats Western India 1,610 Plateau of Brazil Central-Eastern South America
Plateau of Columbia North-West North America
Caucasus Europe 1,200
Plateau of Bolivia Andes Mountains
Alaska USA 1,130
Great Basin Plateau South of Columbia Plateau, USA
Alps Europe 1,050 Colorado Plateau South of Great Basin Plateau, USA
43
three types on the basis of composition and

Plains structure—Till plains, Morainic plains and Outwash
Places that are not so rugged and are not much plains.
higher than sea level are called plains. Loess Plains These plains are formed due to the
Based on their formation, they have been divided deposition of sand and clay brought by the winds. These
into three types such as structural plains, erosional plains lack in layers but are highly porous. The soil of
plains and depositional plains. these plains is very fertile e.g., the Great plain of
Northern China.
Structural Plains
Lacustrine Plains These are the plains formed by lakes
Due to endogenic forces, an area can be raised or filled up by the sediments brought down by the rivers.
lowered. These actions are called uplift and The valley of Kashmir is an example of this type.
subsidence respectively.
These actions cause plains to be formed. They are
called structural plains.
Islands
An island is any piece of land that is surrounded by
Erosional Plains water on all sides.
Some areas on the Earth’s surface which originally A grouping of geographically or geologically related
were rugged are leveled due to friction or islands is called an archipelago.
plantation. This is possible due to the action of
several agents. Types of Islands
The plains that are formed thus are called erosional The various types of islands are named according to the
plains. way they were formed. They are as explained below:
Various erosional plains are: Continental Islands It is simply an island that rests on
— Riverine Erosion Plains These are in the form of the continental shelf. Because of this, these islands are
peneplains which are characterised by residual always quite close to a continent. Also, the water level
hills known as Monadnocks. around a continental island is very shallow, typically
— Glaciated Plains It forms ice-scoured plain, e.g. less than 600 feet.
ice scoured plains of North-Western Europe and Newfoundland and Labrador provinces of Canada are
North America. actually Continental Islands. Great Britain is the largest
— Wind Eroded Plains In arid and semi-arid continental island in Europe.
regions, wind deflation blows desert materials Volcanic Islands They are formed when volcanoes
away, lowering the level of land and forming deep in the ocean rise above the water’s surface,
extensive plains. e.g., the Reg of North Africa. e.g., St. Helena in the Atlantic ocean.
Depositional Plains Coral Islands A coral island is an island that forms a
ring and partially or totally encloses a shallow body of
Running water, winds, glaciers, sea waves and other
water or lagoon. Lakshadweep island in the Indian
external agents carry rock materials from the hills to
ocean is the best example of coral islands.
depressions on the surface of the Earth or to the water
bodies. Alluvial Islands They are formed by the outward flow of
water depositing silt and gravel at the mouth of a river.
In course of time these deposits lead to the formation of New Moore island at the mouth of Ganga river in West
plains called the depositional Plain. Bengal is known as alluvial island.
Various depositional plains are: Barrier islands which are formed by waves depositing
Riverine Alluvial Plains These plains are formed sand on the shallow ocean bottom as they crash on the
by the deposition of sediments brought down by shoreline.
rivers. It includes piedmont alluvial plains, flood Tectonic Islands They are formed by the result of
plains and delta plains. tectonic activity. By the tectonic movement and
Glacial Plains These plains are formed by the associated volcanism, long island arcs (archipelagoes)
deposition of unsorted sands and gravels brought are formed. Indonesia, Philippines, Japan groups of
down by glaciers. Glacial plains are divided into islands are the best example of it.
CHAPTER
44 05
Climatology
Sources Class-VII New NCERT Chap 4 (Air), Class-VII Old NCERT Chap 1 (The Atmosphere and its Temperature), Chap 3 (Water in
the Air), Chap 2 (Local Weather and the Sky), Class-IX Old NCERT Chap 4 (The Air Around Us), Class-XI New NCERT
Chap 9 (Solar Radiation, Heat Balance and Temperature), Chap 8 (Composition and Structure of Atmosphere), Chap 10
(Atmospheric Circulation and Weather Systems), Chap 12 (World Climate and Climate Change), Class-XI Old NCERT
Chap 10 (Composition and Structure of Atmosphere), Chap 11 (Insolation and Temperature), Chap 12 (Atmospheric
Pressure, Winds and Air masses), Chap 13 (Moisture in the Atmosphere), Chap 14 (Classification of Climates)
The remaining 1% includes argon, carbon dioxide,

Atmosphere ozone, water vapour and many other gases.
Atmosphere is the envelope of air consisting of gases, The most important constituents for earth’s
water vapour and dust particles that surrounds Earth. atmosphere are water vapour, dust, carbon dioxide
Air is essential to the survival of all organisms. and ozone.
Atmosphere contains life-giving gases like oxygen for
humans and animals and carbon dioxide for plants. Percentage of Gases in Atmosphere
The air is colourless and odourless and can be felt only Gases Formula Percentage
when it blows as wind.
Heavy Gases Nitrogen N2 78.08%
The number of molecules present in a unit volume
Oxygen O2 20.95%
determines the density of air.
99% of the total mass of the atmosphere is confined to Argon Ar 0.93%
the height of 32 km from the earth’s surface. Therefore, Carbon dioxide CO 2 0.036%
the density of the atmosphere is high near the surface.
Light Gases Neon Ne 0.002%
Composition of Atmosphere Helium He 0.0005%

The atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour Crypton Kr 0.001%
and dust particles. Zenon Xe 0.00009%
99% of gases are confined up to the height of 30 km.
Hydrogen H2 0.00005%
90% of the dust particles and water vapour are found
only within the height of 10 km.
Nitrogen
Gases in the Atmosphere Nitrogen is the most plentiful gas in the air.
Air is a mixture of different gases in varying proportions. Nitrogen is essential for the survival of plants. But
The two important gases in the atmosphere are Nitrogen plants cannot take nitrogen directly from the air.
and Oxygen. It is bacteria, that live in the soil and roots of some
Nitrogen is composed of 78% of the total gases in the plants, take nitrogen from the air and change its form
atmosphere while oxygen comprises 21%. so that plants can use it.
45
Oxygen Dust Particles

Oxygen is the second most abundant gas in the air. The small solid particles in the atmosphere are originated
Humans and animals take oxygen from the air as from different sources such as sea salts, fine soil,
they breathe. Green plants produce oxygen during smoke-soot, ash, pollen, dust and disintegrated particles
photosynthesis. In this way oxygen content in the of meteors.
air remains constant. These particles play an important role in the heating of
the atmosphere by scattering and diffusing insolation.
Carbon dioxide
Dust and salt particles act as hygroscopic nuclei around
Green plants use carbon dioxide to make their which water vapour condenses to produce clouds.
own food and release oxygen. Humans or animals
Dust particles are generally concentrated in the lower
release carbon dioxide while respiration.
layers of the atmosphere. The higher concentration of
Carbon dioxide is transparent to the incoming dust particles is found in subtropical and temperate
solar radiation but opaque to the outgoing regions due to dry winds than in equatorial and polar
terrestrial radiation. regions.
It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and
reflects back some part of it towards the earth’s Structure of the Atmosphere
surface. The structure of the atmosphere is highly complex. The
Carbon dioxide is largely responsible for the atmosphere consists of different layers with varying
greenhouse effect. densities and temperatures.
While the volume of other gases is constant, the The temperature changes irregularly with height. Density
volume of carbon dioxide has been rising in the is highest near the surface of the earth and decreases with
past few decades. It is mainly because of the increasing altitude.
burning of fossil fuels. This results in the increase The column of the atmosphere is divided into five
of temperature of the air. different layers depending upon the temperature
Ozone condition. They are:
Ozone is found between 10 and 50 km above the 1. Troposphere 2. Stratosphere 3. Mesosphere
Earth’s surface. 4. Thermosphere 5. Exosphere
It acts as a filter that absorbs the ultraviolet rays Troposphere
radiating from the Sun and prevents them from The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere
reaching the surface of the Earth. which immediately overlies the earth’s surface. The air
The nitrous oxide released by the jet planes, we breathe exists here.
Choloroflurocarbon (CFC) and Hydrocholofluro Its average height is 13 km and extends roughly to a
Carbon released by air conditioners, refrigerators height of 8 km near the poles and about 18 km at the
etc., are harmful to the Ozone layer. equator.
Inert gases This layer contains dust particles and water vapour.
Of the inert gases, the most important is argon. By Almost all the weather phenomena like rainfall, fog and
volume, it forms about 0.93% of the atmosphere. hailstorm occur in this layer.
Other inert gases include Neon, Helium, Krypton The troposphere is the important layer since it is the
and Xenon. All of these have no significance in locale of all the vital atmospheric processes which create
the weather processes of the Earth. the climatic and weather conditions on the Earth’s
surface.
Water Vapour The troposphere is the densest part of the atmosphere.
Water vapour is a variable gas in the atmosphere. The thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator
The amount of water vapour is about 4% of the air because heat is transported to great heights by strong
by volume in the warm and wet tropics. convection currents.
But it may be less than 1% of the air in the dry and The troposphere at any latitude is thicker in summer than
cold areas of desert and polar regions. The amount in winter.
of water vapour decreases with altitude.
The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 1°C
Water vapour absorbs parts of the insolation and for every 165 m of height. This is called Normal Lapse
is the immediate cause of condensation and Rate. This is the most important layer for all biological
precipitation. activity.
46
In the lower part of the troposphere, the lapse rate Since, the layer contains electrically charged
along the vertical is very steep. particles called ions, it is known as the ionosphere.
Innumerable vertical currents moving throughout the Radio waves transmitted from the Earth are
year cause the troposphere to remain unstable. reflected back to the Earth by this layer.
This instability leads to upward movement, The temperature here starts increasing with height.
condensation, formation of clouds and precipitation. It can be further divided into following layers :
Tropopause — D Layer (between the height of 60 km to 90 km) It
reflects the signals of low-frequency radio waves
The transition separating the troposphere from the
but absorbs the signals of medium and high
stratosphere is termed as tropopause. Its thickness is
frequency. This layer disappears with the sunset.
1 to 1.5 km. In its lower strata, jet streams blow.
— E Layer (between the height of 99 km to 130 km) It
Here temperature remains constant, that’s why it is
called as tropopause. is also known as the Kennelly-Heaviside layer.
This layer reflects the medium and high-frequency
Stratosphere radio waves back to Earth. Phenomena like Aurora
The stratosphere is found above the tropopause and Borealis and Aurora Australis occur in this layer.
extends up to a height of 50 km. — F layer (at the height of 250 km) It reflects back
One important feature of the stratosphere is that it high- frequency radiowaves. It is also known as
contains the ozone layer. Appleton layer.
The lower portion of the stratosphere has a maximum — G-Layer It is the outermost layer of the ionosphere.
concentration of ozone is called Ozonosphere. In this layer, all the radiowaves get refracted.
It is found in between the height of 15 km to 35 km Exosphere
above sea level.
The uppermost layer of the atmosphere above the
This layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation and shields life thermosphere is known as the exosphere. It extends
on the earth from intense, harmful forms of energy. beyond 640 km.
Therefore, temperature rises in this layer.
The charged particles are concentrated in two bands
This layer is free from atmospheric disturbance, making at about 3,000 km and 16000 km above the surface.
conditions most ideal for flying aeroplanes.
This layer is almost free from clouds and associated Exosphere
weather phenomena. 400
The transition separating the stratosphere from the

Thermosphere
mesosphere is termed as stratopause.
Mesosphere 80 Mesopause
This is the third layer of the atmosphere.

The mesosphere lies above the stratosphere, which Mesosphere
extends up to a height of 80 km.
Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from space.
Altitude (Km)
In this layer, the temperature starts decreasing with the 50 Stratopause

increase in altitude and reaches up to minus 100°C at
the height of 80 km. The upper limit of the mesosphere
is known as mesopause.
Stratosphere
In summers, Noctilucent clouds appear in this layer
above the polar areas.
Thermosphere
Tropopause
10
In the thermosphere, the temperature rises very rapidly
Troposphere
with increasing height.
0
The ionosphere is a part of this layer. –100 –80 –60 –40 –20 0 20
Temperature (ºC)
Ionosphere
The ionosphere is located between 80 and 400 km Structure of Atmosphere
above the mesopause.
47
These particles are the result of traping of the Insolation

cosmic particle by Earth’s magnetic field and is
called the Van Allen radiation belt. The solar energy received by the Earth is known as
Insolation. Insolation is the incoming solar radiation
The particles seen in the layer are extremely
which is in the form of short wave radiation.
rarefied and it gradually merges with outer space.
As the insolation enters the atmosphere:
Zones of Atmosphere — a part is reflected
— another part is absorbed
The Earth’s atmosphere can be classified into
Homosphere and Heterosphere. — the remaining reaches the Earth’s surface.
Homosphere The homosphere is a zone of the The insolation received by the Earth is only 1/2000
atmosphere where the constituent gases are mixed. millionth part of the total energy radiated from the Sun’s
On an average, the composition of atmosphere is surface.
homogeneous throughout. The homosphere is the Reflection of insolation takes place by clouds,
portion of the Earth’s atmosphere, upto an altitude snowfields, oceans and other water bodies.
of about 50 miles above sea level. About 35% of the insolation is lost by reflection.
In this part, there is continuous mixing and hence The Ozone layer in the Stratosphere has absorbed the
the composition of the atmosphere is relatively harmful Ozone gas. The other gases in the atmosphere
constant. and dust particles together absorb only 14%.
Heterosphere The heterosphere lies above the This insolation that passes through the atmosphere does
homosphere and is a zone of poor mixing where the not heat the air. But the earth’s surface is heated by this
average composition varies depending on the Insolation.
location within it. The heterosphere is
When the surface gets heated, the air in contact with the
characterised by variation in the composition and
surface may also get heated i.e., the atmosphere of the
the mean molecular weight of constituent gases.
earth is heated from below.
This region starts at 50 to 60 miles (80 − 100 km)
above the Earth. Therefore, it coincides with the That is why the temperature in the lower atmosphere is
ionosphere and the thermosphere. lower than that of the higher atmosphere.
The maximum insolation is received at the equator.
There is a gradual reduction in a regular manner towards
Insolation and Temperature the poles, at the poles, the amount received is the
The Sun is the ultimate source of heat on our Earth. minimum and is 1/40th of that received at the equator.
The Sun is constantly radiating light and heat in all During the Spring Equinox and Autumn Equinox, the
directions. This is called Solar Radiation. duration of Sunlight is equal at all the parallels.
Earth is only receiving a small amount of this At Solstices, midday rays of the Sun fall vertically on
radiation since it is very far from the Sun and is the Tropic of Cancer in June and on the Tropic of
small too. Capricorn in December.
The Earth receives an average of 1.94 calories per The incoming solar radiation passes through the
sq. cm per minute at the top of its atmosphere. atmosphere before striking the Earth’s surface. Water
vapour, ozone and other gases in the troposphere absorb
Aphelion and Perihelion much of the near-infrared radiation.
n The solar energy received at the atmosphere varies The scattering of the visible spectrum by the very
slightly in a year due to the variations in the small-suspended particles adds colour to the sky.
distance between the Earth and the Sun. The red colour of the rising and the setting Sun and the
n During its revolution around the Sun, the Earth is blue colour of the sky are the results of the scattering of
farthest from the Sun i.e., about 152 million km on
light within the atmosphere.
4th July. This position of the Earth is called
aphelion. Factors Affecting Insolation
n On 3rd January, the Earth is nearest to the Sun
The factors influencing the amount of insolation
which is 47 million km. This position is called
Perihelion. received by different parts of the Earth are as follows :
n Therefore, the annual insolation received by the Rotation of the Earth on its Axis
Earth on 3rd January is slightly more than the
The Earth’s axis makes an angle of 66½ with the plane of
amount received on 4th July.
its orbit around the Sun.
48
This inclination of the Earth’s axis has a greater Maximum insolation is received over the subtropical
influence on the amount of insolation received at deserts. The Equator receives comparatively less
different latitudes. insolation than the tropics. At the same latitude, the
insolation is more over the continent than over the
Angle of Inclination of the Sun’s Rays
oceans.
The angle of the Sun’s rays is nearly perpendicular at
In winter, the middle and higher latitudes receive less
Noon. So, the rays get concentrated over a small area
radiation than in summer.
and give more heat.
66½º North
When the angle of incidence is high, the area affected
is small and insolation and is concentrated on a 23½º
23½º
Sun’s Rays
smaller area, hence the heat received per unit area is 47º
Trop
large and heated to a higher degree. 0º
ic o
f Ca
nce
The angle of incidence of the sunrays is oblique r
during morning and evening, therefore they spread Day
23½º
over a large area and hence the heating effect is less. Night 90º
The high angle of incidence means that the length of Trop Equ 66½º
ic o a to r
the path of the insolation rays through the atmosphere f Ca
pric
is shortest, and it loses only a small amount of its heat o rn
66½º 43º
through absorption, scattering and reflection.
0º
When the angle of incidence is smaller, the area West
affected is larger and the heat per unit of area is much Distribution of Insolation
less. At the same time, the longer path through the
atmosphere results in a larger amount of loss of heat. Process to Transfer Heat
The Sun’s rays are more direct in summer than in The heating of the atmosphere takes place through
winter. The angle of the sunrays also varies with mainly three processes, i.e., Conduction, Convection
latitude. The angle of the sunrays is vertical at the and Advection.
lower latitudes and as we go towards the poles, the
sunrays are more oblique. Conduction
Conduction is the flow of energy from the warmer to
Duration of the Day cooler body when two bodies of unequal temperature
During summer, days are longer and nights are are in contact with one another.
shorter. During winter, nights are longer and days are The transfer of heat continues until both the bodies
shorter. attain the same temperature or the contact is broken.
The amount of insolation is higher during summer The Earth is getting heated by the insolation. The air
than in winter. in contact with the land gets heated slowly.
Transparency of the Atmosphere The upper layers in contact with the lower layers also
The atmosphere is largely transparent to shortwave get heated. This process of heating of the atmosphere
solar radiation. is called conduction.
Within the troposphere, water vapour, ozone and Conduction is important in heating the lower layers of
other gases absorb much of the near-infrared the atmosphere.
radiation. Convection
Very small-suspended particles in the troposphere The air in contact with the Earth is heated and rises
scatter visible spectrum both to space and towards the vertically on heating in the form of currents.
earth surface.
This also helps in further transmitting the heat of the
This process adds colour to the sky. The red colour of atmosphere. This process of vertical heating of the
the rising or setting sun and The blue colour of the atmosphere is known as convection.
sky are the results of the scattering of light within the The convective transfer of energy is confined only to
atmosphere. the troposphere.
Spatial Distribution of Insolation Advection
The insolation received at the surface varies from The transfer of heat through the horizontal movement
about 320 watt/m 2 in the tropics to about 70 watt/m 2
of air is called advection.
in the poles.
49
The horizontal movement of the air is relatively more This is termed the heat budget or heat balance of
important than vertical movement. In middle latitudes, the earth. This explains why the earth neither
the most diurnal variation in daily weather is caused by warms up nor cools down despite the huge
advection alone. transfer of heat that takes place.
In tropical regions particularly in Northern India during The earth’s surface absorbs and radiates back the
the summer season, local winds called ‘loo’ is the same amount of heat. Therefore, there is no net
outcome of the advection process. gain or loss by the Earth and the atmosphere.
Terrestrial Radiation SHORT WAVE SOLAR RADIATION

Scattered to TOTAL SOLAR RADIATION Reflected by space
The insolation received by the Earth is in short wave space 100% –27 by clouds
forms and heats its surface. The atmosphere in turn –6 –2 by Earth
radiates and transmits heat to space.
radiation
The Earth after being heated itself becomes a radiating
body and it radiates energy to the atmosphere in long
Scattered radiation
wave form.
This energy heats the atmosphere from below. This
process is known as terrestrial radiation. Clouds
The long wave radiation is absorbed by the atmospheric
Direct
+14
gases particularly by carbon dioxide and the other Absorbed by
atmosphere
greenhouse gases. Thus, the atmosphere is heated by this
+17 +34
terrestrial radiation. Absorbed by Absorbed by
the Earth the Earth
Heat Budget of the Earth LONG WAVE EARTH RADIATION

The earth as a whole does not accumulate or lose heat. It Radiated to space Radiated to space
maintains its temperature. from Earth by atmosphere
–17 –48
The amount of heat received in the form of short wave
radiation insolation is equal to the amount lost by the
earth through the short wave terrestrial radiation. +19
Consider that the insolation received at the top of the
atmosphere is 100%. +6 +9
Roughly 35 units are reflected space even before reaching

the earth’s surface. Of these, 27 units are reflected from Turbulence
the top of the clouds, 6 units are from the top of the Radiation and Condensation
atmosphere and 2 units are from the snow and ice-covered from earth convection
areas of the Earth. The reflected amount of radiation is –23 –9 –19

called the Albedo of the Earth. Heat Budget of the Earth
The remaining 65 units reach the Earth surface. 14 units
within the atmosphere and 51 units by the Earth’s surface.
The Earth radiates back 51 units in the form of terrestrial
Variation in the Net Heat Budget
radiation. When some parts of the earth have a surplus
radiation balance while the other part has a
Of these, 17 units are radiated to space directly and the
deficit.
remaining 34 units are absorbed by the atmosphere.
Of these 34 units, 6 units are absorbed directly by the There is a surplus of net radiation balance
atmosphere, 9 units through convection and turbulence between 40° North and South and the regions near
and 19 units through latent heat of condensation. the poles have a deficit.
Totally 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere, 14 units The surplus heat energy from the tropics is
from insolation and 34 units from terrestrial radiation. redistributed towards the poles.
These 48 units are also radiated back into space. As a result, the tropics do not get progressively
Thus, the total radiation returning from the earth and heated up due to the accumulation of excess heat
the atmosphere respectively is 65 units which balance or the high latitudes get permanently frozen due
the total of 65 units received from the Sun. to excess deficit.
50
Temperature of Air As the axis of the earth is inclined at 23° 30' from the
vertical plane, all places that lies between the Tropic of
The temperature is the degree of hotness or Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn receives vertical
coldness. The standard unit of measuring sun’s rays.
temperature is degree Celsius (0°C).
The Sun’s rays are almost vertical in this zone
The interaction of insolation with the atmosphere throughout the year. Hence, this zone receives
and the Earth’s surface creates heat. This heat is maximum insolation and is very hot.
measured in terms of temperature.
This zone receives maximum insolation as the angle of
incidence of the Sun’s rays between 43° and 90° at the
Distribution of Temperature Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
The temperature distribution can be studied as
The angle of incidence and the duration of sunshine are
horizontal, vertical and spatial distribution.
greater in summer than winter in the Tropical zone.
Horizontal Distribution of Temperature As the latitude increases, the angle of incidence of Sun
The horizontal distribution of temperature on the decreases though the duration of sunshine may be
Earth surface is represented with the help of longer in summer.
isotherms. These isotherms are generally parallel Temperate Zone
to latitudes.
The region is between the Tropic of Cancer (23° 30′ N)
The gap between isotherms represents the and Arctic circle (66° 30′ N) and the Tropic of Capricorn
temperature gradient and it is steep increase of (23° 30′ S) and Antarctic Circle (66° 30′ S).
closely spaced isotherms and indicate
They are neither too hot nor too cold. They are called
meteorological turbulence, whereas widely spaced
Temperate zones. In these zones, the Sun’s rays are
isotherms shows gentle thermal gradient and
never vertical during the year.
indicate fair weather.
The isothermal deviation is more pronounced in Frigid Zone
January than July, especially in Northern hemisphere The zones between 66° 30′ North latitude and North pole
because of presence of much land surface. and 66° 30′ South latitude and South pole are termed as
There is a definite Northward movement of all Frigid Zones.
isotherms between January and July. This South latitude and the South pole receive minimum
movement of the isotherms is greater over the land insolation. Therefore, they are very cold.
than the oceans. The highest temperature for both In these zones, the duration of sunlight may be more
January and July are over the continents. than 20 hours during summer, but the temperature is
quite low even in summer.
Vertical Distribution of Temperature
The average rate of decrease of temperature upward
in the atmosphere is 6.5°C/km. This vertical Daily/Monthly/Yearly Average
gradient of temperature is commonly referred to as Temperature Difference
normal lapse rate. n Average Daily Temperature
The vertical distribution of temperature is Maximum Daily Temperature −
influenced by the nature of the underlying surface. Minimum Daily Temperature
=
for example, temperature decreases most rapidly 2
with altitude over continental areas in summer. n Daily Temperature Difference = Maximum Temperature
of Day − Minimum Temperature of Day
Spatial or Zonal Distribution
n Average Monthly Temperature
The distribution of temperature over the earth’s
Total Average Daily Temperature of a Month
surface is closely linked with the amount of =
Number of Days in a Month
insolation received by it. In general, temperature
decreases from the equator to the poles. n Average Yearly Temperature
Average Monthly Temperature of a Year
There are three heat zones. They are: =
12
Torrid Zone n Average Yearly Temperature Difference = Maximum
The zone between 23° 30′ North and 23° 30′ South Average Monthly Temperature − Minimum Average
latitudes is known as the Torrid Zone or Tropical Monthly Temperature
Zone.
51
Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution Diurnal and Seasonal Cycle

The temperature of the air at any place is influenced by The daily cycle of temperature shows a gradual
the following factors such as : increase from sunrise to about 3:00 pm when the
maximum temperature is recorded.
Latitude
Temperature decreases in the evening and night and
The insolation varies according to the latitude, hence reaches a minimum before sunrise.
the temperature also varies accordingly.
The difference between maximum temperature in a
The amount of insolation is higher in the Equator than day and minimum during the night is known as the
that at a higher altitude. diurnal range of temperature.
Altitude The diurnal range of temperature is greater at places
The atmosphere is indirectly heated by terrestrial in the interior of continents than those along the coast.
radiation from below. Therefore, places near the The seasonal difference in temperature is primarily
sea-level record higher temperatures than the places due to the difference in the angle of the Sun rays and
situated at higher elevations. duration of Sunlight.
So, the temperature generally decreases with Generally, in the Northern Hemisphere, the maximum
increasing height. temperature is recorded in July though the maximum
The temperature is decreasing at a rate of 6.5°C per insolation is received around 21st June.
every 1,000 m. This is termed as the normal lapse Similarly, the minimum temperature is generally
rate. recorded in January, about a month after the period of
minimum insolation on 22nd December.
Distance from the Sea
The annual range of temperature is lowest in the
The location of a place with respect to the sea equatorial region as the amount of insolation received
influences the temperature. does not show much variation between summer and
Compared to land, the sea gets heated slowly and winter.
loses heat slowly. Land heats up and cools down The annual range of temperature is greater in the
quickly. interior of the continent in middle latitude.
Therefore, the variation in temperature over the sea is
less compared to land. Inversion of Temperature
The places situated near the sea comes under the The normal lapse rate is the decrease in temperature
moderating influence of the sea and land breezes with an increase in elevation.
which moderate the temperature. Sometimes, the situation is reversed and the normal
lapse rate is inverted. It is called Inversion of
Air Mass and Ocean Currents temperature. Inversion is usually of short duration
The passage of air masses also affects the temperature. but quite common nonetheless.
The places which come under the influence of warm Surface inversion promotes stability in the lower
air masses experience higher temperatures. The layers of the atmosphere. This inversion commonly
places that come under the influence of cold air lasts for a few hours until the Sun comes up and
masses experience low temperature. begins to warm the Earth.
The places located on the coast where the warm ocean There are six favourable conditions producing surface
currents flow record higher temperatures than the inversion as follows :
places located on the coast where the cold currents 1. long nights
flow. 2. clear skies or high clouds
Annual Ranges of Temperature 3. relatively dry air
4. slight air movement
The annual range of temperature is defined as the
difference between the average temperature of the 5. snow-covered surface
warmest and the coldest month. 6. flattish surfaces with a few topographic depressions
Large annual ranges occur in the Northern Air Drainage
Hemisphere, on the continents in middle and higher
The inversion takes place in hills and mountains due
latitudes.
to air drainage. Cold air at the hills and mountains,
The smaller ranges occur in the Southern produced during the night, flows under the influence
Hemisphere, near the equator and over large water of gravity.
bodies.
52
Being heavy and dense, the cold air acts almost like Air pressure is measured with the help of a mercury
water and moves down the slope to pile up deeply in barometer or the aneroid barometer.
pockets and valley bottoms with warm air above. This Due to gravity, the air at the surface is denser and
is called air drainage. hence, has higher pressure. The air pressure is highest
It protects plants from frost damages. at sea level and decreases with height.
As the temperature increases, the molecules in the air
Isotherms start moving vigorously. Therefore, the air expands
The isotherms are lines joining places having an and its density decreases. Pressure decreases with an
equal temperature. increase in temperature.
The horizontal distribution of temperature is shown As a result, the air becomes lighter and moves upward.
by isothermal maps. In drawing an isotherm, the Therefore, cold air is dense and heavy. It moves
temperature is reduced to sea level to eliminate the downwards while hot air rises up. Pressure increases
effects of altitude. with a decrease in temperature.
Three general characteristic features of isotherms are:
Vertical Variation of Pressure
— Isotherms trend East-West direction.
In the lower atmosphere, the pressure decreases
— Isotherms take a sudden bend at the land-water
rapidly with height.
edge because of land-water contrasts.
The atmospheric pressure decreases at a rate of about
— The spacing of isotherms indicates the latitudinal
1 millibar for each 10 m increase in elevation. It does
thermal gradient.
not always decrease at the same rate.
Temperature Anomaly The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger
The difference between the mean temperature of any than that of the horizontal pressure gradient.
place and the mean temperature of its parallel is The pressure gradient is defined as the decrease in
defined as the temperature anomaly or thermal pressure per unit distance in the direction in which
anomaly. the pressure decreases most rapidly.
It expresses the deviation from the normal. This Horizontal Distribution of Pressure
deviation is caused by the land and water contrasts,
As the Earth’s land and water surfaces warm-up and
ocean currents and prevailing winds.
cool down, the air near them also does the same. The
Isanomal is line joining the places of equal thermal air starts moving from places of high pressure to
anomalies. The distribution of anomalies is studied places of low pressure.
on the maps showing isanomal.
The horizontal movement of air near the Earth’s
The largest anomalies occur in the Northern surface is known as wind. The horizontal distribution
Hemisphere and the smallest in the Southern of pressure is studied by drawing isobars at constant
Hemisphere. levels.
Isobars are lines connecting places having equal
Atmospheric Pressure pressure. In order to eliminate the effect of altitude on
The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area pressure, it is measured at any station after being
from the mean sea level to the top of the atmosphere reduced to sea level for purposes of comparison.
is called the atmospheric pressure.
The low-pressure system is enclosed by one or more
Air expands when heated and gets compressed when isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre. A
cooled. This results in variations in the atmospheric high-pressure system is also enclosed by one or more
pressure. Atmospheric pressure also determines isobars with the highest pressure in the centre.
when the air will rise or sink.
The wind redistributes the heat and moisture across Standard Temperature and Pressure at a Given Height
the planet, thereby, maintaining a constant
Level Pressure Temperature
temperature for the planet as a whole. (in milibar) (in centimetre)
In simple words, it is defined as the pressure exerted
Sea level 1,013.25 15.2
by the weight of air on the Earth’s surface.
1 km 898.76 8.7
The atmospheric pressure is expressed in units of a
millibar. 5 km 540.48 -17.3
At sea level, the average atmospheric pressure is
10 km 265.00 -49.7
1,013.2 millibar.
53
World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt

The main feature of the distribution of pressure is The temperature is high throughout the year near the
its zonal or belted character. Each zone or belt equator.
comprises several cells of high or low pressure. As a result, the lower layers of the atmosphere get
The cells can be either circular or elongated. The heated. Air expands and rises continuously in this region.
zonal or belted character is strikingly developed in As a result, a low-pressure belt is created in this region. It
the Southern Hemisphere which has a more is known as the Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt.
homogeneous, water-covered surface. Since winds are weak here the zone is also known as
Low pressure is experienced near the equator and Doldrums.
the area is known as equatorial low.
Subtropical High-Pressure Belt
Along 30° N and 30° S are found the high-pressure
areas known as the subtropical highs. The rising air at the equator cools down after reaching
the upper parts of the atmosphere.
Further pole wards along 60° N and 60° S, the
low-pressure belts are termed as the subpolar This air spreads out towards the poles and starts sinking
near 30°N and 30°S latitudes and piles up there.
lows.
Thus, high-pressure belts are produced in these regions.
Near the poles the pressure is high and it is known
They are known as the Subtropical High-Pressure Belt or
as the polar high. These pressure belts are not
Horse latitudes.
permanent. They oscillate with the apparent
movement of the Sun. The subsiding air is relatively dry because its moisture
has already been released near the equator. The world’s
In the Northern Hemisphere in winter, they move
tropical deserts are located in this belt.
Southwards and in the summer Northwards.
As soon as the subsiding air reaches the Earth's surface,
Global Pressure Belts it splits into two branches.
Atmospheric pressure on the Earth’s surface is not One start flowing towards the Pole and the other towards
uniform. It varies from place to place. It is the equator.
influenced by the temperature of the air at a given
place. But on a global scale, there are a few Subpolar Low-Pressure Belt
permanent pressure belts. They are: In both the hemispheres, the air moving from the two
1. Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt high-pressure belts i.e., polar and the subtropical
2. Subtropical High-Pressure Belt high-pressure belts, meet each other near 60° latitude.
3. Subpolar Low-Pressure Belt Converging air starts rising and a low-pressure belt is
created named sub-polar low-pressure belt.
4. Polar High-Pressure Belt
Sub-polar low-pressure belts are developed near 60°N
re
s su and 60°S latitudes.
h Pre
Hig
Polar High-Pressure Belt
es Low
re
su
The air is very cold throughout the year in the North and
r
re P
South poles. Therefore, the air is dense and heavy.

su h
es Hig
As a result, it keeps on piling up. This produces a

high-pressure belt around the two Poles. It is known as
Pr
Polar High-Pressure Belt.

Pressure
Low
Wind
Winds are generated as a result of the horizontal
differences in pressure.
The horizontal differences in the air density led to the
horizontal differences in the air pressure. This generates
the winds.
The winds blow from the high-pressure to the
Pressure Belts
low-pressure areas.
54
Forces Affecting the The wind circulation around a low is called cyclonic
Velocity and Direction of Wind circulation. The wind circulation around a high is
called anticyclonic circulation.
The factors affecting the velocity and direction of
wind are : The direction of winds around such systems changes
according to their location in different hemispheres.
Pressure Gradient Force
C Coriolis force
The difference in atmospheric pressure produces a V Geostrophic wind
PH
force. PH Horizontal pressure
gradient
The rate of change of pressure with respect to distance PH
is the pressure gradient. V
70 4 m
b
The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars are V
7 08 m 704 m
close to each other and is weak where the isobars are b b
C
apart. Northern hemisphere 70 8 m
b
If the pressure gradient is strong, the velocity of wind C
is higher. Southern hemisphere
Frictional Force Pressure and Wind

It affects the speed of the wind. It is greatest at the
surface and its influence generally extends up to an
Planetary Winds
elevation of 1-3 km. Winds blowing constantly throughout the year in a
Over the sea surface, the friction is minimal. The particular direction are called Planetary winds.
velocity of the wind decreases with the increase in There are three main planetary winds that blow
frictional force. constantly from high to low-pressure belts of the
world throughout the year. They are the trade winds,
Coriolis Force the westerlies and the polar winds.
The rotation of the Earth about its axis creates Coriolis
force that affects the direction of the wind. General Circulation of the Atmosphere
This Coriolis force deflects the wind to the right The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds is
direction in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left called the general circulation of the atmosphere.
in the Southern Hemisphere. Down below near the land surface, the air flows
The deflection is more when the wind velocity is high. towards the Equator as the Easterlies. The Easterlies
The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle from either side of the Equator converge in the
of latitude. It is maximum at the poles and is absent at Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
the equator. Such circulations from the surface upwards and
The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure vice-versa are called cells. Such a cell in the tropics is
gradient force. called Hadley Cell.
The pressure gradient force is perpendicular to an In the middle latitudes, the circulation is that of
isobar. The higher is the pressure gradient force, the sinking cold air that comes from the poles and the
more is the velocity of the wind and the larger is the rising warm air that blows from the subtropical high.
deflection in the direction of the wind. At the surface, these winds are called Westerlies and
the cell is known as the Ferrel cell.
Pressure and Wind At polar latitudes, the cold dense air subsides near the
The winds in the upper atmosphere, are free from the poles and blows towards middle latitudes as the polar
frictional effect of the surface and are controlled easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell.
mainly by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force.
When isobars are straight and when there is no Ferrel’s Law
friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the n According to this law, the winds turn towards their
Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows parallel to right in the Northern Hemisphere and to their left in
the isobar. This wind is known as the geostrophic the Southern Hemisphere.
wind. n The winds are deflected from their true gradient course
The direction of the geostrophic wind is towards the as a result of the Coriolis force which is generated by
right in the Northern Hemisphere and towards the left the rotation of the earth.
in the Southern Hemisphere.
55
Polar Vortex ENSO

N.P.
H Polar Cell The combined phenomenon of Southern oscillation and
Polar Easterlies Polar El-Nino is known as ENSO.
60º Jet Stream
NL —— SPL —— L
Ferrel
In the years, when the ENSO is strong, large-scale
Westerlies cell Subtropical variations in weather occur over the world.
30º N — H STH H Jet Stream
North East Trade Winds
Hadley
cell
Effects of El-Nino
0º ITCZ Equator The arid West coast of South America receives heavy
South East Trades Winds rainfall, drought occurs in Australia and sometimes in
30º S H STH H India and floods in China.
Westerlies
Warm water inhibits the growth of microscopic algae as
60º SL —— SPL —— L —— the supply of nutrient from deep water is blocked. This has
Polar Easterlies a devastating effect on marine life and fish die in large
H numbers.
S.P.
The consequent release of CO2 from the decomposition of
General Circulation of the Atmosphere fish, darkens the water and makes it toxic.
El-Nino and La-Nina La-Nina Condition

The El-Nino and La-Nina are oceanic phenomena The El-Nino is generally followed by the La-Nina. It leads
driven by atmospheric circulation. They are to the intensification of the high pressure conditions as
ocean atmosphere coupled phenomena. found with the Humboldt current.
The warm water of the Central Pacific Ocean The effect is the same as that of Humboldt current but in a
slowly drifts towards the South American coast highly intensified manner. La-Nina has reversed effect of
and replaces the cool Peruvian current. Such an El-Nino. It causes high precipitations in India, Australia
appearance of warm water off the coast of Peru is and enhanced drought conditions in Chile, Peru and
known as the El Nino. Ecuador.
In Spanish, the word El-Nino means the ‘Child
Christ’ since it appears around Christmas. Types of Wind
Winds can be broadly divided into three types :
El-Nino Condition
The ITCZ’s normal seasonal migration is from 1. Permanent Winds
10°N latitude in August to 3°N in February. The trade winds, Westerlies and Easterlies are the
But, during El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Permanent winds.
events, it may move South of the equator in These blow constantly throughout the year in a particular
Eastern Pacific. direction between high pressure belt to low pressure belts.
This shift causes the weakening of the trade Trade Winds
winds. The warm surface waters remain off the
South and Central American coast for an entire Winds blowing from the subtropical high pressure belts
year or longer. towards the equatorial low pressure belt are called Trade
winds.
Upwelling continues to be suppressed and
reduced by the overriding warm ocean current The word ‘trade’ has been derived from a Latin word,
and the failure of the trade winds to blow it away. ‘tread’, which means constant direction.
This effect is called as El-Nino. The monsoons are also part of the planetary wind system
but of a different nature.
Southern Oscillation
These trade winds blow from the North-East direction in
The El-Nino event is closely associated with the the Northern Hemisphere and from the South-East in the
pressure changes in the Central Pacific and Southern Hemisphere.
Australia. This change in pressure condition over
The trade winds from both hemispheres converge at the
the Pacific is known as the Southern Oscillation.
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
Southern Oscillation refers to shifting the surface
Trade winds have contrasting properties in different parts.
air pressure between the Tropical Eastern
Pacific and Eastern Indian Oceans. In their areas of origin, they are descending and stable.
Hence, the poleward areas are dry.
56
As the trade wind approaches the equator, they become

Monsoon Winds
more humid and warmer and their instability produces
n The surface winds which change their directions with
copious rainfall.
changing seasons in Indian Ocean are called
Westerlies monsoon winds.
The Westerlies are the winds blowing from the
n These winds blow from sea to land in summer and
from land to sea in winter. This is because of
subtropical high-pressure belts towards the subpolar
differential heating of land and water.
low-pressure belts. n These winds originate in the belt of trade winds lying
They blow from the South-West in the Northern between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Hemisphere and from the North-West in the Southern Capricorn. These winds are common in South and
Hemisphere. South-East Asia.
The poleward boundary of the Westerlies is highly
fluctuating and there are many seasonal and short 3. Local Winds
fluctuations. Westerlies carry much West to East
These blow only during a particular period of the day
moving temperate cyclones with them.
or year in a small area.
Roaring forties, furious fifties and shrieking sixties Differences in the heating and cooling of Earth
are popular terms used by navigators. surfaces and the cycles that develop daily or
Polar Easterlies annually can create several common, local or
The Polar Easterlies or Polar winds blow from the polar regional winds.
high pressure to the subpolar low-pressure areas. In the Land and Sea Breezes
Northern Hemisphere, their direction is from the The land and sea absorb and transfer heat
North-East. differently.
In the Southern Hemisphere, they blow from the During the day, the land heats up faster and becomes
South-East. warmer than the sea. Therefore, a low pressure is
2. Seasonal Winds created over the land and a relatively high pressure
over the sea. Thus, pressure gradient from sea to
These winds change their direction in different land is created and the wind blows from the sea to
seasons.
the land as the sea breeze.
The pattern of wind circulation is modified in different In the night the reversal of conduction takes place.
seasons due to the shifting of regions of maximum The land loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea.
heating, pressure and wind belts. The pressure gradient is from the land to the sea and
The most pronounced effect of such a shift is noticed in hence, land breeze blow.
the monsoons, especially over South-East Asia.
Mountain and Valley Winds
Descending Air
North Pole In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes
Polar Easterlies get heated up and as a result the air moves upslope
Air ing
nd
and to fill the resulting gap. The flow of air from the
ce
As
60°North valley blows up the valley is known as the valley

g
endin
Westerly
breeze.
Air
Winds
Desc
30°N During the night, the slopes get cooled and the dense
South-East air descends into the valley as the mountain wind.
din Ascending
Trade Winds
Air
0°
Katabatic Wind
South-East
Trade Winds The cool air of the high plateaus and ice fields
g
30°S draining into the valley is called Katabatic wind.

sc ir
A
en
North-Westerly
Another type of warm wind occurs on the leeward
e
Winds
D
60°S side of the mountain ranges. The moisture in these

Ascending Polar Easterlies
Air winds, while crossing the mountain ranges condense
and precipitate.
South Pole When it descends down the leeward side of the
Descending Air
Direction of the Prevailing wind and the slope, the dry air gets warmed up by an adiabatic
process. This dry air may melt the snow in a short
Impact of Pressure Belt
time.
57
Major Local Winds

Jet Streams
Local Wind Description
Jet streams have been termed as the high-altitude river
Foehn It is a strong, gusty, dry and warm wind which of air. These are high velocity winds blowing at high
(Fohn) develops towards Northern side of the Alps
mountain.
altitudes.
These are tubular-shaped meandering flow of the wind
Chinook This is the hot and dry wind blowing along the
(Snow Eastern slope of the Rockies mountains and covers moving from West to East located at altitudes of 5 to
Eater) an area from the Southern part of Colorado in the 12 km. They are more pronounced in the Southern
South to British Columbia in Canada in the North. Hemisphere.
Sirocco It blows in North direction from the Sahara desert The jet stream winds have velocities of 300 to 500 km
and after crossing over the Mediterranean sea it per hour.
reaches Italy, Spain, etc. It is also known as blood
rain because of the reddish sand brought along with The greatest velocities generally occur over the
it from Sahara desert. Eastern parts of the continents and the Western sides
Mistral This is the cold local wind blowing in Spain and of the ocean basins. The lowest velocities occur in the
France from North-West to South-East direction. longitudinal or West-East sectors near the surface
Simoom This is the warm and dry wind blowing in the subtropical high-pressure cells.
Arabian desert, Kurdistan region of Iran and Iraq. Velocities change seasonally and the winter velocities
Haboob This is the fast wind full of dust and sand, blowing are double than the summer velocities.
in the Northern parts of Sudan, especially near The highest speeds in the winter occur along the Asian
Khartoum.
Coast, over South-Eastern USA, and in the region
Karaburan It blows in the Tarim basin in the Central Asia between North Africa and the Indian Ocean.
towards the North-East.
Harmattan It’s winds blowing from North-East and East to the Types of Jet Streams
West in the Sahara desert. The weather becomes
suddenly dry and pleasant in this Western coast of Polar front jet streams are found where tropical and
Africa at the arrival of Harmattan. Therefore, it is polar air interact between 40° and 60° latitude. The
called Doctor wind in the Guinea coast. polar front jet stream is very irregular in its
Brick This is the warm and dry wind blowing in the longitudinal section and is discontinuous.
Fielder Victoria province of Australia. Westerly sub-tropical jet streams run from West to
Nor’wester This is the warm, dry and gusty wind blowing in East and is more persistent over India and Africa
Northern New Zealand. during summer.
Bora It is an extremely cold and dry North-Easterly wind Easterly tropical jet streams run in the upper
blowing along the shores of the Adriatic sea. troposphere.
Blizzard These winds affect polar regions of Canada and Polar jet streams are also known as stratospheric
USA. On the arrival of Blizzards, the air
temperature drops below the freezing point. In the
subpolar jet stream. These are found in both
Tundra and Siberian regions of Russia, it is known hemispheres and develop above the troposphere in
as Purga and Burran respectively. winter nights.
Norte This is the North-Eastern wind blowing in the
Central America in winter.
Cyclone
Pampero These are the cold polar winds blowing very fast in
the Pampas region of South America. Cyclones are developed in areas of air mass conflict
and well-developed front.
Levanter It is a strong Easterly cold wind in Southern Spain.
Cyclones are areas of low pressure. A centre of low
Papagayo These are the fast blowing North-Easterly cold
and dry winds that blow in the coastal region of
pressure is surrounded by closed, concentric isobars,
Mexico. which indicate the movement of the winds towards the
centre from all the quadrant and cardinal direction.
Puna This is the cold local wind in the Andes region.
They move in anti-clockwise direction in the Northern
Loo It is a very hot and dry wind which blow from West
to East in the plains of Northern India and Pakistan Hemisphere and clockwise direction in Southern
in May and June (usually in the afternoons). Its Hemisphere due to Coriolis effect.
temperature ranges between 45° to 50° and often Cyclones are classified into two types, such as:
causes sunstroke to people exposed to it.
1. Temperate Cyclone
Cold Waves These waves blow in Ganga plain from West to East
in the month of December and January. 2. Tropical Cyclone
58
Temperate Cyclones Thunderstorms and Tornadoes

Temperate cyclones are concentrated in the middle Thunderstorms and tornadoes are the other severe
latitude between 35° and 65°. The origin and influence of local storms of short duration, occurring over a
these cyclones is in the temperature zones due to which small area but are violent.
they are known as temperate cyclone.
Thunderstorms are caused by intense convection
The systems developing in the mid and high latitudes, on moist hot days. It is a well-grown
beyond the tropics are called the middle latitude or cumulonimbus cloud producing thunder and
extra-tropical cyclones. lightning.
Temperate cyclones are generally extensive. They have a When the clouds extend to heights where sub-zero
vertical thickness ranging from 9 to 11 km and diameter temperature prevails, hails are formed and they
of 1000 km. come down as hailstorms.
They are more active in winter in the Northern If there is insufficient moisture, a thunderstorm
Hemisphere, but due to prominence of water in the can generate dust storms.
Southern Hemisphere, they are active throughout the
A thunderstorm is characterised by intense updraft
year.
of rising warm air, which causes the clouds to
The extra-tropical cyclone affects a much larger area as grow bigger and rise to greater height. This causes
compared to the tropical cyclone. precipitation.
The extra-tropical cyclones move from West to East but From severe thunderstorms sometimes spiraling
tropical cyclones move from East to West. wind descends like a trunk of an elephant with
great force, with very low pressure at the centre,
Tropical Cyclones causing massive destruction on its way. Such a
Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over phenomenon is called a tornado.
oceans in tropical areas and move over to the coastal Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes.
areas bringing about large-scale destruction caused by Thetornado over the sea is called waterspouts.
violent winds, very heavy rainfall and storm surges.
They are known as:
— Cyclones in the Indian Ocean
Water in the Atmosphere
— Hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean
Water vapour is a variable gas in the atmosphere
which is about 4% of the air by volume in the
— Typhoons in the Western Pacific Ocean and the South
warm and wet tropics.
China Sea
Water vapour is the immediate cause of
— Willy-willies in Western Australia.
condensation and precipitation. In condensation
Tropical cyclones originate and intensify over warm and precipitation, water vapour consumes and
tropical oceans. With a continuous supply of moisture releases latent heat of condensation which cools
from the sea, the storm is further strengthened. and warms the air.
On reaching the land, the moisture supply is cut off and Thus, water vapour also contributes to the stability
the storm dissipates. The place where a tropical cyclone and instability in the air.
crosses the coast is called the landfall of the cyclone.
The wind reaches maximum velocity in this region,
reaching as high as 250 km per hour.
Humidity
Water vapour present in the air is known as
Eye of the Cyclone humidity. The amount of water vapour in the
A mature tropical cyclone is characterised by the strong atmosphere varies from zero to 4%.
spirally circulating wind around the centre, called the eye. The moisture in the atmosphere is derived from
The diameter of the circulating system can vary between water bodies through evaporation and from plants
150 and 250 km. The eye is a region of calm with through transpiration.
subsiding air. There is a continuous exchange of water between
Around the eye is the eye wall, where there is a strong the atmosphere, the oceans and the continents
spiraling ascent of air to greater height reaching the through the processes of evaporation,
tropopause. transpiration, condensation and precipitation.
59
Forms of Humidity In higher latitudes, it is higher in the winter than in the

summer because land is colder in the winter here.
The different forms of humidity are :
Thus, the temperature is low, the specific humidity is
Vapour Pressure the same, hence, the relative humidity is higher.
Vapour pressure refers to that part of the whole
atmospheric pressure that is due to water vapour. Dew Point
It is expressed in millibars or inches or millimetres The air containing moisture to its full capacity at a
of mercury. given temperature is said to be saturated.
It means that the air at the given temperature is
Specific Humidity incapable of holding any additional amount of
Specific humidity is the ratio of the weight of water moisture at that stage.
vapour (gm) to the weight of air (kg) expressed as The temperature at which saturation occurs in a given
grams per kilogram of air. sample of air is known as the dew point.
It represents the actual amount of moisture present
in the air. Evaporation
Absolute Humidity Evaporation is a process by which water is transformed
from liquid to a gaseous state.
The actual amount of water vapour present in the
atmosphere is known as absolute humidity. The The main cause for evaporation is heat. The latent heat
absolute humidity differs from place to place. of vaporisation is referred to as the temperature at
which the water starts evaporating.
It is the weight of water vapour per unit volume of
air. It is expressed in terms of grams per cubic metre. An increase in temperature also increases water
absorption and retention capacity of the given parcel
The ability of the air to hold water vapour depends
of air.
entirely on its temperature.
The low moisture content implies that the air has the
Relative Humidity potential of absorbing and retaining moisture.
The percentage of moisture present in the The movement of air replaces the saturated layer with
atmosphere as compared to its full capacity at a given the unsaturated layer. Hence, the greater the
temperature is known as relative humidity. movement of air, the greater is the evaporation.
With the change of air temperature, the capacity to
retain moisture increases or decreases and the
Factors Controlling Evaporation
relative humidity is also affected. Three factors that control the rate of evaporation are :
It is greater over the oceans and least over the Humidity When and where aridity is high, air has a
continents. potentiality of absorbing and retaining a larger amount
of moisture. In air with higher humidity, this
Distribution of Relative Humidity potentiality is reduced hence, evaporation is slow and
The distribution of relative humidity is zonal and small in amount.
seasonal. Temperature Warm water also experiences quicker
Zonal evaporation than cold. The lower layer of cold air is
heated from below, becomes unstable, develops
The Relative humidity is highest at the equator and
turbulence and promotes evaporation.
decreases towards the poles.
Movement of air The movement of air is the
It is minimum in sub-tropical anticyclones.
evaporation. The movement replaces the moisture
It increases from 30°N and 30°S. But towards the filled layer by a drier layer which has a larger capacity
poles, it decreases with the decrease in temperature of absorbing moisture.
in the same direction.
Due to the apparent movement of the Sun, the belts
of relative humidity experience latitudinal shifting.
Condensation
The transformation of water vapour into water is called
Seasonal condensation. Condensation is caused by the loss of heat.
The seasonal distribution varies with latitudes. When moist air is cooled, its capacity to hold water
Between 30°N and 30°S, the average relative humidity vapour ceases. Then, the excess water vapour
is higher in the summer than in the winter. condenses into liquid form.
60
If it directly condenses into solid form, it is known as The excess moisture is deposited in the form of
sublimation. In free air, condensation results from minute ice crystals instead of water droplets.
cooling around very small particles termed as The ideal conditions for the formation of white frost
hygroscopic condensation nuclei. are the same as those for the formation of dew, except
Particles of dust, smoke and salt from the ocean are that the air temperature must be at or below the
particularly good nuclei because they absorb water. freezing point.
Condensation also takes place when the moist air
Fog
comes in contact with colder objects and when the
temperature is close to the dew point. When the temperature of an air mass containing a
large quantity of water vapour falls, sudden
Condensation, therefore, depends upon the amount of
condensation takes place on fine dust particles.
cooling and the relative humidity of the air.
So, the fog is a cloud with its base at or very near to
The factors influencing condensation are – volume of
the ground. Because of the fog and mist, the visibility
air, temperature, pressure and humidity.
becomes poor to zero.
Condensation takes place: In such conditions, fog is mixed with smoke and is
— when the temperature of the air is reduced to dew described as smog.
point with its volume remaining constant. Fogs are prevalent where warm currents of air comes
— when both the volume and the temperature are in contact with cold currents.
reduced. Fogs are mini clouds in which condensation takes
— when moisture is added to the air through place around nuclei provided by the dust, smoke, and
evaporation. the salt particles.
The decrease in air temperature is the most favourable Three types of fog have been identified as follows :
condition for condensation. — Radiation Fog It is the commonest type of fog. It is
Condensation can take place when the dew point is : formed when air is under a cloud cover with rain
— Lower than 32°F White frost, snow and some clouds. falling through it the day before the fog occurs.
— Higher than the freezing point Dew, fog and clouds. Pools of air, cooled to an excessive degree, collected
Condensation takes place when the dew point is lower in depressions or valleys also form radiation fog.
than the freezing point as well as higher than the — Advection Fog It is formed through the
freezing point. transportation of warm, moist air over cold surfaces.
This type occurs frequently along the sea-coasts and
Forms of Condensation shores of large inland bodies of water. It is common
Forms of condensation can be classified on the basis of on the lands in the winter and on the oceans in the
temperature and location. summer.
— Frontal Fog It is formed along the front separating
Different forms of condensation are as follows :
cold and warm air masses. Frontal fog is common in
Dew the cool temperate latitudinal belt where fronts are
The moisture is deposited in the form of water frequent.
droplets on cooler surfaces of solid objects such as Mist
stones, grass blades and plant leaves; it is known as
dew. The mist contains more moisture than the fog. In
mist, each nuclei contains a thicker layer of moisture.
The ideal conditions for the formation of the dew are
clear sky, calm air, high relative humidity and cold Mists are frequent over mountains as the rising warm
and long nights. air up the slopes meets a cold surface.
For the formation of dew, the dew point should be
above the freezing point. Clouds
Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny
Frost
crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the
Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes water vapour in free air at considerable elevations.
place below freezing point.
As the clouds are formed at some height over the
Frost is formed when the dew point is at or below the surface of the Earth, they take various shapes.
freezing point.
61
Types of Clouds Altocumulus Clouds They are characterised by wavy

layers of globular (round) form. High globular groups
According to their height, expanse, density and of altocumulus are sometimes called as sheep clouds
transparency or opaqueness clouds are grouped under or wool pack clouds. They are fitted closely together
four types : in geometrical patterns.
Cirrus Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes Nimbostratus Clouds They create darkness because
(8,000 - 12,000m). They are thin and detached clouds Sunlight is not seen due to their high thickness. They
having a feathery appearance. They are always white are low clouds of dark colour, very close to the
in colour. ground surface. They are associated with rain, snow
Cumulus Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. They and sleet but are not accompanied by lightning,
are generally formed at a height of 4,000- 7,000 m. thunder or hailstorm.
They exist in patches and can be seen scattered here
and there. They have a flat base. Low Clouds (2 km)
Stratus These are layered clouds covering large Stratocumulus Clouds They are of grey or whitish
portions of the sky. These clouds are generally formed colour. They are generally associated with fair or
either due to loss of heat or the mixing of air masses clear weather, but occasional rain or snow is not
with different temperatures. ruled out.
Nimbus Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray. They Stratus Clouds They are dense, lowlying fog-like
form at middle levels or very near to the surface of the clouds of dark grey colour but are sometimes close to
Earth. These are extremely dense and opaque to the the ground surface. They are composed of several
rays of the Sun. Sometimes, the clouds are so low that uniform layers.
they seem to touch the ground. Nimbus clouds are
shapeless masses of thick vapour.
Clouds with Extensive Vertical Development
Cumulus Clouds They are very dense, widespread,
Other Types of Clouds dome-shaped and have flat bases. They are white
A combination of these four basic types can give rise to cloud masses and are associated with fair weather but
the following types of clouds: sometimes they become thunder clouds.
High clouds Cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus Cumulonimbus Clouds They show great vertical
Middle clouds Altostratus and altocumulus development and produce heavy rains, snow or
hailstorm accompanied by lightning, thunder and
Low clouds Stratocumulus and nimbostratus gusty winds. They are thunderstorm clouds.
Clouds with extensive vertical development Cumulus
and cumulonimbus
Precipitation
High Clouds (6-12 km)
The process of continuous condensation in free air
Cirrus Clouds The high altitude detached clouds helps the condensed particles to grow in size.
having fibrous or silky appearance are called cirrus
When the resistance of the air fails to hold them
clouds. These clouds are indicative of dry weather.
against the force of gravity, they fall onto the Earth’s
These clouds can be seen when cyclones arrive.
surface.
Cirrocumulus Clouds These are coloured clouds
So, after the condensation of water vapour, the
having patches of small white flakes or small round
release of moisture is known as precipitation.
particles. These are arranged in distinct groups or
wave-like form called mackerel sky. They generally This may take place in liquid or solid form.
appear as ripples similar to sand ripples in the desert.
Cirrostratus Clouds These are white almost Forms of Precipitation
transparent sheet which causes the Sun and Moon to Various forms of precipitation are :
have halo. They are so transparent that the Sun and
Moon are visible through them.
Snowfall
When the temperature is lower than 0°C, precipitation
Middle Clouds (2-6 km) takes place in the form of fine flakes of snow and is
Altostratus Clouds They are thin sheets of gray or blue called snowfall.
colour clouds having fibrous or uniform appearance. Moisture is released in the form of hexagonal crystals.
They do not form halo around the Sun and Moon. They These crystals form flakes of snow.
cover the sky partly or totally or appear as smoothly
The other forms of precipitation are sleet and hail.
distributed over the entire sky.
62
Hails Orographic Rainfall

Hails are limited in occurrence and are sporadic in both When the saturated air mass comes across a
time and space. mountain, it rises and expands.
Raindrops, which leave the warmer air, encounter the As a result, the temperature falls and the moisture is
colder air below. condensed.
As a result, they solidify and reach the ground as small The windward slopes receive greater rainfall.
pellets of ice not bigger than the raindrops from which After giving rain on the windward side, when these
they are formed. winds reach the other slope, they descend, and their
Sometimes, drops of rain after being released by the temperature rises. As the capacity to take in moisture
clouds become solidified into small rounded solid increases these leeward slopes remain rainless and
pieces of ice and which reach the surface of the Earth dry.
are called hailstones. The area situated on the leeward side, which gets
These are formed by the rainwater passing through the less rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area.
colder layers. Hailstones have several concentric layers It is also known as the relief rain.
of ice one over the other.
Sleet
Sleet is frozen raindrops and refrozen melted
snow-water.
When a layer of air with the temperature above freezing
point overlies a sub freezing layer near the ground,
precipitation takes place in the form of sleet.
Orographic Rainfall
Rainfall and its Types Cyclonic Rainfall
The precipitation in the form of water is called rainfall.
Cyclonic activity causes cyclonic rain that occurs
On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified into along the fronts of the cyclone.
Convectional, Orographic or relief and Cyclonic or
It is formed when two masses of air of unlike
frontal.
density, temperature and humidity meet.
Convectional Rainfall At the warm front, the warm lighter wind increases
The air on being heated becomes light and rises in slightly over the heavier cold air.
convection currents. As the warm air rises, it cools and the moisture
As it rises, it expands and loses heat and condensation present in it condenses to form clouds.
takes place and cumulous clouds are formed. This rainfalls gradually for a few hours to a few days.
With thunder and lightning, heavy rainfall takes place
air
but this does not last long. rm
Wa
Such rain is common in the summer or the hotter part
of the day.
It is very common in the equatorial regions and interior
a ir Cold air
parts of the continents, particularly in the Northern rm
Wa
Hemisphere.
Cyclonic Rainfall
World Distribution of Rainfall

Cold Air
Cold Air
As we proceed from the equator towards the poles,

rainfall goes on decreasing steadily.
The coastal areas of the world receive greater
amounts of rainfall than the interior of the
Warm Air continents.
The rainfall is more over the oceans than on the
Convectional Rainfall landmasses of the world.
63
Between the latitudes 350 and 400 N and S of the Accordingly, following types of air masses are
equator, the rain is heavier on the Eastern coasts and recognised:
goes on decreasing towards the West. (i) Maritime tropical (mT)
But, between 450 and 650 N and S of the equator, due (ii) Continental tropical (cT)
to the Westerlies, the rainfall is first received on the (iii) Maritime polar (mP)
Western margins of the continents and it goes on (iv) Continental polar (cP)
decreasing towards the East. (v) Continental arctic (cA)
Wherever mountains run parallel to the coast, the Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses are
rain is greater on the coastal plain, on the windward cold.
side and it decreases towards the leeward side.
Major precipitation regimes of the world are Fronts
identified as:
— In the Equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the The sloping boundary which separates two opposing
mountains along the Western coasts in the cool air masses having contrasting characteristics in terms
temperate zone and the coastal areas of the of air temperature, density, pressure, humidity and
monsoon land receive heavy rainfall of over 200 cm wind direction is called front.
per annum. An extensive transition zone between two converging
— Interior continental areas receive moderate air masses is called frontal surface or frontal zone.
rainfall varying from 100 - 200 cm per annum. The Fronts are most clearly developed in areas where air
coastal areas of the continents receive moderate masses converge, as in mid-latitude frontal
amounts of rainfall. depressions. The term front was originally used by
— The central parts of the tropical land and the V Bjerknes and J Bjerknes in 1918.
Eastern and interior parts of the temperate lands
receive rainfall varying between 50 - 100 cm per Types of Fronts
annum. Fronts are classified into four principal types on the basis
— Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the interior of their different characteristic features :
of the continents and high latitudes receive very low 1. Warm Front
rainfall-less than 50 cm per annum.
It is well-defined boundary zone at the front of the
warm-sector of a depression, where a mass of warm air
Air Masses is overriding and rising above the overtaking cold air.
When the air remains over a homogenous area for a The relatively slow ascent of warm moist air at the
sufficiently longer time, it acquires the characteristics front results in cooling and condensation over a wide
of the area. area and the development of nimbus clouds. The
The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of frontal surface is at a very low angle of only 1/2º
temperature and humidity is called an air mass. and 1°.
Ahead of the warm front, a broad belt of continuous
It is defined as a large body of air having little
heavily rains occurs in overcast conditions.
horizontal variation in temperature and moisture.
The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean 2. Cold Front
surface or vast plains. The homogeneous surfaces It is the clearly defined boundary between a warm and a
over which air masses form, are called the source cold air mass, where the latter is advancing and
regions. undercutting the warm air mass.
The air masses are classified according to the source There is an appreciable drop in temperature, extensive
regions. cumulonimbus clouds develop, rain falls in heavy
There are five major source regions. These are: showers (sometimes accompanied by thunder) and the
(i) Warm tropical and subtropical oceans wind blows from a Northern or North-Western direction
(ii) The subtropical hot deserts (in the Northern hemisphere).
(iii) The relatively cold high latitude oceans The gradually rising warm air along the gently sloping
(iv) The very cold snow-covered continents in high warm front is cooled adiabatically. It gets saturated
latitudes and after condensation precipitation occurs over a
(v) Permanently ice-covered continents in the relatively large area for several hours in the form of
Arctic and Antarctica moderate to gentle precipitation.
64
3. Occluded Front The small letters a, b, c and d refer to the degree of

The overtaking of a warm front by a cold front in an severity of temperature.
atmospheric depression, which ultimately lifts the The B-Dry Climates are subdivided using the capital
warm sector off the surface of the Earth, is called an letters S for steppe or semi-arid and W for deserts.
occluded front. Here, the cold air in the rear of the
depression comes up against the cold air against Group A: Tropical Humid Climates
which the warm front is originally formed. Tropical humid climate exists between Tropic of Cancer
As the cold front normally travels more quickly than and Tropic of Capricorn. Here the Sun is overhead
the warm front, it slowly reduces the areas of the throughout the year and the presence of Inter Tropical
warm sector until it merges with the preceding front Convergence Zone (ITCZ) makes the climate hot and
to complete the occlusion process. humid. Here the annual range of temperature is very low
Therefore, the occlusion is a compound zone with and annual rainfall is high. The tropical group is divided
warm and cold front characteristics. The associated into following three types :
weather has characteristics of both warm front and
Tropical Wet Climate (Af)
cold front weather.
Tropical wet climate is found near the Equator and the
4. Stationary Front major areas where the climate is experienced are the
This front is formed when two contrasting air Amazon Basin in South America, Western equatorial
masses converge in such a way that they become Africa and the islands of East Indies.
parallel to each other and there is no ascent of air. Significant amount of rainfall occurs in every month of
the year as thunder showers in the afternoon.
Koeppen’s Scheme of The temperature is uniformly high and the annual
range of temperature is negligible. The maximum
Classification of Climate temperature on any day is around 30°C while the
The most widely used classification of climate is the minimum temperature is around 20°C.
empirical climate classification scheme developed Tropical evergreen forests with dense canopy cover and
by V. Koeppen. large biodiversity are found in this climate.
Koeppen identified a close relationship between the
distribution of vegetation and climate. Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)
He used the values of temperature and precipitation Tropical monsoon climate (Am) is found over the
and related them to the distribution of vegetation Indian sub-continent, North-Eastern part of South
and used these values for classifying the climates. America and Northern Australia.
It is an empirical classification based on mean Here heavy rainfall occurs mostly in summer and
annual and mean monthly temperature and winter is dry.
precipitation data. Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw)
He uses capital and small letters to designate Tropical wet and dry climate occurs North and South of
climatic groups and types. Af type climate regions.
Koeppen recognised five major climatic groups, It borders with dry climate on the Western part of the
four of them are based on temperature and one on continent and Cf or Cw on the Eastern part.
precipitation.
Extensive Aw climate is found to the North and South of
The capital letters A, C, D and E delineate humid the Amazon forest in Brazil and adjoining parts of
climates and B dry climates. Bolivia and Paraguay in South America, Sudan and
The climatic groups are subdivided into types, South and Central Africa.
designated by small letters, based on seasonality of
precipitation and temperature characteristics. Group B : Dry Climates
The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small Dry climates are characterised by very low rainfall. But
letters: f, m, w and s. the rainfall is inadequate for the growth of plants.
— f- no dry season These climates cover a very large area of the planet
— m- monsoon climate extending over large latitudes from 15° - 60° North and
— w- winter dry season South of the equator.
— s- summer dry season
65
At low latitudes, from 15° - 30°, they occur in the area of Monthly average temperature in summer is around
subtropical high. As a result of subsidence and inversion 25° C and in winter below 10°C. The annual
of temperature rainfall is not produced. precipitation ranges between 35 - 90 cm.
On the Western margin of the continents, adjoining the Humid Subtropical (Cfa) Climate
cold current, particularly over the West coast of South
Humid subtropical climate lies on the Eastern parts
America, they extend more equatorward and occur on
of the continent in subtropical latitudes.
the coast land.
In this region, the air masses are generally unstable
In middle latitudes, from 35° - 60° North and South of
and cause rainfall throughout the year.
equator, they are confined to the interior of continents
where maritime-humid winds do not reach and to areas They occur in Eastern United States of America,
often surrounded by mountains. Southern and Eastern China, Southern Japan,
North-Eastern Argentina, coastal South Africa and
Dry climates are divided into two such as Steppe or
Eastern coast of Australia.
semi-arid climate (BS) and desert climate (BW).
The annual averages of precipitation vary from
They are further subdivided as:
75-150 cm. Thunderstorms in summer and frontal
— Subtropical steppe (BSh) and Subtropical desert
precipitation in winter are common.
(BWh) at latitudes from 15° - 35°.
Mean monthly temperature in summer is around
— Mid-latitude steppe (BSk) and Mid-latitude Desert
27°C, and in winter it varies from 5°-12° C. The daily
(BWk) at latitudes between 35° - 60°. range of temperature is small.
— Subtropical Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical Desert
(BWh) have common precipitation and temperature Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb)
characteristics. Marine West coast climate is located poleward from
They are located in the transition zone between humid the Mediterranean climate on the West coast of the
and dry climates. continents.
Subtropical steppe receives adequate enough rainfall for The main areas are North-Western Europe, West
the growth of sparse grasslands. coast of North America, North of California,
The variability in the rainfall affects the life in the Southern Chile, South-Eastern Australia and New
steppe much more than in the desert, more often Zealand.
causing famine. Due to marine influence, the temperature is
moderate and in winter, it is warmer than for its
Group C : Warm Temperate (Mid- Latitude) latitude. The mean temperature in summer months
ranges from 15°-20°C and in winter 4°-10°C.
Climates
The annual and daily ranges of temperature are
Warm temperate (mid-latitude) climates extend from 30° -
small. Precipitation occurs throughout the year.
50° of latitude mainly on the Eastern and Western margins Precipitation varies greatly from 50-250 cm.
of continents that have warm summers with mild winters.
They are grouped into four types, such as: Group D : Cold Snow Forest Climates
Humid Subtropical Climate (Cwa) Cold snow forest climates occur in the large
continental area in the Northern Hemisphere
Humid subtropical climate occurs poleward of Tropic of
between 40°-70° North latitudes in Europe, Asia and
Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, mainly in North Indian
North America.
plains and South China interior plains.
The climate is similar to Aw climate except that the The severity of winter is more pronounced in
temperature in winter is warm. higher latitudes. Cold snow forest climates are
divided into two types:
Mediterranean Climate (Cs)
Cold Climate with Humid Winters (Df)
As the name suggests, Mediterranean climate occurs
around Mediterranean Sea, along the West coast of Cold climate with humid winter occurs poleward of
continents in subtropical latitudes between 30°-40° marine West coast climate and mid latitude steppe.
latitudes. e.g., Central California, Central Clile, along The winters are cold and snowy. The frost-free
the coast in South-Eastern and South-Western Australia. season is short. The annual ranges of temperature
These areas come under the influence of sub-tropical are large.
high in summer and Westerly wind in winter. Hence, The weather changes are abrupt and short.
the climate is characterised by hot, dry summer and Poleward, the winters are more severe.
mild, rainy winter.
66
Cold Climate with Dry Winters (Dw) Group H : Highland Climates

Cold climate with dry winter occurs mainly over Highland climates are governed by topography.
North-Eastern Asia. In high mountains, large changes in mean temperature
The development of pronounced winter anti occur over short distances.
cyclone and its weakening in summer sets in Precipitation types and intensity also vary spatially across
monsoon like reversal of wind in this region. high lands.
Poleward summer temperatures are lower and There is a vertical zonation of layering of climatic types
winter temperatures are extremely low with with elevation in the mountain environment.
many locations experiencing below freezing point
temperatures for up to seven months in a year. Climatic Groups According to Koeppen
Precipitation occurs in summer. The annual Groups Types Letter Characteristics
precipitation is low from 12-15 cm. Codes
A-Tropical Tropical Wet Af No dry season
Group E : Polar Climates Humid Climate Tropical Am Monsoonal, short
Polar climates exist poleward beyond 70° latitude. Monsoon dry season
Aw
Polar climates consist of two types: Tropical wet and Winter dry
dry season
Tundra Climate (ET)
The tundra climate (ET) is so called after the B-Dry Climate Subtropical BSh Low-latitude
Steppe BWh semi-arid or dry
types of vegetation, like low growing mosses,
lichens and flowering plants. Subtropical BSk Low-latitude arid
Desert or dry
This is the region of permafrost where the sub BWk
Mid-latitude Mid-latitude
soil is permanently frozen. Steppe semi-arid or dry
The short growing season and water logging Mid-latitude Mid-latitude arid
support only low growing plants. Desert or dry
During summer, the tundra regions have very C-Warm Humid Cfa No dry season
long duration of day light. Temperate subtropical Cs Dry hot summer
Climates Mediterranean
Ice Cap Climate (EF) Cfb No dry season,
Marine west coast warm and cool
The ice cap climate (EF) occurs over interior summer
Greenland and Antarctica. Even in summer, the
temperature is below freezing point. D- Cold Humid Df No dry season,
Snow-forest Continental Dw severe winter
This area receives very little precipitation. The Climates Subarctic Winter dry and
snow and ice get accumulated and the mounting Sub arctic very severe
pressure causes the deformation of the ice sheets
and they break. E-Cold climates Tundra ET No true summer
They move as icebergs that float in the Arctic and Polar ice cap EF Perennial ice
Antarctic waters. Plateau Station, Antarctica, H-Highland Highland H Highland with
79°S, portray this climate. snow cover
INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 06 67
Oceanography
Sources Class-VII New NCERT Chap 5 (Water), Class-VII Old NCERT Chap 3 (Ocean Waters and Their Circulation), Class-IX Old NCERT
Chap 3 (Realms of Water), Class-XI New NCERT Chap 3 (Oceans), Class-XI New NCERT Chap 4 (Movements of Ocean Water),
Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 15 (The Profile of the Ocean Floor), Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 16 (Ocean Waters and Their Circulation),
Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 17 (Marine Life and Deposits)
Renewable water on the Earth is constant while the

Water and Its Distribution demand is increasing tremendously. This leads to
Water is a cyclic resource. It can be used and re-used. water crisis in different parts of the world - spatially
Water also undergoes a cycle from the ocean to land and temporally. The pollution of river waters has
and land to ocean. further aggravated the crisis.
The Hydrological Cycle is the circulation of water Distribution of Water on the Earth’s Surface
within the Earths hydrosphere in different forms i.e.
the liquid, solid and the gaseous phases. It also refers Reservoir Volume Percentage of
(million cubic km) the Total
to the continuous exchange of water between the
oceans, atmosphere, land surface and sub-surface Oceans 1370 97.25
and the organisms. Ice caps and glaciers 29 2.05
Oceanography is the interdisciplinary study of the Groundwater 9.5 0.68
global oceans i.e., from shallow coastal areas to the Lakes 0.125 0.01
deepest ocean trenches and from the tropics to the Soil moisture 0.065 0.005
polar seas. Atmosphere 0.013 0.001
Streams and rivers 0.0017 0.0001
Distribution of Water Biosphere 0.0006 0.00004
The distribution of water on Earth is quite uneven.
Many locations have plenty of water while others
have very limited quantity. About 71% of the Oceans and Seas
planetary water is found in the oceans. Nearly 71% of Earth’s surface is covered by seas,
The remaining is held as freshwater in glaciers and among which Pacific Ocean comprises 35.4%, Atlantic
icecaps, groundwater sources, lakes, soil moisture, Ocean comprises 18.4%, Indian ocean 14.5%, Arctic
atmosphere, streams and within life. Nearly 59% of ocean 3% and land surface covers about 29%.
the water that falls on land returns to the atmosphere The Northern Hemisphere is called continental
through evaporation from over the oceans as well as hemisphere as it contains about 40% of continents and
from other places. The remainder runs-off on the 60% ocean, whereas Southern Hemisphere is called
surface, infiltrates into the ground or a part of it Oceanic Hemisphere as oceans cover about 81% of the
becomes glacier. total surface.
68
Profile of Oceanic Floor (ii) Continental Slope

Oceanic surface is heavier and denser than their Continental slope is formed due to erosion, tectonic
continental counterpart. An oceanic basin is the land movement and aggradations (increase in land
surface under an ocean that includes the topography elevation).
under the water. Continental slope has a steep slope, beyond
From continent to ocean floor, the relief features can be continental shelf towards ocean.
divided into six major parts on the basis of angle of slope. It varies from 2°C to more than 5°C at different places.
These are : It occupies 8.5% of the total area of ocean basin
10 (iii) Continental Rise
8
6 Mean height Continental A continental rise is a wide, gentle incline from a
4 (Land) shelf deep ocean plain (abyssal plain) to a continental
2 slope.
0 Sea level
A continental rise consists mainly of silts, mud and
0 km sand, deposited by turbidity flows and can extend for
2 several hundreds of miles away from continental
4 margins.
Continental 6
slope Although it usually has a smooth surface,
Deep sea plain 8
it is sometimes crosscut by submarine canyons
10 extending seaward of continental slope regions.
100
150
300
350
500
0
50
200
250
450
The continental rise is generally absent in regions

where deep-sea trenches exist and subduction zones
Distance (km)
are active.
Division of the Ocean Basin Relief
Continental rises feature deep-sea fans. In
(i) Continental Shelf appearance they are much like alluvial fans on land
found along the fronts of mountain ranges.
The continental shelf is margin of continent that is
Deep-sea fans are accumulations of sediment
submerged under ocean water upto 100 fathoms
(600 feet). deposited by turbidity currents (called turbidities)
at the foot of the continental slope. Turbidities are
Its overs 8.6% of total ocean basin. Its slope varies underwater landslide deposits.
from 1° to 3°.
It is determined by the coastal reliefs. Narrow shelf is (iv) Deep Sea Plain or Ocean Basin
found where a high mountain runs parallel to coast. Ocean basin is a vast submarine regions which
In Atlantic Ocean it is 2 km to 80 km wide. collectively cover nearly three-quarters of Earth’s
The continental shelf in Pacific Ocean varies between surface. Together they contain the majority of all water
160 km to 1600 km of width. The width of continental on the planet and have an average depth of almost 4 km
shelves largely depends on the mature of reliefs of (about 2.5 miles).
coastal land. A significant features of the ocean floor include aseismic
On an average continental shelf of Indian ocean in the ridges, abyssal hills and seamounts and guyots.
West is 640 km wide and in the East near Java and The basins also contain a variable amount of sedimentary
Sumatra is as narrow as 160 km and further narrower fill that is thinnest on the ocean ridges and usually
along the coast of Antarctica. thickest near the continental margins.
The point where a mark increase in slope angle occurs Abyssal Plain It is an underwater plain on the deep
is called as shelf break. About 20% of oil and gas ocean floor, usually found at depths between 4500
production is extracted from them. and 6000 m. It extends from the continental rise
They support productive fishing ground and are good (continental Lithogenous sediments accumulate along
source of marine food (Dogger bank and Grand continental margins) to the distant deep ocean basin
bank). where continental-derived sediment deposition is not
significant. Abyssal plains are large horizontal
The submergence and emergence of the continent play
seafloor regions - typically some of the flattest places
an important role in the origin of continental shelf.
on the Earth’s surface.
69
Abyssal plains are underlain by oceanic crust that

formed and moved away from spreading centres
Oceans of the World
associated with mid-ocean ridges and rises. The five major oceans are the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic
Because they are so far from land they have very slow Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean and the
sedimentation rates. Arctic Ocean :
Some places less than 1 cm per 1000 years. The Pacific Ocean In order of the size, the Pacific Ocean
dominant geologic process is "Planktonic rain" which is the largest ocean. It is spread over one-third of the
blankets seafloor with organic sediments. earth. Mariana Trench, the deepest part of the earth,
Seamount A seamount is any isolated mountain-sized lies in the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Ocean is almost
feature that rises above the seafloor. A seamount may circular in shape. Asia, Australia, North and South
be a large tectonic block that separated from a large Americas surround it.
continental landmass or may be an ancient or even Atlantic Ocean It is the second largest ocean in the
active submarine volcano. world. It is ‘S’ shaped. It is flanked by the North and
A submarine mountain that is partly exposed above the South Americas on the western side, and Europe and
ocean surface is called an island. Many seamounts Africa on the Eastern side.
(and islands) are isolated volcanic peaks rising off The coastline of Atlantic Ocean is highly indented.
seafloor. Many are part of mid-oceanic ridges or This irregular and indented coastline provides ideal
associated with oceanic hotspots. For instance, the location for natural harbours and ports. From the point
Hawaiian Islands are part of the Emperor Seamount of view of commerce, it is the busiest Ocean.
Chain. The South Pacific region is a region with
Indian Ocean It is the only ocean named after a
numerous seamounts, of which many are islands,
country, that is, India. The shape of ocean is almost
atolls or guyots.
triangular. In the North, it is bound by Asia, in the
Atoll An atoll is a ring-shaped reef, island, or chain of west by Africa and in the East by Australia.
islands formed of coral, typical on a foundation of an
Southern Ocean It encircles the continent of
extinct volcano in the ocean. The limestone ring forms
Antarctica and extends Northward to 60 degrees
along the margins of the volcano. Over the time, the
south latitude.
volcano either erodes away or sinks below the surface,
but the limestone rim continues to grow and expand Arctic Ocean It is located within the Arctic Circle and
over time. surrounds the North Pole. It is connected with the
Pacific Ocean by a narrow stretch of shallow water
Guyots A guyots is a submarine volcanic mountain
known as Bering strait. It is bound by Northern
(seamount) with a flat top. Most guyots are ancient
coasts of North America and Eurasia.
submarine volcanoes that have been developed by the
wave action before sinking into ocean depth. They may
lack the fringing limestone reefs associated with atolls. Oceanic Circulation and
(v) Ocean Deeps or Trenches Ocean Currents
Deep ocean trenches are formed during a process The ocean current is a general movement of a mass
known as subduction. In subduction, one tectonic of water in a fairly defined direction over great distances.
plate (a large portion of the Earth’s crust) slides under
another. Type of Currents
The plate that is slipping under the other plate bends There are two types of ocean currents :
and forms an ocean trench. The subduction Warm currents These are those which flow from the
zones where ocean trenches form become long and low latitudes in tropical zones towards the high
deep valleys. latitudes in the temperate and sub-polar zones.
(vi) Submarine Canyons These currents are flow away from the equatorial
region and move towards the poles or latitudes which
These are a kind of narrow steep-sided valleys. They
are on the Western side of oceans basins. They bring
originate either within continental slopes or on a
warm waters in areas of cold water and are mainly
continental shelf.
observed in the Eastern continents. The prominent
Congo Canyon is regarded as the largest river canyon. example of warm currents is the North Atlantic and
The Hudson Canyon is the best-known Submarine the Kuroshio Current.
canyon in the world. Cold currents These are those which flow from the
The largest submarine canyon in the world is high latitudes towards the low ones. These currents
Zhemchug Canyon. flow towards the equator and move towards the
70
tropics or lower latitudes which are on the Eastern Direction, shape, configuration of coastlines and
side of ocean basins. They bring cold water into those bottom reliefs They also influence the ocean current,
areas where there is warm water which are mainly but never be the cause of current. They only create
observed in the West coasts of the continent. secondary waves in the ocean.
The prominent example of cold current is the
General Characteristics of Ocean Currents
Labrador Ocean Current and the East Greenland
Current flows. The general movement of the currents in the Northern
Hemisphere is clockwise and in the Southern
Factors influencing Nature and Hemisphere, anti-clockwise.
Movement of Ocean Current This is due to the Coriolis force which is a deflective
Rotation of the Earth The Earth rotates from West to force and follows Ferrel’s law. A notable exception to
the East. The speed of the rotation of the Earth this trend is seen in the Northern part of the Indian
is maximum at the equator, all moving bodies move Ocean. Here the current movement changes its
in a clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere direction in response to the seasonal change in the
and anti-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. This direction of monsoon winds.
is also known as the Coriolis Effect. On the surface, oceanic current are powerful i.e., more
High pressure causes lowering of the sea level and than 5 knots. In depth, their speed decreases (less than
low pressure causes the sea level to rise. Water moves 0.5 knot).
from low pressure to high pressure area. At high The warm currents move towards the cold seas and
pressure, air diverse and in oceanic surface, diverting cool currents towards the warm seas.
air lower the sea level. So, the cold current in lower In the lower latitudes, the warm currents flow on the
level now come out to surface, called upwelling and Eastern shores and cold on the Western shores.
in low pressure region down welling occur. The situation is reversed in the higher latitudes—the
Salinity Oceans with a higher level of salinity are warm currents move along the Western shores and the
denser than oceans having lower levels of salinity. cold currents along the Eastern shores.
Generally, ocean currents are generated from areas of Convergence along which the warm and cold currents
less salinity to areas of high salinity. Since the meet and divergence from which they move out in
Mediterranean Sea is more saline than the Atlantic different directions also control the currents.
Ocean, most of the ocean currents flow from the
The shape and position of coasts play an important
Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean.
role in guiding the direction of currents.
Precipitation dilutes salinity and density, so
The currents flow not only at the surface but also
influence the current in oceans.
below the sea surface. Such currents are caused by the
Temperature Temperature affects the origin and differences in salinity and temperature. For example,
nature of ocean currents. As the equator and tropical heavy surface water of the Mediterranean Sea sinks
regions are warm, the oceans lying near the Equator and flows Westward past Gibraltar as a sub-surface
and the tropics are warmer than the oceans lying near current.
the Polar Regions.
Thus the ocean currents from warm equatorial regions Currents of the Pacific Ocean
move towards the Polar Regions as warm currents. North Equatorial and Kuroshio Current Under the
Similarly, the cold currents move from the Polar influence of prevailing trade winds, the North
Regions to the Equatorial regions as the cold currents. Equatorial current starts from the West coast of
The Planetary Winds Winds affect ocean currents. Central America. It traverses a distance of 14,500 km
The trade winds blow between the Equator and the moving from East to West before it turns Northward
Tropics. These winds thus move the equatorial water off the Philippines to form the Kuroshio current.
towards the Pole. For example, the South-East Trade From the South-East coast of Japan, under the influence
Winds drift the Equatorial Current to the Eastern of prevailing Westerlies, the current turns Eastwards
coast of Australia as the warm East Australian and moves as the North-Pacific current, reaches the
Current. West coast of North America and bifurcates into two.
Landforms A landform may influence ocean Alaska Current The Northern branch flows
currents. For example, the shape of various anti-clockwise along the coast of British Columbia and
landmasses may obstruct the flow of water and Alaska and is known as the Alaska current. The water
influence its movement such as the South Equatorial of this current is relatively warm as compared to the
Current gets deflected towards the Northern surrounding waters in this zone.
Hemisphere.
71
Californian Current The Southern branch of the Currents of the Atlantic Ocean
current moves as a cold current along the West coast of
USA and is known as the Californian current. South Equatorial Current As in the Pacific Ocean,
the two equatorial currents move from East to West
The Californian current joins the North equatorial
in Northern and Southern Hemispheres and a
current to complete the circuit.
counter-equatorial current flows from West to East.
Oyashio and Okhostsk Current Also, there are two
The South equatorial current bifurcates into two
cold currents in the Northern Pacific. Oyashio flows
branches near Cape de Sao Roque (Brazil). Its
across the East coast of Kamchatka Peninsula to merge
Northern branch reinforces the North equatorial
with the warmer waters of Kuroshio. The Okhotsk
current.
current flows past Sakhlain Islands to merge with the
Oyashio current off Hokkaido. Antilles Current Part of the combined current enters
the Caribbean Sea and the Mexican Gulf, while the
South Equatorial and East Australian Current
remainder passes along the Eastern side of the West
Following the pattern in the Northern hemisphere, the
Indies as the Antilles current.
South equatorial current flows from East to West and
turns Southwards as the East Australian current. It then Florida Current At this stage, there is a rise in water
meets the South Pacific current near Tasmania which level in the Mexican Gulf, because of large amounts
flows from West to East. driven by trade winds and because of water brought
by the Mississippi river. As a result, a current flows
Peru Current Reaching the South-Western coast of
out through the Strait of Florida to be joined by the
South America, it turns Northward as the Peru Current
Antilles current from the South.
or Humboldt current. It is a cold current, which finally
feeds the South equatorial current, thus completing the This combined current moves along the shallow
great circuit. continental slope between the Straits of Florida and
Cape Halters as the Gulf Stream beyond that.
Counter-Equatorial Current Another current flows
parallel to the North and South equatorial currents but Gulf Stream From the Grand Banks, the Gulf Stream
in the opposite direction—from West to East. This flows Eastward across the Atlantic as the North
current is known as the counter-equatorial current. The Atlantic Drift. The main motive force for this current
genesis of this current is explained by an upset in the is supplied by the prevailing South-Westerly winds.
water balance because of accumulation of water in the North Atlantic Current The North Atlantic Current
Western sector due to movement of the two equatorial breaks up into two branches on reaching the Eastern
currents. The West to East flowing counter-equatorial part of the ocean. The main current, continuing as
currents maintain the water balance. the North Atlantic Drift, reaches the British Isles
from where it flows along the coast of Norway as the
Norwegian current and enters the Arctic Ocean.
Canary Current The Southerly branch flows
between Spain and Azores as the cold Canary
current. This current finally joins the North
equatorial current completing the circuit in the
North Atlantic. The Sargasso Sea, lying within this
circuit, is full of large quantities of seaweed.
Greenland Current and Labrador Current The two
cold currents—East Greenland current and the
Labrador Current—flow from the Arctic Ocean into
the Atlantic Ocean. The Labrador Current flows
along part of the East coast of Canada and meets the
warm Gulf Stream.
The confluence of these two currents, one hot and the
other cold, produce the famous fogs around
Newfoundland. As a result of mixing of cold and
warm waters, one of the world’s most important
Pacific Ocean Currents fishing grounds is created.
72
South Equatorial Current In the South Atlantic circulation. They change their direction from Season
Ocean, the South equatorial current, flowing from to Season in response to the seasonal rhythm of the
East to West, splits into two branches near Cape de monsoons. The effect of winds is comparatively more
Sao Roque (Brazil). pronounced in the Indian Ocean.
The Northern branch joins the North equatorial South Equatorial Current In the Northern section of
current, whereas the Southern branch turns Southward the Indian Ocean, there is a clear reversal of currents
and flows along the South American coast as the Brazil between winter and summer. In winter, the North
current. equatorial current and the South equatorial current
Brazil Current The Brazil current swings Eastward at flow from East to West.
about latitude 35°S to join the West Wind Drift flowing A counter-equatorial current flows from West to East,
from West to East. A branch of the South Atlantic between the two equatorial currents.
current flows along the West coast of South Africa as The Southern part of the Indian Ocean is less marked
the cold Benguela current, which joins the South by the seasonal changes. The general pattern of
equatorial current to complete the circuit. circulation is simple and is anti-clockwise like that of
Falkland Current Another cold current, the Falkland the other Southern oceans.
current, flows along the South-Eastern coast of South The South equatorial current, partly led by the
America from South to North. corresponding current of the Pacific Ocean, flows from
East to West and thus, Southward along the coast of
Mozambique in Africa.
a
Monsoon Current The North-East monsoons drive the
water along the coast of Bay of Bengal to circulate in
an anti-clockwise direction. Similarly, along the
coasts of the lands bordering the Arabian Sea, an
anti-clockwise circulation of currents develop known
as monsoon current.
In summer, a strong current flow from West to East,
which completely obliterates the North equatorial
current during this season. It is due to the effects of the
strong South-West monsoon and the absence of the
North-East trades.
There is no counter-equatorial current at this time of
the year. Thus, the circulation of water in the Northern
part of the ocean is clockwise during this season.
Mozambique Current The current flowing through
the Mozambique Channel is known as the warm
Mozambique current. Further Southward, the
Mozambique current is joined by another branch of
the South equatorial current flowing past Madagascar
Island.
Agulhas Current After the confluence of these two
streams, it is known as the Agulhas current. It still
continues to be a warm current, till it merges with the
Currents of the Atlantic Ocean
West Wind Drift.
Currents of the Indian Ocean West Australian Current The West Wind Drift,
flowing across the ocean in the higher latitudes from
Being only half an ocean, completely landlocked in West to East, reaches the Southern tip of the West
the North, the characteristic current circulation of the coast of Australia.
Indian Ocean is different from that of Atlantic or the
Pacific Ocean. One of the branches of this cold current turns
Northwards along the West coast of Australia. This
The currents in the Northern portion of the Indian current, known as the West Australian current, flows
Ocean differ entirely from the general pattern of Northward to feed the South equatorial current.
73
currents keep the ports of Europe ice free even

during the winters. This helps in trade and
commerce.
The ships face danger due to the fogs caused by
the meeting of the warm currents with the cold
currents. This has resulted in the wreckage of
many ships in the past as they are not able to view
icebergs due to poor visibility.
Salinity of the Ocean

Salinity means the total content of dissolved
salts in sea or ocean.
Salinity is calculated as the amount of salt
dissolved in 1,000 gm of seawater.
It is generally expressed as ‘parts per thousand’
(ppt).
A salinity of 24.7% has been regarded as the
upper limit to fix Brackish water.
It is a significant factor in deciding several
characteristics of the chemistry of natural waters
and biological processes.
Isohalines are used on maps to show the salinity
of different places.
Isohalines are the lines joining places having an
Effects of Ocean Currents equal degree of salinity.
Effect on Heat Balance Currents influence the climatic
The average salinity of the ocean – 35.2% or 35
conditions of the regions in which they flow. The warm
parts of salt in 1000 parts of water.
Equatorial currents raise the temperature of the region in
which they flow. Similarly, the cold currents lower the In hot and dry regions, where evaporation is
temperature of the places where they flow. high, the salinity sometimes reaches to 70.
For example, British Isles would have been extremely cold In the estuaries (enclosed mouth of a river
without the warm North Atlantic Drift. The hot climate of where fresh and saline water get mixed) and the
Peru is cooled by the cold Peru Current. Arctic, the salinity fluctuates from 0 – 35,
seasonally (fresh water coming from ice caps).
Effect on Rainfall The winds blowing over warm currents
pick up and carry moisture and bring rainfall like the Salinity at depth is very much fixed, because
North Atlantic Drift bring rainfall in some areas there is no way that water is ‘lost’ or the salt is
located along the Western coasts of Europe. ‘added.’ There is a marked difference in the
salinity between the surface zones and the deep
On the contrary, cold currents do not bring rainfall and make
zones of the oceans.
the region cooler and drier. The Kalahari Desert
hardly experiences rainfall due to the cold Benguela current. The lower saline water rests above the higher
saline dense water.
At times the meeting line of a warm and a cold current may
result into a violent storm. The hurricanes which occur off Generally, salinity increases with depth and
the coast of USA follow the line where the Gulf Stream there is a distinct zone called
merges with the Labrador Current. the halocline (compare this with thermocline),
where salinity increases sharply.
Stimulation to Fishing The mixing of warm and cold
currents results in the deposition of planktons. Therefore, Other factors being constant, increasing salinity
at such places, fishes can be found in abundance. of seawater causes its density to increase. High
salinity seawater, generally, sinks below the
Effect on Trade and Navigation Currents help ships to sail
lower salinity water. This leads to stratification
if they follow the directions of the currents. Many warm
by salinity.
74
Quantity of Oceanic Salinity Variation in Density

Oceanic Saline Salinity Quantity (in Seawater density varies from place to place because
(in PPT) percentage) it is affected by salinity and temperature. This
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) 27.213 77.8 means that ships float higher or lower in the water,
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) 3.807 10.9 depending on the density of the ocean.
Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO 4 ) 1.658 4.7 Near the waterline of a cargo ship, the International
Calcium Sulphate (CaSO 4 ) 1.260 3.6 Load Line (once called the Plimsoll Line) can be
found. This shows the limit of where the fully loaded
Potassium Sulphate (KSO 4 ) 0.863 2.5
ship should sit in waters of different densities.
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO 3 ) 0.123 0.3
High salinity makes water denser. This is because
Magnesium Bromide (MgBr) 0.076 0.2
there is more salt packed into the water.
Total 35 100
High temperature makes water less dense. As water
gets warmer, its molecules spread out, so it
Factors Affecting Salinity becomes less dense. As it gets colder, it becomes
Depth With depth, the salinity also varies, but this denser.
variation again is subject to latitudinal difference. Most chemicals get denser when they turn from a
Current The decrease is also influenced by cold and liquid to a solid, but water is different. When liquid
warm currents. water freezes into solid ice, it becomes less dense.
Latitude In high latitudes, salinity increases with When ice forms, water molecules arrange themselves
depth. In the middle latitudes, it increases up to 35 into a rigid but open pattern. This structure is less
metres and then it decreases. At the equator, surface dense than the liquid water, so ice floats.
salinity is lower.
Effect of Density Changes
Location of Sea Salinity changes with depth, but the
way it changes depends upon the location of the sea. Dense water sinks below less dense water. This is
the principle that drives the deep ocean currents that
Evaporation Salinity at the surface increases by the loss
circulate around the world.
of water to ice or evaporation, or decreased by the input
of fresh waters, such as from the rivers. A combination of high salinity and low temperature
near the surface makes seawater dense enough to
sink into the deep ocean and flow along the bottom
World’s Highest Saline Bodies of the basins.
n Lake Van (Turkey) – 33.8% Deep water is denser than shallow water. The water
n Dead Sea – 33.7% molecules are packed together more tightly because
n Great Salt Lake – 32.0% of the weight of water above pushing down.
Ocean Density Ocean Temperature

Ocean Temperature is a measure of the energy due
The density of seawater plays a vital role in causing
to the motion of molecules in the ocean. Satellites
ocean currents and circulating heat because of the fact
enable measurement of Sea Surface Temperature
that dense water sinks below less dense. Salinity,
(SST) from approximately 10 um below the surface
temperature and depth all affect the density of
(infrared bands) to 1 mm (microwave bands) depths
seawater.
using radiometres.
Density is a measure of how tightly a certain amount
The spatial patterns of SST reveal the structure of
of matter is packed into a given volume. The more the
the underlying ocean dynamics, such as, ocean
stuff is packed in, the higher the density. Density can be
fronts, eddies, coastal upwelling and exchanges
calculated by dividing an object’s mass by its volume.
between the coastal shelf and open ocean.
It is commonly measured in grams per millilitre or
grams per cubic centimetre. SST is a vital component of the climate system as it
exerts a major influence on the exchanges of energy,
For example, basalt is a very dense rock with an
momentum and gases between the ocean and
average mass of around 3 g/cm 3 but it is still not as
atmosphere. The heat and moisture exchanges are a
dense as elemental iron, with a mass of nearly 8 g/cm3.
main driver of global weather systems and climate
Sea water is denser than pure water. The higher patterns.
the salinity, the higher the density.
75
The temperature of the oceanic water is important for The diurnal range depends on the conditions of sky
marine organisms including plants (Phytoplankton) (cloudy or clear sky), stability or instability of air and
and animals (Zooplanktons). The temperature of sea stratification of seawater.
water also affects the climate of coastal lands and The heating and cooling of ocean water is rapid under
plants and animals there in. clear sky (cloudless) and hence, the diurnal range of
The major source of the temperature of the oceanic temperature becomes a bit higher than under overcast
water is the sun. The radiant energy transmitted from sky and strong air circulation.
the photosphere of the Sun in the form of The high density of water below surface water causes
electromagnetic shortwaves and received at the ocean very little transfer of heat through conduction and
surface is called insolation. hence the diurnal range of temperature becomes low.
Besides, some energy, though insignificant, is also
received from below the bottom and through the Annual Range of Temperature
compression of sea water. The maximum and minimum annual temperatures of
The amount of insolation to be received at the sea ocean water are recorded in August and February
surface depends on the angle of sun’s rays, length of respectively (in the Northern hemisphere).
day, distance of the Earth from the Sun and effects of Usually, the average annual range of temperature of
the atmosphere. ocean water is –12°C (10°F) but there is a lot of regional
The mechanism of the heating and cooling of ocean variation which is due to regional variation in
water differs from the said mechanism on land insolation, nature of seas, prevailing winds, location
because besides horizontal and vertical movements of of seas etc.
water, the evaporation is most active over the oceans. Annual range of temperature is higher in the enclosed
There are three layers in the oceans from surface to seas than in the open sea (Baltic Sea records annual
the bottom in the tropics viz : range of temperature of 4.4°C or 40°F).
(i) First Layer It represents the top-layer of warm The size of the oceans and the seas also affects annual
oceanic water and is 500m thick with temperature range of temperature e.g., bigger the size, lower the
ranging between 20°C and 25°C. This layer is present annual range and vice versa. The Atlantic Ocean
within the tropics throughout the year but it records relatively higher annual range of temperature
develops in mid-latitudes only during summer. than the Pacific Ocean.
(ii) Second Layer The thermocline layer represents Factors Controlling Ocean Temperature
vertical zone of oceanic water below the first layer. It
The factors which affect the distribution of temperature
is characterised by rapid rate of decrease of
of ocean water are :
temperature with increasing depth.
Latitude The temperature of surface water decreases
(iii) Third Layer It is very cold and extends up to the
from equator towards the poles because of the
deep ocean floor. The polar areas have only one
slanting rays of the Sun pole ward.
layer of cold water from the surface (sea-level) to the
deep ocean floor. Prevailing wind Direction of the wind affects the
distribution of temperature of ocean water. The off
Range of Temperature of Oceanic Water shore winds blowing from the land towards ocean or
sea raise the temperature of ocean water.
There are following two ranges of temperature of oceanic
water : Winds blowing from snow covered regions in winter
lower the surface temperature. In trade wind belt, the
Daily Range of Temperature off shore winds initiate upwelling of cooler water from
The difference of maximum and minimum beneath and on shore winds pile up warm water to
temperature of a day (24 hours) is known as daily increase the temperature to certain extent.
range of temperature. The daily range of temperature Ocean currents Warm currents raise the temperature
of surface water of the oceans is almost insignificant as of the oceans where they flow whereas cold currents
it is around 1°C only. lower down the temperature.
On an average, the maximum and minimum Gulf Stream (warm current) increases the
temperatures of sea surface water are recorded at 2 pm temperature of the Eastern part of North America and
and 5 am respectively. The daily range of temperature the West coast of Europe.
is usually 0.3°C in the low latitudes and 0.2°C to 0.3°C Labrador cold current reduces the temperature near
in high latitudes. North Eastern coast of North America.
76
Apart from these, some minor factors like The variation of temperatures in the Northern and
submarine ridges, local weather conditions like Southern hemispheres is because of unequal distribution
storms, cyclones, hurricanes, fog, cloudiness, of land and water as Northern hemisphere is made up of
evaporation and condensation also affect the more land, while the Southern Hemisphere is made up of
surface temperature of ocean water. more oceans.
The temperature of the sea surface is highest Vertical Distribution of Temperature
(27 to 30°C) not near Equator but few degrees
The maximum temperature of the oceans is always on the
North of the Equator. The lowest temperature
surface because it directly receives the insolation. The
recorded is –1.9°C near the poles.
heat is transmitted to the lower sections of the oceans
The maximum and minimum annual through the mechanism of conduction.
temperatures of ocean water are recorded in
Solar rays very effectively penetrate up to 20 m depth and
August and February in the Northern hemisphere
they seldom go beyond 200 m depth. Consequently, the
and reverse in case of the Southern hemisphere.
temperature decreases from the ocean surface with
increasing depth but the rate of decrease of temperature
Distribution of Temperature in with increasing depth is not uniform everywhere.
Oceans The temperature falls very rapidly up to the depth of 200
The distribution of temperature can be ocean mean m and there after the rate of decrease of temperature is
temperature, Horizontal Distribution of Temperature slowed down.
and Vertical Distribution of Temperature.
Increasing Temperature (in sec.)
Ocean Mean Temperature 0
0º 4º 8º 12º 16º 20º 24º
Ocean Mean Temperature(OMT) is measured up

to a depth of 26 degrees’ isotherm.
500
It is measured with the help of satellites that orbit
the earth. In the Indian ocean, OMT is analysed by Thermocline
measuring the ocean thermal energy during the 1000
period from January to March.
Scientists from Pune’s Indian Institute of 1500
Tropical Meteorology (IITM) find that Ocean
Mean Temperature (OMT) has a better ability to
2000
predict Indian summer monsoon than the Sea
Increasing depth (in meters)
Surface Temperature (SST).

2500
Horizontal Distribution of Temperature
Average temperature of surface water of the
3000
oceans is 26.7°C and the temperature gradually
decreases from equator towards the poles.
The rate of decrease of temperature with 3500
increasing latitudes is generally 0.5°C per
latitude. 4000
The average temperature become 22°C at 20°N
and S latitudes, 14°C at 40° N and S latitude, 10°C
4500
at 60°0 latitude and 0°C near the poles.
Thermocline
The oceans in the Northern Hemisphere record
relatively higher average temperature than in the
Southern Hemisphere. Relationship Between Density, Temperature
Please note that the highest temperature is not and Salinity
recorded at the equator rather it is a bit North n Temperature and density are inverse
of it. i.e., as temperature increases, density decreases.
The average annual temperature of all the n Salinity and density are proportional i.e., as salinity
oceans is 17.2°C. The average annual increases, density increases.
temperatures for the Northern and Southern
n Temperature and salinity do not affect each other
temperature changes, salinity remains the same.
hemispheres are 19.4°C and 16.1°C respectively.
77
Ocean Tides High Tides

The side of the Earth facing the moon will have a
The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice
tidal bulge called the direct tide. Similarly, on the
a day, mainly due to the attraction of the Sun and the
opposite side of the planet, the ocean will also be
Moon, is called a Tide. Movement of water caused by
bulging.
meteorological effects (winds and atmospheric pressure
changes) are called surges. Surges are not regular like This is called the opposite tide, and it happens
tides. because the inertial force of the Earth exceeds the
gravitational force of the moon at this location.
Surges are non-regular and non-periodic movement of
Therefore, high tides occur simultaneously on the
water caused by meteorological effects e.g., winds and
opposite sides of the Earth.
atmospheric pressure changes.
The study of tides is very complex, spatially and Low Tides
temporally, as it has great variations in frequency, Low tides are the receding waters between the
magnitude and height. high tides. In some places, low tide can be only a
few feet, while in others the ocean can recede
Causes Responsible for the Occurrence of Tides much farther.
The Moon’s gravitational pull to a great extent and to a High and low tides both appear two times each in
lesser extent the Sun’s gravitational pull, are the major a 24-hour day, but since the moon rises 50 minutes
causes for the occurrence of tides. Another factor is later each day, the tide cycles will differ by the
centrifugal force, which is the force that acts to counter same 50 minutes daily.
balance the gravity.
Spring Tides
The tide-generating force is the difference between the
gravitational attraction of the moon and the centrifugal The phases of the Moon also affect tides. When the
force. Moon is at its Full or New Moon phase, high tides
are at their highest, while low tides are lower than
On the surface of the Earth, nearest the Moon, pull or the
usual.
attractive force of the Moon is greater than the centrifugal
force and so there is a net force causing a bulge towards These tides occur when the Sun, Moon and the
the Moon. Earth all line up. The added gravity of the Sun can
make the oceans bulge more than at other times.
On the opposite side of the Earth, the attractive force is
less, as it is farther away from the Moon, the centrifugal Neap Tides
force is dominant. Hence, there is a net force away from During the moon’s quarter phases, the Sun pulls
the Moon. It creates the second bulge away from the against the Moon’s gravitational pull instead of
Moon. with it. During these tides, the result is the lowest
On the surface of the Earth, the horizontal tide generating high tide and the highest low tide.
forces are more important than the vertical forces in In other words, the least extreme difference
generating the tidal bulges. between high and low tides. This is called a neap
The tidal bulges on wide continental shelves, have greater tide.
height. When tidal bulges hit the mid-oceanic islands they
Periodic Tides
become low.
Apogean tides and perihelion tides occur when
The shape of bays and estuaries along a coastline can also
Moon’s position is at apogee (farthest) or perigee
magnify the intensity of tides. Funnel-shaped bays greatly
(nearest) to the Earth.
change tidal magnitudes. When the tide is channeled
between islands or into bays and estuaries they are called These are monthly tides. During aphelion and
tidal currents. perihelion, tides varies their nature and are called
yearly tides. Equinoctial spring tides occur every
Tidal bulges have greater height at wide continental
6 months.
shelves and low mid-oceanic islands. At bay or estuaries,
intensity of tides also magnified by the shape of the water
body. Here, the tide is called tidal current.
Importance of Tides
Since, tides are caused by the Earth-Moon-Sun
Types of Tides positions which are known accurately, the tides
can be predicted well in advance. This helps the
Different types of tides are discussed below occur because
navigators and fishermen plan their activities.
different positions of the Sun and the Moon with relation to
Tidal flows are of great importance in navigation.
the Earth:
78
Tidal heights are very important, especially harbours The process and extent of disintegration depends on
near rivers and within estuaries having shallow 'bars' the nature of rock material, climate and time taken.
at the entrance, which prevent ships and boats from The larger particles of the Terrigenous deposits are
entering into the harbour. found near the shore and the finer ones carried deeper.
Tides are also helpful in Differences in water density The extent to which they are carried outwards depends
affect vertical mobility of ocean currents. on the size of rock material and the strength of sea
Water with high salinity is denser than water with waves and currents.
low salinity and in the same way cold water is denser On the basis of size of particles, the Terrigenous
than warm water. Denser water tends to sink, while deposits may be categorised into three classes mud,
relatively lighter water tends to rise. sand and gravel.
Cold-water ocean currents occur when the cold water — Mud refers to the finest particles which comprise the
at the poles sinks and slowly moves towards the minute particles of rock forming minerals,
equator. principally quartz. Murray has classified the mud
Warm-water currents travel out from the equator deposits into blue, green and red types, based on the
along the surface, flowing towards the poles to replace colour of constituents. Sand refers to the coarser
the sinking cold water. particles.
— Gravel has even bigger particles.
Ocean Deposits Volcanic Products

Most important types of ocean deposits In volcanic regions the deposits of continental shelf
are Terrigenous deposit and Pelagic deposits. There and slope consist chiefly of products of volcanism,
are unconsolidated sediments, deposited on the which are subject to chemical and mechanical
ocean floor. These are ocean deposits. They vary from weathering and are carried to the ocean by actions of
location to location. running water and wind.
The study of ocean deposits is important in The volcanic deposits differ from the ordinary
understanding the rocks exposed on the Earth’s Terrigenous deposits in one respect they are made of
surface which were once laid under sea. pyroclastic volcanic products and lava, rather than
The ocean deposits can broadly be divided into two quartz.
types—the Terrigenous deposits and the pelagic Organic Products
deposits. The Terrigenous deposits are those which Such deposits consist of shells and skeletons of various
are found on the continental shelves and slopes and plants and animals that live and grow on the sea floor
mainly consist of the rock material derived because of and are changed into mud and sand by chemical and
wear and tear. The pelagic deposits are those which mechanical processes.
are found over deep sea plains and the deeps.
They differ from the ordinary Terrigenous deposits in
These deposits mainly consist of organic remains of the sense that they consist of calcium carbonate only.
plants and animals. But this distinction between the
two types of deposits is not absolute. For instance, the Pelagic Deposits
Terrigenous deposits may not always consist of the
fragmented rock material and may be carried deep Pelagic deposits are the most conspicuous of all
into the sea. deposits—covering about 75% of the total sea floor.
Also, the pelagic deposits may — not always consist This is because, except for fine volcanic ash, little
of the plant and animal remains and may be extended Terrigenous material is carried into the deeps. The
for up to the continental slope. pelagic deposits consist of both organic and inorganic
material.
Terrigenous Deposits Organic Material
Terrigenous deposits are derived from the wear and This is in the form of a kind of liquid mud, called ooze,
tear of land, volcanic and organic products. The which contains shells and skeletons of various marine
greater part of the deposits on the continental shelf organisms. The ooze is said to be calcareous when the
and slopes is derived from rock material by shell is made of calcium carbonate.
disintegration and decomposition. It is done by the The calcareous ooze may be either Pteropod ooze or
agents of weathering and carried to sea by the agents Globogerina ooze. Most parts of the Indian and Atlantic
of erosion, such as running water, wind etc. Oceans have Calcareous ooze as deposits.
79
When the shell is made of Silica, the ooze is said to be Trench Description
Siliceous ooze, which can be either the diatom type or Japan Trench It is deep submarine trench located East of
the Radiolarian type of ooze. The Southern fringes of the the Japanese Islands. It is part of the Pacific
Ring of Fire in the Northern Pacific Ocean.
Indian and the Atlantic Oceans have the Siliceous type
With a maximum depth of 9 km, the Japan
of ooze. Trench stretches from the Kuril Islands to
the Bonin Islands. It is also the extension of
Inorganic Material the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench and the
This is in the form of red clay, which is apparently of a Izu-Ogasawara Trench to the North and
volcanic origin. The chief constituents of red clay are South respectively.
silicon and aluminium dioxide, while other constituents Kuril Trench It is the deepest part of ocean belonging to
include iron, manganese, phosphorus and radium. the Pacific Ocean. This trench lies at a
considerable depth of 10.5 km below sea
The red clay is the most widely spread pelagic deposit level.
and covers 38% of the sea floor. The red clay covers Lying close to Kuril Island and off the coast
more than half of the Pacific floor. of Kamchatka, this trench is responsible for a
number of oceans bed volcanic activities in
Major Trenches of the World the region. The trench was formed due to the
subduction zone that was developed in the
Trench Description
late Cretaceous, which created the Kuril
Mariana Trench It is located in the Western Pacific Ocean. island and the Kamchatka volcanic arcs.
It is considered to be the deepest part of the Philippines It is the third deepest point in the world, the
Earth’s surface. In fact, it is the Challenger Deep Trench Galatea Depth. It is 10.54 km below sea level.
in the Mariana Trench that is known as the Also known as Mindanao Trench, this
deepest point. submarine trench is located in the Philippine
It appears as a crescent-shaped scar, the trench Sea, spreads in a length of 1,320km and
measures around 2,550 km long, 69 km wide on 30km width in the East of Philippines.
average and has a maximum depth of 10.91 km at Prominent among other trenches in the
the Challenger Deep. At the same time, some Philippine Sea, this trench was formed due
other efforts measured the deepest portion at to a collision between the Eurasian plate and
11.034 km. the smaller Philippine plate. The other major
Tonga Trench It is located in the South-West Pacific Ocean and trenches in the Philippine sea include
at the Kermadec Tonga Subduction Zone’s Manila Trench East Luzon Trench, Negros
Northern end. It lies around 10.882 km below sea Trench, Sulu Trench and Cotabato Trench.
level. Kermadec Tonga It is located North of New Zealand where the
The deepest point in the Tonga trench, known as Trench Pacific plate meets the Australian-Indian
the Horizon Deep, considered to be the second plate. It reaches depths of 2000 km non-
deepest point on Earth after the Challenger Deep linear karmadec Tonga subduction system.
and the deepest trench of the Southern
Java (Sunda) It is located South of Indonesia between the
Hemisphere.
Trench Australian-Indian and the Eurasian plates. It
Puerto Rico It is located between the Caribbean Sea and the is the deepest point in the Indian Ocean with
Trench Atlantic Ocean. It marks the deepest point in this 3200 km depth.
(28,900 ft) region and the eighth deepest point found on the
Earth’s surface. Major Ridges of the World
Lies at a depth of 8.64 km, spotted at Milwaukee
Deep and measures a length of over 800 km, this Ridge Description
trench has been responsible for many tragic Aden Ridge l
It is located in Gulf of Aden.
Tsunamis and Earthquake activities in this l
It is divergent boundary between the
region. Somalian and the Arabian tectonic plates.
Peru-Chile It (the Atacama Trench) is located around 160 km Cocos Ridge l
It is located in the East Pacific Ocean, Ecuador
Trench off the coast of Peru and Chile in the Eastern
(26,460 ft) Pacific Ocean. The Atacama Trench has a
l
It is volcanic hotspot.
maximum depth of 8.06 km below sea level. The Explorer Ridge l
It is located in the West of Vancouver Island,
deepest point of the trench is known as Richards British Columbia, Canada.
Deep. l
It is divergent tectonic plate boundary
Aleutian Trench It extends from Alaska to the Kamchatka between Vancouver Island, British Columbia
Peninsula it results from the Pacific plate sliding and Canada.
beneath the North American plate. Gorda Ridge l
It is located at the Northern Coast of
Ryukyu Trench It is located near the Ryukyu Island it marks the California and Southern Oregon.
boundary between the Pacific plate and the l
It is tectonic spreading centre broken into
Eurasian plate this zone is marked by intense three segments the Northern ridge, Central
seismic activity. ridge and the Southern ridge.
80
Ridge Description
Juan de Fuca l
It is located at the off coast of the Pacific
Coral Reefs
Ridge North-West region of North America. Coral reefs are large underwater structures composed of
l
It is a mid-ocean spreading centre and the skeletons of colonial marine invertebrates called
divergent plate boundary. coral. The coral species that build reefs are known as
l
It separates the Pacific Plate to the West hermatypic, or ‘hard’, corals because they extract
and the Juan de Fuca Plate to the East.
calcium carbonate from seawater to create a hard,
American- l
It is located between the South America durable exoskeleton that protects their soft, sac-like
Antarctic Ridge and Antarctica.
bodies.
l
It is the Tectonic spreading centre between
the South American Plate and the Antarctic Other species of corals that are not involved in reef
Plate. building are known as ‘soft corals’. These types of corals
Chile Rise l
It is located in the Peru-Chile Trench are flexible organisms often resembling plants and trees
l
It is a tectonic divergent plate boundary and include species such as sea fans and sea whips,
between the Nazca and Antarctic Plates. according to the Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL), a
East Pacific l
It is located along the floor of the Pacific non-profit environmental organisation.
Rise Ocean Each individual coral is referred to as a polyp. Coral
l
It is a divergent tectonic plate that polyps live on the calcium carbonate exoskeletons of
separates the Pacific Plate to the West from their ancestors, adding their own exoskeleton to the
(North to South) the North American Plate,
the Rivera Plate, the Cocos Plate, the Nazca
existing coral structure.
Plate, and the Antarctic Plate. As the centuries pass, the coral reef gradually grows, one
East Scotia l
It is located on the edge of the South tiny exoskeleton at a time, until they become massive
Ridge Atlantic and Southern Ocean. features of the marine environment.
Nazca Ridge l
It is located in the Southern Pacific Ocean. Corals are found all over the world's oceans, from the
Pacific- l
It is located on the seafloor of the South Aleutian Islands off the coast of Alaska to the warm
Antarctic Ridge Pacific Ocean. tropical waters of the Caribbean Sea. The biggest coral
l
It is a divergent tectonic plate that reefs are found in the clear, shallow waters of the tropics
separates the Pacific Plate from the and subtropics.
Antarctic Plate.
The largest of these coral reef systems, the Great Barrier
Central Indian l
It is located in the Western Indian Ocean.
Ridge Reef in Australia, is more than 1,500 miles long (2,400
l
It is a North-South-trending mid-ocean
ridge.
kilometres).
Carlsberg It is located in the Northern section of the
Conditions for Coral Formation
l
Ridge Central Indian Ridge.

l
It is a divergent tectonic plate boundary The following favourable conditions are essential for the
between the African Plate and the development and existence of corals :
Indo-Australian Plate, traversing the
Western regions of the Indian Ocean. Temperature Corals are generally found in 30° North and
30° South latitudes. They need temperature of 20°C for
South-East l
It is located in the Southern Indian Ocean.
Indian Ridge development. They live in the depth of 45-55 m where
l
It is a divergent tectonic plate boundary
stretching between the Rodrigues Triple
sunlight reaches in sufficient quantity.
Junction in the Indian Ocean and the Salinity Corals develop in clean saline water. Freshwater
Macquarie Triple Junction in the Pacific and highly saline water is not favourable for their
Ocean, the SEIR forms the plate boundary
development. They also not develop in deltaic regions.
between the Australian and Antarctic
plates. Oxygen and Plankton They need oxygen and plankton
South-West l
It is located along the floors of the to remain alive and growth. That’s why corals rapidly
Indian Ridge South-West Indian Ocean and South-East develop towards the continental slope.
Atlantic Ocean.
l
It is a divergent tectonic plate boundary Areas of Coral Reefs
separating the African Plate to the North
from the Antarctic Plate to the South. Coral reefs are widely regarded as one of the top
conservation priorities globally. Such as ecosystem
Mid-Atlantic l
It is located along the floor of the Atlantic
Ridge Ocean, and part of the longest mountain harbours an extraordinary biodiversity, marine
range in the world. ecosystem services and are highly vulnerable to human
l
It is a divergent plate or constructive plate. stressors.
81
Lagoon
However, most of this knowledge is derived from studies
on nearshore and shallow-water reefs, with coral reef Pla
ce
ecosystems remaining virtually unstudied in marine Sea
Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (ABNJ), commonly
known as the high seas.
The majority of reef-building coral records in ABNJ were
in association with geomorphological features that have Barrier Reefs
steep topographies. These habitats, which include
escarpments, seamounts, and submarine ridges
Atoll
accounted for >74% of the records in international An atoll is a roughly circular (annular) oceanic reef
waters. system surrounding a large (and often deep) central
lagoon.
Types of Coral Reefs The lagoon has a depth 80-150 m and may be joined
Coral reefs are classified as follows : with sea water through a number of channels
cutting across the reef.
Fringing Reefs Atolls are located at great distances from deep see
These reefs that grow directly from a shore. They are platforms, where the submarine features may help
located very close to land and often form a shallow in formation of atolls, such as a submerged island
lagoon between the beach and the main body of the reef. or a volcanic cone which may reach a level suitable
A fringing reef runs as a narrow belt [1-2 km wide]. This for coral growth.
type of reef grows from the deep sea bottom with the Sea level
seaward side sloping steeply into the deep sea. Coral Lagoon
polyps do not extend outwards because of sudden and
large increase in depth.
The fringing reef is by far the most common of the three Atoll
major types of coral reefs, with numerous examples in
all major regions of coral reef development. Marine Resources
Fringing reefs can be seen at the New Hebrides Society
The Ocean is one of Earth’s most valuable natural
Islands off Australia and off the Southern coast of
resources. It provides food in the form of fish and
Florida.
Pla
shellfish—about 200 billion pounds are caught each
c e year.
Ocean resources provide jobs, goods and services
Pla for billions of people around the world and have
ce Sea
immense economic importance. Their resources
include food, fuel, renewable energy, minerals,
Fringing Reefs sand and gravel and tourism.
It is mined for minerals (salt, sand, gravel and some
Barrier Reefs manganese, copper, nickel, iron and cobalt can be
These are extensive linear reef complexes that parallel a found in the deep sea) and drilled for crude oil.
shore and are separated from it by lagoon. The ocean plays a critical role in removing carbon
This is the largest (in size, not distribution) of the three from the atmosphere and providing oxygen. It
reefs runs for hundreds of kilometres and is several regulates Earth’s climate.
kilometres wide. It extends as a broken, irregular ring
around the coast or an island, running almost parallel to it. Classification of Marine Resources
Barrier reefs are far less common than fringing reefs or Marine resources can be divided into the following
atolls, although examples can be found in the tropical categories.
Atlantic as well as the Pacific. The 1200-mile long Great
Barrier Reef off the North-Eastern coast off Australia is Marine Biological Resources (MBR)
the world’s largest example of this reef type. The biotic and abiotic resources found in the
The Great Barrier Reef is not actually a single reef as oceanic water and bottoms are called Marine
the name implies, but rather a very large complex Resources. They include marine water, inherent
consisting of many reefs. energy in the oceanic water (e.g., wave energy, tidal
energy etc.), biotic life of marine water (plants and
82
animals), marine deposits and abiotic elements Energy Resources

(minerals, fossil fuels etc.), biotic and abiotic matter of
To understand the full potential for future electricity
ocean bottoms, benthic organisms etc. Even a drop of
production that can be harnessed through our
oceanic water contains countless microscopic organisms.
nation’s water resources, the Water Power
Marine Biological Resources (MBR) are divided into two Technologies Office (WPTO) conducted the
parts - Food and Non-Food Resources. following resource assessments :
(i) Food Resources — Waves energy contained in ocean surface waves
On the basis of uses, marine food resources are divided — Tidal streams energy contained in the flow of
into two types : water from tides
(a) Protein rich food resources for the use as food for — Ocean currents energy contained in the flow of
human being (e.g. fishes), water resulting from large-scale ocean circulation
patterns
(b) animal feed mainly for domesticated animals. The
— River currents energy contained in rivers that can
contribution of fish in the world annual income from
marine resources of all categories stands second. be harnessed without flow diversion structures
such as dams
(ii) Non-food Resources — Ocean thermal gradients energy contained in the
The important marine non-food resources includes temperature difference between ocean surface and
corals. They are animals in the groups of marine deeper waters.
organisms. These are generally called rainforests of the There are three levels of resource assessments :
oceans. — Theoretical resource potential are annual average
The coral colonies provide different types of habitats for amount of physical energy that is hypothetically
different purposes of marine organisms. Most of sea fish available
lay eggs in the coral colonies. In fact, corals are the base — Technical resource potential are portion of a
of marine biological community. The marine biological theoretical resource that can be captured using a
health depends on the richness of corals.
specific technology
Marine organisms (plants and animals) are also divided — Practical resource potential are portion of the
into three categories on the basis of their habitats : technical resource that is available when other
(a) Planktons are floating and drifting micro plants and constraints (e.g., economic, environmental, and
animals of photic zone. These are divided into regulatory considerations) are factored in.
phytoplankton (plant planktons) and zooplanktons
(animal planktons). Fresh Water Resources
(b) Nektons include algae, strong and powerful floating Fresh water is vital to life and yet it is a finite
and swimming marine animals mainly fish. These resource. Of all the water on Earth, just 3% is fresh
marine animals move in all the zones of the oceanic water. Although critical to natural and human
environments. e.g., Pelagic fish, Demersal fish etc. communities, fresh water is threatened by a myriad
of forces including overdevelopment, polluted
(c) Benthos include those plants (non-photosynthetic
runoff and global warming.
or non-phototrophs) and animals which live at
the bottoms of the seas and oceans e.g., ephibenthic With this in mind, World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
community, benthic organisms, inflora and infauna. partners with communities, businesses and others to
decrease pollution, increase water efficiency and
Marine Mineral Resources protect natural areas to ensure enough clean water
This can be categorised into two parts exists to conserve wildlife and provide a healthy
future for all.
On the Basis of Location
— Minerals of the continental shelf deposits
— Minerals of the continental slope deposits
Maritime Zone
— Minerals of the deep sea bottom deposits United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
On the Basis of Nature (UNCLOS) 1982 (Law of the Sea)
— Metallic minerals UNCLOS is the only international
convention which stipulates a framework for state
— Fuel minerals (petroleum, natural gas)
jurisdiction in maritime spaces. It provides a
— Construction materials (gravels, sands etc.)
different legal status to different maritime zones.
83
It provides the backbone for off shore governance Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
by coastal states and those navigating the oceans. It Each coastal State may claim an EEZ beyond and
not only zones coastal states’ off shore areas but adjacent to its territorial sea that extends seaward up to
also provides specific guidance for states’ rights and 200 miles from its baselines.
responsibilities in the five concentric zones.
Within its EEZ, a coastal state has :
Baseline It is the low-water line along the coast as
— Sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring,
officially recognised by the coastal state.
exploiting, conserving and managing natural
It divides marine areas into five main zones resources, whether living or non-living, of the seabed
namely— Internal Waters, Territorial Sea, and subsoil.
Contiguous Zone, Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
— Rights to carry out activities like the production of
and the High Seas.
energy from the water, currents and wind.
Internal Waters Unlike the territorial sea and the contiguous zone, the
Internal waters are waters on the landward side of EEZ only allows for the above-mentioned resource
the baseline from which the breadth of the rights. It does not give a coastal state the right to
territorial sea is measured. prohibit or limit freedom of navigation or overflight,
Each coastal state has full sovereignty over its subject to very limited exceptions.
internal waters as like its land territory. Examples High Seas
of internal waters include bays, ports, inlets, rivers
The ocean surface and the water column beyond the
and even lakes that are connected to the sea.
EEZ are referred to as the high seas.
There is no right of innocent passage through
It is considered as “The common heritage of all
internal waters.
mankind” and is beyond any national jurisdiction.
The innocent passage refers to the passing through
States can conduct activities in these areas as long as
the waters which are not prejudicial to peace and
they are for peaceful purposes, such as transit, marine
security. However, the nations have the right to
science and undersea exploration.
suspend the same.
Straits of World
Territorial Sea
Strait Description
The territorial sea extends seaward up to
12 Nautical Miles (NM) from its baselines. Palk Strait It connects the Bay of Bengal with the Gulf of
Mannar.
A nautical mile is based on the circumference of the
Strait of Gibraltar It connects the Atlantic Ocean with the
Earth and is equal to one minute of latitude. It is
Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar and
slightly more than a land measured mile (1 nautical Spain in the North from Morocco in the South.
mile = 1.1508 land miles or 1.85 km).
Duncan Passage It is a strait separating Rutland to the North and
The coastal states have Sovereignty and Little Andaman to the South.
Jurisdiction over the territorial sea. These rights Nine Degree This Channel connects Laccadive Islands of
extend not only on the surface but also to the Channel Kalapeni, Suheli Par and Maliku Atoll.
seabed, subsoil and even airspace. Ten Degree It separates the Andaman Islands from the
But the coastal state’s rights are limited by the Channel Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal.
innocent passage through the territorial sea. Strait of Hormuz It lies between UAE and Oman on the South-West
and Iran on the North-East.
Contiguous Zone It connects the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of
The contiguous zone extends seaward up to 24 nm Oman. It is strategically very important as it
from its baselines. controls the oil trade from the Gulf countries.
It is an intermediary zone between the territorial Strait of Bab-El- It connects the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden and
Mandab separates Asia from Africa.
sea and the high seas.
Malacca Strait It is a longest strait. It separates Peninsular
The coastal state has the right to both prevent and Malaysia from Sumatra island of Indonesia.
punish infringement of fiscal, immigration,
It connects the Pacific Ocean to the Indian Ocean.
sanitary, and customs laws within its Territory and It provides a shorter route from the Andaman Sea
Territorial sea. to the South China Sea and therefore is the busiest
Unlike the territorial sea, the contiguous zone only waterway of the world.
gives jurisdiction to a state on the ocean’s surface Sunda Strait It connects the Java Sea to the Indian Ocean and
and floor. It does not provide air and space rights. separates Java island of Indonesia from its
Sumatra island.
84
Strait Description Major River Systems in the World

Bering Strait It separates Russia and Alaska and connects
River Country Source Destination
the East Siberian Sea in the Arctic Ocean
with the Bering Sea in the Pacific Ocean. Amazon Peru, Ecuador, Andes Atlantic Ocean
Brazil Mountain
Oranto Strait It connects the Adriatic Sea with the Ionian
Sea and separates Italy from Albania. Amur China, Mongolia, Lake Khanka Sea of Okhotsk
Russia
Bosphorus Strait It connects the Black Sea with the Sea of
Marmara. It is the world’s narrowest Brahmaputra China, India, Tibet Andaman Sea
navigable strait. Bangladesh
Dardanelles It lies between the Asian Turkey and Chang Jiang Kunlun Shan China East China Sea
Strait European Turkey and connects the Aegean Danube Germany, Austria, Black forest Black Sea
Sea with the Sea of Marmara. It is a vital link Hungary, Mountain
of transportation between the Black Sea and Slovakia, Croatia,
the Mediterranean Sea. Serbia, Romania,
La Parouses It lies between the Sakhalin island and Bulgaria, Moldova
Strait Hokkaido island of japan and connects the Dnieper Russia, Belarus, Valdai Hills Black Sea
Sea of Okhotsk with the Sea of japan. Ukraine (Russia)
Strait of It separates Russian Island Sakhalin from Ganga India Gangotri Bay of Bengal
Tartary/Tartar Mainland Asia. It connects the Sea of
Okhotsk in the North to the Sea of Japan in Huang Ho China Kunlun Gulf of Bohai
the South. Mountain
Tsugaru Strait It lies between Hokkaido and Honshu in Indus India, China, Mt. Kailas Arabian Sea
Northern Japan and connects the Sea of Pakistan
Japan to the Pacific Ocean. Irrawaddy Myanmar Mali River Andaman Sea
Taiwan Strait or It lies between Taiwan (Republic of China) Lena Russia Lake Baikal Laptev Sea
Formosa Strait and Mainland China (People's Republic of Mississippi Canada, USA Lake Itasca Gulf of Mexico
China). It connects South China Sea with the
Mackenzie Canada Great Slave Beaufort Sea
East China Sea.
Lake
Mozambique It lies in the Indian Ocean between
Mekong China, Thailand, Lasagongma South China Sea
Strait Mozambique from Madagascar.
Laos, Vietnam, Spring
Yucatan Strait It lies between Mexico and Cuba and Cambodia,
connects the Gulf of Mexico with the Myanmar
Caribbean Sea.
Murray Australia Australian Southern Ocean
Florida Strait It lies between the Florida state of the USA Alps
and Cuba.
Madeira Brazil, Bolivia Mamore Amazon River
Hudson Strait It connects the Hudson Bay (Canada) with River
the Labrador Sea. Nile Democratic Blue Nile, Mediterranean
Davis Strait It connects the Baffin Bay with the Atlantic Republic of White Nile Sea
Ocean. Congo, Tanzania,
Uganda, Sudan,
Cook Strait It lies between the North and the South
Egypt
Islands of New Zealand and connects the
Tasman Sea with the South Pacific Ocean. Niger Nigeria, Mali, Guinea Gulf of Guinea
Niger, Benin, Highlands
Bass Strait It separates Tasmania from the Australian
Guinea
mainland.
Irtysh China, Russia Altai Ob River
Torres Strait It lies in the Pacific Ocean, between Cape
Mountain
York Peninsula of Australia and Papua New
Guinea Orinoco Columbia, Parma Atlantic Ocean
Venezuela Mountains
Magellan Strait It separates Mainland South America from
Tierra Del Fuego (an archipelago off the
Southern-most tip of the South American Lakes
Mainland)
A lake (from the Latin word lacus) is an inland body of
Dover Strait It lies in the narrowest part of the English
Channel, connecting it with the North Sea. It water, not part of the ocean, that is larger and deeper
separates Britain from Continental Europe. than a pond and is localised at the bottom of a basin.
North Channel It separates Ireland from Scotland and In ecology, the environment of a lake is described as
connects the Irish Sea with the Atlantic lacustrine. The study of lakes, ponds, and other inland
Ocean. bodies of water and related ecosystems is called limnology.
85
Lake Location Area Length Maximum

Classification of Lakes Depth
There are two types of lakes based on geography and Baikal Russia 31,500 Sq. 636 km 1,741 m
circulation patterns, viz : km
— Polar lakes The surface temperature of these lake Great Bear Canada 31,080 Sq. 373 km 82 m
never falls below 40°C. km
— Lakes in temperate regions the surface temperature Nyasa Malawi, 30,044 Sq. 579 km 706 m
of these lake varies above and below 40°C. The Mozambique, km
Tanzania
bottom temperature maintains circulation in all
Great Slave Canada 28,930 Sq. 480 614 m
seasons like the surface.
km km
Classification of lakes based on temperature cycles Chad Chad, Niger, 25,760 Sq. - 7m
and stratification : Nigeria km
— Amictic Permanently frozen and always below 4°C. Erie U.S., Canada 25,719 Sq. 388 64 m
There is never any circulation. km km
— Cold monomictic The water at any depth never Winnipeg Canada 23,553 Sq. 425 62 m
rises above 4°C. Circulation occurs independently in km km
summer and the temperature stays below 4°C. Ontario U.S-Canada 19,477 Sq. 311 237 m
— Dimictic In spring the lake also has full circulation. km km
At this time the water temperature is 4°C. Stays Balkhash Kazakhstan 18,428 Sq. 605 27 m
km km
on top of it. Layering occurs in summer and mixed
again in autumn. At this time the lake is cold. Ladoga Russia 18,130 Sq. 200 225 m
km km
— Warm monomictic The water temperature at any
Onega Russia 9,891 Sq. 248 km 110 m
level is never below 4°C. Circulation occurs km
independently in winter or directly above 40°C in
Titicaca Bolivia, Peru 8,135 Sq. 177 km 370 m
summer. km
— Oligomictic Such lakes are located in very warm Nicaragua Nicaragua 8,001 Sq. 177 70 m
areas. Water temperature is always above 4°C and km km
permanent stratification is normal. As a result of the Athabasca Canada 7,920 Sq. 335 km 124 m
flow of air, this stratification is soon broken. Such km
lakes are found in humid tropical regions. Rudolf Kenya 6,405 Sq. 248 km
— Polymictic Mixtures occur continuously but only at km
low temperatures (just above 4°C). There is no Reindeer Canada 6,330 Sq. 245 km
thermal stratification. km
Eyre South 6,216 Sq. 209 km
Important Lakes and their Countries Australia km
Issyk, Kul Kyrgyzstan 6,200 Sq. 182 km 700 m
Lake Location Area Length Maximum
km
Depth
Great Salt U.S. 4,662 Sq. 121 km 5–8 m
Caspian Sea Azerbaijan, 394,299 Sq. 1,199 946 m
km
Russia, km km
Kazakhstan, Kioga Uganda 4,403 Sq. 80 9m
Turkmenistan km km
-Iran
Superior U.S., Canada 82,414 Sq. 616 km 406 m
km Wetlands
Victoria Tanzania, 69,485 Sq. 322 km 82 m A wetland is a place where the land is covered by
Uganda km water, either salt, fresh or somewhere in between.
Huron U.S., Canada 59,596 Sq. 397 km 229 m Marshes, the edge of a lake or ocean, the delta at the
km mouth of a river, low-lying areas that frequently flood,
Michigan U.S. 58,016 Sq. 517 km 281 m all of these are wetlands.
km
WWF, governments and other organisations have
Aral Kazakhstan, 33,800 Sq. 428 68 m pursued efforts to conserve and protect wetlands for
Uzbekistan km km
more than 40 years through the Ramsar Convention,
Tanganyika Tanzania, 32,893 Sq. 676 1,435 m the only international treaty devoted to a single
Congo km km
ecosystem type.
86
Types of Wetlands There are two main types of swamps, Forested swamps
and Shrub swamps. Swamps are home to variety of
On the basis of location, wetlands can be classified as animals like snakes, bobcat, alligators, beaver, large
follows : diversity of birds.
Marshes Bogs
Marshes are wetlands that are always inundated, Bogs are characterised by more acidic waters and
rather than being submerged under water just spongy peat deposits as well as a covering of sphagnum
during the summer or a couple of months over the moss. Unlike marshes and swamps, bogs tend to get
year, for instance. their wetness from precipitation rather than waterways
Marshes can be freshwater or saltwater and amount such as streams or runoffs from rivers.
of water in the marsh can change with the seasons. These wetlands are fantastic for preventing downstream
Marshes wildlife include beavers, alligators, newts, flooding since, they absorb precipitation as it falls and
shrimp and turtles. prevents the swelling of rivers and other waterways.
Swamps Fens
Swamps differ from marshes in that, typically, they Fens are, like bogs, peat-forming wetlands, although
are dominated by woody plants (rather than they usually get their wetness from ground water rather
soft-stemmed plants). than precipitation, which means that they are slightly
Some of these trees are often used as timber and to less acidic.
build their homes. This which can affect the This means that they tend to support a greater array of
ecosystem drastically if too many are taken without wildlife, from plants to fish to birds and everything in
being replaced with new saplings. between.
Major Wetlands of the World

Isimangaliso It resides on the Zululand coast in South Africa. This park went on to become the first World Heritage Site located in
Wetland Park South Africa. Isimangaliso Wetland Park embodies an astounding diversity of unique flora and fauna.
Kakadu It is located in the Northern territory of Australia, is spread nearly to 20,000 square kilometres. Kakadu is home to
Wetlands exceptional natural beauty and unique biodiversity. It has been inscribed as a World Heritage listing because of both its
cultural and natural values.
Pantanal These are the world’s largest freshwater wetland, is a seasonally flooded plain nourished by the tributaries of the
Paraguay River. It is considered to be one of the world’s most gratifying habitats. During the rainy season, it becomes
home to 260 species of fish. During the dry season as water quantity decreases, many birds and other animals migrate to
Pantanal.
Camargue The city of Arles, France hosts one of the famous wetlands in the world known as Camargue. The best time to visit the
Camargue Natural Park area is during Spring and the Autumn because during that time thousands of birds migrate to the
park’s wetlands. Bird-watchers from all over the world visit Camargue in huge numbers during this season. Flamingos
being the main attraction, lots of tourists visit Camargue to admire its natural beauty and diverse wildlife.
Mekong Delta Located in South-Western Vietnam, Mekong Delta is the region where the Mekong River merges into the sea through a
network of tributaries. Covering an area of 40,500, this region encompasses a large portion of South-Western Vietnam
though the size of the area covered by water is totally dependent on the season. Mekong Delta is often called a Rice Bowl
of Vietnam.
Wasur National Residing on Merauke Regency, Wasur National Park is the largest wetland area in Indonesia. Eminently preserved by the
Park WWF, this park has been designated as Wildlife Reserve. Due to its diverse ecosystem and high biodiversity, this park is
one of its kind, which gives birth to its other name “The Serengeti of Papua”.
Kerala The spectacular backwaters of Kerala, India consists of a placid stretch of lakes, canals, and lagoons which reside parallel
Backwaters to the coast of the Arabian Sea. The backwater regions of Kerala attracts tourists from all over the world.
Okavango Delta These are the Botswana exists, like a dazzling ornament at the heart of the Kalahari Desert. A maze of gleaming pools,
rambling channels and astonishing islands teeming with unique wildlife consolidates together to describe Okavango
Delta. It is a habitat to a variety of animals like Elephant, Hippopotamus, Giraffe, Crocodile, Lion, Cheetah, Rhinoceros
and Zebra.
Everglades Everglades National Park protects an exceptional mural which attracts millions of tourists from all over the world.
Everglades is located in South Florida, the USA had 1.5 million acres of wetland. It is a habitat of many unique and
endangered species like the manatee, American Crocodile, and the elusive Florida panther.
Sunderbans It lies in West Bengal, India and stretches to Bangladesh. Sundarbans, being the largest halophytic mangrove forest in the
world has an area of approximately 10,000 square kilometres. This delta is a combination of deltas of two major Indian
Rivers, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. Sundarbans is famous as the kingdom of the Royal Bengal Tigers.
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 07 87
Soil and Natural Vegetation
Sources Class-VII New NCERT Chap 6 (Natural Vegetation and Wildlife), Class-VIII New NCERT Chap 2 (Soil, Water,
Natural Vegetation and Resources), Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 7 (Soils)
Illuviation The accumulation in the lower part of the

Soil profile of material eluviated from above is called
Soil is a mixture of many solid, liquid and gaseous illuviation. This is the deposition or accumulation of
substances. It forms the top most layer of the Earth’s materials that have been washed down from the upper
crust. layer to the lower horizon of the soil through the
Soils are indispensable for the growth of all plants. process of eluviation. Illuviation sometimes leads to
The soil consists of mineral matter such as sand and the formation of a hardpan or crust of laterite.
clay as well as organic matter such us decayed Calcification It is the formation and accumulation of
leaves, flowers, dead tissues of organisms, minute calcium carbonate and gypsum in arid and semi-arid
bacteria and earthworms. regions. Here, parent materials in these climatic
Pedology is the science of soil and pedologist is the regions are rich in lime and gypsum. It occurs when
soil scientist. the evaporation exceeds precipitation. Under such
conditions, the material has an upward movement
Soil Forming Process within the profile due to capillary action.
The process of soil formation is called as Pedogenesis. Salinisation/Alkalisation This happens when
Soil forming process includes various steps like: temporary excess of water and extreme evaporation
Translocation It is the movement of soil constituents bring the underground salts to the surface and a
within the profile or between horizons. Translocation whitish fluorescent crust is left behind.
of materials is primarily due to gradients in water Alkalisation is the process by which soils with high
potential and chemical concentrations within the exchangeable sodium and pH greater than 8.5 are
soil pores. formed. It is often sodium carbonate and sodium
Leaching It is the removal of soluble components of bicarbonate are formed in extreme cases of alkalisation.
the soil column. Leaching is the gravitational Such soils are called sodic soils or alkali soils.
movement of water that affects the chemical Podzolisation/Cheluviation It occurs in cool, humid
composition of a soil by moving the soluble climates where the bacterial activity is low through the
chemicals deeper into the soil profile. influence of organic agents which are also referred to
As water washes down through the soil, it can carry as chelating agents. The process involves plant acids
away bases as well as acidification through the rather than mere water as the case with leaching.
substitution of hydrogen ions. During podzolisation or cheluviation, the upper
Eluviation It is the removal of finer grained particles horizons become rich in silica and the lower horizons
like clay particles from the top soil. It is the rich in sesquioxides- mainly of iron.
movement down the profile. The materials are Organic Changes These changes occur mainly on the
moved in suspension by water which is percolating surface and follow a specific sequence. This process
downward. The upper layer from which materials involves the accumulation of decaying plants and
have been eluviated is called the eluvial zone. animal matter on the ground surface.
88
The accumulated mass slowly breaks down to form Organisms in the soil can speed up or slow down soil
humus which is a major component of the soil. formation. Soils formed under forests tend to be more
Degrading or breakdown of the organic material by weathered because forests grow in higher rainfall
algae, fungi, insects and worms causes humification areas.
which leaves behind, a dark and amorphous humus. Plants form humus in the soil profile, which is
Gleying It is a soil forming process that occurs in basically a decayed plant material.
waterlogged, anaerobic conditions. It occurs when iron
Topography
compounds are reduced and either removed from the
soil or segregated out as concretions in the soil. Under Various aspects of topography have their own
such conditions, some specialised bacteria flourish influence on the process of soil formation.
which use up the organic matter. Steep, long slopes mean water will run down faster
Desilication/Lateralisation Such processes are and potentially erode the surfaces of slopes.
common in hot, wet tropical and equatorial climates. The effect will be poor soils on the slopes and richer
Desilication (or desilicification) is the removal of deposits at the foot of the slopes.
silicon from a soil or soil horizon, relative to some less
Time
mobile component or components. High temperature
leaves little or no humus on the surface. Soils take many years to form. Younger soils have
some characteristics from their parent material.
Factors Influencing Soil Formation As the age increases, the addition of organic matter,
Important factors that influence the formation of soil are exposure to moisture and other environmental
as follows : factors may change its features.
A more porous rock like sandstone or a less massive
Parent Rock rock like glacial till may take less time in soil
The material in which soil forms is called parent formation than an impervious rock or a more massive
material. rock like dark basalt.
Soils are formed by the direct weathering of underlying Soil Profile
rocks. Also soils form in materials that have moved in
from elsewhere. The soil profile is the vertical arrangement of
horizons down to the parent material.
These soils have the same general chemistry as the
original rocks. The parent rock controls texture A young soil means the soil where the factors of soil
permeability and fertility of soil. formation and pedogenic processes are still
operative the processes have not made a distinct
Climate impression on the soil profile.
The climate exercises influence temperature and A mature soil represents a steady state in respect of
rainfall. Temperature and moisture amounts cause the parent material.
different patterns of weathering and leaching. A vertical section through different layers of the soil
Temperature and precipitation influence how fast is called the soil profile. Each layer differs in feel
parent material weather. Thus, soil properties such as (texture) colour, depth and chemical composition.
mineral composition and organic matter content also These layers are referred to as horizons.
depend on it. Soil profiles differ from one location to another.
Temperature directly influences the speed of chemical The soil horizons depict the history of soil formation.
reactions. High temperature facilitates more bacterial There are five master horizons in the soil profile.
activity, more weathering. Little organic activity, low These are designated by the capital letters O, A, E, B.
temperature help in forming thicker, organic layers of Both C, O represents the organic horizon at the surface.
soil.
Precipitation governs water movement in the soil. The Properties of Soil
amount of water the soil receives and the amount of Physical, chemical and biological properties of soil are
evapotranspiration influence water movement. discussed as follows :
Biotic Activity
Physical Properties
Plants and animals are the instruments of biotic
activity. These include organisms that live in the soil, Colour The colour of the soil is defined by two
such as bacteria and gophers and vegetation growing factors, its organic content and the chemical nature
on the surface. of compounds found in the soil. Iron gives soil a
89
brown, yellow or red colour and the organic matter Intrazonal Soil
gives a black or dark brown colour to it. Soils are found within the definite climatic belt, but it
Texture It refers to the mixture of different soil is different from normal because of dominance of any
particles grading form fine to coarse and also the local factor.
ability of the soil to retain water and to drain it to Calcimorphic or calcareous soils develop on
lower levels limestone and hydromorphic soils develops in
Sandy It contains large proportion of sand grains and water abundance regions. Halomorphic soils are
has large pore spaces making it less water retentive saline in nature due to high salt level and found in
Clay It contains large proportion of clay particles and dry regions.
a little proportion of sand and has small pore spaces
Zonal Soil
making them more water retentive
Zonal soils are formed at the site of their parent rocks
Loamy It has equal proportion of sand, silt and clay
and the influence of parent rock and climate is clearly
and hence, it is the best for plant growth and
visible and are major determining factors.
ploughing it is easier.
They are mature, have distinct profile and clear
Chemical Properties horizons. e.g. Tundra soil in Arctic, Mediterranean soil
Acidic Soil Soil with low lime content is called acidic in Mediterranean climate, red yellow soil in desert and
in nature and they are indicated by low pH values, latosols in equatorial climates are zonal soils.
soils in humid regions tend to be acidic in nature. Classification on the Basis of
Alkaline Soil Soil with high lime content is called Chemical Compositions
alkaline in nature and are indicated by high pH
values, soils in arid and semi-arid regions tend to be On the basis of chemical compositions, soils are broadly
alkaline. classified as follows:
Biological Properties Pedalfer

Respiration rate CO2 evolution under standard Pedalfer soils have abundance of aluminium and iron.
These are of following types :
laboratory conditions or at the field.
Podzol They develop in the regions where
Potential N/C mineralisation Increase in mineral
precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration. These soils
Nitrogen or Carbon content under standard
are sandy and develop in cooler climate or Tundra
laboratory conditions.
region and coniferous forest is found there. Leaching is
Earthworm Density of earthworms. intense, humus acidic and horizons are bleached as
Bacterial biomass Total bacterial biomass for a given iron, aluminium and organic matter is removed. Soils
soil mass. are acidic and not encourage earthworm.
Bacterial diversity It can be determined by Grey Podzol This soil is found in the Taiga coniferous
functional groups, or describing genetic diversity. region of the sub-Arctic climatic zone.
— A-horizon is eluviated— bleached grey appearance
Classification of Soil (silica accumulation).
The soil classification was first done by Russian — B-horizon is illuviated— hard clayey pan,
pedologist, Dokuchaev. sesquioxide rich, nodules and concretion of brown
colour.
Classification on the Basis of Parent Rock
This is acidic in nature (pH = 4) because of slow
On the basis of parent rocks and location of formation, decomposition of organic matter and hence, unsuitable
soils can be classified as follows: for agriculture.
Azonal Soil Grey-Brown Podzol This soil is found in the
Azonal soils are of recent origin and soil forming deciduous forest region of the mid-latitudes, rich in
processes have not been operation for long. They are humus. It can be fertile by the use of manures and
not linked to prevailling climate of that area and its fertilisers and crop rotation. It is suitable for dairy
horizons are not distinct. farming and mixed farming practices.
These are immature soils as a result of high altitude, Red-Yellow Podzol This soil is formed by the
low temperature and slow decay of organic matter. processes of podzolisation and laterisation in the
e.g. volcanic soil, till, loess sand, etc. sub-tropical climatic region. Pronounced leaching
because of high rainfall. It is devoid of humus since,
90
warmer regions enhance pronounced bacterial Red Desert Soil This is the soil of hot deserts in the
activity. Productivity is fertiliser responsive and high tropical region. It is characterised by deposition of lime
crop yield. near the surface and absence of humus.
Red Podzol or Terra Rossa This soil found in the Moderate to high fertility depending on nitrogen (N)
Mediterranean and Lime regions, is red in content. Productive if abundant irrigation is available
appearance due to presence of Fe2O3. It is devoid of and salt removed.
humus because moist conditions enhance bacterial
activity. They are deeply weathered, but lack distinct USDA Soil Classification
horizons. Low fertility and can be productive if used n CF Marbut of USA gave an extensive scheme, called
scientifically. USDA System (US Department of Agriculture), for the
Laterite Soil This soil is formed in the regions of classification of world soils in 1938. Under USDA
high temperature, abundant rainfall and equatorial system, world soils are divided into 10 orders,
forests, where the process of leaching is dominant. 47 sub-orders and 185 great soil groups.
Though humus is available in ample amount, yet due — Alfisols — Andisols
to consumption by microbes and the process of — Gelisols — Aridisols
leaching, very little of it is left. Salts of Al and Fe2O3 are — Histosols — Inceptisols
found in the upper layers of this soil. — Entisols — Vertisols
— Oxisols — Spodosols
Crust formation near the surface, nodular concretions,
induration. When dry, it becomes hard and forms a — Ultisols — Mollisols
useful building material.
Pedocals Soil Conservation

Soil conservation is a methodology to maintain soil
Pedocals have abundance of calcium. These are of
fertility, prevent soil erosion and exhaustion. It also
following types :
helps to improve the degraded condition of the soil.
Brown Earths These are moderately or well-drained
Experiments have been made to stabilise sand dunes in
soil, found where precipitation exceeds potential
Western Rajasthan by the Central Arid Zone Research
evapotranspiration and particles move downward
Institute (CAZRI).
through the soil. They are main soil of UK and other
warm temperate climate. The soil is reasonably The Central Soil Conservation Board, set up by the
fertile. Government of India, has prepared a number of plans
for soil conservation in different parts of the country.
Chernozem It is the most fertile soil. It needs very
little fertilisers and irrigation. It is found in the Some methods of soil conservation are listed below:
Steppe region. It is black in colour due to abundance — Mulching The bare ground between plants is covered
of humus. Lime is found in abundance in its lower with a layer of organic matter like straw. It helps to
layers. retain soil moisture.
Chestnut It is dark brown soil found in the drier — Contour barriers Stones, grass, soil is used to build
parts of Chernozem region. It contains less humus barriers along contours. Trenches are made in front
than the Chernozem. Lighter colour than Chernozem. of the barriers to collect water.
Formation of CaCO3 nodule in B-horizon. Red chestnut — Rock dam Rocks are piled up to slow down the flow
and red-brown soil is found in semi-arid parts of the of water. This prevents gullies and further soil loss.
Savanna region. In bigger gullies, the erosive velocity of water may be
Prairie Soil This is the soil having properties both of reduced by constructing a series of check dams.
Chernozem and grey-brown podzol and found in the Special attention should be made to control
wet temperate tall grass region. Its colour is headward extension of gullies.
brown-black due to abundance of humus. It is a — Terrace farming Broad flat steps or terraces are
fertile soil. It is found in the Prairie region of USA, made on the steep slopes so that flat surfaces are
Pampas of South America, Pustaz of Hungary and available to grow crops. They reduce surface run-off
Downs of Australia. and soil erosion. Finger gullies can be eliminated by
Sierozems This is a basic soil (pH>8) found in the terracing.
hot deserts of the mid-latitudes. Lime forms a — Intercropping Different crops are grown in alternate
deposition over the upper layer of the soil. Thin soils rows and are sown at different times to protect the
having poor horizonizalian, near absence of humus soil from rain wash.
or low humus content.
91
— Contour ploughing Ploughing parallel to the They include the coastal strip of Greenland, the
contours of a hill slope to form a natural barrier for barren grounds of Northern Canada and Alaska and
water to flow down the slope. the Arctic seaboard of Eurasia.
— Shelter belts In the coastal and dry regions, rows of
Taiga (Coniferous) Vegetation
trees are planted to check the wind movement to
protect soil cover. In arid and semi-arid areas, efforts Taiga accounts for lowest annual average
should be made to protect cultivable lands from temperatures after the tundra and permanent ice caps.
encroachment by sand dunes through developing They are found only in the Northern Hemisphere due
shelter belts of trees and ago-forestry. to great East-West extent and absent in the Southern
Hemisphere because of the narrowness in the high
latitudes. They are found in the regions just below
Natural Vegetation Arctic circle.
A natural vegetation is a plant community that has Here, annual precipitation typically ranges from 38
been left undistributed for an extended period of time. cm to 63 cm. Evergreen coniferous forest is the
They grow naturally in response to climatic variables. dominant vegetation. Conifers, which require little
There is a close relationship between height of land moisture, also found in this type of sub-Arctic climate.
and the character of vegetation. With the change in The taiga (a Russian word for coniferous forest)
height, the climate changes. This ultimately changes in Siberia is the largest single band of coniferous
natural vegetation. The growth of vegetation depends forest.
on temperature and moisture. It also depends on
The richest sources of softwood are the coniferous
factors like slope and thickness of soil.
forest belts of Eurasia and North America.
Natural vegetation of the world is classified into three
In contrast to equatorial rain forests, coniferous
main categories :
forests have a lower density and are more uniform.
— Forests These forests have trees that grow straight and tall.
— Grasslands
The majority of conifers are evergreen. As with
— Deserts deciduous trees, there is no annual replacement of
new leaves.
1. Forest Vegetation It stretches from 50° N to 70° N across Central Canada,
This can be further classified based on the climate, some parts of Scandinavian Europe and the majority
temperature and regions found in the world. They are : of Central and Southern Russia. It merges with the
— Tundra — Taiga Arctic tundra of Canada and Eurasia around the Arctic
— Equatorial — Deciduous circle to the North or pole wards.
— Mangrove As a result, this climate is also known as ‘Subarctic
climate’. It has characteristics of both the maritime
Tundra Vegetation and continental climates.
Tundra’s are vast lowlands along the Arctic oceanic
shores where the ground is frozen for the majority of Equatorial Vegetation
the year. The ice caps are limited to lowland and the A lush tropical rain forest is supported by high
highlands of these latitude regions, where the ground temperatures and abundant rainfall. The forest in the
is permanently covered in snow. With a few months of Amazon lowlands is so dense that it is referred to as
ice-free weather, the lowlands have tundra vegetation. selvas (tropical rainforest with a dense canopy).
The tundra climate is distinguished by a very low Unlike in temperate regions, the growing season here
annual mean temperature. Temperatures can drop to lasts all year; seeding, flowering, fruiting and decay do
40 – 50 °C below freezing in the middle of winter. not follow a seasonal pattern. It is dominated by
Summers are generally milder. Maritime Tropical air masses. The region is also a
The tundra is devoid of trees. Mosses, lichens, sedges high energy region as it receives maximum insolation
and other low-level vegetation can be found. Polar from the Sun which explains its rich flora and fauna.
bear, caribou, musk-ox and reindeer are the important Major examples are rosewood, mahogany, ebony, etc.
animals of this region. Trees will have greater heights up to 60m or above.
This type of vegetation is found mainly in North of the The majority of the time, it is between 5° N and S of
Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere and also in the Equator. Its greatest range is found in the Amazon,
the North of Asia, Canada and Europe. Congo, Malaysia and the East Indies lowlands.
92
It can be found on three continents: Mangrove Vegetation

— South America (Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Mangroves are a group of broad-leaved trees (10–40 feet
Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela) tall) that grow in muddy creeks and tidal estuaries.
— Africa (Congo, Burundi, Rwanda and Central They are located on the transition zone between land
African Republic, among others) and sea and are one of the best examples of an ecotone.
— Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, Laos, Cambodia, They are found along tropical coastlines as they require
Thailand, etc.) warm saline water. Mangrove plants thrive in the
saltwater zones that exist between the sea and the land.
Deciduous Vegetation
Mangroves are confined to only tropical and
This can be classified as Temperate and Tropical sub-tropical coastal waters.
forests. They provide habitat for a wide range of terrestrial and
Temperate Deciduous marine organisms. Because it is the meeting point of
terrestrial and marine ecosystems, the area of
This type of forest, dominated by broad-leaved
mangroves has a higher species diversity.
deciduous trees, once covered the majority of
temperate Europe, Eastern North America, Eastern Mangroves occur worldwide in the tropics and
Asia and small parts of South America and subtropics, mainly between latitudes 25° N and 25° S.
Australia. In the warm waters of tropical oceans around the
world, there are 15.9 million hectares of mangrove
Temperate deciduous forest consists largely of trees
forests.
that drop their leaves during the cold season.
They can be found in large numbers along the Atlantic
It is characteristic of the marine West coast and
coast from Florida to Argentina. Mangroves can be
moist continental climate.
found on both Africa’s Western and Eastern coasts.
There is a longer growing season, more intense light, They extend into India, Myanmar and South-East Asia.
and a moderate amount of precipitation of 50 to In New Zealand and Australia, mangrove forests are
150 cm per year. also common.
Its climatic zone is not as extreme as that of the
boreal forest. Types of Mangroves
Soils of temperate forests are podzolic and fairly There are three major types :
deep. Shedding begins in autumn (fall season) and Red mangroves They grow along coastlines and are the
growth begins in spring. hardiest of the three major mangrove plant types.
Some of the common species include oak, elm, ash, Black mangroves They are named so because of their
birch, beech and poplar. dark-bark. They usually grow at slightly higher
elevations than red mangroves. They have access to
Tropical Deciduous more oxygen because the roots are more exposed.
This type of forests are also known as monsoon White mangroves They grow at higher elevations than
forests. They are found in the belt along the Equator red and black mangroves. Generally, they do not have
between the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn as well aerial roots.
as in the humid subtropics.
The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved 2. Grassland Vegetation
forests and deciduous trees (hardwood). Monsoon Grasslands are grass-dominated areas. They account
forest of the tropical latitude zone differs from for roughly 20% of the land on the planet’s surface.
tropical deciduous rainforest. Grasslands occur in both tropical and temperate
Most of the trees of the monsoon forest shed their regions where rainfall is insufficient to support tree
leaves due to stress during the long dry season, growth.
which occurs at the time of low Sun and cool Grasslands are known by different names around the
temperatures. world. Grasslands can be found in areas with distinct
Most of the forests yield valuable timber like teak. hot and dry, warm and rainy seasons.
Other kinds of timber are sal, acacia and eucalyptus.
Temperate Grasslands
This region includes Eastern margins of the
continents between 10°N to 30°N and 10°S to 30°S. In Temperate grasslands, woody growth is absent or
It is most developed in India, Burma, Thailand, Laos, negligible. The geographical isolation of these areas has
Cambodia, parts of Vietnam and South China and resulted in some species differentiation, but most of the
Northern Australia. other characteristics are similar.
93
Tall grass Prairie is a ground cover made up of tall hyenas and jackals. Elephants are the largest
grasses and some broad-leaved herbs known as forbs. animals of the savanna and adjacent woodland
Steppe, also known as short-grass prairie, is made up of regions.
sparse clumps of short grasses. In dry areas, steppe For example, acacias are deciduous trees that shed
transitions to semi-desert and in wetter areas, steppe their leaves during the cool, dry season to prevent
transitions to prairie. excessive water loss through transpiration.
Steppe grassland is mostly found in the mid-latitudes of Many trees are umbrella-shaped, with only a
North America and Eurasia. narrow edge exposed to the strong winds.
Temperate grasslands are found on the outskirts of It is located on either side of the Equator between
deserts, away from Mediterranean regions and in the 5° and 20° latitude. It is a type of climate that exists
interiors of continents. The grasslands are far more between equatorial forests and semi-arid and
extensive and entirely continental in the Northern subtropical humid climates.
Hemisphere. They are known as the Steppes in Eurasia. The Llanos of Orinoco Valley, the Campos of
The grasslands, known as Prairies in North America, are Brazil, hilly areas of Central America, Southern
also quite extensive. In the case of Argentina and Zaire and other savanna climate areas are
Uruguay’s Pampas, the grasslands extend all the way to particularly notable.
the sea and are heavily influenced by the sea.
The grasslands of South Africa are divided into the more 3. Desert Vegetation
tropical Bush-veld in the North and the more temperate The climate of this region always has high
High Veld in the South, between the Drakensberg and temperatures and less rainfall. The lagging in
the Kalahari Desert. moisture and excessive heat is favourable for
plant growth.
Tropical Grasslands
All deserts have some form of vegetation such as
Tropical grasslands are commonly called Savannas.
grass, scrub, herbs.
Savannas form a complex ecosystem with scattered
medium size trees in grass lands. Its vegetation ranges Vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude desert is
from woodland to grassland. The woodland has an open, Xerophytic or drought resistant scrub.
park like appearance. The major hot deserts of the world are located on
In savanna woodland, the trees are spaced rather widely the Western coasts of continents between latitudes
apart because there is not enough soil moisture during 15º-30ºN and S.
the dry season to support a full tree cover. They include the Sahara Desert, the Great
The African savanna is widely known for the diversity of Australian Desert and the other hot deserts like the
its large grazing mammals. With these grazers come a Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert,
large variety of predators—lions, leopards, cheetahs, Kalahari and Namib Deserts.
CHAPTER
94 08
Agriculture and
Animal Husbandry
Sources Class-VIII New NCERT Chap 4 (Agriculture), Class-IX Old NCERT Chap 8 (Human Occupations), Class-XI Old NCERT
Chap 2 (Renewable Resources ‘Forest and Fisheries’), Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 3 (Grasslands and Pastoralism),
Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 8 (Major Crops of the World), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 5 (Primary Activities)
Human activities which generate income are Gathering is practised in regions with harsh climatic
known as economic activities. Economic conditions. It often involves primitive societies, who
activities are broadly grouped into primary, extract, both plants and animals to satisfy their needs for
secondary, tertiary, quaternary and quinary food, shelter and clothing.
activities. This type of activity requires a small amount of capital
Primary activities are directly dependent on investment and operates at very low level of technology.
environment as these refer to utilisation of Earth’s The yield per person is very low and little or no surplus is
resources such as land, water, vegetation, building produced.
materials and minerals. Gathering is practised in :
Thus, it includes hunting and gathering, pastoral — High latitude zones such as Northern Canada, Northern
activities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, mining Eurasia and Southern Chile.
and quarrying. — Low latitude zones such as the Amazon Basin, tropical
Africa, Northern fringe of Australia and the interior parts
Hunting and Gathering of South-East Asia.
The earliest human beings were depended on
their immediate environment for their sustenance. Agriculture
They subsisted on animals which they hunted; It is the most fundamental form of economic activities in
and the edible plants which they gathered from any nation. In every continents, practically, exists all form
forests in the vicinity. of agricultural activities simultaneously.
Primitive societies were depended on wild Before the advent of agriculture, all human beings were
animals. People located in very cold and extremely hunters, gatherers or fishers. The earliest agriculture
hot climates survived on hunting. called vegeculture was probably first practised in
The people in the coastal areas still catch fishes South-East Asia.
though fishing has experienced modernisation 50% of the world population is involved in agriculture
due to technological progress. and allied activities.
Gathering and hunting are the oldest known Land that is suitable for agricultural activities is called as
economic activities. These are carried out at cultivable land. In general words, agriculture is also
different levels with different orientations. known as cultivation.
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Types of Agriculture (i) Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by

wet paddy cultivation This type of agriculture is
On the basis of geographical conditions, demand, labour and characterised by dominance of the rice crop.
technology, agriculture can be divided into subsistence and Land holdings are very small due to the high
commercial farming. density of population.
Subsistence Farming Farmers work with the help of family labour
This type of farming is practised to meet the needs of the leading to intensive use of land. Use of
farmer’s family. Traditionally, low levels of technology machinery is limited and most of the agricultural
and household labour are used to produce on small operations are done by manual labour. Farm yard
output. Subsistence farming can be further classified as manure is used to maintain the fertility of the
primitive subsistence and intensive subsistence soil. In this type of agriculture, the yield per unit
farming. area is high but per labour productivity is low.
(ii) Intensive subsidence agriculture dominated by
Primitive Subsistence Agriculture
crops other than paddy Due to the difference in
It includes shifting cultivation and nomadic herding. relief, climate, soil and some of the other
Shifting Cultivation It is practised in the thickly forested geographical factors, it is not practical to grow
areas of Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of paddy in many parts of monsoon Asia.
South-East Asia and North-East India. These are the Wheat, soyabean, barley and sorghum are grown
areas of heavy rainfall and quick regeneration of
in Northern China, Manchuria, North Korea and
vegetation.
North Japan. In India, wheat is grown in Western
A plot of land is cleared by felling the trees and burning parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains and millets are
them. The ashes are then mixed with the soil and crops grown in dry parts of Western and Southern
like maize, yam, potatoes and cassava are grown. India. Most of the characteristics of this type of
After the soil loses its fertility, the land is abandoned and agriculture are similar to those dominated by wet
the cultivator moves to a new plot. Shifting cultivation is paddy except that irrigation is often used.
also known as slash and burn agriculture.
Commercial Farming
Names of Shifting Cultivation in Different Parts of the World In this type of farming, the crops and livestock are
Shifting Country Shifting Country raised to sell products in order to make money.
Cultivation Cultivation It involves huge amount of capital investment.
Ladang Malaysia Roca Brazil In commercial farming, most of the activities are
Tamrai Thailand Konuko Venezuela highly mechanised. Commercial grain farming,
Taungya Burma Masole Zaire and Congo mixed farming, plantation agriculture are the
examples of commercial farming.
Caingin Philippines Ray Vietnam
Chena Sri Lanka Proka Ghana Commercial Grain Farming
Hummah Java Tavy Madagascar Farms are very large, ranging from 240 to 16000
Milpa Mexico and Central Jhuming India hectares. The most important crop grown is wheat.
America Two types of wheat is grown in this farming
i.e., spring wheat and the winter wheat.
Nomadic Herding It is practised in the semi-arid and
arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of Cultivation is highly mechanised. Farmers invest
India, like Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir. In this heavily in labour saving devices such as tractors,
type of farming, herdsmen move from place to place with ploughs, drills and combine harvesters. The output
their animals for fodder and water, along defined routes. per unit of land is always low as compared to
regions where intensive cultivation is the common
This type of movement arises in response to climatic practice.
constraints and terrain. Sheep, camel, yak and goats are
most commonly reared. They provide milk, meat, wool, Despite low yields per unit of land, the farming is
hides and other products to the herders and their families. commercial because of a large surplus (the per
capita production is high).
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture Large scale commercial grain cultivation is found
This type of agriculture is largely found in densely in only five countries – the United States, Canada,
populated regions of monsoon Asia, there are two types South Africa, Argentina and Australia.
of intensive subsistence agriculture.
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Mixed Farming Livestock Ranching

In this type of farming, holdings are of variable size, It is the commercial grazing of livestock over an
the farms have individual family ownership and are extensive area, which is associated with a very large
operated by family labour. land requirement and modest input of capital and
The ratio of cropland to total agricultural land, is human resources. The major types of livestock are
very high, but at the same time the intensity of sheep, cattle, goats and horses.
livestock production is much higher. Most of the Ranching is rare in Europe, except in Spain and
crops grown on a mixed commercial farm are fed to Portugal. With the exception of humid Pampa and
the animals rather than consumed directly by humans. South Island of New Zealand, all regions are semi-arid.
Characterised by high expenditure on machinery It is also practised in the Western United States and the
and farm buildings, extensive use of manures and adjacent parts of Canada and Mexico, the Llanos of
fertilisers and also by the input of technical skill by Venezuela, Sertao of Brazil, the Pampa of Uruguay, the
the farmers. Cereals dominate the crop land use; the Chaco and Patagonia, the Karoo of South Africa.
leading grain varies with climate and soil.
Commercial Dairy Farming
Mixed commercial farming is practised in Europe
It is a capital intensive type of farming. The business of
from Ireland to Russia, in North America, West of
keeping animals is labour intensive and offers great
the Appalachians and East of the 98th meridian. It is
scope for intensive employment of labour.
also practised in South Africa, North-Eastern
Argentina, South-Eastern Australia and In North-Western Europe, dairy farms occupy coastal
New Zealand. and low-lying meadowlands of abundant precipitation,
warm summers and cold winters (50° to 60°N latitudes).
Plantation Other regions of dairy farming are the Eastern states of
These crops are generally raised on large estates of the South-Eastern part of Australia and the North Island
more than 40 hectares. It is large scale, capitalised of New Zealand (30° to 40°S latitudes).
and often highly centralised cultivation of cash crops
Horticulture (Market Gardening or Truck Farming)
for export.
The market gardens are located just outside the city in
Among the most important crops grown in
suburban areas or in areas where climatic and soil
plantations are cotton, sugarcane, coffee, rubber and
conditions are particularly favourable.
tobacco.
Farmers in these regions specialise either in particular
Plantation is a form of commercial agriculture found
fruits or vegetables the scale of farming is small and
in the tropics and the subtropics of Latin America,
intensive. The farming is capital intensive and
Africa and Asia. Latin American plantations are most
scientifically managed.
likely to grow coffee, sugarcane and bananas while
Asian plantations may provide rubber and palm oil. In addition to market gardening, a modern development
in the industrial regions of Western Europe and North
Other Types of Farming America is factory farming.
Some of other types of farming are as follows : Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle are raised
entirely under one cover. This type of farming is called
Mediterranean Agriculture truck farming because trucks are used to transport the
In the bordering areas of Mediterranean sea, the two fruits and vegetables from the farm to the buyers.
most important cash crops are olives and grapes.
Collective Farming
Two-thirds of the world’s wine is produced in the Italy,
France and Spain. Greece specialises in producing The land of a collective farm is the state property, but it
raisins and wine while Spain in oranges, olive oil and is leased to the association of the farm workers and is
wine. worked in the direction of a committee selected by the
members farm. The collective farms are highly
In acreage, cereal crops are the most important in
mechanised.
Mediterranean agriculture. Wheat, especially hard
winter wheat is the principal foodgrain and barley is Collective farming are called Kolkhoz in Soviet Union,
grown in the poorer areas. Communes in China and Kibbutzims in Israel.
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Types of Agriculture on the Other Types of Agricultural Technique

Basis of Organisation Agricultural Description
Some types of agriculture on the basis of organisation are as Technique
follows : Viticulture Cultivation of grapes at commercial
scale.
Cooperative Farming
Pisciculture Cultivation of fishes at commercial scale.
Cooperative farming refers to farming practices where
farming operations are conducted by individuals with Sericulture Silk production
other members of a cooperative. Horticulture Cultivation of fruits
These cooperatives are engaged in collection and Arboriculture Cultivation of specialised trees and
purchase of agricultural inputs such as seeds, fertilisers, shrubs.
equipment, etc. They help the individual farmers in
Apiculture Production of honey at commercial scale.
selling their agricultural produce.
Farmers pool their land, livestock and other implements. Floriculture Cultivation of flowers.
The entire farm is managed by a single unit of Silviculture Branch of forestry dealing with the
management. development care of forest.
Community Supported Agriculture Vegeculture Primitive agriculture of trees practised by

early man of South-East Asia.
It is a system that connects the producer and consumers
within the food system more closely by allowing the Moriculture Cultivation of mulberry plants.
consumer to subscribe to the harvest of a certain farm or Olericulture Branch of horticulture dealing with the
group of farms. production, storage, processing and
This type of farming is known as Kolkhoz in Russia. marketing of vegetable.
It is an alternative socio-economic model of agriculture Mariculture Production of sea animals at commercial

scale.
that allows the producer and consumer to share the risks
of farming. Horsiculture Rearing of hybrid horses and mules.
Sovkhoz
This agricultural technique prevailing in communist Major Crops of the World
nation is based on the model of the Soviet Union. It was
A large variety of crops are grown to meet the
first practiced in 1920s in Siberia and Kazakhstan.
requirement of the growing population. Crops also
Under this, factors of production are govern by the supply raw materials for agro based industries.
government and labours are paid salaries. Crops are broadly categorised as follows :
In this technique, machines are used at broader level. At — Food grains Rice, wheat, maize
present, this technique as become obsolete.
— Millets Jowar/ragi and bajra
Organic Agriculture — Oil seeds Mustard, groundnut, coconut,
It is a production system that sustains the health of soils, sunflower
ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes, — Fibrous crops Cotton, jute
biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, — Beverages Tea and Coffee
rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. — Commercial crops Sugarcane, rubber
Organic farming combines tradition, innovation and
science to benefit the shared environment and quality of Food Crops
life. Important food crops are discussed as follows :
Sustainable Agriculture
Rice
It refers to the ability of a farm to produce food
It is a tropical humid crop of monsoonal climate. It
indefinitely, without causing severe and irreversible
is a labour intensive crop. 90% of the world’s rice
damage to ecosystem health.
is grown in East and South Asia. Its different and
It involves two key issues i.e. bio physical issues that is new varieties are IR8, IR20, IR22, miracle rice, etc.
the long-term effects of various practices on soil
properties and processes essential for crop productivity, Miracle rice is developed in Philippines at the Rice
socio-economic issues those involve long-term ability of Research Institute of Manila. It is the principal food
farmers to obtain inputs and manage resources. crop for half of the population of the world.
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Geographical Conditions Production and Yield

The rice plant (paddy) requires high temperature The Wheat Crescent of the Pampas (in Argentina)
(27°-30°C) and high rainfall (about 100 cm) during its Black Earth of USSR, Paris basin, the Lombardy plain
growth period. Clay, loam soil is best suited for its of Italy, the lower Danube basin are famous for wheat
cultivation. production.
Paddy is categorised into two groups–wet paddy and Almost all the wheat from Canada is spring wheat and
dry paddy. Floating rice can be grown in water upto 95% of the total comes from the Prairie Provinces
5 m deep. (Saskatchewan, Alberta and Manitoba).
In USA, Nebraska separates the winter wheat belt from
Productions and Yields
spring wheat belt.
Thailand and Myanmar are the traditional leaders in
rice exports in the world. In Malaysia, paddy occupies Leading Producers
the second greatest cultivated acreage after rubber Its leading producers in the world are China, India,
and nearly 95% of the paddy grown is wet paddy. USA, Russia, Australia, Canada, France, Turkey. Its
High yielding variety like Bahagia is used very much. leading exporter in the world is USA.
The largest production of rice is in China followed by
Maize
India, Indonesia and Bangladesh. Rice yield is highest
in Australia followed by Egypt, USA and Spain. Maize is a sub-tropical zone crop. It is the third after
wheat and rice in terms of area cultivated.
East Asia covers nearly 25% of total world area under
rice which contributes nearly 40% of total world Maize is known as Makkah in India, corn in the USA
production of rice. Brazil producing only 1.8% of the and Indian corn in Europe. It is originated from
world’s total rice production is the greatest rice American continent.
growing nation in the Southern America. Geographical Conditions
USA produces about 1% of the world’s rice. The
Maize usually requires summer temperatures of
leading rice growing state in USA is Louisiana,
between 18° and 27°C during the day and around 14°C
followed by California, Texas and South Carolina.
during the night. The most essential climatic factor is
Leading Producers a period of 140 frost free days.
Its leading producers in the world are China, India, Rainfall varies from 30 cm to 100 cm annually. It
Indonesia, Bangladesh, Thailand, Japan, Myanmar, grows in a wide range of soil types from the temperate
Vietnam, Malaysia. Its leading exporter in the world is podzols to the strangely leached red soils of
Thailand. the tropics. However, it grows best in deep nitrogen
rich soils of the sub tropics.
Wheat
Leading Producers
Wheat is produced in temperate and sub-tropical zone.
According to growing seasons, it is divided into two Its leading producers in the world are USA, China,
Brazil, Mexico, Russia, Romania, India, South Africa.
groups
Its leading exporter in the world is USA.
1. Winter Wheat It is usually grown in regions of the
middle latitudes. Millets
2. Spring Wheat It is grown in the colder North of the They are also known as coarse grains and can be
Canadian Prairies and in parts of the continental grown on less fertile and sandy soils.
steppes and Siberia.
It is a hardy crop that needs low rainfall and high to
Geographical Conditions moderate temperature and adequate rainfall.
It is mainly a crop of the temperate region. The They require temperature of 20 to 27°C and rainfall
annual rainfall is required between 40 to 75 cm. An 50-75 cm.
average temperature of 16°C and clear sky are Ragi, jowar, bajra, etc are the important millets.
required at the time of ripening.
Leading Producers
Loam and chernozem soils are best suited for wheat
cultivation. Over irrigation should be avoided as high Its leading producers in the world are China, USA,
humidity may cause a disease known as Red-rot. India, Nigeria, Ukraine, Thailand, Russia, Turkey. Its
leading exporter in the world is USA.
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Oil seeds Groundnut

Edible oils are extracted from the oilseeds. Major It plants need well-drained sandy loam or clay loam
oilseeds crops are mustard, groundnut, coconut etc. soil. 20° to 25°C temperature and 50 to 75 cm rainfall is
Olive oil is extracted in Mediterranean countries and necessary for its growth.
palm oil extracted from palm trees. India, China, Nigeria, USA, Sudan, Senegal, Indonesia
are important producers of groundnut. China is the
Rapeseed and Mustard leading producer, followed by India and Nigeria.
Rapeseed and Mustard comprise several oilseeds as
Rau, sarron, toria and taranira. These are subtropical Coconut
corps. These are frost sensitive crops and their yield The coconut palm is referred to as ‘Kalpavriksha : the
fluctuates year to year. Low rainfall is needed for tree of heaven’ as each and every part of the palm is
such crops to grow. useful to mankind in one way or other. It is essentially a
tropical plant, growing mostly between 20°N and 20°S.
Sesame
A well distributed rainfall of about 200 cm per year is
This crop is grown in the area of low rainfall. It the best for proper growth. Indonesia, Philippines,
require sandy soil and it is sown in Kharif season. India, New Guinea, Fiji, Sri Lanka, Malaysia,
It require light rainfall and excessive winters are Mozambique are major coconut producing countries.
harmful for its production. Indonesia is the leading producer followed by
Oil is obtained from the seeds of sesame. Philippines and India.
Sesame is cultivated in India, China, Myanmar,
Sudan, Egypt, Turkey, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Thailand, Fibrous Crops
Bangladesh, etc. India, China and Nigeria are the top Important fibrous crops are discussed as follows :
three sesame producing countries.
Cotton
Sunflower It is a product of tropical and temperate zone. Cotton is
Sunflower was first cultivated in Southern United an ancient crop in India and Egypt.
States and Mexico. In 19th century, it was cultivated
After the discovery of the cotton ginning machine in
as oil seed in Soviet Union.
1793, there was a revolutionary change in the
It is mainly cultivated for obtaining oil. production and utilisation of cotton. Cotton varieties
It requires cold weather for germination and growth are usually distinguished by the staple length. The
of plants. At the time of ripening, it requires normal longer the staple, the finer and the fibres.
temperature and cloudless sky.
Geographical Conditions
Although it is cultivated in all types of soil but black
Cotton is essentially a plant of dry climate. Cotton
soil is best suited for its production.
requires warm climate but temperature between
Leading producers of the sunflower are Ukraine, 21°C and 27°C is ideal during the period of its growth.
Russia, Argentina, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Spain, Cotton plant can tolerate as high temperature as 40°C
United States of America, India, China, etc. but it should not be lower than 21°C.
Soyabean A light well drained soil capable of retaining moisture
It is kharif crop. Although it is also a edible crop but it is ideally suited for the cultivation of the cotton.
mostly used for the production of oil. Volcanic, black and alluvial soils are most suitable for
it. It requires intensive fertiliser use.
It best grows in all types of soils except sandy soil.
Clayey soil is best suited for its production. It cannot tolerate frost. So, it needs 210 frost free days.
Moderate to light rainfall is adequate for its
Its leading producers are United States of America,
production, that ranges from 50-100 cm which must be
China, Japan, Brazil, Argentina, Indonesia, etc.
evenly distributed.
Flax
Types of Cotton
It is cultivated for both oil and fibre. Its oil is used in
Long Staple Cotton The longest staple cotton is the
paints and varnishes.
sea island cotton, which is now largely grown in the
It required cold weather and alluvial and clayey soil. West Indies. The main producing regions are South
Its leading producers are India, Argentina, United coast of USA, Puerto Rico and other islands of West
States of America, Canada, Pakistan, France, etc. Indies. Egypt is one of the major producers of long
Its top three producers are Canada, China and Russia. staple cotton and has developed many varieties of it.
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Medium Staple Cotton It is produced in Nile basin, Geographical Conditions

Soviet Central Asia and USA. It is also known as It requires warm and humid climate but water
Egyptian cotton. American upland cotton is an example should not stagnate near the roots. It grows best in
of this size. the monsoon lands of the tropics and the
Short Staple Cotton It is the shortest and the coarsest of sub-tropics.
the cotton which is produced mainly in Asian countries It is grown mainly in regions between 27° South and
and Brazil. 43° North latitudes on hill slopes. It requires
Production moderate temperature of about 25°C and a rainfall
between 125 cm and 750 cm annually.
USA remained a major cotton producer for a long time.
In India, cotton is produced in the black soil region. Its plants grow well in fertile soils with high humus
Sao-Paulo in Brazil, Nile delta in Egypt, Indus valley of content and application of nitrogen fertilisers is
Pakistan and Jazira of Sudan are cotton producing essential to maintain soil fertility.
regions. The most suitable soils are slightly acidic and
The major cotton producing regions of Central Asia lie without calcium. The presence of iron in the
in Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and sub-soil is desirable.
Uzbekistan. Leading Producers
Leading Producers Its leading producers in the world are India, China,
Its leading producers in the world are China, USA, India, Sri Lanka, Japan, Kenya, Indonesia, Bangladesh,
Brazil, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Egypt, Turkey. Its leading Turkey. Its leading exporter in the world is India.
exporter in the world is USA.
Coffee
Jute It is the second most important beverage crop.
Jute is the fibre obtained from certain plant species of Coffee grows in the tropical highlands at an altitude
the Corchorus family. It is a coarse fibre and is thus, the between 500 and 1500 metres above the main
second most important fibre crop. sea-level. It is a tropical crop. One-third of the world
population drinks coffee. It is the second largest
Geographical Conditions beverage after tea.
Jute grows well in hot, tropical climatic conditions with The coffee tree is a native of the highlands of
plenty of moisture and heavy rainfall. It is suited to the Southern Ethiopia and the name coffee is derived
same regions as wet paddy. It is often grown as a cash from the highland district of Kaffa, where it was
crop in paddy growing areas. found. Generally, coffee grows in deep, porous and
It requires rich soils and thrives on river alluvium, water retentive soils with high humus content.
especially where annual floods renew the fertility of the Well drained volcanic soils like the terra roxa of
soil. Brazil, which contain potash as well as organic
Leading Producers material are the best.
Its leading producers in the world are India, Bangladesh, Large coffee plantation in Brazil is known as
Brazil, Thailand, Myanmar, Indonesia, Taiwan and China. Fazenda, Mocha coffee is grown mainly in Yemen.
In India, Karnataka is the largest producer of coffee.
Beverage Crops Types of Coffee
Tea and coffee are the most important beverage crops. There are three types of coffee plants—arabica,
robusta and liberica. Robusta is the main variety
Tea
produced in the world. Other varieties are mocha
It is a warm temperate crop. Tea is made from the leaves coffee (Arabian peninsula), blue mountain coffee
of a tropical shrub of the Camellia family. Tea (in Jamaica and other West Indian islands) and java
cultivation is believed to have originated in the coffee. Both robusta and liberica are widely grown
Chang-Jiang valley of China. in Africa.
Variety of Tea Geographical Conditions
Major tea varieties are black tea (India and Sri Lanka), Temperature from 14 to 25°C and rainfall range of
green tea (China), Oolong tea (Taiwan) and yerba tea 40 to 80 cm is required to grow coffee. Shelter from
(Paraguay). China tea or green tea is small-leaved-tea sunlight is required especially for young plants. It
and Assam tea or black tea is large-leaved-tea. requires highly humid conditions, sandy loam to
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clay loam, well drained, rich in organic matter soil. It cannot survive on water logged soils. It is fertiliser
Coffee production is labour intensive, because intensive crop and requires high amount of
mechanisation is not possible. nitrogenous fertiliser.
Leading Producers Geographical Conditions
Its leading producers in the world are Brazil, Columbia, It takes about 5 to 6 months to mature. It requires
Indonesia, Vietnam, Ivory-Coast, Mexico Ghana, about 16 to 23°C temperature. It requires high
Cameroon, India. Its leading exporter in the world is moisture and rainfall around 60 cm.
Brazil.
Leading Producers
Cash Crops Its leading producers in the world are France, USA,
Germany, Russia, China, Ukraine, Poland, Turkey.
Important cash crops are discussed as follows :
Leading exporter in the world is France.
Sugarcane Rubber
It is a warm temperate crop. Sugarcane is a member of
It is a tropical wet zone crop. Rubber is the latex of
the grass family and is tall tropical variety with a hard,
the tree Hevea brasiliensis. It is widely found in the
thick stem. The plant probably originated in Eastern
tropical forest of Amazon and Zaire basins.
Asia. The sugar mill must be near the farms because of
sugar deterioration and expensive transportation. Rubber is obtained through gathering in the Amazon
basin where rubber gatherers are called
The sugar mills are also located near the fields as
Seringueiros. After the discovery of vulcanisation,
sucrose content decreases when transported to large
it became more useful.
distance. Sugarcane accounts for about 60% of the
world’s sugar requirements. USA is the largest synthetic rubber producer. Liberia
claims to have the world’s largest single plantation.
Sugarcane requires constantly high temperature
ranging between 21°C and 27°C. Less than 20°C Equatorial climate is best suited for it. lt requires
temperature restricts the growth of sugarcane. Frost is high temperature of about 27°C and rainfall of
extremely harmful to this crop. 150 cm evenly distributed throughout the year.
It is a less water efficient crop. The hot and humid Deep, friable, well drained soils are ideal and acidic
climate of tropical region is very good for its cultivation. soils are also suitable.
It requires 75 to 120 cm of rainfall. Loam, clay and Leading Producers
alluvial soils are suitable for sugarcane. Cuba is known Its leading producers in the world are Thailand,
as sugar bowl of the world. Brazil is the largest Indonesia, Malaysia, India, China, Sri Lanka,
producer and exporter of sugar. It has the highest per Liberia, Brazil. Its leading exporter in the world is
capita consumption of it. Thailand.
Leading Producers Tobacco
Its leading producers in the world are Brazil, India, It is a crop of the tropical and sub-tropical zone.
China, Pakistan, Thailand, Mexico, Cuba, Columbia. Tobacco is a broadleaved annual growing plant. It is
Its leading exporter in the world is Brazil. a native plant of tropical America.
Top Five Exporting and Importing Countries of Cotton (2020-21) It is now grown in almost every country with a warm
temperate, sub-tropical or tropical climate.
Exporting Country Importing Country
Brazil Indonesia Geographical Conditions
Thailand China Temperature exceeding 18°C in the warmest month
India USA
is ideal. The crop requires moderate rainfall and
rich, regularly fertilised soil. The plant requires a
Australia Bangladesh
frost free period of 120 to 180 days and a warm
Guatemala Algeria growing season.
Sugar Beet Leading Producers

It is a temperate crop. Sugar beet is a root crop of the Its leading producers in the world are China, USA,
beet family. It is usually cultivated as a rotation crop. India, Brazil, Turkey, Japan, Bulgaria, South Korea.
It thrives well in loams and clayey loams. Its leading exporter in the world is USA.
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Pulses Animal husbandry involves breeding and raising

livestock like buffaloes, cows, goats, camels, horses,
Pulses are a source of supplementary protein to daily sheep, etc. and even extended to poultry farming and
diets based on cereals and starchy food for essential fisheries.
minerals, vitamins, etc.
Some of the important practices of animal husbandry
Their cultivation enriches soil by adding nitrogen are as follows :
and the soil properties.
Management of Farms and Farm Animals
Geographic Conditions This is a professional approach towards the conventional
There are well suited to diverse environments and fit farm management practices, which gives the boost to food
in various cropping systems owing to their wide production.
adaptability, low input requirements, fast growth, Dairy Farm Management This is the management of
nitrogen fixing and weed smothering ability. the animals that provide milk (milch animals). The
Dry beans, which include green gram and black gram goal is to enhance the quantity and quality of the milk
are the most important pulse crops of the world. produced.
Leading Producers For this purpose, high yielding and disease resistant
breeds are maintained in a strictly hygienic manner
India is the biggest producer, as well as the largest
with proper housing, adequate water supply, and
consumer and importer of pulses. Worldwide major
nutrient-rich fodder.
exporting countries are Canada, Brazil and USA.
Regular inspection and record keeping ensures that a
Top 3 Producers of Major Crops of the World good high quality yield is generated.
Poultry Farm Management Poultry farming refers to
Crop First Rank Second Rank Third India’s
Rank Rank the rearing of domesticated fowl (birds) for their meat
Wheat China India USA Second
and eggs. These birds include chicken, ducks, turkey,
geese, etc.
Rice China India Indonesia Second
Just like dairy farming, selection of disease free and
Sugarcane Brazil India China Second
suitable breeds, maintenance of hygienic farm
Cotton China India USA Second conditions, providing proper food and water and health
Banana India China Philippines First care, are the main goals of poultry farm management.
Coconut Indonesia Philippines India Third
Tobacco China India Brazil Second
Animal Breeding
Natural Thailand Indonesia Malaysia Fourth Another part of animal husbandry is animal breeding.
Potato China India USA Second
Breeding of animals aims to develop high yielding animals
and improve the desirable qualities of the produce.
Jute India Bangladesh China First
Inbreeding It refers to the practice of mating closely
Pulses India Mozambique Pakistan First
related superior males to superior females within the
Barley France Australia Russia –
same breed for 4-6 generations.
Sorghum Nigeria India USA Second
The superior males and females among the progenies
Soyabean USA Brazil Argentina Fifth are further mated for developing Mendelian pure lines,
Groundnut China India Nigeria Second which are homozygous in nature.
Rapeseed Canada China India Third However, continued close inbreeding eventually
Sunflower Ukraine Russia Argentina – decreases fertility and productivity, a phenomenon was
known as inbreeding depression.
Apple China USA Turkey Fifth
Out-breeding It is the breeding of the unrelated
Spices India Bangladesh Turkey First
animals that can be carried out in three different
Grapes China Italy USA Twelfth
fashions. When two unrelated individuals of the same
Orange Brazil USA China Fourth breed, which do not have a common ancestor for the
past 4-6 generations are mated, it is called out-crossing.
Mating between a superior male of one breed and a
Animal Husbandry superior female of another breed to give a progeny with
Animal husbandry is the science of caring and the combined qualities of both breeds is known as
breeding of domestic animals and the development of crossbreeding. When males and females across different
genetic traits such as high yielding, disease related species are mated, it is known as interspecific
resistance, etc. that are valuable to humanity. hybridisation.
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Apart from conventional breeding techniques, North-West Pacific Region This region extends from the
controlled breeding experiments are conducted outer Aleutian islands in the North to the Central Pacific,
utilising artificial insemination to yield the desired North of the Philippine islands. Salmon, herring, halibut,
mating. To improve the chances of obtaining cod and king crab are important catches of this region.
successful hybrids, programmes like Multiple North-East Atlantic and Adjacent Waters of the Arctic
Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology (MOET) It extends from Iceland to Mediterranean including the
are used. European countries especially Norway, Denmark, Spain,
Iceland and the United Kingdom.
Apiculture Shallow waters of the North Sea especially the most
Maintenance of hives of honeybees for the production exploited Dogger Bank are important areas where fishing
of honey and beeswax is known as beekeeping is carried out all round the year.
or apiculture beekeeping. Honey is an age old food of North-West Atlantic Region It includes Grand Bank and
high nutritional value and is also used in traditional the Georges Bank area of the North-West Atlantic. The
medicines across various cultures. convergence of the Gulf Stream and the Labrador
Although it is not a labour intensive practice, an idea of current in that region enhances productivity. The major
the following points is necessary for successful fish is the cod, but halibut, herring and mackerel are also
beekeeping : important.
Selection of a suitable location for keeping the North-East Pacific Region It extends from Alaska to
beehives. California along the Western shores of North America. It
Nature and habits of bees. comprises the world’s best cod fishing ground alongwith
herring and haddock. Salmon is the most valuable fish of
Catching and hiving of swarms.
this region, but tuna, halibut and sardines are also
Handling and collection of honey and beeswax. important.
Management of beehives during different seasons. South-East Pacific Off the coast of South America is
known for the anchovy harvest off the coast of Peru. The
Fishing Northward flowing Peru current provides an ideal
Fishes are found in saline marine ecosystem, fresh environment for the anchovy culture because it is
water, in tropical as well as freezed zones. associated with a coastal upwelling of nutrient rich
Factors Affecting Fish Distribution colder water laden with plankton on which the
anchovy feeds.
Shallow coastal waters are ideal to fish since, there
is plentiful food supply from the erosion of Fish Conservation
continents, which provide mineral and organic Factors which are hindering the development of fishing
matter and there is enough Sunlight penetration. in tropical latitudes are, a large variety of species all
In areas of coastal upwelling high rates of primary mixed up. This reduces the scope for large-scale
production take place. Conventional mixing commercial exploitation.
provides plenty of oxygen to sustain life in coastal High temperature does not support plankton population.
zones as well as assuring a favourable dispersion of The very warm climate does not allow fish preservation
nutrients. and the fish must be consumed quickly.
Mixing of warm and cold water as on the Most of the tropical countries have inefficient and
Newfoundland banks and the Sea of Japan. inadequate transportation and refrigeration facilities.
Broken coastline with numerous indentations The demand for fish is also very low in these countries.
provides excellent berthing facility. Humans get 23% of total protein received from animal
Climatic condition, temperate climate with by fishes. Thus, fish conservation is essential. Following
temperature less than 20°C is best regions for the important ways to conserve fishes :
marine life. — Over fishing should be stopped.
— Pollution should be checked in estuaries.
Major Fishing Ground of the World
— It is essential to check oil spill from industrial and ship
Coastal margins of middle latitudes These are the
wrecks as it leads to huge fish loss.
biggest fish producing areas where the largest
concentrations of marketable species are found. — Nuclear testing should banned as it is harmful for the
The tropical waters produce many fish as well, but oceanic organisms.
they are less desirable because of their higher oil — Oceanic transportation should be controlled and
content. oceanic routes should be used efficiently.
CHAPTER
104 09
Mineral Resources
Sources Class VIII New NCERT Chap 3 (Mineral and Power Resources), Class IX Old NCERT Chap 3 (Our Resources),
Class XI New NCERT Chap 5 (Minerals and Rocks), Class XI Old NCERT Chap 4 (Non-renewable Resources (Minerals),
Class XII New NCERT Chap 5 (Primary Activities)
The Earth is composed of various kinds of elements. Cleavage It is tendency to break in given directions
These elements are in solid form in the outer layer of producing relatively plane surfaces — result of
the Earth. They are in hot and molten form in the internal arrangement of the molecules — may cleave
interior. in one or more directions and at any angle to each
About 98% of the total crust of the Earth is composed other.
of eight elements like oxygen, silicon, aluminium, Fracture The crystal will break in an irregular
iron, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium. manner, not along planes of cleavage. It will break
The rest is constituted by titanium, hydrogen, along random direction.
phosphorous, manganese, sulphur, carbon, nickel and Lustre It is appearance of a material without regard to
other elements. colour, each mineral has a distinctive lustre like
metallic, silky, glossy etc.
Minerals Colour Some minerals have characteristic colour
Mineral is a naturally occurring organic and inorganic determined by their molecular structure — malachite,
substance, having an orderly atomic structure and azurite, chalcopyrite etc. Some minerals are coloured
a definite chemical composition and physical by impurities as because of impurities quartz may be
properties. white, green, red, yellow etc.
A mineral is composed of two or more elements. But, Streak Colour of the ground powder of any mineral.
sometimes single element minerals like sulphur, It may be of the same colour as the mineral or may
copper, silver, gold, graphite etc., are found. differ - malachite is green and gives green streak,
fluorite is purple or green but gives a white streak.
The basic source of all minerals is the hot magma in
the interior of the Earth. When magma cools, crystals Transparency It can be shown as follows :
of minerals appear and a systematic series of — Transparent Light rays pass through so that objects
minerals are formed in sequence to solidify so as to can be seen plainly.
form rocks. — Translucent Light rays pass through but will get
Minerals such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are diffused so that objects cannot be seen.
organic substances found in solid, liquid and gaseous — Opaque Light will not pass at all.
forms respectively. Structure It is a particular arrangement of the
individual crystals that are fine, medium or coarse
Physical Features of Minerals grained, fibrous (separable, divergent, radiating).
External crystal form It is determined by internal Hardness relative resistance being scratched, ten
arrangement of the molecules — cubes, octahedrons, minerals are selected to measure the degree of
hexagonal prisms, etc. hardness from 1 to 10.
105
They are: (1) talc (2) gypsum (3) calcite (4) fluorite Economic Factors These factors include such as the
(5) apatite (6) feldspar (7) quartz (8) topaz (9) corundum demand for the mineral, technology available and
(10) diamond. Compared to this for example, a used, capital to develop infrastructure and the labour
fingernail is 2.5 and glass or knife blade is 5.5. and transport costs.
Specific gravity Specific gravity is the ratio of the
Methods of Mining
weight of a volume of the substance to the weight of
an equal volume of the reference substance. Depending on the mode of occurrence and the nature of
the ore, mining is of two types :
There is no unit for specific gravity since, it is ratio
comparison. Surface Mining It is also known as Open Cast Mining,
it is the easiest and the cheapest way of mining
Types of Minerals minerals that occur close to the surface.
There are over three thousand different minerals. On Overhead cost such as safety precautions and
the basis of composition, minerals are classified equipment is relatively low in this method. The output
mainly as metallic and non-metallic minerals. is both large and rapid.
Under Ground Mining When the ore lies deep below
Metallic Minerals the surface, Underground Mining Method has to be
Metallic minerals contain metal in raw form. Metals used. In this method, vertical shafts have to be sunk
are hard substances that conduct heat and electricity from where underground galleries radiate to reach the
and have a characteristic lustre or shine. minerals. Minerals are extracted and transported to the
It can be sub-divided into three sub-categories: surface through these passages.
1. Precious metals They include gold, silver, Other Methods of Mining
platinum etc. Drilling Petroleum and natural gas occur far below the
2. Ferrous metals They include iron and other metals Earth’s surface. Deep wells are bored to take them out,
often mixed with iron to form various kinds of steel. this is called drilling.
3. Non-ferrous metals They include metals like Quarrying Minerals that lie near the surface are
copper, lead, zinc, tin, aluminium etc. simply dug out, by the process known as quarrying.
Non-metallic Minerals Distribution of Minerals

These minerals do not contain metal content. Minerals occur in different types of rocks. Some are
Limestone, mica and gypsum are examples of such found in igneous rocks, some in metamorphic rocks
minerals. while others occur in sedimentary rocks.
The mineral fuels like coal and petroleum are also Generally, metallic minerals are found in igneous and
non-metallic minerals. metamorphic rock formations that form large plateaus.
Iron-ore deposits in North Sweden, copper and nickel
Mining deposits in Ontario, Canada; iron, nickel, chromite and
The discovery of minerals in the history of human platinum in South Africa are examples of minerals
development is reflected in many stages in terms of found in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Copper Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age. Sedimentary rock formations of plains and young fold
The use of minerals in ancient times was largely mountains contain non-metallic minerals like limestone.
confined to the making of tools, utensils and Limestone deposits of Caucasus region of France,
weapons. manganese deposits of Georgia and Ukraine and
The process of taking out minerals from rocks buried phosphate beds of Algeria are some examples.
under the Earth’s surface is called mining. Mineral fuels such as coal and petroleum are also
The actual development of mining began with the found in the sedimentary strata.
industrial revolution and its importance is
continuously increasing.
Iron-ore
It is a metallic mineral which is not found in pure form
Factors Affecting Mining Activity in nature but is available as ore or compound.
The Profitability of mining operations depends on two There are different types of iron ores: Haematite,
main factors. Magnetite, Limonite and Siderite.
Physical Factors These factors include the size, grade Iron is a symbol of modern civilisation. It is used in
and the mode of occurrence of the deposits. almost all types of machines, machine tools,
106
construction of buildings and factories and in various Its increasing demand due to expansion of electrical
means of transport. industry in the 20th Century, led to the development
In comparison to other metals, it is the most widely of such a technology which made it possible to extract
used metal in the world mainly because of its certain copper from low grade ores.
qualities. Copper has been proved useful due to its properties of
It can be converted into different forms such as cast malleability and ductility. Besides these it is corrosion
iron, sheets, magnetic iron and steel. resistant and can be mixed with other metals to form
copper alloys.
Top 5 Iron-ore Producing Countries
Top 5 Copper Producing Countries
Rank by Iron-ore production in 2020 Country
First Australia Rank by Copper production Country
in 2020
Second Brazil
First Chile
Third China
Second Peru
Fourth India
Third China
Fifth Russia
Fourth Democratic Republic of Congo
Distribution of Iron-ore in the World Fifth United States
Country/region Centre
Distribution of Copper in the World
China l
Shenyang region of Manchuria
l
Wuhan, Tai Yeh in Yangtze valley, Hainan, Country/Region Centre
Hnan, Shandong peninsula, Hangzhou Chile Chuquicamata, El- Teniente
USA l
Great Lakes region – Mesabi, Marquette, Potreillous and Bradue
Vermillion, Gogebic and Cuyuna The USA Arizona, Morence, Globe and Casa- Grande
l
Alabama state Western part from Canadian border in the
Europe l
Sweden : Kiruna and Gallivare North to Mexican border in the South
l
France: Lorraine, Normandy, Pyrenees Canada Sudbury, North and Ontario
l
Germany: Salzgitter and Seigen Zaire Karanja district
l
Spain: Bilbao region
l
UK: Cleveland, Midland, Scotland India Singhbhum Hazaribagh in Jharkhand
l
Ukraine: Kryvyi Rih, Kerch basin, Kremenchuk Khetri and Agunch- Rampur area in Rajasthan
region
Russia l
Tula region : Kursic Magnetic Anomaly Bauxite
l
Ural and Siberia region Bauxite is the ore of Aluminium. It is light and
Africa l
Liberia, South Africa, Algeria, Morocco versatile metal.
It has a wide industrial uses such as in aeroplane
Australia l
Pilbara region, Mt. Goldsworthy, Mt. Tom
Price, Mt. Newman, Tailoring peak industry, machine tools, automobiles, electrical and
utensils industry.
South America l
Brazil had largest reserve of iron-ore
l
Orinoco valley in Venezuela and La Sarena in
Aluminium is the energy intensive industry because it
Chile is extracted from the ore using electrolyte mixing
process.
India l
Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar and Sundargarh in
Odisha Bauxite is mainly mined in the tropical regions but
l
Singhbhum region in Jharkhand aluminium is manufactured in developed countries
l
Bailadila range in Chhattisgarh where cheap electrical energy is abundantly available.
l
Chikmagalur, Chitradurga, Tumkur and
Bellary in Karnataka Top 5 Aluminium Producing Countries
Rank by Aluminium production in 2019 Country
Copper First China
Copper has been used by human being since ancient Second India
times.
Third Russia
It is used largely in the electrical industry because of
Fourth Canada
its quality of electrical conductivity.
Fifth UAE
107
Distribution of Bauxite in the World China, Malaysia, India, Turkey and Indonesia are the
Australia is leading producer of Bauxite ores in the leading producer of bauxite in the Asia.
world. It is mined from Weipa lying East of the Gulf Odisha is the largest bauxite producing state in India.
of Carpentaria and from Arnhem region.
Minerals in Antarctica
In USA, bauxite is mainly mined from Arkansas
n The geology of Antarctica is sufficiently well known to
region. A small amount is mined from Georgia and
predict the existence of a variety of mineral deposits,
Alabama. Production of bauxite is insufficient to some probably large.
meet the demand therefore it is imported from n Significant size of deposits of coal in the Trans Antarctic
Jamaica, Suriname and Dominican Republic. Mountains and iron near the Prince Charles Mountains of
Bauxite mining is not important in Russia and the East Antarctica is forecasted.
aluminium industry is dependent from imports of n Iron ore, gold, silver and oil are also present in
bauxite from Guinea, Yugoslavia, Greece, Hungary commercial quantities.
and Caribbean Islands.
180ºW. 140º 100º 60º 20º 0º 20º 60º 100º 140º 180ºE.
60ºN. Arctic 60ºN.

Ocean
40º 40º
Asia
North Atlantic
Ocean Tropic of
Cancer
Tropic of Cancer
20º 20º
Africa
Pacific Pacific
Ocean Ocean
Indian Ocean
South America
20º
20º
Tropic of
Capricorn North Atlantic Australia
Ocean
Iron
40º
Copper 40º
Bauxite Southern Ocean
60ºS.
60ºS. Antarctica
180ºW. 140º 100º 60º 20º 0º 20º 60º 100º 140º 180ºE.
Distribution of Iron, Copper and Bauxite
Manganese Mica
Manganese is an important raw material for smelting Mica is a lustrous mineral and it is a bad conductor of
of iron ore and also used for manufacturing ferro heat and electricity. Due to this property, Mica finds
alloys. applications in electric appliances.
Manganese deposits are found in almost all Mica occurs in the form of thick sheets that can be split
geological formations, however, it is mainly into thin layers.
associated with Dharwar system. India is the largest producer of the mica in the world.
South Africa, Australia, China and Brazil etc are the
top producers of manganese. Tin
South Africa has the largest reserve of manganese. Tin is one of those important metals that are used for
The leading exporters of lead in the world are making alloys. It is a rather scarce metal in its world
Australia and Mexico and the chief importer is USA. distribution.
108
Most of the tin occurs in the form of placer deposits in The Witwatersand in South Africa is the richest area
alluvium, found prominently in South-East Asian in terms of deposits of gold in the world.
region. China, Australia and Russia are the top three gold
The world’s leading producers are China, Indonesia, producers in the world.
Myanmar, Peru, Brazil, Bolivia and Malaysia.
Silver
Leading importer countries of tin are Germany, Italy
This metal has a wide range of uses and occurs in
and France.
pure state as well as in combination with gold, lead
Chromium and copper.
It is used for making high quality alloy steel. It is used for making coins, ornaments, crafts, silver
plating, electroplating etc.
South Africa and Russia are the leading producers.
Leading producer of silver in the world are Mexico,
Zinc Peru, China, Australia and Chile.
Zinc occurs generally in association of lead and both Diamond
these minerals are therefore mined together.
Diamond is the purest form of carbon and also the
The world leaders in production of zinc are China, hardest substance.
Australia and Peru.
Diamond is used for cutting glasses, drilling in rocks,
Other important producers are Peru, Japan Mexico, polishing the diamond and for making ornaments.
Spain, Zaire and Poland.
The Republic of Congo is the largest producer of
The chief exporters of zinc in the world are Canada, industrial diamonds.
Australia, Peru, Mexico, Spain and Zaire.
Other leading producers are South Africa, Australia,
Lead Ghana and Angola.
Lead is also an important mineral and the lead ore is a Platinum
chemical mixture of pure metal and sulphur. Platinum is a rare mineral. It is also called ‘White
The ore is found widely distributed in the world and Gold.’ It is used for making ornaments, laboratory
leading countries are Australia, China, USA, Peru and instruments etc.
Canada. The melting point of platinum is 1550° C to 2700° C.
Other important producers are Kazakhstan , Russia Canada and South Africa are the leading producers of
and Yugoslavia. platinum.
Cobalt Uses of Minerals
Cobalt is a hard metal, mostly found in blue colour. Minerals which are used for gems are usually hard.
The chemical properties of cobalt is similar to iron These are then set in various styles for jewellery.
ore. Copper is another metal used in everything from coins
The Democratic Republic of Congo has the largest to pipes. Silicon, used in the computer industry is
cobalt reserves in the world. obtained from quartz.
Aluminium obtained from its ore bauxite is used in
Nickel
automobiles and airplanes, bottling industry,
Nickel is a metallic mineral and it is used for metal buildings and even in kitchen cookware.
plating.
The chief ore of nickel is called Pentlandite. Conservation of Minerals
Indonesia, Philippines and Russia are the leading Minerals are a non-renewable resource. It takes
producers of nickel. thousands of years for the formation and
concentration of minerals.
Precious Metals The rate of formation is much smaller than the rate at
Some important precious metals are as follows : which the humans consume these minerals.
Gold Economic development has brought with it increasing
consumption of all types of minerals leading to
In nature, gold occurs in the form of Alluvial placer increase in prices.
deposits or as reefs or underground lobes.
It is necessary to reduce wastage in the process of
It is mainly used for making ornaments. It is also used mining. Recycling of metals is another way in which
in electronics, pharmaceutical manufacturing etc. the mineral resources can be conserved.
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 10 109
Energy Resources
Sources Class-VIII New NCERT Chap 3 (Mineral and Power Resources), Class-IX Old NCERT Chap 3 (Our Resources), Class-XI
New NCERT Chap 9 (Minerals and Energy Resources), Class-X New NCERT Chap 5 (Non-renewable Resources Minerals),
Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 5 (Energy Resources)
Energy is an important factor in development of an Firewood

economy. The demand for energy has increased with
It is widely used for cooking and heating. In our
socio-economic development in the world.
country more than 50% of the energy used by
Some of the energy resources are exhaustible or villagers comes from fire wood.
non-renewable, e.g., coal and mineral oil but many
Remains of plants and animals, which were buried
are renewable, e.g., water and solar energy.
under the Earth for millions of years got converted by
Potential of water energy is more in those regions the heat and pressure into fossil fuels.
where water discharge of the rivers is high, rainfall
Fossil fuel such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are
is heavy and running water is available throughout
the main sources of conventional energy. The reserves
the year.
of these minerals are limited.
Solar energy is more dependable and universally
The rate at which the growing world population is
applicable. The increasing demand of the energy and
consuming them is far greater than the rate of their
the energy crisis of 1973 in the world have given
formation. So, these are likely to be exhausted soon.
impetus to research and development of
non-conventional sources of energy. Coal
It is the most abundantly found fossil fuel. It is used as
Classification of Energy Resources a domestic fuel, in industries such as iron and steel,
steam engines and to generate electricity.
Energy plays a vital role in our lives. We need energy for
industry, agriculture, transport, communication and It has been the basis of Industrial revolution and its
defence. It may be broadly categorised as conventional importance as a source of energy has declined after
and non-conventional resources. the introduction of mineral oil and natural gas.
It is found in the seams in sedimentary rocks. Its
Conventional Sources major quality is its combustibility and volatilness.
Conventional sources of energy are those, which have Most of the coal has been formed during
been in common use for long time. Firewood and carboniferous period of geological history owing to
fossil fuels are the two main conventional energy the submergence of natural vegetation. It is therefore
sources. referred as Buried Sunshine.
Firewood and cattle dung cake are most common in According to the latest estimates by International
rural India. According to an estimate, more than 70% Energy Agency (IEA), top five producer of coal in 2021
energy requirement in rural households is met by were: China, India, Indonesia, Australia and USA.
firewood and cool. The coal producing areas of India are Raniganj, Jharia,
Dhanbad and Bokaro in Jharkhand.
110
Coal Producing Regions of the World Bituminous It contains 70 to 90% of the carbon. It is
Country/region Centre black and shiny and gives smoky flame and leaves
behind much ash. They are known as bituminous
China Datong in Shansi province, Huo-LinGHe in Inner
Mongolia, Huainan and Huaibei in Anhui. because they yield tar (bitumen) when heated. It is
Xuzhou in Jiangsu, Lipanshin in Guizhou and
found in greater quantity as compared to other types.
Kailuan in Heger Province. Lignite The carbon content in Lignite or Brown of
The USA Western Pennsylvania to Alabama. Kentucky and coal is 45 to 70 per cent. It burns with high smoky
Western Virginia. flames. It is much more recent origin than anthracite
Illinois, Utah, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and bituminous coals and therefore contains higher
Arizona and New Mexico. proportion of vegetal matter.
Europe Franco-Belgian coalfields, Campine- Limburg
Peat It represents the first stage in the formation of
coalfield, Rurh, Saar, Silesia.
coal from vegetation. It is light brown in colour with
Saxony and Pilsen, Penine ranges and Scottish
highland.
high humidity content. Being the most inferior coal, it
doesn’t have any industrial importance.
Australia New South Wales, Queensland and Western
Australia.
Petroleum
India Raniganj, Jharia, Giridih, Ramgarh in Jharkhand.
The word petroleum is derived from Latin words
Wardha valley in Maharashtra, Umaria and
Sohagpur region of Madhya Pradesh. ‘–Petra’ meaning rock, ‘oleum’ meaning oil. So,
petroleum means rock oil.
Types of Coal It is found between the layers of rocks and is drilled
On the basis of carbon content, coal is divided into from oil fields located in off-shore and coastal areas.
following types : This is then sent to refineries which process the
Anthracite It is very hard, shiny and free of impurities. crude oil produce a variety of products like diesel,
It contains about 90% of carbon and gives off little petrol, kerosene, wax, plastics and lubricants.
smoke and leaves little ash after being burnt. Petroleum and its derivatives are called Black Gold as
There are very limited reserves of this type of coal. they are very valuable.
180ºW 140º 100º 60º 20º 0º 20º 60º 100º 140º 180ºE
Ocean
40º North America 40º

Asia
North Atlantic
Ocean Tropic of
Tropic of Cancer Cancer
20º 20º
Africa
Pacific
Pacific
Ocean Ocean
Indian Ocean
South America
20º
20º
Tropic of Australia
North Atlantic
Capricorn Ocean
Coal
40º
Petroleum 40º
Southern Ocean
60ºS. Antarctica 60ºS.
180ºW 140º 100º 60º 20º 0º 20º 60º 100º 140º 180ºE
111
Top 5 Petroleum Producing Countries Andaman and Nicobar islands are also important
areas having large reserves of natural gas.
Rank by Petroleum Country
production in 2020
Top 5 Natural Gas Producing Countries
First United States
Rank by Natural gas Country
Second Saudi Arabia production in 2020
Third Russia First United States
Fourth Canada Second Russia
Fifth China Third Iran

Fourth Canada
Natural Gas Fifth Algeria
Natural gas is found with petroleum deposits and is
released when crude oil is brought to the surface. Compressed Natural Gas
It can be used as a domestic and industrial fuel. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a popular eco-friendly
automobile fuel as it causes less pollution than
It is used as a source of energy as well as an industrial petroleum and diesel.
raw material in the petrochemical industry.
It is considered an environment friendly fuel because of Electricity
low carbon dioxide emissions and is, therefore, the fuel Electricity has such a wide range of applications in
for the present century. today’s world that, its per capita consumption is
Russia, Norway, UK and the Netherlands are the major considered as an index of development.
producers of natural gas. It is generated mainly in two ways by running water
Domestically, large reserves of natural gas have been which drives hydro turbines to generate hydro
discovered in the Krishna-Godavari basin. Along the electricity; and by burning other fuels such as coal,
West coast the reserves of the Mumbai high and allied petroleum and natural gas to drive turbines to
fields are supplemented by finds in the Gulf of Cambay. produce thermal power.
$ Mineral Oil Natural Gas
Advantages Disadvantage Advantages

Easy to transport (Tanker) Acid rain due to pollutants Easy to transport (Pipeline)
Oxygen quality degrades due
Raw material for to gas release Cheaper than oil
petro-chemical industry
Exploration of fuel is not easy.
Conventional Sources of Energy
$ Fuel $ Coal
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Easily available Polluting agent Easily available Polluting agent
Provides energy to Increases Used for conversion Bulky for
a large population greenhouse effect into Electric Energy transportation
Electricity
Advantages Disadvantages
Free of pollution Establishment cost
Easy available is high
112
Thermal Power Solar Energy

It is generated by using coal, petroleum and natural Solar energy is the most widely available and non-
gas. The thermal power stations use non-renewable exhaustible source of energy.
fossil fuels for generating electricity. The solar energy can be directly converted into
There are over 310 thermal power plants in India. electricity with the help of Photovoltaic cell. These
Photovoltaic cells are made up of silicon, which is
Hydel Power commonly found element in the world.
Rain water or river water stored in dams is made to The technology of utilising solar energy benefits a lot
fall from heights. The falling water flows through of tropical countries that are blessed with abundant
pipes inside the dam over turbine blades placed at sun shine.
the bottom of the dam.
Solar energy is also used in solar heaters, solar
The moving blades then turn the generator to cookers, solar dryers besides being used for
produce electricity. It is called hydroelectricity. community lighting and traffic signals.
The water discharged after the generation of
electricity is used for irrigation. One fourth of the Top 5 Solar Energy Producing Countries
world’s electricity is produced by hydel power. Rank by Solar Energy Country
Hydel energy is the source of clean energy, which production in 2020
does not pollute the environment. It can be First China
transmitted to the long distance through wires and Second USA
cables but there could be transmission losses if
Third Japan
transmitted for very long distance.
Fourth Germany
The leading producers of hydel power in the world
are Paraguay, Norway, Brazil and China. Fifth India
Some important hydel power stations in India are

Bhakra Nangal, Gandhi Sagar, Nagarjunsagar and Wind Energy
Damodar valley projects. Wind is an inexhaustible source of energy. Wind mills
have been used for grinding grain and lifting water
Facts About Hydel Energy since times immemorial.
n Norway was the first country in the world to develop In modern time wind mills, the high speed winds
hydro electricity. rotate the wind mill, which is connected to a generator
n The site of the world’s first solar and wind powered to produce electricity.
bus shelter is in Scotland. Wind farms having clusters of such wind mills are
n Development of hydroelectricity power has made it located in coastal regions and in mountain passes
possible to locate industries even in those areas where where strong and steady winds flow.
it was not possible earlier due to lack of power.
Wind farms are found in Netherlands, Germany,
Denmark, UK, USA and Spain are noted for their wind
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy energy production.
The increasing use of fossil fuels is leading to its India has great potential of wind power. The largest
shortage. It is estimated that if the present rate of wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from
consumption continues, the reserves of these fuel Nagercoil to Madurai. Apart from these, Andhra
will get exhausted. Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and
Rising prices of oil and gas and their potential Lakshadweep have important wind farms.
shortages have raised uncertainties about the
Top 5 Wind Energy Producing Countries
security of energy supply in future, which in turn has
serious repercussions on the growth of the national Rank by Wind Energy Country
economy. production in 2020
Moreover, increasing use of fossil fuels also causes First China

serious environmental problems. Second USA
Hence, there is a pressing need to use renewable Third Germany
energy sources like solar energy, wind, tide, biomass Fourth India
and energy from waste material. These are referred as
Fifth Spain
non-conventional sources of energy.
113
Biogas Nuclear or Atomic Energy

Organic waste such as dead plant and animal Nuclear power is obtained from energy stored in the
material, animal dung and kitchen waste can be nuclei of atoms of naturally occurring radioactive
converted into a gaseous fuel called biogas. elements like uranium and thorium.
The organic waste is decomposed by bacteria in These fuels undergo nuclear fission in nuclear reactors
biogas digesters to emit biogas, which is essentially and emit power.
a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide.
The greatest producers of nuclear power are USA and
Biogas is an excellent fuel for cooking and lighting Europe. In India Rajasthan and Jharkhand have large
and produces huge amount of organic manure deposits of Uranium. Thorium is found in large quantities
each year. in the Monazite sands of Kerala and in Andhra Pradesh.
The plants using cattle dung are known as ‘Gobar Top 5 Nuclear Energy Producing Countries
gas plants’ in rural India. These provide twin
benefits to the farmer in the form of energy and Rank by Nuclear Energy Country
production in 2020
improved quality of manure.
First United States
Biogas also prevents the loss of trees and manure
due to burning of fuel wood and cow dung cakes. Second France
Third China
Geothermal Power Fourth Japan
Heat energy obtained from the Earth is called Fifth Russia
Geothermal energy.
The temperature in the interior of the Earth rises Uranium
steadily as we go deeper. Sometimes this heat There are two primary sources of uranium. Pitchblende,
energy may surface itself in the form of hot springs. which has 50 to 80% uranium content and uraninite, in
This heat energy can be used to generate power. which Uranium content is 65 to 80%.
Geothermal energy in the form of hot springs has Australia, Kazakhstan and Canada are the biggest
been used for cooking, heating and bathing for producer of Uranium in the World. It is found in the
several years. Uranium City (Canada) on the Northern bank of Lake
USA has the world’s largest geothermal power Athabasca and Port Radium of Great Bear. Colorado
plants followed by New Zealand, Iceland, plateau of USA also has rich Uranium deposits.
Philippines and Central America. It is also found in Kazakhstan, South Africa, Zaire,
Two experimental projects have been set up in Russia, Australia, Germany, Sweden, Spain and India.
India to harness geothermal energy. One is located The Uranium deposits in India are found at Gaya and
in the Parvati valley near Manikaran in Himachal Singhbhum district of Bihar and Jharkhand, Udaipur and
Pradesh and the other is located in the Puga Jaipur district of Rajasthan, Nellore district of Andhra
valley, Ladakh. Pradesh and Palghat district of Kerala.
Tidal Energy Thorium

Energy generated from tides is called tidal energy. The major source of thorium are thorianite, allanite, and
Tidal energy can be harnessed by building dams at monazite. Monazite is a greyish mineral with yellowish
narrow openings of the sea. lustre and is a constituent of granite and pegmatite.
During high tide the energy of the tides is used to Globally, India has the largest reserve of thorium
turn the turbine installed in the dam to produce followed by Brazil, Australia and United States.
electricity. Nuclear Power Plants in India
The first tidal energy station was built in France. Nuclear Power Plant State
South Korea, France, United Kingdom and Canada Kaiga Karnataka
are among the biggest producer of tidal energy in
Kakrapar Gujarat
the world.
Kudankulam Tamil Nadu
In India the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf of Kutch in
Kalpakkam Tamil Nadu
Gujarat on the Western coast and Gangetic delta in
Sunderban regions of West Bengal provide ideal Narora Uttar Pradesh
conditions for utilising tidal energy. Rawatbhata Rajasthan
Tarapur Maharashtra
CHAPTER
114 11
Industries
Sources Class-VIII New NCERT Chap 5 (Industries), Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 10 (Location of Industries and Major
Industries of the World), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 6 (Secondary Activities, Tertiary and Quaternary Activities),
Class-XII New NCERT Chap 9 (Manufacturing Industries), Class-IX Old NCERT Chap 8 (Human Occupation)
All economic activities namely primary, secondary, production of large quantities of standardised parts by
tertiary and quaternary revolve around obtaining and each worker performing only one task repeatedly.
utilising resources necessary for survival. Mechanisation It refers to using gadgets, which
Industry refers to an economic activity that is accomplish tasks. Automation (without aid of human
concerned with production of goods, extraction of thinking during the manufacturing process) is the
minerals or the provision of services. advanced stage of mechanisation.
Secondary activities add value to natural resources Automatic factories with feedback and closed loop
by transforming raw materials into valuable products. computer control systems where machines are
It is therefore linked to the manufacturing, processing developed to ‘think’, have sprung up all over the world.
and construction activities. Technological Innovation Technological innovations
through research and development strategy are an
Manufacturing important aspect of modern manufacturing.
It helps the manufacturing process by ensuring quality
Manufacturing involves a full array of production
control, eliminating waste and inefficiency and
from handicrafts to moulding iron and steel and
combating pollution.
stamping out plastic toys to assembling delicate
computer components or space vehicles.
In each of these processes, the common Manufacturing Industry
characteristics are the application of power, mass n Manufacturing literally means ‘to make by hand’.
production of identical products and specialised However, now it includes goods ‘made by machines’.
labour in factory settings for the production of It is essentially a process, which involves transforming
raw materials into finished goods of higher value for
standardised commodities.
sale in local or distant markets.
Manufacturing may be done with modern power and n Conceptually, an industry is a geographically located
machinery or it may still be very primitive. manufacturing unit maintaining books of accounts and
records under a management system.
Characteristics of Modern Large n As the term industry is comprehensive, it is also used
Scale Manufacturing as synonymous with ‘manufacturing’ When one uses
terms like ‘steel industry’ and ‘chemical industry’ one
Modern large scale manufacturing has the following thinks of factories and processes.
characterstics : n But there are many secondary activities, which are not
Specialisation of Skills/Methods of Production carried on in factories such as what is now called the
Under the ‘craft’ method, factories produce only a few ‘entertainment industry’ and Tourism industry, etc.
pieces which are made-to-order. So the costs are high. So, for clarity the longer expression ‘manufacturing
On the other hand, mass production involves industry’ is used.
115
Organisational Structure and Stratification Modern Access to Sources of Energy Industries which use
manufacturing is characterised by : more power are located close to the source of the
(a) a complex technology energy supply such as the aluminium industry.
(b) extreme specialisation and division of labour Earlier coal was the main source of energy; today
(c) vast capital hydroelectricity and petroleum are also important
(d) large organisations sources of energy for many industries.
(e) executive bureaucracy Access to Transportation and Communication
Uneven Geographic Distribution Major concentrations Facilities Speedy and efficient transport facilities
of modern manufacturing have flourished in a few to carry raw materials to the factory and to move
numbers of places. These cover less than 10% of the finished goods to the market are essential for the
world’s land area. development of industries.
The cost of transport plays an important role in the
Factors Influencing Location of location of industrial units.
Manufacturing Industries Western Europe and Eastern North America have a
highly developed transport system, which has
Industries maximise profits by reducing costs.
always induced the concentration of industries in
Therefore, industries should be located at points where the these areas. Modern industry is inseparably tied to
production costs are minimum. Some of the factors transportation systems.
influencing industrial locations are as under : Improvements in transportation led to integrated
Access to Market The existence of a market for economic development and regional specialisation
manufactured goods is the most important factor in the of manufacturing. Communication is also an
location of industries. important need for industries for the exchange and
‘Market’ means people who have a demand for these goods management of information.
and also have the purchasing power (ability to purchase) to Government Policy Governments adopt ‘regional
be able to purchase from the sellers at a place. Remote policies’ to promote ‘balanced’ economic
areas inhabited by a few people offer small markets. development and hence, set up industries in
The developed regions of Europe, North America, Japan particular areas.
and Australia provide large global markets as the Access to Agglomeration Economies/ Links
purchasing power of the people is very high. between Industries Many industries benefit from
The densely populated regions of South and South-East nearness to a leader-industry and other industries.
Asia also provide large markets. Some industries, such as These benefits are termed as agglomeration
aircraft manufacturing, have a global market. The arms economies.
industry also has global markets. Savings are derived from the linkages, which exist
Access to Raw material Raw material used by industries between different industries. These factors operate
should be cheap and easy to transport. Industries based together to determine industrial location.
on cheap, bulky and weight-losing material (ores) are
located close to the sources of raw material such as steel, Foot Loose Industries
sugar and cement industries. n Foot loose industries can be located in a wide
Perishability is a vital factor for the industry to be located variety of places.
closer to the source of the raw material. Agro-processing n They are not dependent on any specific raw
and dairy products are processed close to the sources of material, weight losing or otherwise. They largely
farm produce or milk supply respectively. depend on component parts, which can be obtained
anywhere.
Access to Labour Supply Labour supply is an important n They produce in small quantity and also employ a
factor in the location of industries. Some types of
small labour force. These are generally not
manufacturing still require skilled labour. Increasing polluting industries.
mechanisation, automation and flexibility of industrial n The important factor in their location is
processes have reduced the dependence of industry upon accessibility by road network.
the labours.
116
Classification of Manufacturing Industries

Manufacturing industries are classified on the basis of their size, inputs/ raw materials output/ products and ownership.
Classification of Industries
Based on Size Based on Input/Raw Materials Based on Output/Product Based on Ownership
Cottage or Small Large Agro based Mineral Chemical Forest Animal Basic Consumer Public Private Joint
Household Scale Scale based based based based goods Sector Sector Sector
Sugar, edible oil, Petro-chemical,
cotton textiles, Timber, lac, Leather, Iron and Cooperative
Artefacts plastic, synthetic, wool Sector
coffee, tea, turpentine, Steel
fibre, salts,
rubber, etc paper
chemicals
fertilisers
Biscuits Textiles Vehicles
(e.g., cars, scooters, cycles)
Metallic Non- Metallic
Ferrous Cement, pottery

Non-Ferrous
Iron and Steel Copper, aluminium, gems and jewellery
Industries based on Size Small Scale Manufacturing

The amount of capital invested, number of workers Small scale manufacturing is distinguished from
employed and volume of production determine the household industries by its production techniques and
size of industry. place of manufacture (a workshop outside the
Accordingly, industries may be classified into home/cottage of the producer).
household or cottage, small-scale and large-scale. This type of manufacturing uses local raw material,
simple power-driven machines and semi-skilled labour.
Household Industries or Cottage Manufacturing
It provides employment and raises local purchasing
It is the smallest manufacturing unit. The artisans power.
use local raw materials and simple tools to produce
Therefore, countries like India, China, Indonesia and
everyday goods in their homes with the help of their
Brazil, etc have developed labour-intensive small scale
family members or part time labour.
manufacturing in order to provide employment to their
Finished products may be for consumption in the population.
same household or for sale in local (village) markets
or for barter. Large Scale Manufacturing
Capital and transportation do not wield much Large scale manufacturing involves a large market,
influence as this type of manufacturing has low various raw materials, enormous energy, specialised
commercial significance and most of the tools are workers, advanced technology, assembly-line mass
devised locally. production and large capital.
Some common everyday products produced in this This kind of manufacturing developed in the last 200
sector of manufacturing include foodstuffs, fabrics, years, in the United Kingdom, North-Eastern USA and
mats, containers, tools, furniture and shoes. Europe. Now it has diffused to almost all over the world.
Besides these, figurines from wood lot and forest, On the basis of the system of large scale manufacturing,
shoes and other articles from leather; pottery and the world’s major industrial regions may be grouped
bricks from clays and stones are also produced in under two broad types, namely:
these industries. 1. Traditional large-scale industrial regions, which are
Goldsmiths make jewellery of gold, silver and thickly clustered in a few more developed countries.
bronze. Some artefacts and crafts are made out of 2. High-technology large scale industrial regions, which
bamboo, wood obtained locally from the forests. have diffused to less developed countries.
117
Industries based on Inputs/ Industries Based on Output/ Product

Raw Materials The industry whose products are used to make other
On the basis of the raw materials used, the industries are goods by using them as raw materials are basic
industries.
classified as:
There lies significant linkage among industries for the
Agro based Industries production purposes. For example, the products from
Agro processing involves the processing of raw Iron and Steel industry (basic industry) are used for
materials from the field and the farm into finished making machines and tools, which itself is an industry.
products for rural and urban markets. The consumer goods industries produce goods, which
Major agro-processing industries are food processing, are consumed by consumers directly. For examples,
sugar, pickles, fruits juices, beverages (tea, coffee and industries producing breads and biscuits, tea, soaps
cocoa), spices and oils fats and textiles (cotton, jute, and toiletries, paper for writing, televisions, etc. are
silk), rubber, etc. consumer goods or non-basic industries.
Agri-business Industries Based on Ownership

n Agri-business is commercial farming on an industrial Public Sector Industries are owned and managed by
scale often financed by business whose main interests governments. In India, there were a number of Public
lie outside agriculture, for example, large Sector Undertakings (PSUs). Socialist countries have
corporations in tea plantation business. many state owned industries. Mixed economies have
n Agri-business farms are mechanised, large in size, both Public and Private sector enterprises.
highly structured, reliant on chemicals and may be Private Sector Industries are owned by individual
described as ‘agro-factories’.
investors. These are managed by Private organisations.
In capitalist countries, industries are generally owned
Mineral based Industries privately.
These industries use minerals as a raw material. Joint Sector Industries are managed by joint stock
Some industries use ferrous metallic minerals, which companies or sometimes the private and public sectors
contain ferrous (iron), such as iron and steel together establish and manage the industries.
industries. Cooperative sector Industries are owned and operated
But some use non-ferrous metallic minerals, such as by the producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers
aluminium, copper and jewellery industries. or both Anand Milk Union Limited and Sudha Dairy
Many industries use non-metallic minerals such as are a success stories of a cooperative nature.
cement and pottery industries.
Chemical based Industries
Industrial System
An industrial system consists of inputs, processes and
Such industries use natural chemical minerals, e.g.
outputs. The inputs are the raw materials, labour and
mineral-oil (petroleum) is used in petrochemical
costs of land, transport, power and other infrastructure.
industry. Salts, sulphur and potash industries also
use natural minerals. The processes include a wide range of activities that
convert the raw material into finished products. The
Chemical industries are also based on raw materials outputs are the end product and the income earned
obtained from wood and coal. Synthetic fibre, plastic, from it.
etc. are other examples of chemical based industries.
In case of the textile industry, the inputs may be cotton,
Forest based Raw Material using Industries human labour, factory and transport cost. The
The forests provide many major and minor products processes include ginning, spinning, weaving, dyeing
which are used as raw material. and printing. The output is the shirt you wear.
Timber for furniture industry, wood, bamboo and
grass for paper industry, lac for lac industries come Industrial Regions
from forests. Industrial regions emerge when a number of industries
Animal based Industries locate close to each other and share the benefits of
their closeness.
Leather for leather industry and wool for woollen
textiles are obtained from animals. Besides, ivory is Major industrial regions of the world are Eastern North
also obtained from elephant’s tusks. America, Western and Central Europe, Eastern Europe
and Eastern Asia.
118
Major industrial regions tend to be located in the The Great lakes and major rivers were supplemented
temperate areas, near sea ports and especially near in the 1800s by canals, railways and highways.
coal fields. In modern times, the New England district is
India has several industrial regions like Mumbai - developed for availability of highly skilled labour
Pune cluster, Bengaluru-Tamil Nadu region, Hugli from nearby universities in Boston. Computer
region, Ahmedabad-Baroda region, Chhota Nagpur manufacturing and software development is now
industrial belt, Vishakhapatnam-Guntur belt, having greatest concentration in California.
Gurgaon-Delhi- Meerut region and the
Europe
Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram industrial cluster.
The Western European industrial region appears as one
Traditional large Scale Industrial of the major industrial regions on the world map.
Location of manufacturing is in a North-South linear
Regions pattern from Scotland through England, mouth of the
These are based on heavy industry, often located near Rhine river valley, Germany and France, to Northern
coal-fields and engaged in metal smelting, heavy Italy.
engineering, chemical manufacture or textile
In reality, four distinct districts have emerged primarily
production.
because European countries competed with one another
These industries are now known as smokestack to develop their own industrial areas. Eastern Europe has
industries. Traditional industrial regions can be six major industrial regions. Four are entirely in Russia,
recognised by following four factors : one is in Ukraine and one is Southern Poland and
1. High proportion of employment in manufacturing Northern Czech Republic.
industry.
Factors for such development in Western Europe are :
2. High-density housing, often of inferior type and
The Industrial Revolution started in the United
poor services.
Kingdom in 1750 based on iron and steel production
3. Unattractive environment, for example, pollution, and textile and woollen manufacturing.
waste heaps, and so on.
Germany and Japan with US assistance rebuilt, after
4. Problems of unemployment, emigration and derelict World War II gaining industrial success against Great
land areas caused by closure of factories because of Britain.
a worldwide fall in demand.
The Rhine river is the main waterway of European
World Industrial Regions commerce emptying into the North sea at the Dutch
city of Rotterdam-the world’s largest port.
The world’s major manufacturing regions are found in
Northern Italy has attracted manufacturing due to
North America, Europe and East Asia. Other
lower wages and cheap hydroelectricity from the Alps.
manufacturing centres are also found elsewhere.
Mid-Rhine Belt
North America
The second most important industrial area in
Manufacturing in North America is concentrated in
Western Europe includes South-Western Germany,
the North-Eastern quadrant of the United States and in
North-Eastern France and the tiny Luxembourg.
South-Eastern Canada (called the North American
In contrast to the Rhine-Ruhr valley, the German
manufacturing or rust belt).
portion of the Mid-Rhine region lacks abundant raw
Only 5% of the land area of these countries contains materials but it is at the centre of Europe’s most
one-third of the population and nearly two-third of the important consumer market.
manufacturing output. This manufacturing belt has
The French portion of the Mid-Rhine region-Alsace
achieved its dominance through a combination of
and Lorraine-contains Europe’s largest iron-ore field
historical and environmental factors. Early settlement
and is the production centre for two-thirds of France’s
gave Eastern cities an advantage to become the
steel. Luxembourg is also one of the world’s leading
country’s dominant industrial centre.
steel producers because the Lorraine iron-ore field
First settled in the 17th and 18th century, it is lined by extends into the Southern part of the country.
a transportation system that includes the St Lawrence
river and the Great lakes connected to the East coast United Kingdom Region
and the Atlantic ocean by the Mohawk and Hudson The Industrial Revolution originated in the Midlands
rivers. and Northern England and Southern Scotland because
The North-East also had essential raw materials and those areas contained a remarkable concentration of
good transportation. innovative engineers and mechanics during the late
119
18th century. The United Kingdom lost its international The Ruhr region is responsible for 80% of Germany’s
industrial leadership in the 20th century saddled with total steel production. Changes in the industrial
outmoded and deteriorating factories. structure have led to the decay of some areas and
The United Kingdom expanded industrial production in there are problems of industrial waste and pollution.
the late 20th century by attracting new high-tech The future prosperity of the Ruhr is based less on the
industries that serve the European market. products of coal and steel, for which it was initially
Today, British industries are more likely to locate in famous and more on the new emerging industries.
South-Eastern England near the country’s largest It includes the huge Opel car assembly plant, new
concentrations of population, wealth and the Channel chemical plants, universities. Out of town shopping
Tunnel. centres, which have appeared in the region resulting
in creation of a ‘New Ruhr’ landscape.
Northern Italy Region
Manufacturing contributes significantly to the world
A fourth important European industrial region lies in
economy. Iron and steel, textiles, automobiles,
the Po river basin of Northern Italy.
petrochemicals and electronics are some of the
Modern industrial development in the Po basin began world’s most important manufacturing industries.
with establishment of textile manufacturing during the
19th century because of two key assets: numerous
workers and inexpensive hydroelectricity.
Industrial Disaster
In industries, accidents/disasters mainly occur due to
Eastern Europe and Russia technical failure or irresponsible handling of hazardous
Major manufacturing centres are clustered in European material. One of the worst industrial disasters of all
time occurred in Bhopal on 3rd December, 1984 around
Russia and the Ukraine. Other centres were developed East
12:30 AM.
of the Urals. The factors responsible for development of
It was a technological accident in which highly
such region are as following :
poisonous Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) gas along with
Moscow, the population centre of Russia, takes Hydrogen Cyanide and other reaction products leaked
advantage of a large, skilled labour pool and a large out of the pesticide factory of Union Carbide. It resulted
market not only for textiles but also for iron and steel, into heavy casualties.
transportation equipment, chemicals and motor In another incident, on 23rd December, 2005, due to gas
vehicles. well blowout in Gao Qiao, Chongqing, China, 243 people
Eastern Ukraine to the South-West of Moscow benefits died, 9,000 were injured and 64,000 were evacuated.
from rich coal deposits, attracting iron and steel Many people died because they were unable to run after
the explosion.
producers.
Risk Reduction Measures
The linear Volga region to the East of Moscow is the n Densely populated residential areas should be
principal location of substantial oil and gas deposits. separated far away from the industrial areas.
It is also linked to the Black sea from the Volga river. n People staying in the vicinity of industries should be
Just East of Volga in the Urals region where the Urals aware of the storage of toxins or hazardous
mountains have the largest deposits of industrial substances and their possible effects in case if an
materials in the former Soviet Union. accident occurs.
n Fire warning and fighting system should be
The Kuznetsk basin is the chief industrial region to the
East of the Urals. improved.
n Storage capacity of toxic substances should be limited
East Asia n Pollution dispersion qualities in the industries should
Many industries in China are clustered in three centres be improved.

near the East coast. In Japan, production is clustered
along the South-East coast.
The Ruhr Coal-field, Germany
Iron and Steel Industry
This has been one of the major industrial regions of The iron and steel industry forms the base of all
Europe for a long time. Coal, iron and steel formed the other industries and therefore, it is called a basic
basis of the economy. industry.
But as the demand for coal declined, the industry It is basic because it provides raw material for other
started shrinking. Even after the iron ore was industries such as machine tools used for further
exhausted, the industry remained, using imported ore production. It may also be called a heavy industry
brought by waterways to the Ruhr. because it uses large quantities of bulky raw
materials and its products are also heavy.
120
Iron is extracted from iron ore by smelting in a blast It also includes secondary producers, rolling mills
furnace with carbon (coke) and limestone. The molten and ancillary industries.
iron is cooled and moulded to form pig iron, which is This industry is one of the most complex and
used for converting into steel by adding strengthening capital-intensive industries and is concentrated in
materials like manganese. advanced countries of North America, Europe and
The large integrated steel industry is traditionally Asia.
located close to the sources of raw materials – iron,
ore, coal, manganese and limestone – or at places The Changing Location of the Iron and
where these could be easily brought. e.g., near ports. Steel Industry
But in mini steel mills access to markets is more n Before 1800 AD, iron and steel industry was located
important than inputs. These are less expensive to where raw materials, power supply and running water
build and operate and can be located near markets were easily available.
because of the abundance of scrap metal, which is the n Later the ideal location for the industry was near coal
main input. fields and close to canals and railways.
n After 1950, iron and steel industry began to be located
Traditionally, most of the steel was produced at large
on large areas of flat land near the ports.
integrated plants. n This is because by this time steel works had become
The Indian iron and steel industry consists of large very large and iron-ore had to be imported from
integrated steel plants as well as mini steel mills. overseas.
180ºW. 140º 100º 60º 20º 0º 20º 60º 100º 140º 180ºE.

Ocean
Canada Germany Russia
40º
Europe 40º
United State Asia
America Japan
North Atlantic
Ocean China Tropic of
Tropic of Cancer Cancer
India
20º 20º
South Africa
Pacific Pacific
Ocean Ocean
South America
Indian Ocean
20º Brazil
20º
Tropic of
Capricorn North Atlantic Australia
Ocean
40º
40º
Southern Ocean
Antarctica 60ºS.
60ºS.
180ºW. 140º 100º 60º 20º 0º 20º 60º 100º 140º 180ºE.
Famous Iron and Steel Industry
Jamshedpur TISCO was started in 1907 at Sakchi, near the

Before 1947, there was only one iron and steel plant in confluence of the rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai
the country Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited in Jharkhand. Later on Sakchi was renamed as
(TISCO). Jamshedpur.
It was privately owned. After Independence, the Geographically, Jamshedpur is the most conveniently
government took the initiative and set up several iron situated iron and steel centre in the country. Sakchi
and steel plants. was chosen to set up the steel plant for several
reasons.
121
This place was only 32 km away from Kalimati the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers above Pittsburgh
station on the Bengal-Nagpur railway line. It was and along the Ohio river below it.
close to the iron ore, coal and manganese deposits The Pittsburgh area has many factories other than steel
as well as to Kolkata, which provided a large market. mills. These use steel as their raw material to make
TISCO, gets coal from Jharia coalfields and iron many different products such as railroad equipment,
ore, limestone, dolomite and manganese from heavy machinery and rails.
Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
The Kharkai and Subarnarekha rivers ensured Cotton Textile Industry
sufficient water supply. Government initiatives Cotton textile industry has three sub-sectors i.e.,
provided adequate capital for its later development. handloom, powerloom and mill sectors.
In Jamshedpur, several other industrial plants were Handloom sector is labour-intensive and provides
set up after TISCO. They produce chemicals, employment to semi-skilled workers. It requires small
locomotive parts, agricultural equipment, capital investment. This sector involves spinning,
machinery, tinplate, cable and wire. weaving and finishing of the fabrics.
The powerloom sector introduces machines and
Steel Producing Regions
becomes less labour intensive and the volume of
Countries/ production increases. Cotton textile mill sector is highly
Major Steel Producing Regions
Regions capital intensive and produces fine clothes in bulk.
USA l
North Appalachian region (Pittsburgh) Cotton textile manufacturing requires good quality
l
Great Lake region (Chicago-Gary, Erie, cotton as raw material. India, China, USA, Pakistan,
Cleveland, Lorain, Buffalo and Duluth)
Uzbekistan, Egypt produce more than half of the world’s
l
Atlantic coast (Sparrows Point and Morrisville)
raw cotton.
l
The industry has also moved towards the
Southern state of Alabama. Pittsburgh area is The UK and other North-Western European countries
now losing ground and it has now become the and Japan also produce cotton textile made from
‘rust bowl’ of USA imported yarn.
Europe l
United Kingdom Scun Thorpe, Port Talbot, Europe alone accounts for nearly half of the world’s
Birmingham and Sheffield cotton imports. The industry has to face very stiff
l
Germany Duisburg, Dortmund, Dusseldorf and competition with synthetic fibres hence, it has now
l
Essen France Le Creusot and St. Etienne shown a declining trend in many countries.
l
Russia Moscow, St. Petersburg, Lipetsk and Tula
With the scientific advancement and technological
l
Ukraine Krivoi Rog and Donetsk
improvements the structure of industries changes.
Asia l
Japan Nagasaki and Tokyo-Yokohama
For examples, Germany recorded constant growth in
l
China Shanghai, Tientsin and Wuhan
cotton textile industry since, World War II till the
l
India Jamshedpur, Kulti-Burnpur, Durgapur, seventies but now it has declined and shifted to less
Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Salem, Visakhapatnam
and Bhadravati
developed countries where labour costs are low.
Distribution of Cotton Industries

Pittsburgh
UK Scottish Lowland, Nottingham, Ireland, Lancashire
It is an important steel city of the United States of
Germany Great Ruhr industrial region, Frankfurt, Munich,
America. The steel industry at Pittsburgh enjoys Bremen, Chemnitz, Hamburg
locational advantages.
France Bedford, Kollmann, Nancy
Some of the raw material such as coal is available
Italy Naples, Milan
locally, while the iron ore comes from the iron
Brazil Rio-de-Janeiro, Sao-Paulo, Rio-Grande
mines at Minnesota, about 1500 km from Pittsburgh.
Japan South Kyushu, Kwanto plain, Nagoya, Kinki plain,
Between these mines and Pittsburgh is one of the Northern coast
world’s best routes for shipping ore cheaply – the
China Shanghai, Manchuria, Tien Shan, Beijing, Chuang,
famous Great Lakes waterway. Trains carry the ore Nanchang, Lanchow
from the Great Lakes to the Pittsburgh area.
USA New England and adjacent areas, Georgia, Florida,
The Ohio, the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers Carolina, Alabama, Virginia, Tennessee and Kentucky
provide adequate water supply. CIS Moscow-Tula-Ivanova and Oblast alongwith
Today, very few of the large steel mills are in (Commonwealth Ukraine, Caucasus, Kazakh uplands, Crimea,
Pittsburgh itself. They are located in the valleys of of Independent Tashkent, Stalingrad, Kirovograd and Georgia
State)
122
Ahmedabad Woollen Textile Industry

It is located in Gujarat on the banks of the It is older than the cotton textile industry and has been
Sabarmati river. The first mill was established developed at local and cottage industry level.
in 1859.
The bulk of the wool is produced by a handful of
It soon became the second largest textile city of India, developed countries. e.g., Russia, Austria, New Zealand,
after Mumbai. Ahmedabad was therefore often USA, Japan, UK, Germany, China, France and Italy.
referred to as the Manchester of India. Raw wool is prepared in temperate and sub-tropical
Ahmedabad is situated very close to cotton growing areas. The sheep rearing is a popular occupation in
area. This ensures easy availability of raw material. sub-tropical countries by nomadic herders. Most of the
The climate is ideal for spinning and weaving. The woollen product is generally consumed by high latitude
flat terrain and easy availability of land is suitable for people.
the establishment of the mills. Wool as a raw material is impure in nature. Most of the
The densely populated states of Gujarat and highly productive woollen industries are developed
Maharashtra provide both skilled and semi-skilled near the market e.g., at Western Europe while the wool
labour. producing areas in Southern hemisphere are not very
Well developed road and railway network permits developed in the manufacturing of woollen goods.
easy transportation of textiles to different parts of the
Distribution of Woollen Textile Industry
country, thus providing easy access to the market.
Mumbai port nearby facilitates import of machinery USA New-England region, Massachusetts and Rhode
and export of cotton textiles. island are the reputed centres, the other centres are
Pennsylvania.
In the recent years, Ahmedabad textile mills have
been facing some problems. Several textile mills Japan In Japan, major woollen goods producing centres are
have closed down. located within Tokyo-Yakohama, Nagoya, Kobe,
Himeji, Osaka and Nagasaki.
This is primarily due to the emergence of new textile
centres in the country as well as non-upgradation of UK In United Kingdom, Yorkshire was the leading centre
machines and technology in the mills of Ahmedabad. of woollen goods production, subsequently new
centres were developed in Midland and Lancashire,
Osaka later in Scottish lowland, South-Wales and Ireland.
It is an important textile centre of Japan, also known CIS In CIS, early centres of woollen industries were
as the Manchester of Japan. (Common developed around Volga basin and Moscow.
The textile industry developed in Osaka due to Wealth of
Independent
several geographical factors. State)
The extensive plain around Osaka ensured that land Saxony, Westphalia and Great Ruhr
Germany
was easily available for the growth of cotton mills.
Warm humid climate is well suited to spinning and Italy Naples and Po river valley
weaving.
China Shanghai and Canton
The river Yodo provides sufficient water for the
mills. Labour is easily available. Location of port India Ludhiana, Shimla, Kanpur, Bhatinda, Dhariwal and
Jalandhar
facilitates import of raw cotton and for exporting
textiles.
The textile industry at Osaka depends completely Information Technology (IT)
upon imported raw materials. Cotton is imported The Information Technology industry deals in the
from Egypt, India, China and USA. storage, processing and distribution of information.
The finished product is mostly exported and has a Today, this industry has become global.
good market due to good quality and low price. This is due to a series of technological, political and
Though it is one of the important textile cities in the socio-economic events. The main factors guiding the
country; the cotton textile industry at Osaka has been location of these industries are resource availability,
replaced by other industries, such as iron and steel, cost and infrastructure. The major hubs of the IT
machinery, shipbuilding, automobiles, electric industry are the Silicon Valley, California and
equipment and cement. Bengaluru, India.
123
There are other emerging information technology Professional (white collar) workers make up a large
hubs in metropolitan centres of India such as share of the total workforce. These highly skilled
Mumbai, New Delhi, Hyderabad and Chennai. specialists greatly outnumber the actual production
Other cities such as Gurgaon, Pune, (blue collar) workers.
Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi and Chandigarh are Robotics on the assembly line, computer-aided design
also important centres of the IT industry. (CAD) and manufacturing, electronic controls of
However, Bengaluru has always had a unique smelting and refining processes, and the constant
advantage, as a city with highest availability of development of new chemical and pharmaceutical
middle and top management talent. products are notable examples of a high-tech industry.
Neatly spaced, low, modern, dispersed, office-plant-lab
Major IT Hubs of the World
buildings rather than massive assembly structures,
Some major IT Hubs of the world are as follows : factories and storage areas mark the high-tech industrial
Bengaluru landscape.
Bengaluru is located on the Deccan Plateau from Planned business parks for high-tech start-ups have
where it gets the name ‘Silicon Plateau’. The city is become part of regional and local development schemes.
known for its mild climate throughout the year. High-tech industries which are regionally concentrated,
It has some important public sector industries and self-sustained and highly specialised are called
research institutions and largest number of technopolies.
educational institutions and IT colleges in India. The Silicon valley near San Francisco and Silicon
The Karnataka Government was first to announce Forest near Seattle are examples of technopolies.
an IT policy in 1992. The city has the largest and
widest availability of skilled managers with work Sunrise Industry
experience. Emerging industries are also known as ‘Sunrise Industries’.
These include Information technology, Wellness, Hospitality
Silicon Valley and Knowledge.
Silicon Valley, is a part of Santa Clara Valley,
located next to the Rocky Mountains of North Industrial Machinery Industries
America. The area has temperate climate with the
The machine tool industry is a highly specialised
temperatures rarely dropping below 0° centigrade.
industry which produces various tools and foundries
It is close to one of the most advanced scientific and used in the manufacture of various goods and in
technological centres in the world. Besides constructional activities.
pleasant climate, it also has plenty of space for
These industries are generally located in the clustered
development and future expansion. It is located
industrial region as often other industries are its main
close to major roads and airports and enjoy good
consumers.
access to markets and skilled workforce.
Important Countries/Regions of Machine Tools
‘Being Bangalored..’ Countries Region
It means to lose one’s job to someone in the city of
USA Ohio, Michigan, Connecticut, Illinois, Rhode island,
Bengaluru. A few years ago many IT jobs in the USA
New York.
were outsourced to countries like India where equally
skilled labour was available at lower salaries. Cincinnati ( Ohio) is the leading centre of
production.
Former USSR Moscow, Gorky, Tula, Lipetsk, Kursk, Kiev, Lugansk,
Concept of High Technology Industry Rostov, Vladivostok.
High technology, or simply high-tech, is the latest Germany Rhine- Ruhr region, Dusseldorf, Frankfurt, Colonge,
generation of manufacturing activities. Stuttgart, Berlin, Dresden and Leipzig.
It is best understood as the application of intensive UK Sheffield, Birmingham, Glasgow, London and
research and development (R and D) efforts leading Manchester.
to the manufacture of products of an advanced Japan Tokyo, Yokohama, Kobe, Osaka and Nagoya.
scientific and engineering character.
124
Important Countries/Regions of Textile Machinery Important Countries/Regions of Aircraft Industries

Country/ Country/region Centre
Fact
Region USA California, Santa Monica, El Segundo, Long Beach,
UK l
First country to manufacture cotton and woolen Hawthrone, Los Angeles, Texas, Wichita, Seattle,
textiles with power driven machines. Baltimore, Long Island (New York)
l
Leicester and Nottingham produce machines for UK Birmingham, Conventry, Derby, Bristol and London
making hosiers.
France Paris, Amiens- St. Quentine and Reims, St. Nazare,
l
Macclesfield makes silk machines. Nantas, Bordeaux
l
Dundee specialises in Jute machines and Belfast
Former USSR Moscow, Gorky, Kazan, Ulyanovsk, Kuibyshev and
specialises in machines for linen industries.
Saratov, Tomsk, Lininsk and Statinsky, Komsomolsk
USA l
Half of all the textile machinery is manufactured and Khabarovsk
in New England.
Italy Savona, Turin, Trento, Gorizia
l
Important centres: Worcester, Lowell, Hydepark
and Philadelphia. Sweden Boras and Linkoping
Japan Tokyo, Yokohama, and Kanazawa, Tachikawa,
Tanaka, Mitaka, Giru, Nagoya, Akaishi and
Transport Equipment Industries Nishinomiya
It includes Ship building, automobile, aircraft and China Shenyang, Beijing and Harbin
railway equipment making industries. Australia Melbourne, Parafield and Brisbane
These are given below
Important Countries/Regions of Chemical Industry
Important Countries/Regions of Ship Building Industry
Country/
Country/Region Centre Centre
region
Europe The heavily industrialised sea ports of USA New Jersey, New York, Illinois, Texas, Pennsylvania,
Europe also contains the largest shipyards Ohio and Michigan
Clydeside (Glasgow), Tyneside (New
Germany The Ruhr region : Elberfeld, Essen, Cologne,
Castle), Merseyside (Liverpool), Rotterdam,
Gelsenkirchen
Amsterdam, Dunkrik, Antwerp, Goteborg,
Marseilles, Hamburg, Cadiz and Lisbon Northern Rhine region: Ludwigshafen, Manheim,
Heidelberg and Stuttgart
North America New York, Sparrows Point, Montred
Chicago, Buffalo, Cleveland and Toledo Ukraine Kiev, Dniprodzerzhynsk, Kharkov, Volgograd, Donetsk
and Dnepropetrovsk
Japan Tokyo, Yokohama, Kawasaki, Nagasaki and
Kobe France Norde, Pasde-Calais, Marseilles and Garonne region
Italy Milan, Ferrara, Ravenna, Terni and Naples
India Cochin, Mormugao, Kolkata and
Vishakhapatnam UK Willingham, Wilton, Huddersfield, Port Sunlight, St.
Helens, Avon valley, Leeds, Birmingham and Glasgow
Important Countries/Regions of Automobile Industry Japan Osaka region, Kyoto, Nagoya region, Yokaichi, Nihama,
Fushiki, Omuta, Hokkaido
Country Centre
China Shanghai, Nanking, Yangtze valley and Northern China
USA Detroit, Chicago, Atlanta India Sindri, Durgapur, Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Neyveli,
UK Coventry Birmingham, London, Oxford Kolkata, Alwaye, Chennai, Bengaluru, Trombay,
Vadodara, Ahmedabad, Kanpur, Kota, Amritsar, Delhi,
Japan Tokyo Hyderabad etc
Germany Stuttgart, Dusseldorf, Wolfsburg, Berlin,
India Aurangabad, Chennai, Pune, Gurugram, Fertiliser Industry
Ahmedabad
Nitrogen, phosphate and potash fertilisers are prominent
fertiliser industries.
Important Countries/Regions of Railway Equipment
Nitrogen Fertilisers
Country/region Centre
China is the world largest producer of nitrogen fertiliser
USA Detroit, Chicago, New York and Philadelphia
in the world. It is followed by India and USA at second
UK Derby, Glasgow, Doncaster and Manchester and third position respectively.
India Chittaranjan, Varanasi, Perambur, It is the crucial factor behind success of green revolution
Kapurthala and Jamshedpur. all over the world.
125
Phosphate Fertilisers City Country Industry

China is the largest producer of Phosphate fertiliser, Darjeeling India Tea- processing
followed by USA and India. Detroit USA Automobiles
Other major producer of Phosphate fertilisers in the Dundee Scotland Linen manufacturing
world are – Russia, Morocco, Brazil, Saudi Arabia Dresden Germany Optical
and Egypt. Dusseldorf Germany Iron and steel
Potash Fertilisers Dortmund Germany Iron and steel
It is a basic nutrient for plants and an important Essen Germany Iron and steel
ingredient in fertiliser. Firozabad India Glass Industry
Canada is the world’s largest potash producer, Geneva Switzerland Watches and light precision
goods
accounting for 31.6% of the world’s total in 2019.
Four countries- Canada, Russia, Belarus and China Glasgow UK Ship Building
accounted for 80% of the world’s potash production Gorky Russia Engineering goods
in 2019. Havana Cuba Sugar and Cigar
Johannesburg South Africa Gold Mining
Important Countries/Regions of Synthetic Rubber Industry
Kansas USA Meat Packaging
Country Centre Kawasaki Japan Iron and steel
USA Connecticut, California, Indiana, Illinois, Kharkov Ukraine Machine building
Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York,
Kiev Ukraine Engineering industry
Massachusetts, Ohio
Kimberley South Africa Diamond mining
UK Fort Dunlop, Liverpool, Manchester,. Leicester
Kobe Japan Iron and steel
Germany Hanover, Berlin, Duisburg, Halle
Kirov Rog Ukraine Iron and steel
France Clemont Ferrand and Paris
Leeds UK Woollen textiles
Russia Moscow and St. Petersburg
Leningrad Russia Ship building
Important Countries/Regions of Paper and Pulp Industry Los Angeles USA Petrochemical, Films
Lyons France Silk industry
Types of paper Leading producer
Manchester UK Cotton textiles
Printing and writing paper USA, Canada, Finland, Germany,
China, Japan Melbourne Australia Food Processing
Meerut India Sports goods
Machine made paper and China, USA, Russia, Germany, Japan
paper board Milan Italy Silk textiles
Newsprint Canada, USA, Japan, Sweden, China, Munich Germany Lenses
Germany, France, Finland, UK Nagoya Japan Cotton textiles, Shipping,
Wrapping and packaging USA, China, Germany, Sweden, Engineering industry
paper France, Canada, Brazil New Orleans USA Coal mining, Iron and Steel
Nizhny Tagil Russia Iron and steel
Major Industrial Cities of the World Northampton UK Leather goods
City Country Industry Osaka Japan Textiles and Iron and steel
Abadan Iran Oil-refining Oslo Norway Paper industry
Anshan China Iron and steel Philadelphia USA Locomotives
Amsterdam Netherlands Diamond polish Plymouth USA Ship building
Baku Azerbaijan Petroleum Sheffield UK Cutlery
Bangkok Thailand Ship-building Tula Russia Iron and steel
Belfast Ireland Ship-building Venice Italy Glass industry
Birmingham UK Iron and steel Vienna Austria Glass industry
Buenos Aires Argentina Dairy Vladivostok Russia Ship-building
Cadiz Spain Cork Wellington New Zealand Dairy
Chicago USA Iron and steel, meat packing Yenangyang Myanmar Oil drilling
Dhaka Bangladesh Textiles Zurich Switzerland Light engineering industry
CHAPTER
126 12
Transport and Communication
Sources Class-VII New NCERT Chap 7 (Human Environment : Settlements, Transport and Communication),
Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 11 (Transport and Communication), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 8 (Transport
and Communication), Chap 9 (International Trade (Ports))
Modes of transportation can be understood by the

Transport following chart :
Transport is a service or facility for the carriage of Modes of Transportation
persons and goods from one place to the other
using humans, animals and different kinds of
vehicles. Land Transport Water Transport Air Transport
Such movements take place over land, water and
air. Roadways and railways form part of land Roadways Railways Pipelines Sea Routes Inland Waterways
transport while waterways and airways are the
other two modes. Land Transport
Transportation is an organised service industry Most of the movement of goods and services takes place
created to satisfy the basic needs of society. over land. In early days, humans themselves were
It includes transport arteries, vehicles to carry carriers. Later they were supplemented by animals.
people and goods and the organisation to The revolution in transport came about only after the
maintain arteries and to handle loading, invention of the steam engine in the 18th century.
unloading and delivery.
With the gradual development of railways, it opened up
continental interiors for commercial grain farming,
Transport Network mining and manufacturing in USA.
Several places ( nodes) joined together by the series of
The invention of the internal combustion engine
routes (links) to form a pattern.
revolutionised road transport in terms of road quality
and vehicles.
Modes of Transportation Among the newer developments in land transportation are
The principal modes of world transportation pipelines, ropeways and cableways. Liquids like mineral
i.e. Land, water, air and pipelines are used for oil, water, sludge and sewers are transported by pipelines.
inter-regional and intra-regional transport and Despite these developments, the old and elementary
each one (except pipelines) carries both forms of transportation like human porter, pack animal,
passengers and freight. cart or wagon have not extinct at all.
The significance of a mode depends on the type of They are important in supplementing modern channels
goods and services to be transported, costs of and carriers, which penetrate the interiors in large
transport and the mode available. countries such as India and China.
127
Roads — The Alaskan Highway links Edmonton (Canada) to

Anchorage (Alaska)
Road transport is the most economical for short
distances compared to railways. Freight transport by — The Pan-American Highway connects the
road is gaining importance because it offers countries of South America, Central America and
door-to-door service. USA-Canada.
The unmetalled roads, though simple in construction, Europe has a large number of vehicles and a
are not effective and serviceable for all seasons. well-developed highway network. But highways face
During the rainy season, these become unmotorable a lot of competition from railways and waterways.
and even the metalled ones are seriously handicapped In Russia, a dense highway network is developed in
during heavy rains and floods. the industrialised region West of the Urals with
In such conditions, the high embankment of rail-tracks Moscow as the hub. The important Moscow-
and the efficient maintenance of railway transport Vladivostok Highway serves the region to the East.
service is an effective solution. In China, highways criss-cross the country
The quality of the roads varies greatly between connecting all major cities such as Tsungtso (near
developed and developing countries because road Vietnam boundary), Shanghai (central China),
construction and maintenance require heavy Guangzhou (South) and Beijing (North). A new
expenditure. highway links Chengdu with Lhasa in Tibet.
In developed countries, good quality roads are In India, there are many highways linking the major
universal and provide long-distance links in the form towns and cities. For example, National Highway No.
of motorways, autobahns (Germany) and inter-state 44 (NH 44), connecting Kashmir with Kanyakumari, is
highways for speedy movement. the longest in the country.
The world’s total motorable road length is only about — The Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) or Super
15 million km, of which North America accounts for Expressway in India connects the major
33%. This continent also has highest road density and metropolitan cities — New Delhi, Mumbai,
the highest number of registered vehicles. Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata and Hyderabad.
In Africa, a highway joins Algiers in the North to
Traffic Flow Conakry in Guinea. Similarly, Cairo is also connected
Traffic congestion occurs due to inability of road to meet the to Cape Town.
demands of the traffic. Peaks (high points) and troughs (low
— The Transcontinental Stuart Highway connects
points) of traffic flow can be seen on roads at particular
times of the day, for example, peaks occurring during the
Darwin (North coast) and Melbourne via Tennant
rush hour before and after work. Creek and Alice Springs in Australia.
— Aligners Conakry Highway connects Aligners of
Highways Africa to the Conakry of Guinea.
Highways are metalled roads connecting distant In Australia, all the states are connected with
places. They are constructed in a manner for highways. Important highways of the Australia are :
unobstructed vehicular movement. — Australian Highway connects all the coastal areas
In general, highways are 80 m wide, with separate of the Australia. It is one of the longest highway of
traffic lanes, bridges, flyovers and dual carriageways to the world with the length of 1450 km.
facilitate uninterrupted traffic flow. In developed — Stuart Highway is the longest highway of the
countries, every city and port town is linked through Australia. It connects Darwin in the Northern
highways. Territory, via Tennant Creek and Alice Springs,
Distribution of Highways in the World to Port Augusta in South Australia. Its length is
2720 km.
In North America, highway density is high, about 0.65
km per sq km. Every place is within 20 km distance
from a highway. Cities located on the Pacific coast in Border Roads
West are well-connected with those of the Atlantic
n Roads laid along international boundaries are called
border roads. They play an important role in
Coast in East.
integrating people in remote areas with major cities
Important Highways of North America are : and providing defence.
— The Trans Canadian Highways links Vancouver in n Almost all countries have such roads to transport
British Columbia(West coast) to St. John’s City in goods to border villages and military camps.
Newfoundland (East coast)
128
Railways Africa
Railways are a mode of land transport for bulky Continent of Africa , despite being the second largest,
goods and passengers over long distances. has only 40,000 km of railways with South Africa alone.
The first public railway line was opened in 1825 It accounts for 18,000 km due to the concentration of
between Stockton and Darlington in Northern gold, diamond and copper mining activities.
England.
The railway gauges vary in different countries and Important Routes of Africa
are roughly classified as broad (more than 1.5 m), n Benguela Railway through Angola to Katanga-Zambia
standard (1.44 m), metre gauge (1 m) and smaller Copper Belt.
gauges. The standard gauge is used in the UK. n Tanzania Railway from the Zambian Copper Belt to
Dar-es-Salaam on the coast.
Europe n Blue Train from Cape Town to Pretoria in the Republic
Europe has one of the most dense rail networks in of South Africa.
the world. There are about 4,40,000 km of railways, n Railway through Botswana and Zimbabwe linking the
most of which is double or multiple-tracked. landlocked states to the South African network.
The industrial regions exhibit some of the highest
densities in the world. Trans-Continental Railways
The important rail heads are London, Paris, Brussels, Trans- Siberian Railway (9332 km) It connects Pacific
Milan, Berlin and Warsaw. Belgium has the highest coast in the Russia (East) to St. Petersburg
density of 1 km of railway for every 6.5 sq kms area. (near European borders) in the West.
The Channel Tunnel, operated by Euro Tunnel It is a longest double-tracked and electrified
Group through England, connects London with Paris. trans–continental railway in the world. Important cities
on this railway are Moscow, Ufa, Novosibirsk, Irkutsk,
North America Chita and Khabarovsk.
North America has one of the most extensive rail Trans–Canadian Railway (7050 km) It connects
networks accounting for nearly 40% of the world’s Halifax in the East to Vancouver on the Pacific Coast.
total network. It connects the Quebec-Montreal Industrial Region with
The most dense rail network is found in the highly the wheat belt of the Prairie Region and the Coniferous
industrialised and urbanised region of East Central Forest region in the North. Important cities on this
USA and adjoining Canada. railway are Montreal, Ottawa, Winnipeg and Calgary.
In Canada, railways come under the public sector Union and Pacific Railway It connects New York on
and distributed all over the sparsely populated areas. the Atlantic Coast to San Francisco on the Pacific Coast.
Australia has about 40,000 km of railways, of which The most valuable exports on this route are ores, grain,
25% are found in New South Wales alone. The paper, chemicals and machinery. Important cities on
West-East Australian National Railway line runs this railways are Cleveland, Chicago, Omaha, Evans,
across the country from Perth to Sydney. Ogden and Sacramento.
South America Australian Trans-Continental Railway It connects
Perth on the West coast, to Sydney on the East coast. It
In South America, the rail network is the most dense
passes through Kalgoorlie, Broken Hill and Port
in two regions, namely, the Pampas of Argentina and
Augusta. Another major North-South line connects
the coffee growing region of Brazil, which together
Adelaide and Alice Spring and to be joined further to
account for 40% of South America’s total route length.
the Darwin–Birdum line.
In South America, there is only one trans-continental
Orient Express It connects Paris to Istanbul. The
rail route linking Buenos Aires (Argentina) with
chief exports on this rail-route are cheese, bacon, oats,
Valparaiso (Chile) across the Andes Mountains
wine, fruits and machinery. Important cities on this
through the Uspallata Pass located at a height of
railways are Strasbourg, Munich, Vienna, Budapest
3,900 m.
and Belgrade.
Asia Trans-Andean Railways It connects Valparaiso to
In Asia, rail network is the most dense in the thickly Buenos Aries. It is the most important rail route of
populated areas of Japan, China and India. In China, South America.
the train from Xining to Lhasa runs at an altitude of Northern Trans-Continental Railway It connects
4,000 m above sea level and the highest point is Seattle to New York. It is an important rail route of
5,072 m. the USA.
129
South Trans-Continental Railway It connects Modern passenger liners (ships) and cargo ships are
Los Angeles to New York. It is also on important equipped with radar, wireless and other navigation
railway of the USA. aids. Further use of refrigerated chambers, tankers
Cape to Cairo Railway It connects Cape Town to and containers have made cargo handling at the
Cairo. It is an important railway of Africa as it is the world’s major ports easier.
only mode to travel to Cairo from Cape Town.
Important Sea Routes
Trans-Asian Railways Network It is an integrated
Sea Route Description
railway that will connect 28 Asian nations. It was
started in 1992. The Northern Atlantic It links North-Eastern USA and
Sea Route North-Western Europe, the two
Beijing-Canton Railway It connects Beijing to canton. industrially developed regions of the
This 2,350 km rail route is one of the most important world.
railway of China. It is the busiest waterway and is also
referred as Big Trunk Route. One fourth
of the world’s foreign trade moves on this
Belt and Road Initiative route.
n More than 2,000 years ago, China’s imperial envoy
The Serves more countries and people than
Zhang Qian helped to establish the Silk road, a network
Mediterranean–Indian any other route. Port Said, Aden, Mumbai,
of trade routes that linked China to Central Asia and Ocean Sea Route Colombo and Singapore are some of the
the Arab world. The name came from one of the important ports on this route.
China’s most important exports–silk.
The Cape of Good It connects the highly industrialised
n In 2013, China’s President ,Xi Jinping, proposed for Hope Sea Route Western European region with West
establishing a modern equivalent, creating a network of Africa, South Africa, South-East Asia and
railways, roads, pipelines and utility grids that would the commercial agriculture and livestock
link China and Central Asia, West Asia and parts of economies of Australia and New Zealand.
South Asia. This initiative is called as Belt and Road The Southern Atlantic It connects West European and West
Initiative (BRI). Sea Route African countries with Brazil, Argentina
n It aims to create the world’s largest platform for and Uruguay in South America.
economic cooperation, including policy coordination, The traffic is far less on this route because
trade and financing collaboration and social and of the limited development and
cultural cooperation. This project is still in operation, availability of similar products and
once it is completed, it will be of great use to entire resources in Africa and South America
world. The North Pacific Sea This sea route links the ports on the West
Route coast of North America with those of Asia.
These are Vancouver, Seattle, Portland,
Water Transport San Francisco and Los Angeles on the
One of the great advantages of water transportation American side and Yokohama, Kobe,
Shanghai, Hong Kong, Manila and
is that it does not require route construction. All that Singapore on the Asian side.
is needed is to provide port facilities at the two ends.
The South Pacific Sea It connects Western Europe and North
The oceans are linked with each other and are Route America with Australia, New Zealand and
negotiable with ships of various sizes. the scattered Pacific islands via the
Panama Canal. This route is also used for
It is much cheaper because the friction of water is far
reaching Hong Kong, Philippines and
less than that of land. The energy cost of water Indonesia.
transportation is lower.
Water transport is divided into sea routes and inland Coastal Shipping
waterways. It is a convenient mode of transportation with long
coastlines.
Sea Routes
Shenzhen in Europe are most suitably placed for
The oceans offer a smooth highway traversable in all
coastal shipping connecting one member’s coast with
directions with no maintenance costs.
the other.
Its transformation into a routeway by sea-going vessels
is an important development in human adaptation to Shipping Canals
the physical environment. The Suez and the Panama canals are two vital
Compared to land and air, ocean transport is a cheaper man-made navigation canals or waterways, which serve
means of haulage (carrying of load) of bulky material as gateways of commerce for both the Eastern and
over long distances from one continent to another. Western worlds.
130
The Suez Canal In order to provide these facilities, the port authorities
This canal had been constructed in 1869 in Egypt make arrangements for maintaining navigable
between Port Said in the North and Port Suez in the channels, arranging tugs and barges and providing
South linking the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. labour and managerial services.
It gives Europe a new gateway to the Indian Ocean The quantity of cargo handled by a port is an indicator
and reduces direct sea-route distance between of the level of development of its hinterland.
Liverpool and Colombo compared to the cape of good Types of Ports on the Basis of Cargo Handled
Hope route.
Industrial Ports These ports specialise in bulk
It is a sea-level canal without locks, which is about cargo-like grain, sugar, ore, oil and similar materials.
160 km and 11 to 15 m deep.
Commercial Ports These ports handle general
A navigable fresh-water canal from the Nile also joins cargo-packaged products and manufactured goods.
the Suez Canal in Ismailia to supply fresh-water to These ports also handle passenger traffic.
Port Said and Suez.
Comprehensive Ports Such ports handle bulk and
The Panama Canal general cargo in large volumes. Most of the world’s
It connects the Atlantic Ocean in the East to the great ports are classified as comprehensive ports.
Pacific ocean in the West. Types of Port on the Basis of Location
It has been constructed across the Panama Isthmus Inland Ports These ports are located away from the
between Panama city and Colon by the US sea coast. They are linked to the sea through a river or
government, which purchased 8 km of area on either a canal. Such ports are accessible to flat bottom ships
side and named it the Canal zone. or barges.
It is about 72 km long and involves a very deep For example, Manchester is linked with a canal;
cutting for a length of 12 km. Memphis is located on the river Mississippi; Rhine has
It shortens the distance between New York and San several ports like Mannheim and Duisburg and Kolkata
Francisco by 13,000 km by sea. is located on the river Hooghly, a branch of the river
The economic significance of this Canal is relatively Ganga.
less than that of the Suez. However, it is vital to the Out Ports These are deep water ports built away from
economies of Latin America. the actual ports. These serve the parent ports by
receiving those ships, which are unable to approach
Main Canals of the World them due to their large size.
Canal Description For example, Athens and its out port Piraeus in Greece
Sault-Ste-Marie It joins Superior lake with Atlantic is a classic combination.
Canal ocean.
Types of Port on the Basis of Specialised Functions
Manchester It connects Manchester with Eastham.
Shipping Canal
Oil Ports These ports deal in the processing and
shipping of oil. Some of these are tanker ports and
North-Sea Canal It joins North sea with Amsterdam. some are refinery ports. Maracaibo in Venezuela,
Nicaragua Canal It joins Caribbean sea to Pacific ocean. La Skhira in Tunisia, Tripoli in Lebanon are tanker
Suez Canal It joins Mediterranean sea with Red sea.
ports. Abadan on the Gulf of Persia is a refinery port.
Ports of Call These are the ports which originally
Panama Canal It joins Pacific ocean with Atlantic
ocean. developed as calling points on main sea routes where
ships used to anchor for refuelling, watering and
Kiel Canal It joins North sea with Baltic sea.
taking food items. Later on, they developed into
Stalin Cana It connects Black sea and Caspian sea. commercial ports. Aden, Honolulu and Singapore are
(Volga Don Canal) good examples.
Gota Canal It connects Stockholm to Gothenburg. Packet Station These are also known as ferry ports.
These packet stations are exclusively concerned with
Ports the transportation of passengers and mail across water
The chief gateways of the world of international trade bodies covering short distances.
are the harbours and ports. These stations occur in pairs located in such a way that
The ports provide facilities of docking, loading, they face each other across the water body, e.g., Dover
unloading and the storage facilities for cargo. in England and Calais in France across the English
Channel.
131
Entrepot Ports These are collection centres where Important Inland Waterways
the goods are brought from different countries for Inland Description
export. Waterways
Singapore is an entrepot for Asia. Rotterdam for The Rhine It flows through Germany and the Netherlands.
Europe and Copenhagen for the Baltic region. Waterways It is navigable for 700 km from Rotterdam
(Netherland) to Basel (Switzerland). It connects
Naval Ports These are ports which have only
the industrial areas of Switzerland, Germany,
strategic importance. These ports serve warships France, Belgium and the Netherlands with the
and have repair workshops for them. Kochi and North Atlantic sea Route.
Karwar are examples of such ports in India. The Danube The Danube river rises in the Black Forest and
Waterway flows Eastwards through many countries.
Important Ports with their Countries It is navigable up to Turnu Severin. This waterway
Important Port Country serves Eastern Europe.
The Volga It is the most important waterways of Russia.
Auckland New Zealand
Waterway It provides a navigable waterway of 11,200 km and
Brisbane Australia drains into the Caspian Sea. The Volga-Moscow
Boston USA Canal connects it with the Moscow region and the
Volga-Don Canal with the Black Sea.
Cape Town South Africa
The Great Lakes – The Great Lakes of North America Superior, Huron
Chicago USA St. Lawrence Erie and Ontario are connected by Soo Canal and
Durban South Africa Seaway Welland Canal to form an inland waterway.
Dar-es-Salaam Tanzania The ports on this route like Duluth and Buffalo are
equipped with all facilities of ocean ports.
Glasgow UK
The Mississippi It connects the interior part of USA with the Gulf of
Havana Cuba Waterways Mexico in the South.
Hamburg Germany
Los Angeles USA Air Transport
Lisbon Portugal It is the fastest means of transportation and often the only
Montreal Canada means to reach inaccessible areas.
Marseilles France Being fast it is favoured by the passenger for long distance
Port Said Egypt trade as well as for movement of valuable articles.
Rio de Janeiro Brazil The frictions created by mountainous snow fields or
inhospitable desert terrains have been overcome by the
Santos ( Coffee port of the world) Brazil
use of air transport.
Shanghai ( Busiest port of the world) China
The manufacturing of aircrafts and their operations
Sydney Australia
require elaborate infrastructure like hangars, landing,
Vancouver Canada fuelling and maintenance facilities for the aircrafts.
Zanzibar Tanzania The construction of airports is also very expensive and
has developed more in highly industrialised countries
2. Inland Waterways where there is a large volume of traffic.
Rivers, canals, lakes and coastal areas have been Airways also have great strategic importance. The air
important waterways since time immemorial. strikes by US and British forces in Iraq bear testimony to
The development of inland waterways is this fact.
dependent on the navigability width and depth of the The USA is served by four large air corporations viz.
channel, continuity in the water flow and transport The United Airlines, World Airlines, Pan American
technology in use. Airlines and Eastern Airlines.
Rivers are the only means of transport in dense Three types of services are performed by air transport :
forests. Very heavy cargo like coal, cement, timber
and metallic ores can be transported through Inter-Continental Air Route
inland waterways. This includes the longest services e.g.,
Despite inherent limitations, many rivers have New York–London–Paris–Rome Cairo–Delhi–Kolkata
been modified to enhance their navigability by –Hong Kong– Tokyo
dredging, stabilising river banks and building New York–San Francisco–Honolulu–Hong
dams and barrages for regulating the flow of water. Kong–Adelaide–Perth
132
Continental Air Route Turkmenistan is central Asia has extended pipelines to

These services are performed among the countries Iran and also to parts of China. The proposed
within a continent e.g., Iran-India via Pakistan international oil and natural
gas pipeline will be the longest in the world.
— New York–Chicago–Montreal Route
— London–Frankfurt–Warsaw–Moscow Important Pipelines of the World
— London–Paris–Frankfurt Prague–Warsaw Big Inch Pipeline It is one of the oldest petroleum
— Delhi–Kolkata–Hong Kong–Tokyo pipeline constructed from Texas to New Jersey in USA.
Petroleum products had been transported from the oil
National Air Route
fields of Texas to the North-Eastern United States.
Provide services for long distance within the
Trans-Afghanistan Pipeline It is also known as
country e.g.,
Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan- India Pipeline
— New York–Chicago–San Francisco
(TAPI). It is a proposed natural gas pipeline being
— St. Petersburg–Moscow–Tashkent developed with the help of Asian Development Bank.
— Delhi–Mumbai–Chennai This pipeline will transport Caspian sea natural gas
— Delhi–Kanpur–Patna–Kolkata from Turkmenistan through Afghanistan into Pakistan
— The World’s busiest airports are (mostly by number and then to India.
of passengers) in USA. Keystone Pipeline It starts from Alberta, Canada and
— Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport is gives Delivery in Illinois and Oklahoma, USA. It is
the busiest airport in the world. Extensively used for of shale oil on North American
continent. It allows for reduced need of oil from
Different Aircraft Companies
non-North American sources.
Airbus is based in Blagnac, France.
ESPO Pipeline It starts from Russia and gives delivery
— Boeing is based in the Chicago, United States.
in China (potentially also Japan). ESPO (Eastern
— Bombardier is based in Quebec, Canada. Siberia-Pacific Ocean Oil Pipeline) has the impact of
— Embraer is based in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Connecting China into its strategic partnership with
— Tupolve is Russian aerospace company based in Russia as it draws more from its neighbour’s energy
Moscow. reserves. If Japan remains out of the equation, it may
— The Russian Government merged Tupolev with five serve to boost the China-Russia Partnership.
other companies as a new company named United
Aircraft Corporation. Communication
Communication is the process of conveying messages
The International Air Transport to others. Human beings have used different methods
Association (IATA) of long-distance communications of which the
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) is the telegraph and the telephone were important.
trade association for the world’s airlines, representing During the early and mid 20th century, the American
some 280 airlines or 33% of total air traffic. It support Telegraph and Telephone (AT and T) Company
many areas of aviation activity and help formulate enjoyed a monopoly over USA’s telephone industry.
industry policy on critical aviation issues.
In developing countries, the use of cell phones is made
possible by satellites. It is important for rural
Pipelines connectivity.
Pipelines are used extensively to transport liquids and In sector of telecommunication, there is phenomenal
gases such as water, petroleum and natural gas for an pace of development and competition. The first major
uninterrupted flow. breakthrough is the use of Optic Fiber Cables (OFC).
Through the networks of pipelines cooking gas or Consequently, all major telephone companies of the
LPG and liquefied coal is transported in many parts of world upgraded their copper cable systems to include
world. optic fiber cables. It allowed large quantities of data to
In USA there is a dense network of oil pipelines from be transmitted rapidly, securely and are virtually
the producing areas to the oil consuming areas. error-free.
In Europe, Russia, West Asia and India pipelines are With the digitisation of information in the 1990s,
used to connect oil wells to refineries and to ports or telecommunication slowly merged with computers to
domestic markets. form integrated networks termed as Internet.
133
Satellite Communication Concept of Global Village

Communication through satellites emerged as a new As billions use the Internet each year, cyberspace will
area in communication technology since the 1970s expand the contemporary economic and social space
after USA and former USSR pioneered space research. of humans through e-mail, e-commerce, e-learning
and e-governance.
Artificial satellites, now, are successfully deployed in
the Earth’s orbit to connect even the remote corners Internet together with fax, television and radio will be
of the globe with limited onsite verification. accessible to more and more people cutting across
place and time.
These have rendered the unit cost and time of
communication invariant in terms of distance. It is these modern communication systems, more than
This means it costs the same to communicate over transportation that has made the concept of global
500 km as it does over 5,000 km via satellite. village a reality.
India has also made great strides in satellite Global Positioning System (GPS)
development. Aryabhatta was launched on 19th
It was created by the US Department of Defense (DoD)
April, 1979, Bhaskar-I in 1979 and Rohini in 1980.
and was originally run with 24 satellites. It became
On 18th June, 1981, APPLE (Ariane Passenger fully operational in 1994.
Payload Experiment) was launched through Ariane
GPS is a space-based satellite navigation system that
rocket.
provides location and time information about the Earth
Bhaskar Challenger and INSAT I-B have made long in all weather conditions.
distance communication, television and radio very
The maintenance is done by the United States
effective.
Government and is freely accessible to anyone with a
GPS receiver.
Cyber Space : Internet
The GPS programme provides critical information to
Cyberspace is the world of electronic computerised
military, civil and commercial users around the world.
space. It is encompassed by the Internet such as the
In addition, GPS is the backbone for modernising the
World Wide Web (www).
global air traffic system.
In simple words, it is the electronic digital world for
The GPS project was developed in 1973 to overcome
communicating or accessing information over
the limitations of previous navigation systems,
computer networks without physical movement of
integrating ideas from several predecessors, including
the sender and the receiver. It is also referred as
a number of classified engineering design, studies
Internet.
from the 1960s.
The speed at which this electronic network has
In line with GPS, Indian Space Research
spread is unprecedented in human history.
Organisation (ISRO) has developed the indigenous
There were less than 50 million Internet users in Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).
1995, about 400 million in 2000 AD and over two
The United States was the first country to introduce
billion in 2010. In the last few years there has been a
satellite technology with the Global Positioning System
shift among global users from USA to the developing
(GPS). But the US isn’t the only country developing
countries.
and advancing GPS technology.
Top 10 Internet User’s of the World (2020-21) Japan, China, India, Russia and Europe are also
developing new technologies similar to this.
Country Internet Users (in million)
China 765 Countries that Developed GPS Technology
India 391
Countries Technology
United States of America 245
USA GPS (Global Positioning System)
Brazil 126
Japan QZSS (Quasi-Zenith Satellite System)
Japan 116
Russia 109 Russia GLONASS (Russian Global Navigation Satellite
System)
Mexico 75.94
China BeiDou Navigation Satellite System
Germany 73.43
European Union Galileo
Indonesia 66.45
United Kingdom 62.35 India IRNSS
CHAPTER
134 13
Population and Settlement
Sources Class-VIII New NCERT Chap 8 (Human Resources), Class-IX Old NCERT Chap 7 (Our Growing Number),
Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 14 (Settlements), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 2 (The World Population Distribution,
Density and Growth), Chap 3 (Population Composition), Chap 4 (Human Development), Chap 10 (Human Settlements)
World Population Factors affecting Population Distribution

The term population geography refers to the subject There are many factors affecting the distribution.
matter and the term geography refers to the perspective This can be divided as geographical, social, cultural
of investigation. and economic factors. These are discussed as follows :
The study of the human covering of the Earth and its
various facets with regard to physical and cultural factors
Geographical Factors
is referred to as population geography. Climate Extreme climates, such as extremely hot
or cold deserts, are unsuitable for human
People are the real wealth of the nation and that’s why
habitation.
they are considered as a human resource.
People prefer to live in areas with a pleasant climate
At the starting of 21st century, world population was
and little seasonal variation.
more than 600 crore (6 billion).
Population density is low in areas with heavy
In January 2022, it increased to 790 crore (7.90 billion).
rainfall or extreme and harsh climates.
Over the last 10000 years, population growth has
Similarly, an extremely hot climate is harmful; it
accelerated at two distinct times i.e.,
may increase intestinal diseases. Mediterranean
— When man began domesticating animals and plants,
regions have been inhabited since ancient times
Agricultural revolution leads the population to grow at Because of their pleasant climate.
a steady rate.
Topography People prefer to live on plains rather
— When man discovered fossil fuels and invented the rail
than mountains and plateaus because these areas
engine, there was an Industrial revolution in are better suited for farming, manufacturing and
population demographics. service activities.
George B. Cressey has stated that, “In Asia few people The Ganga plains are the world’s most densely
live at many places and many people live at few places”. populated area, while mountains such as the Andes,
This is correct in reference to the pattern of population Alps and Himalayas are sparsely populated.
distribution.
Fertility of the Soil Soil quality is an important
determinant of population density. The higher the
Population Distribution in the World fertility of the soil, the higher the population
The pattern of population distribution refers to how density.
people are distributed across the Earth’s surface.
Lateritic tropical soils do not lend themselves to
More than 90% of the world’s population lives in about improved cropping practises. The best soil for
30% of the land surface. The world’s population cultivation is alluvial soil.
distribution is extremely unequal.
135
This soil is found in the Indo-Gangetic region, Continent-wise Population Distribution

Huang-He, Chang Jiang in China and Nile in Egypt. As a Population Land Area Density World Share
result, population density is extremely high there. Region
(2018) (km 2 ) (p/km 2 ) (In percentage)
Availability of Water Water availability is pre-requisite Asia 4,545,133,094 31,033,123 146 59.5%
for higher population density. Human settlement is Africa 1,287,920,518 29,648,481 43 16.9%
hampered by a lack of rainfall. Low rainfall areas are
Europe 742,648,010 22,134,900 34 9.7%
not conducive to agricultural development.
Latin 652,012,001 20,139,378 32 8.5%
Population density decreases with decreasing rainfall America
and increases with increasing rainfall. and the
Water availability, however, is not solely determined by Caribbean
rainfall, rivers, springs, or lakes. There may be artificial Northern 363,844,490 18,651,660 20 4.8%
means of obtaining water. It is because of this that river America
valleys are among the most densely populated areas of Oceania 41,261,212 8,486,460 5 0.5%
the world.
Population density is low in desert areas because there Population Density
is insufficient water for humans, plants and animals to Each block of land has a finite capacity to support the
survive. people who live on it. As a result, it is critical to
Landforms People prefer flat plains and gentle slopes comprehend the relationship between the number of
for living. This is due to the fact that such areas are people and the size of land.
ideal for crop production as well as the construction of This ratio represents population density. It is usually
roads and industries. expressed in terms of people per 52 km.
Mountainous and hilly areas impede the development This is calculated by dividing the number of persons
of transportation networks and as a result, do not of a country or region by the total land area.
initially favour agricultural and industrial development.
Population
As a result, these areas are typically less populated. Density of population =
Area
The Ganga plains are among the world’s most densely
populated areas, whereas the Himalayan Mountain In case the land area is small for a given population,
zones are sparsely populated. the density will be high; but if the land area is large,
then the density will be low.
Social, Cultural and Economic Factors Many natural and human factors influence density,
Urbanisation Cities provide better employment including soil, rainfall, climate, economic resources,
opportunities, educational and medical facilities and economic growth stage, and so on. Because these
better modes of transportation and communication. factors differ in different places, density will also vary.
People are drawn to cities by good civic amenities and The degree of population concentration in a specific
the allure of city life. It causes rural-to-urban migration area is measured by density. The world can be divided
and increases the size of cities. Every year, the world’s into three sections based on population density. High
mega cities attract a large number of migrants. density, medium density and low-density areas.
Social Some places draw more visitors because they High Density Areas
are religious or culturally significant. Similarly,
people tend to avoid areas where there is social and There are four distinct regions. China and the Far
political unrest. Governments frequently provide East, South and South-East Asia, Europe and the
incentives for people to live in sparsely populated European part of the Soviet Union and North
areas or to relocate away from overcrowded areas. America’s Eastern coastal plain.
Industrialisation Industrial belts create jobs and Medium Density Areas
attract a large number of people. These include not The world’s medium-density population areas are not
only factory workers, but also bus drivers, found in a continuous belt. These are found in areas
shopkeepers, bank employees, doctors, teachers and between high and low-density population areas where
other service providers. favourable economic opportunities drew people in
Because of the presence of a number of industries, the and caused population density to rise.
Kobe-Osaka region of Japan and Mumbai in India is The Nile Valley Delta region, Morocco’s Mediterranean
densely populated. Industrial areas provide coast, Algeria Tunisia in North, Brazilian coast South
employment opportunities. Large number of people are of the Amazon, the coasts of Argentina, Venezuela and
attracted to these areas. Chile are the areas of medium density.
136
Low Density Areas Most Densely Populated Countries (2019)

Africa and Asia have the most extensive paths with the Population Population
lowest population density. A distinctively populated Country Densely Country Densely
region stretches from the Western margins of the (per sq km) (per sq km)
Sahara to the Eastern margins of desert plateaus and Monaco 26150 Bahrain 2159
mountainous regions of Central Asia, passing through Macau (China) 21420 Maldives 1770
Saudi Arabia, Iran and Afghanistan. Singapore 8292 India 460
There are various types of population density. They Hong Kong (China) 7082 World 59
are:
Gibraltar 3370
Arithmetic Density The number of persons per sq
mile or km is known as simple arithmetic density. Least Populated Countries (2019)
In other words, arithmetic density is nothing but the
man-land ratio. Arithmetic density is too crude a Population Density
Country
method for measuring the concentration of life. (per sq km)
Economic Density While calculating the economic Greenland 0
density of population, one has to keep in mind the Mongolia 2
productivity of the area under consideration. The Australia/Iceland/Namibia/Surinam 3
index of population density can be realistic if it can Botswana/Canada/Uganda/ 4
be considered with respect to per sq mile of Mauritania/Libya
productive land of a region.
Economic Density (ED) may be expressed by the Population Change
following formula:
The term population change refers to the change in the
PO
Economic Density (ED) = × 100 number of people over a specific period of time.
PR The global population has not remained stable. For an
Where, PO means the index of population and PR is extremely long time, until the 1800s, the world’s
the index of production. population grew steadily but slowly.
Agricultural Density Agricultural density means A large number of babies were born, but they all died at
the number of agricultural people’ per unit of a young age. This was due to the lack of adequate health
cultivable land. The agricultural density of India is care facilities. There was not enough food to go around
approximately 435 persons per sq mile of cultivable for everyone. Farmers were unable to produce enough
land. It varies from region to region in a country food to meet the needs of all people. As a result, the
because of the differences in the availability of overall population increase was very low.
cultivable land. The world’s population reached one billion in 1804.
Physiological (Nutritional) Density It substitutes In 1959, the world’s population had reached 3 billion
arable land for total area in the man-land ratio. people, 155 years later. This is commonly referred to as
It omits the unproductive land from consideration. population explosion.
Physiological density takes into account all types of In 1999, the population had more than doubled to 6
population, whereas agricultural density takes into billion, 40 years later. The main reason for this increase
account only the agricultural population. was improvement in food and medicine as deaths were
Critical Density (CD) This density is proposed by decreasing while births remained relatively high.
Allan. He defines it as ‘‘the human carrying capacity
of an area in relation to a given land-use system, Components of Population Change
expressed in terms of population per sq unit of There are three components of population changes :
area.’’
Migration When people move from one place to
Critical Density (CD) = 100 (C/F) × (A/L), another, the place they move from is called the place of
where, origin and the place they move to is called the place of
C is the extent of cultivated area, destination.
F is the extent of fallow land, Crude Birth Rate (CBR) It is expressed as number of
A is per capita acreage planted, live births in a year per thousand of population.
Live birthsduring the year
L is the percentage of land cultivable by traditional Crude Birth Rate = × 1000
methods. Mid - year population area
137
Crude Death rate (CDR) It plays an active role in Other types of migration include :
population change, population growth occurs not Seasonal human migration Based on seasonal economy
only by increasing births rate but also due to activity like agriculture and tourism etc.
decreasing death rate.
International migration Migration to other country.
Crude Death Rate
Number of deaths Push and Pull Factors of Migration
= × 100
Estimated mid − year population of that year People migrate for a better economic and social life.
There are two sets of factors that influence migration.
Better economic opportunities more jobs and the
Growth Rate of Population promise of a better life often pull people towards a new
n This is the change of population expressed in region.
percentage.
n Natural Growth of Population This is the
The Push factors make the place of origin seem less
population increased by difference between births
attractive for reasons like unemployment, poor living
and deaths in a particular region between two conditions, political turmoil, unpleasant climate, natural
points of time. disasters, epidemics and socio-economic backwardness.
Natural Growth = Births – Deaths The Pull factors make the place of destination seem more
Actual Growth of Population = Births – Deaths + In attractive than the place of origin for reasons like better
Migration – Out Migration job opportunities and living conditions, peace and
stability, security of life and property and pleasant
climate.
Migration
Migration is shifting of the home and not the house. Reasons for Migration
In the context of migration, we come across two Following are some of the major reasons for migration :
processes: emigration and immigration. Availability of land Employment opportunities
Emigration refers to going out of a country, while Hope wealth Religious tolerance
immigration refers to coming into a country. Thus, Political freedom Post migration
emigration reduces the population of a country and Other push and pull factors
immigration increases it.
Migration implies the movement of people from International Migration Trends
one place to another. It is a highly selective process. International comparisons of human development are
It may be age-selective, occupation- selective or interesting. Size of the territory and per capita income are
sex-selective. Generally, migration is male not directly related to human development.
dominated, particularly in developing countries. Often smaller countries have done better than larger ones
Migration is not merely a process of shifting people in human development. Similarly, relatively poorer
from one place to another; it is a fundamental nations have been ranked higher than richer nations in
process to change the structure of population and it terms of human development.
contributes a lot for the understanding of the
space-content and space-relations of a particular Urbanisation and Migration
geographical area. n Rural-to-Urban migration occurred in richer nations for
centuries and continues to occur in poorer nations today.
Types of Migration n It has a significant impact on population growth because it
The different types of migrations which include: affects a country’s birth and death rates. As a country
becomes more Urbanised, the birth rate rises while the
Rural to Urban migration It is more common in
death rate falls.
developing countries as industrialisation take effect
(Urbanisation).
Urban to Rural It is more common in developed Trends in Population Growth
countries due to higher cost of urban living. According to 1st January, 2022, the population on the
Rural to Rural migration It mainly happens Earth is 790 crore (7.90 billion). It has grown to this size
because of marriage of a rural girl to another rural over centuries. In the early periods population of the
area. world grew very slowly.
Urban to Urban migration It is mostly common in It is only during the last few hundred years that
developed countries where people migrate from population has increased at an alarming rate.
one area to another area.
138
After the evolution and introduction of agriculture Although the annual rate of population change (1.4%)
about 12,000 to 8,000 years ago, the size of seems to be low it is actually not so. This is because :
population was small – roughly 8 million. — When a small annual rate is applied to a very large
In the first century AD, it was below 300 million. population, it will lead to a large population change.
The expanding world trade during the 16th and 17th — Even if the growth rate continues to decline, the total
century, set the stage for rapid population growth. population grows every year. The infant mortality rate
Around 1750 AD, at the dawn of the Industrial may have increased as has the death rate during
Revolution, the world population was 550 million. childbirth.
World population exploded in the 18th century after
the Industrial Revolution. Impact of Population Growth
Technological advancement achieved so far helped A small increase in population is desirable in a growing
in the reduction of death rate and provided a stage economy. However, population growth beyond a certain
for accelerated population growth. level leads to problems. Of these the depletion of
resources is the most serious.
Population decline is also a matter of concern.
Contribution of Science and Technology in
It indicates that resources that once had supported a
Population Growth
population are now insufficient to maintain the
n Science and technology has contributed a lot in the
population.
growth of population. This can be understood by the
following instance: The deadly HIV/AIDS epidemics in Africa and some
— The steam engine replaced human and animal parts of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
energy and also provided mechanised energy of and Asia have pushed up death rates and reduced
water and wind. This increased agricultural and average life expectancy. This has slowed down
industrial production. population growth.
— Vaccination against epidemics and other
communicable diseases, improvement in medical
facilities and sanitation contributed to a rapid
Demographic Transition
decline in death rates throughout the world. The demographic transition refers to the change that
populations undergo from high rates of births and deaths
Doubling Time of World Population to low rates of births and deaths. Historically, high levels
of births and deaths kept most populations from growing
Human population increased more than ten times in rapidly.
the past 500 hundred years. In the twentieth century
In fact, many populations not only failed to grow but
itself the population has increased four times.
also completely died out when birth rates did not
It took more than a million years for the human compensate for high death rates. Death rates eventually
population to attain the one billion mark. But it took fell as living conditions and nutrition improved.
only 12 years for it to rise from 5 billion to 6 billion.
The decline in mortality usually precedes the decline in
There is a great variation among regions in doubling fertility, resulting in population growth during the
their population. Developed countries take more transition period. With the added benefit of medical
time to double their population as compared to advances, death rates fell more rapidly in the countries
developing countries. that began the transition in the 20th century.
Most of the population growth is taking place in the Fertility rates fell neither as quickly nor as dramatically
developing world, where population is exploding. as death rates and thus population grew rapidly. This
According to January 2022, population growth in can be represented best in the demographic transition
India is 0.99% per year. This rate is 0.4% in America model. The Demographic Transition Model attempts to
and 1.1% in Canada. show how population changes as a country develops.
Spatial Pattern of Population Growth The Demographic Transition Theory is a generalised
description of the changing pattern of mortality, fertility
Population growth in different parts of the world can and growth rates as societies move from one
be compared. The growth of population is low in demographic regime to another.
developed countries as compared to developing
countries. The term was first coined by the American
demographer Frank W. Notestein in the mid-twentieth
There is negative correlation between economic century, but it has since, been elaborated and expanded
development and population growth. upon by many others.
139
Stages of Demographic Transition Population Control Measures

There are four stages to the classical demographic n Thomas Malthus in his theory (1798) stated that the
transition model : number of people would increase faster than the food
— Stage 1 : Pre transition This stage is characterised supply. Any further increase would result in a population
crash caused by famine, disease and war. The preventive
by high birth rates and high fluctuating death
checks are better than the physical checks.
rates. Population growth was kept low by n For the sustainability of resources, it is essential to
Malthusian ‘preventative’ (late age at marriage) control the rapid population increase. Access to family
and ‘positive’ (famine, war, pestilence) checks. planning services is a significant factor in limiting
— Stage 2 : Early transition During the early population growth and improving women’s health.
stages of the transition, the death rate begins to n Use of contraceptives and tax disincentives for large
fall. As birth rates remain high, the population families are some of the measures which can help in
starts to grow rapidly. population control.
— Stage 3 : Late transition Birth rates start to
decline. The rate of population growth decelerates. Age-Sex Composition of Population
— Stage 4 : Post transition Post transitional societies
The population of an area includes persons of various
are characterised by low birth and low death rates. ages. The age composition is important for
Population growth is negligible, or even enters a understanding the natality and mortality of a
decline. community. Age differences may create social and
Stages of Demographic Transitional Model economic differences.
Stage Characteristics of the Stage Age Pyramids

Stage 1 Birth rate and death rate are high - low natural The age pyramid is useful for analysing a population’s
increase - low total population. age composition. The most common method for
Stage 2 Birth rate is high - death rate is falling - high natural graphically representing a population’s age structure is
increase (population growth). to build ‘Age Pyramids.’
Stage 3 Falling birth rate - low death rate high natural increase The vertical axis is graduated in groups of years, usually
(population growth). five, beginning with zero at the bottom and rising to 80
Stage 4 Birth rate and death rate is low - low natural increase - or 90 at the top. The horizontal axis shows either
steady population. numbers or percentages of males and females within
these groups.
Under normal circumstances, the number of people at
Rates per 1000
40 each age group will be lower than the previous year. As
Growth
Rate
a result, the age structure of the population tends to take
30 the shape of a pyramid when graphically represented.
Population Birth Rate
Growth
20 Types of Age Pyramids
Death Rate
Three types of age pyramids are categorised as follows :
10
Expanding/Growing population This type of
0 population pyramid is in a triangular shape with a wide
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 base. e.g., Nigeria, Bangladesh, Mexico. It is generally in
Years less developed countries. A large base shows a high
The Demographic Transition Model birth rate.
Constant/Stationary population It is shown in
bell-shaped and tapered towards the top. The bell-shaped
Population Structure pyramid has birth and death rates almost the same and
This is an analysis of the population based on leading to a constant population. e.g., Australia.
characteristics such as age and sex composition, Declining population A narrow base and tapered top of
birth date, death rate, natural growth rate, Infant the pyramid show the low birth rate and death rate. e.g.,
Mortality Rate, life expectancy, sex ratio, crude Japan. Population growth in developed countries
population density, etc. usually zero or even negative.
140
Percentage of Age Index in different the world and unfavourable for them in the remaining
Countries of the World (2019) 72 countries listed by the United Nations.
Country 0-14 15-24 25-64 65+ In general, Asia has a low sex ratio, Countries like
China 18 12 59 12
China, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Afghanistan have a
lower sex ratio.
Japan 13 10 50 28
On the other extreme is greater part of Europe
India 27 19 49 7
(including Russia) where males are in minority.
America 19 13 52 16
A deficit of males in the populations of many
Britain 18 12 53 19 European countries is attributed to better status of
Germany 14 11 54 22 women and an excessively male dominated
Finland 16 11 51 22 out-migration to different parts of world in the past.
Mexico 27 18 49 8
Egypt 34 17 44 6 Human Development
Ethiopia 40 22 35 4 Dr. Mahbub-ul-Haq pioneered the concept of human
Nigeria 44 20 35 3 development. Human development, according to
Niger 50 20 29 3 Dr. Haq, is development that broadens people’s
UAE 15 12 73 2
options and improves their lives. According to this
concept, people are at the heart of all development.
World 26 16 49 10
These options are not fixed and are constantly changing.
The fundamental goal of development is to create
Sex Composition conditions that allow people to live meaningful lives.
The number of women and men in a country is an A meaningful life is more than just a long life. It has to
important demographic characteristic. The ratio between be a meaningful life. This means that people must be
the number of women and men in the population is healthy, capable of developing their talents,
called the sex ratio. participating in society and free to pursue their
In some countries, it is calculated by using the formula. dreams.
Male Population Building people’s capabilities in areas such as health,
× 1000 education and access to resources is thus critical to
Female Population
broadening their options.
Or the number of males per thousand females.
People’s options become more limited if they lack
In India, the sex ratio is worked out using the formula. skills in these areas. For example, an uneducated
Female Population child cannot chosen to be a doctor because her
× 1000
Male Population options are limited due to her lack of education.
Or the number of females per thousands males. Similarly, poor people are frequently unable to choose
medical treatment for disease because their options
The sex ratio is an important information about the
are limited by a lack of resources.
status of women in a country.
In regions where gender discrimination is rampant. Four Pillars of Human Development
The sex ratio is bound to be unfavourable to women. Human development is supported by the concepts of
Such areas are those, where the practice of female equity, sustainability, productivity and empowerment,
foeticide, female infanticide and domestic violence just as any building is supported by pillars. These pillars
against women are prevalent. One of the reasons are discussed below :
could be lower socio-economic status of women in Equity It refers to providing everyone with equal
these areas. access to opportunities. People’s opportunities must
On an average, the world population reflects a sex be equal regardless of their gender, race, income, or,
ratio of 102 males per 100 females. The highest sex in the case of India, caste. However, this is not always
ratio in the world has been recorded in Latvia where the case and occurs in almost every society.
there are 85 males per 100 females. In contrast, in Qatar For example, In India, a large number of women and
there are 311 males per 100 females. people from economically and socially disadvantaged
The world pattern of sex ratio does not exhibit backgrounds drop out of school. This demonstrates
variations in the developed regions of the world. The how not having access to knowledge limits these
sex ratio of favourable for females in 139 countries of groups’ options.
141
Sustainability The availability of opportunities must Capability Approach This approach is associated
be consistent in order for sustainability to be with Prof. Amartya Sen. Building human capabilities
achieved. To achieve long-term human development, in the areas of health, education and access to
each generation must have equal access to the same resources is the key to increasing human
opportunities. development.
All environmental, financial and human resources
must be used with the future in mind. Any misuse of Measuring Human Development
these resources will result in fewer opportunities for The Human Development Index (HDI) ranks the
future generations. countries based on their performance in the key areas
A good example is the significance of ensuring that of health, education and access to resources.
girls attend school so that their career options would These rankings are based on a score between 0 to 1
not be limited. This way each generation must ensure that a country earns from its record in the key areas of
that future generations have access to options and human development.
opportunities. The indicator chosen to assess health is the life
Productivity In the context of human development, expectancy at birth. A higher life expectancy means
productivity refers to human labour productivity or that people have a greater chance of living longer and
productivity in terms of human work. Such healthier lives.
productivity must be constantly enhanced by The adult literacy rate and the gross enrolment ratio
developing people’s capabilities. represent access to knowledge. The number of
People are ultimately the true wealth of nations. As a educated adults and the number of children enrolled
result, efforts to increase their knowledge or provide in schools show access to knowledge in a particular
better health care facilities result in increased work country.
efficiency. Access to resources is measured in terms of
Empowerment It entails having the ability to make purchasing power (in US dollars). Each of these
decisions. Increased freedom and capability lead to dimensions is given a weightage of 1/3. The Human
increased power. To empower people, good Development Index is a sum total of the weights
governance and people-centered policies are required. assigned to all these dimensions.
It is especially important to empower socially and The closer a score is to one, the greater is the level of
economically disadvantaged groups. human development. Therefore, a score of 0.983
Approaches to Human Development would be considered very high while 0.268 would
mean a very low level of human development.
Income Approach This is one of the oldest
The Human Development Index measures attainments
approaches to human development. Human
in human development.
development is seen as being linked to income.
It reflects what has been achieved in the key areas of
The idea is that the level of income reflects the level of
human development. Yet, it is not the most reliable
freedom an individual enjoys. Higher the level of
measure. This is because it does not say anything
income, the higher is the level of human development.
about the distribution. The Human Poverty Index is
Welfare Approach This approach looks at human related to the Human Development Index.
beings as beneficiaries or targets of all development
activities. The approach argues for higher government Inequality- Adjusted HDI (IHDI)
expenditure on education, health, social secondary This index is the actual level of human development
and amenities. while the HDI can be viewed as an index of the human
People are not participants in development but only development (are the maximum level of HDI) this
passive recipients. The government is responsible for could be achieved if there was no inequality.
increasing levels of human development by The loss in potential human development due to
maximising expenditure on welfare. inequality is given by the difference between the
Basic Needs Approach This approach was initially HDI and the IHDI and can be expressed as a
proposed by the International Labour Organisation percentage.
(ILO). Six basic needs i.e., health, education, food,
water supply, sanitation and housing were identified. Gender Inequality Index (GII)
The question of human choices is ignored and the The Gender Inequality Index reflex women
emphasis is on the provision of basic needs of defined disadvantage in three dimensions i.e., reproductive
sections. health, empowerment and the labour market.
142
The index shows the loss in human development Settlement Patterns

due to inequality between female and male
achievements in these dimensions. Different types of settlement patterns can be found due
to the site and situation factors. Main patterns are
It ranges from 0 which indicates that women and
— Rectangular pattern
men fair equally to 1, which indicate that women
fair as poly as possible in all measured dimensions. — Linear pattern
— Circular and semi-circular pattern
Gross Happiness Index, GHI — Star-like pattern
n Bhutan is the only country where Gross Happiness — Triangular pattern
Index (GHI) is considered as an official parameter of — Nebular pattern
development of the country.
n GHI encourages us to think about the spiritual, Rural Settlement
physical and qualitative constraints of development. Rural geography means the study of social, economic,
land use activities of place which could be described as
countryside.
Settlement In rural settlements, site is the most important aspect as
The form of settlement in any region reflects man’s the needs of village folks lie around the basic
relationship with the environment. Settlements have requirements of food, water, shelter and protection.
gradually grown up and evolved over a long period
of time and by studying the site, pattern and
Rural Settlement Patterns
arrangement of settlement. Patterns of rural settlements reflect the way the houses are
We can see something of the history of man’s sited in relation to each other. The site of the village, the
exploitation of the surrounding land. surrounding topography and terrain influence the shape
Settlements reflect not only man’s response to his and size of a village.
environment, but also the religions and social Rural settlements may be classified on the basis of a
customs of his society. number of criteria.
(i) On the basis of setting The main types are plain
Classification of Settlements villages, plateau villages, coastal villages, forest
Settlements can be classified based on spacing between villages and desert villages.
the houses. The main types of settlements are : (ii) On the basis of functions There may be farming
Dispersed In some areas, large members of villages, fishermen’s villages, lumberjack villages,
scattered farms or homes are spread over an area to pastoral villages etc.
produce dispersion pattern of settlements. (iii) On the basis of forms or shapes of the settlements
Clustered/Nucleated In some areas, farms and These may be a number of geometrical forms and
homes are built close to one another to form shapes such as linear, rectangular, circular star like,
compact or nucleated settlements. T-shaped village, double village cross-shaped village etc.
Isolated It refers to areas either in long distance (a) Linear pattern In such settlements houses are
away from cities where there is lack of facilities as located along a road, railways line, river canal
well as opportunities such as transportation, market edge of a valley or along a levee.
training place, educational institutions, etc. (b) Rectangular pattern Such patterns of rural
settlements are found in plain areas or wide inter
Factors Involved in the Formation of montane valleys.
Settlement The roads are rectangular and cut each other at
Few settlements have grown up at random and the site on right angles.
which people choose to build their town or village (c) Circular pattern Circular villages develop around
always, has some particular advantages.
lakes, tanks, etc Sometimes the villages is planned
n Site It refers to the actual piece of ground on which
circularly so that the central part remains open
the settlement is built.
n Location It is also called position. It refers to the
and is used for keeping the animals to protect
them from wild animals.
location of the village or town in relation to the
surrounding areas. It is the chief function or role (d) Star like pattern Where several roads converge,
played by the village, town or settlement. star shaped settlement developed by the houses
built along the roads.
143
(e) T–shaped, Y−shaped, Cross shaped or Classification of Urban Settlement

cruciform settlements T-shaped settlements The definition of urban areas varies from one country to
develop at tri-junctions of the roads (T) another. Some of the common basis of classification are size
while (Y)–shaped settlements emerge as the of population, occupational structure and administrative
places where two roads converge on the setup.
third one and houses are built along these
roads. Cruciform settlements develop on the Population Size
cross-roads and houses extend in all the four It is an important criteria used by most countries to
direction. define urban areas. The lower limit of the population size
(f) Double village These settlements extend on for a settlement to be designated as urban is 1500 in
both sides of a river where there is a bridge Columbia, 2000 in Argentina and Portugal, 2500 in USA
or a ferry. and Thailand, 5000 in India and 30000 in Japan.
Besides the size of population, density of 400 persons per
Urbanisation sq km and share of non-agricultural workers are taken
Urbanisation is the process of percentage into consideration in India.
increase of urban areas and urban population.
Countries with low density of population may choose a
Each country has its own parameters to define any
lower number as the cut-off figure compared to densely
dwelling as urban or non-urban, but broadly,
populated countries. In Denmark, Sweden and Finland,
urban area could be defined as those where
all places with a population size of 250 persons are called
secondary and tertiary economic activities are in
urban. The minimum population for a city is 300 in
prominence.
Iceland, whereas in Canada and Venezuela, It is 1000
Study of urban areas is conducted under two persons.
heads :
Occupational Structure
1. Spacing between cities
In some countries, such as India, the major economic
2. Internal structure of cities
activities in addition to the size of the population in
designating a settlement as urban area also taken as a
Urban Settlement criterion.
Rapid urban growth is a recent phenomenon. Similarly, in Italy, a settlement is called urban. If more
Until recent times, few settlements reached the than 50% of its economically productive population is
population size of more than a few thousand engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. India has set this
inhabitants. The first urban settlements to reach a criterion at 75%.
population of one million was the city of London
by around 1810 AD. Administration
By 1982 approximately 175 cities in the world had The administrative setup is a criterion for classifying a
crossed the one million population mark. settlement as urban in some countries. For example, in
India, a settlement of any size is classified as urban, if it
Presently 54% of the world’s population lives in
has a Municipality, Cantonment Board or Notified Area
urban settlements compared to only 3% in the
Council.
year 1800.
Similarly, in Latin American countries, such as Brazil and
Percentage of World’s Population Bolivia, any administrative centre is considered urban
Living In Urban Areas irrespective of its population size.
Year Percentage Location
1800 3 Location of urban centres is examined with reference to
their function. For example, the sitting requirements of a
1850 6
holiday resort are quite different from that of an
1900 14 industrial town, a military centre or a seaport.
1950 30 Strategic towns require sites offering natural defence ;
1982 37 mining towns require the presence of economically
valuable minerals and industrial towns generally need
2001 48
local energy supplies or raw materials. In the same way,
2017 54 tourist centres require attractive scenery or a marine
2020 56.2 beach, a spring with medicinal water or historical relics,
ports require a harbour, etc.
144
Locations of the earliest urban settlements were based Types of Urban Settlements
on the availability of water, building materials and
Depending on the size and the services available and
fertile land.
functions rendered, urban centres are designated as
These considerations now adays still remain valid. town, city, million city, conurbation and megalopolis.
Modern technology plays a significant role in locating
Town The concept of ‘town’ can be best understood
urban settlements for away from the source of the
with reference to ‘village’. Population size is not the
materials.
only criterion. Functional contrasts between towns
Piped water can be supplied to a distant settlement, and villages may not always be clear cut, but specific
building material can be transported from long functions such as, manufacturing, retail and wholesale
distances. trade and professional services exist in towns.
Functions of Urban Centres City A city may be regarded as a leading town, which
The earliest towns were centres of administration, has outstripped its local or regional rivals. In the words
trade, industry, defence and religious importance. The of Lewis Mumford, “ the city is in fact the physical
significance of defence and religion as differentiating form of the highest and most complex type of
function has declined in general, but other functions associative life”.
have entered the list. Cities are much larger than towns and have a greater
Today several new functions, such as, recreational, number of economic functions. They tend to have
residential transport, mining, manufacturing and most transport terminals, major financial institutions and
recently activities related to information technology regional administrative offices.
are carried on in specialised towns. When the population crosses the one million mark it is
Some of these functions do not necessarily requires the designated as a million city.
urban centre to have any fundamental relationship with Conurbation The term conurbation was coined by
their neighbouring rural areas. Patrick Geddes in 1915 and applied to a large area of
urban development that resulted from the merging of
Classifications of Towns/Cities originally separate towns or cities. Greater London,
Towns and cities can be classified as follows : Manchester, Chicago and Tokyo are examples.
Administrative Towns Million City The number of million cities in the
world has been increasing as never before. London
National capitals, which house the administrative
reached the million mark in 1800, followed by Paris in
offices of central governments, such as New Delhi,
1850, New York in 1860 and by 1950 there were
Canberra, Beijing, Addis Ababa, Washington DC and
around 80 such cities.
London etc., are called administrative towns.
Provincial (sub-national) towns can also have There were 162 million cities in mid 70s and there was
administrative functions, for example, Victoria (British threefold increase in 2005 and the number reached to
Columbia), Albany (New York), Chennai (Tamil Nadu). 438. In 2016, there were 512 cities with at least 1
million inhabitants globally. By 2030, a projected 662
Trading and Commercial Towns cities will have at least 1 million residents.
Agricultural market towns, such as, Winnipeg and Megalopolis This Greek word meaning ‘great city’,
Kansas city; banking and financial centres like was popularised by Jean Gottmann (1957) and
Frankfurt and Amsterdam; large inland centres like signifies ‘super- metropolitan’ region extending, as
Manchester and St Louis and transport nodes such as, union of conurbations. The urban landscape stretching
Lahore, Baghdad and Agra have been important from Boston in the North to South of Washington in
trading centres. USA is the best known example of a megalopolis.
Cultural Towns
Distribution of Mega Cities
Places of pilgrimage, such as Jerusalem, Mecca, n A mega city is a general term for cities together with
Jagnnath Puri and Varanasi etc. are considered as their suburbs with a population of more than 10
cultural towns. These urban centres are of great million people. New York was the first to attain the
religious importance. status of a mega city by 1950 with a total population of
Additional functions which the cities perform are about 12.5 million.
health and recreation (Miami and Panaji), industrial n The number of mega cities is now 31 (according to
(Pittsburgh and Jamshedpur), mining and quarrying NCERT). The number of mega cities has increased in
(Broken Hill and Dhanbad) and transport (Singapore the developing countries during the last 50 years
vis-à-vis the developed countries.
and Mughal Sarai).
145
Human Race Caucasoid

The Caucasoid also known as White People.
A race is a group of people with similar, permanent
distinguishing characteristics. People belonging to a It is believed that their light skin tone is meant to
particular race, have skin and hair colour have certain receive more sunlight due to Europe’s cold climate.
interpretations. It is also believed that Caucasoid nose structure is
Among humans, race has no cladistics significance- used to keep the nose moisture from getting dried by
all human beings belong to the same hominid the wind. These people are living in Europe and the
subspecies, Homo sapiens, each differing from other Middle East.
populations in the relative commonness of certain Mongoloid
hereditary trait. Mongoloid facial structure likely to adapt to the cold
Generally, human races are categorised on the mild wind. They live in East Asia. Native Americans
following basis : and Eskimo are also Mongoloid.
1. Outer Characteristics Races can be distinguished
on the basis of outer characteristics such as skin Ethnic Groups of the World
colour, hair texture, shape of eyes and lips, stature, Ethnicity is defined as, Either a large or small group of
etc. people, who are united by a common inherited culture
2. Inner Characteristics Races can also distinguished racial similarity, religion and belief in common history
on the basis of inner characteristics. and ancestry. They also exhibit strong psychological
sentiments of belonging to a group’’.
For this, following two index are considered :
— Cephalic (Cranial) Index In this index, human The physical characteristics of the Indian population
head is divided into three categories : vary from region to region. Our present day
population is a conglomeration of people belonging to
Less than 78 – Long head
different racial groups with different ethnic
Between 78-82 – Middle head backgrounds.
More than 82 – Broad head
Breadth of Head Important Tribes of the World
Cephalic Index = × 100
Length of Head Name Description
Aborigines Australoids, native people of Australia
— Nasal Index In this index, length-breadth of nose
is measured. If Index is Acliua Pygmy of Belgium Congo
Less than 70 – Thin Nose Acta Negroid racial stock found in Philippine Islands
Between 70-85 – Middle Nose Bantu Negroes of Central Africa
More than 85 – Broad Nose
Beja Pastoral nomads living between river Nile and Red sea
Breadth of Nose
Nasal Index = × 100 Berber Gauge souls inhabiting region West of Tripoli in
Length of Nose North Africa
Bora Inhabitants of South-East Columbia and near
Classification of Human Race portions of Brazil
The classification of racial groups is done on the basis Buryats Central Asian inhabitants
of characteristics, physical features inherited from a Chukchi Mongoloids inhabiting Chukchi peninsula
common ancestor.
Dayak Groups inhabiting Borneo
The first classification of human race was done by
Linnaeus in 18th century. Fellah Agricultural labourers of Nile Valley in Egypt
According to anthropologists, there are three major races Fulani Cattle herders of Nigeria
in the world : Han Original inhabitants of Nigeria
Negroid Hottentots A group of Negroid racial stock known as Khoi Khoi

found in South-West Africa. Their distinctive feature
They are commonly called as Black People. They is the marked presence of steatopygia.
have the darkest skin tone than other human races in
Inca Inhabitants of Peru in Kulko valley
the world. Black lives in Sub-Sahara Africa.
This group includes African Negro, Nilotic Negro and Inuit Eskimos of North America
Negrito (Pygmies) belonging to the primary sub-races. Kafir Inhabitants of South African temperate lands
146
Name Description Various Tribes in the World and their Distributions

Kamasin Samoyeds inhabiting the Northern part of Tribes Names Distribution
Yennessey in Siberia
Aleuts Alaska
Kamha Bantus of Central Kenya Ainus Japan
Karakalpak Inhabitants occupying region around Aral Sea Bedouin Sahara and Middle East
Karod Inhabitants resembling the kyrgyz in and around Bindibu or Aborigines Australia
Kirghiz Tien Shan and Pamir Bushman Kalahari
Kubu Inhabitants of Sumatra Chukchi NE Asia, USSR, North Siberia
Kurd A nation in many countries - Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Eskimos Greenland, North Canada, Alaska, North
Turkey, Syria and Azerbaijan whose main activity Siberia
is pastoral nomadism Fulani Western Africa
Lapp Caucasoid group of people found in Northern Gobi Mongols Gobi
Scandinavia, Sweden, Northern Finland, Norway
Hausa North Nigeria
and North-Western region of Russia
Ibanas Equatorial rain forest region of South-East
Madhesi Community found in Nepal Asia
Maori Original inhabitants of New Zealand India Tribes Amazon Basin
Mayal A large group of American Indians living in the Kalmuk Central Asia
Highlands of Guatemala Lapps N. Finland, Scandinavian country
Negrito Sub-race of Negroid (found in Andamans) Maoris New Zealand
A race of men distinguished by dark skin, fuzzy Orang Asli Malaysia

Negro
hair, broad and protruding lips, living in Red Indian North America
South-West and Central Africa Tapiro Papua New Guinea
Nordic Caucasoid group of people found in Baltic region, Turregs Sahara
Northern Germany, Northern France, parts of
Yokuts Siberia
Netherlands and Belgium
Zulus South Africa
Papuan Negroids of Papua New Guinea
Rohingya Community belonging to Bangladesh Life in Different Regions of the World
Red Race living in USA between the rocky mountains The life of different region of the world are discussed
Indians and the Missouri river. They are original below.
inhabitants of America
Life in Equatorial Region This region stretches from 0
Semang Group of Negroes having a well built body with
to 5 degrees latitude on both sides of the equator. It
inesocephalic head, round face, short flattened and
very broad nose but Without thick everted lips, includes the Congo Basin, the Amazon Basin and the
found in Malayan Peninsula and East Sumatra Eastern highlands.
Shan Inhabitants of south China, Assam, Myanmar The tribal people who live here include Congo Basin
Pygmies, Amazon Basin Boro, Sakai and Semang
Swahili Bantu speaking people in Zanzibar and Malaysian and Papua of New Guinea framing.
nearby regions
Life in Tropical Deserts Tropical deserts can be found
Tatars Siberian inhabitants along the Western margins of continents between 30 and
Tungus Migratory tribes of East Siberia 45 degrees North and South latitude. The main aborigines
who live here are Kalahari Desert Bushmen or San.
Vedda Short statured inhabitants of Sri Lanka with the
smallest heads Life in Grasslands Grassland can be found in
low-rainfall areas. The people of the grasslands are
Xinca Zuks Lila people in Cape province of Africa
pastoralists. These people are Maasai from East Africa
Yugeer Nomads of North-East Asia and Khirghis from Central Asia.
Yuit Inhabitants of Siberia and St Lawrence island of Life in Tundra Region People in the Tundra region are
Alaska still in the early stages of development, leading
semi-nomadic lives.
Zulu They are a Sub-negroid race in Natal (South
Africa), having close ethnic, linguistic and cultural In the harsh environment of the Arctic, they rely on
ties with the Swazis and the Bantus. They are hunting, fishing and gathering for their subsistence.
Bantu speaking people Eskimos, Yuti, Chukchi, Yachts and Sai are the dominant
groups.
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 14 147
Continents
Sources Class-VII Old NCERT Section 1 (Africa), Class-VII Old NCERT Section 1 (South America), Class-VII Old NCERT
Section 4 (Australia), Class-VII Old NCERT Section 5 (Antarctica), Class-VII Old NCERT Section 3 (North America),
Class-VII Old NCERT Section 4 (Europe), Class-VIII Old NCERT Section 3 (Asia)
The large landmasses are known as the Continents. Europe while New Guinea islands form boundary
Initially word ‘continent’ was used for peninsular between Asian continent and Australian continent.
regions or islands. Currently, large land areas above Asian continent is also known as continent of
sea level are called islands. varieties. Its highest temperature (54°C) is found at
There are seven major continents in the world which Tirat Zvi, Israel and lowest temperature (−69°C) is
are separated by large water bodies. These continents found at Verkhoyansk, Siberia.
are – Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South Asia’s coastal length is 69000 km (except the coastal
America, Australia and Antarctica. length of islands) and land extension from North to
South is 6400 km and 9650 km from East to West.
Asia Three out of the four most populous countries in the
world (China, India and Indonesia) are located in
Asia is the world’s largest continent. Its area is Asia.
44557000 sq. km. It possesses one-third of the land
area of the Earth. Japan has the longest life expectancy (80.9 years for
men and 86.6 years for women) in world.
Asia contains more than 59% population of the world
as of 2021.
The word Asia is used as a female name and means Major locations of Asian Continent
sunrise.
n Northernmost point- Chelyuskin, Russia (77°43’N)
n Southernmost point- Tanjung Piai, Malaysia (10°14’N)
It lies between 10°S and 80°N latitudes and thus
n Easternmost point- Cape Dezhnev, Siberia (169°40’W)
extends from the hottest to the coolest regions.
n Westernmost point- Cape Bosporus, Turkey (26°4’E)
Its latitudinal extension is from 10°S to 80°N but main
land of the Asia lies North of the Equator.
Its longitudinal extension is from 25°E to 17°W. Physical Features
Its East-West extension is about half of the surface of Asia may be divided into five major physical divisions.
the globe. Therefore, its major land is situated on the They are :
Eastern hemisphere but some part lies on the Western
1. The Northern Lowlands
hemisphere also.
2. The Central Mountain Belt
Asia is surrounded by oceans from three sides. Pacific
ocean on East, Indian ocean on South and Arctic 3. The Southern Plateaus
ocean on North. 4. The Great River Valleys
Ural mountain, Caspian ocean, Caucasus mountain 5. Island Groups of South-East and East Asia
and Black sea form boundary between Asia and
148
The Northern Lowlands Island Groups of South-East and East Asia

Ob, Yenisei and Lena are the rivers which flow through The important island groups consist of Indonesia,
Siberian Plain (Northern part of the continent) from Philippines and Japan.
South to North and drain into the Arctic ocean. Most of these islands are mountainous and are known
Water coming from the upper courses is blocked and for their volcanoes, which are active or have been active
inundates a large part of the flat plain, making it in the recent past.
swampy and marshy due to severe winter of the polar It is located primarily in the Eastern and Northern
region. Hemispheres.
Lake Baikal (world’s deepest lake) is in this region, The Equator, Tropic of Cancer and Arctic Circle passes
which account for 20% of water found in fresh water through it. It is separated from Africa by the Red Sea
lakes. and Suez Canal.
The Central Mountain Belt It is separated from North America by Bering Strait.
Pamir Plateau in central Asia forms a mountain knot Arabian Peninsula is the largest Peninsula in the
from which several mountain chains run out in world.
different directions. These mountain chains enclose The deepest trench of the world Mariana Trench lies in
huge plateaus and desert basins. Two mountain the Pacific Ocean near Philippines.
chains which run Westward enclose the plateaus of Pamir Plateau is known as Roof of the World situated
Iran and Anatolia. in the Central Asia.
The mountain chain of Himalayas, Karakoram and Important Peninsulas are Arabian Peninsula,
the Kunlun runs towards the East. The plateau of Indo-Chinese Peninsula and Deccan Peninsula.
Tibet, enclosed by Himalayas and Kunlun is the
Important Island groups are Andaman and Nicobar,
highest and the largest plateau of the world.
Indonesia, Philippines and Japan.
The vast cool desert of Gobi lies to the North-East.
Major Strait are Malacca Strait, Palk Strait, Sunda
The Southern Plateaus Strait, Bering Strait, Bonne-Fasio Strait, Bosphorus
To the South of central mountain belt, there are some Strait, Hormuz Strait, Makassar Strait, Tsungaru Strait
plateaus of very old rock. These are the plateau of and Formosa Strait.
Arabia, Deccan plateau and the plateau of Shan and
Yunnan. Climate
The plateau of Arabia lies in the South-West part of Asia has great range of climate due to large area and it
the Asia. It is a dry sand desert, made up of ancient possesses great difference in elevation.
shells and is part of the Gondwana land. During winter, the central part of Asia has temperature
It is surrounded by Persian Gulf in East, Red sea in below freezing point. The air over this region contracts,
West and Arabian sea in the South. becomes heavy and thus forms a high pressure area.
Deccan plateau in India is one of the oldest plateaus. As this wind blows from the land, air flowing from this
This is bordered by the Western Ghats in the West, region is dry and pick up the moisture only when
Eastern Ghats in the East and the Satpura, Maikal they flow over the sea.
range and Mahadeo hills in the North. This causes rainfall in Japan, parts of South-East Asia,
Southern-East coast of India and Sri Lanka receives rain
The Great River Valleys from this wind during this season.
Some of the important valleys are those made by During summer season, low pressure area is developed
Tigris-Euphrates, Indus, Ganga-Brahmaputra, in the region as air is heated, expanded and thus
Irrawaddy, Mekong, Sikiang, Changjiang and Hwang become light. It draws air from the surrounding
Ho. These fertile valleys are some of the most thickly relatively cooler oceans. It causes rainfall to most part
populated regions. of the Asia.
Tigris-Euphrates valley lies on the banks of rivers Annual rainfall in Asia varies greatly from area to area.
Tigris and Euphrates. Both these rivers originate in For example, Mawsynram situated in East Khasi Hill
North from Torres mountain and falls in Persian sea in district of Meghalaya (India) is the wettest place on the
South. Mesopotamian civilisation (Iraq) began here. Earth.
Before entering the Bay of Bengal, the Ganga along On the other hand there are desert regions (Red sea to
with the Brahmaputra forms the largest delta of Magnolia), which don’t receive a single drop of rain for
the world. The coastline of delta is a highly many years.
indented area.
149
Soil Crops
Most soils of South and South-East Asia belong to Rice is the main crop of the Asian continent. More than
varying degrees of red or black colour. The soils are 90% of the world’s rice is grown here. The main
rich in aluminum and iron oxides, low in silica; are producers are China, India, Japan, Bangladesh and
nearly structureless and generally of low fertility. countries of South-East Asia.
In the Arabian Desert and deserts in Central Asia, Wheat is grown in sub-tropical and temperate lands of
the soils are usually high in their content of Russia, Ukraine, India, Pakistan and South-West Asia.
unleached minerals but may be deficient in their Millets such as bajra, jowar and ragi are grown in semi
content of nitrogen and humus. arid regions of Asia. Pulses and oilseeds are also grown
In the regions, where the water-table is high, along with cereals.
evaporation salts have accumulated in excess near The important cash crops of Asia are cotton, jute,
the surface, the soils are alkaline. Such red desert sugarcane and tea. Cotton is grown in China,
soils cover much of the Arabian Peninsula and Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, India, Pakistan and South-West
North-West India, while higher desert soils cover the Asia.
rest of South− West Asian countries. Jute is produced in Ganga-Brahmaputra delta.
Large parts of Northern Asia are covered by podzolic Sugarcane in mainly grown in India, Indonesia and
soils of varying but generally low fertility. These Pakistan. Tea is cultivated in India, Sri Lanka, China,
soils cover the mid to high latitude locations in the Japan and Indonesia.
region of well-distributed rainfall.
The grasslands of Western Siberia, Manchuria and Vegetation
most of Anatolia plateau of Turkey are underlain by The natural vegetation of Asia is closely related to
black prairie soils which have good texture and are climate. The belt of Tundra vegetation along the
of generally high fertility. Northern coast of Asia is mostly covered with snow and
The most important soils in Asia are the relatively ice for the major part of the year. Summer is short and
immature soils of alluvial origin that are found in the cool here.
river valleys. Precipitation is 30 cm annually. Due to the cold weather
Alluvial soils cover the river valleys of the conditions, plants do not attain much height and
Tigris-Euphrates, the plains of Indus-Ganga Rivers, vegetation mainly consists of moss and lichen. Reindeer
the lower Irrawaddy basin, the deltas of the Mekong is the main animal of the region.
and the lower basins of Chang Jiang, Huang He Taiga (to the South of Tundra) is a much broader belt of
Rivers. coniferous forest. Here winters are severe and summers
These are also found in the river plains of smaller are warm. Precipitation is 25-30cm annually.
rivers in India, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, Korea The region is famous for softwood trees such as fir,
and Japan. spruce and pine. These are used as timber and in
Several islands of Indonesia and Southern making paper pulp and rayon. Taiga is home to
Philippines contain active volcanoes that fur-bearing animals such as fox, sable and mink.
periodically provide a new layer of rich basic soils of Steppe is temperate grassland located on the further
recently deposited volcanic materials. South. Winters are cold here and summers are fairly
hot. Rainfall is between 20-40 cm. Due to evaporation,
Agriculture moisture is sufficient for grasses but not for trees.
Antelope is a common animal of this region.
Shifting agriculture is practiced in some
mountainous and forests area. A patch of forest is Under desert vegetation, hot desert of Thar and Arabia
cleared by burning trees. It is mostly done by people are found in South-West while in the North; cold desert
in mountains of South and South-East Asia. of Gobi and Tibet are found. Due to unfavourable
conditions for plant growth, only shrubs, thorny bushes
Intensive agriculture involves a great deal of
and poor grasses can grow. The common animals are
manual labour on a small piece of land. It is usually
camel, ass, gazelle, cheetah and yak (on the high
done in plains and river valleys. Extensive
plateau region).
agriculture is used in some parts of central Asia and
West Siberia. Monsoon forests are found in South, South-East and
East Asia. The forest consists of many useful trees such
Manual labour is not possible on such huge farms
as teak, sal and sandalwood. Elephant is a typical
therefore machines are used for farming.
animal of monsoon forest.
150
In North-Eastern Asia, as the climate becomes Equatorial forests are found in Malaysia and Indonesia.
cooler, the monsoon forests changes into temperate Much of these forests are now been converted into
wood lands. Equatorial forests are found in the rubber estates.
extremely Southern part of Asia. Such forests are Thailand is the largest producer and exporter of rubber
confined to Malaysian peninsula and island groups in the world.
that are close to Equator. This forest is home to
apes, monkeys and variety of animals. Minerals
Important mineral resources found in Asia are iron,
Forest manganese, tungsten, bauxite, mica, tin, coal and oil.
Asia has three main types of forest namely
Iron ore is found in India, China, Russia and Azerbaijan.
coniferous forests, monsoon forests and equatorial
forests. Coniferous forests are found in Russia, Mica deposits are mainly found in India. Malaysia is
Japan and Himalayan region. They provide rich in Tin deposit.
softwood which is used as timber and for making Large deposit of coal is found in China, Russia and India.
paper pulp and rayon. Countries of South-West Asia possess large deposits of
Monsoon forests are found in India, Myanmar and oil. While the leading producers of oil are Kuwait,
parts of South-East Asia. They provide useful trees Bahrain, Iraq, Iran and Russia. A good deal of oil is also
such as teak, sal and bamboo. produced in Myanmar, Indonesia and India also.
West
Bering
Sea
L.Baikal
a da
Narm
151
Country Description
The People
Nepal l
Nepal had been established as a buffer state in
Asia is most populated continent of the world. Asia’s (Himalayan the North of the India. It is a land locked
population is equivalent to 59.76% of the total world Kingdom) country.
population as of 2021. l
World’s highest mountain, Mount Everest
The average density of population in Asia is 150 (8848m) is situated in Nepal.
persons per sq kilometre. l
Devishali, Trishali and Koshi projects over here
have been established by the support of
Northern and Eastern part of Siberia, the deserts and Government of India.
highlands of Asia, the Arabian desert, the plateau of Iran l
Virat Nagar is the only industrial town here.
and Thar desert in India are the regions in which
population is vary sparse.
l
Shuklaphanta National Park is situated in
Nepal.
The most thickly populated parts of the Asia include the
Bhutan l
It is a landlocked country which is known as
plains of India, Bangladesh, Java island in Indonesia, land of thunderbolt.
plains of China and Japan. l
Gangkhar Puensum (7561m) is the highest peak
The yellow people of Eastern and South-Eastern Asia of Bhutan.
constitutes more than one-third of the population of the l
It is the only country in the world, which
continent. They include Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, measures its economic development through
Filipino, Malay, Indonesian, Thai, Myanmarese and Gross National Happiness.
people of other countries. Myanmar l
It is called land of golden pagoda.
The brown people belong to India, Pakistan, l
Doab of Saloni and Ervadi river is called rice
Bangladesh and some other countries of South Asia. bowl of the far east.
South-West Asia inhabited by Arabs, Turks, Persians,

l
Ervadi river is the life line of Myanmar.
Afghans and number of other groups. l
Mandalay is a historic city, located on the banks
of Ervadi river. Pyu city is a world heritage site.
Central Asia has Mongols, Kazakhs, Uzbeks and Kirghiz.
Bangladesh l
Bangladesh is called land of rivers.
Asians eat up to 90% of the total world production of l
Bangladesh is surrounded by India from three
rice. sides. Border between Bangladesh and Tripura
is called ‘Zero Line’.
Asia’s Top 10 Cities with Urban Population
l
Bangladesh produces 50% of jute and jute
1. Tokyo (Japan) 2. Jakarta (Indonesia) related material in world.
3. Delhi (India) 4. Mumbai (India) Sri Lanka l
It is also known as ‘Pearl of East’ and ‘Heaven’s
(The Pearl Door’. Pidurutalagala (2524m) is the highest
5. Seoul (South Korea) 6. Shanghai (China)
of the East) peak of Sri Lanka.
7. Manila (Philippines) 8. Karachi (Pakistan) l
Mahaweli Ganga is the longest river which
9. Beijing (China) 10. Guangzhou (China) flows to North-East and falls into Bay of Bengal.
l
Kandy city is famous for Buddhist temples. In
Singapore, South Korea and Japan have the highest Asia, highest number of newspapers are
average IQ (intelligence quotient) on the planet. circulated here.
— Largest city in terms of population: Tokyo Indonesia l
Borneo is the largest island of Indonesia which
is locally called as Kalimantan.
— Land area: 44579000 km 2
l
Krakatoa, world famous volcano island is
— Largest Lake: Baikal Lake situated between Java and Sumatra.
— Religion: Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism l
After China, it is second largest producer of Tin.
Malaysia l
Malaysia is world’s leading producer and
Major Countries of Asian Continent
exporter of Tin. Tin producing areas of
Country Description Malaysia are Selangor, Penang and Jelebu
valley.
Pakistan l
It is called country of canals. Its Swat valley is said
(Land of to be heaven of Pakistan. Jacobabad, Pakistan is l
Mount Kinabaku (4101) is the highest peak of
Canals) considered to be one of the hottest places (58°C) on Malaysia.
Earth. l
Pahang and Kinabatangan are the main rivers
l
Salt range in Pakistan is famous for mayo salt, of Malaysia.
gypsum and lime stone. l
Sarawak province of Malaysia resides
l
Faisalabad is considered as Manchester of Pakistan. maximum number of Chinese people.
152
Country Description About one-third of Africa is a desert land. The

China- (The l
Its population is largest in the world and fourth in Sahara (located in the Northern part) is the largest
Home of area wise. desert in the world. The Kalahari desert in Southern
One-Fifth of l
Taklamakan desert is an isolated and cold desert Africa is another great desert.
Mankind) which is situated in Tarim basin.
l
Huang Ho river in China is also known as Drainage System
‘Yellow River’.
l
Shanghai is known as Manchester of China.
Victoria is the largest lake in Africa. It is the source
of river Nile, longest river of the world. After a long
l
China is leading producer of rice, wheat, tobacco,
tea, groundnut and vegetables. journey through Sahara desert, it reaches the
Mediterranean sea.
Japan- (The l
Japan is called Nippon in Japanese which means
Land of the ‘Land of rising Sun’. Zaire river in central Africa is known as Congo in
Rising Sun) l
Honshu is the largest island of Japan where capital later part. It carries greatest amount of water into
Tokyo, active volcano Fujiyama is situated. Atlantic ocean.
l
Kyoto of Japan is known as ‘city of small industries’ Niger in the Western part and the Zambezi and
and Osaka is known as ‘Manchester of Japan’.
Orange in the Northern part are the other important
rivers of Africa.
Africa Except Nile and Zaire river, few African rivers can be
used for shipping because rivers falls from the higher
Africa is the second largest continent in the world,
plateaus to the coastal lowlands making waterfalls.
both in size and population. It occupies about 20% of
the land area of Earth. Victoria Falls on the Zambezi is higher and wider
than famous Niagara Falls of North America.
Africa is the hottest continent on the Earth.
Africa has the shortest coastline despite being the Climate and Vegetation
second largest continent in the world.
Africa extends between 37° 14′ N to 34° 50′ S
Africa is the most centrally located continent in the
latitudes. A major part of the African continent lies
world. Both the prime meridian (0° longitude) and the
within tropical zone.
Equator (0° degrees latitude) cut across it.
Africa is most tropical of all the continents.
The African continents terrain was inhabitable and
The highest temperature in the world has been
remained unknown for thousands of years, earning it
recorded at Al-Aziziyah (Libya) as 58°C.
the name of Dark Continent.
The belt lying along the both sides of equator is
The African continent is separated from Europe by the
known as equatorial type of climate. It rains almost
Mediterranean sea and from Asia by the Red sea.
daily and there is only one season namely hot-wet
It touches Eurasia at three different points namely the summer. Because of abundance of heat and moisture,
Strait of Gibraltar in North-West, Suez Canal most of the region is covered with thick forest known
in North-East and the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb in East. as tropical rain forest. It has varied wildlife.
The Equator passes through the middle of the African In rain forests, there are regions of warm summers
continent and it receives direct sunlight throughout the and mild winters. Most of the rain occurs in summer.
year. Nigeria has the highest population (154.7 million There is less rainfall.
people) in Africa. This represents 18% of Africa’s total
population. This climate is known as Sudan type of climate,
which is found in a very large part of the continent.
Both the world’s tallest and largest land animals come
Its vegetation is mostly grasses.
from Africa. They are the giraffe and African elephant,
respectively. There are extensive deserts in both Northern and
Southern parts of Africa. Temperature is very high
Algeria is the biggest country in Africa by land area.
with almost no rainfall.
The world’s hottest place, Ethiopia is in Africa.
The climate is hot and extremely dry, known as
Physical Features desert type of climate. Vegetation is either wholly
absent or includes only scrub and bushes.
The highest peak of Africa is Kilimanjaro (5895m).
It remains snow covered throughout the year. The Northern and Southern coasts of Africa have
mild and rainy winters and warm and dry summers.
The Great Rift Valley in Africa running from the South This is known as Mediterranean type of climate.
of lake Malawi Northward to the Red sea and then The climate is cooler in the highlands of Southern
through the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba to the and Eastern Africa.
Dead sea.
153
Soil Oil palm, from which palm oil is obtained, is common

in West Africa.
In Africa, only 10% of the soil is suitable for crops.
Date palm grows in the oases in the drier regions.
It includes volcanic soils of East Africa, alluvial soil of
Dates constitute an important food item for local
Nile valley and certain very fertile soils of the Savanna
people. Egypt exports a large amount of dates.
lands.
Cocoa and kola trees provide beverages.
Forests Cocoa (used for making chocolate), grows well in the
equatorial lowlands West African countries such as
Larger parts of central Africa are covered with thick
Ghana and Nigeria. Kola trees yields nuts which are
forests. They yield hardwood which may be used as
used in preparing cola drinks and chewing gum.
timber. They have many valuable trees such as Mahogany,
Ebony and Kapok. Rubber trees (native to South America) Tropical African region grows banana, pineapple,
are growing wild in these forests. Africa exports rubber jackfruit and mango fruit trees. Citrus fruits such as
in large quantities as it is being planted properly. lemon, orange and lime are also grown here.
Coconut palm trees are found in the tropical islands The Mediterranean region grows olives, apples,
such as Zanzibar and Pemba and along the equatorial peaches and grapes. East Africa produces cashewnuts.
coast such as Tanzania. They yield Copra from which Zanzibar and Pemba islands are the biggest producers
coconut oil is obtained. and exporters of cloves in the world.
EQUATOR
154
Wildlife Industries
Elephants, wild buffaloes, snakes, pythons, monkeys, South Africa’s larger industrial complex is Pretoria,
hippopotamus and rhinoceros are some of the important Johannesburg and virgin area where iron, steel,
animals found in the forests and swamps of Africa. machinery, garments and chemical industries are
Deer, stag, zebra and giraffe are found in open situated.
woodlands and grasslands. Cotton cloths industry is situated at Egypt, South
Camels are found in deserts. Ostrich is found in the Africa’s Johannesburg, Durban and East London.
Kalahari desert. Cement industry is situated at Johannesburg, Cairo
In the higher Savanna regions of Africa, cattle grazing (Egypt) and Nigeria.
are very important which are owned by nomadic tribes.
The major animals in Africa include cheetah, African Transportation
elephant, lion, zebra, Egyptian mongoose, giraffe, Africa does not have enough means of transport.
addax. Extensive desert and thick forests hinder the
construction of roads and railways.
Minerals and Energy Resources Major ports in African continent are Durban, Port of
95% of the world’s diamond production comes from Richard bay, port Dar Es Salaam (Tanzania).
Africa. Cairo, Johannesburg and Cape town are the
Africa is responsible for more than half the world’s gold major airports which connects African continent to
production. South Africa is the major producer of gold the world.
and platinum.
The People
South Africa’s Johannesburg is called as Golden City.
About 70% of the people are blacks in Africa.
Africa has large reserves of cobalt, manganese,
Nigeria has the largest population.
chromium, copper, tin, bauxite and uranium. There
are not much coal and iron ore in African continent. As per World Population Prospect, 2019, population
South Africa leads the countries of the world in the of Africa is 1308 million and population density is 44
production of the chromium, a metal which does not per sq. Kilometre.
rust. Swahili is the language which is understood by
Congo and South Africa are major producers of copper, many African people. African people also speak
bauxite and uranium. English, Arabic, Italian and French.
Petroleum is found in many parts of the Africa such as Different religion such as Islam, Christianity and
Nigeria, Libya and Angola. Animism are followed by people of Africa. Animism
is the religion followed by many tribes.
Agriculture — The largest waterfall in Africa is the Victoria Falls
Only the 10% of land area of Africa is cultivable. Both and it is located on the Zimbabwe and Zambia
food and cash crops are grown here. border.
— It has a height of 355 feet and the width of the
Most of the food crops of Africa are root crops such as
yam and cassava. water fall runs into almost a mile.
— More than 50% of the world’s French speaking
Palm oil and groundnut are produced mainly in West
population lives here on the continent.
Africa. Nigeria exports a large amount of palm oil.
— Angola has more Portuguese speakers than
Cocoa and coffee from Africa are major source of world
Portugal.
trade. Cotton has been grown in Nile valley for several
— Africa has a pink lake in Senegal.
thousand years.
— More than 50% of the world’s gold and 95% of the
Africa is one of the world’s largest producers and
exporter of sisal. Tanzania leads the countries of Africa world’s diamonds come from the mineral rich
in sisal production. Sisal is a vegetable fiber that is used continent of Africa.
in making ropes and sacks. — The world also gets 66% of its chocolate from the
African Continent.
The islands of Zanzibar and Pemba are famous for
cloves and coconuts. — There are 54 countries in African continent.
155
Major Countries of Africa Australia lies entirely on the South of the equator and
it is often called the country down under.
Country Description
Of all the continents in the world, Australia stands at
Zaire (Land of l
Democratic republic of Congo (Zaire) has
Forests) been named after river Zaire. It crosses
the top of wool production and import. This is because
Equator twice. the sheep population in the world’s smallest continent
l
It is also called as big zoo due to the vast is 14 times that of its human population.
variety of wild animals. Australia is home to over 500 varieties of Eucalyptus
l
Matadi port on the bank of Zaire river is a trees. The world’s largest coral reef, the Great Barrier
major port. Reef is around 2000 kilometres long.
Nigeria (Land l
It is a country of low lands and plateau. Sydney Harbor Bridge is the world’s largest steel arch
of Oil and l
Hot and dust-laden winds often blow from bridge and the Sydney Tower Center is the tallest
Cocoa) North-East is known as Harmattan. building in the Southern hemisphere.
l
Ibadan is main industrial city of Nigeria.
l
Lagos and Port Heart Court are the major Physical Features
industrial port. Australia can be divided into three major physical
Egypt l
The Arab republic of Egypt is situated in divisions namely Western plateau, central lowlands
Africa but it is at the junction of two continents and Eastern highlands.
namely Africa and Asia.
The Western plateau of Australia occupies nearly two
l
Hot, dry and sand laden blown here are
known as ‘Khamsin’. third of the continent. Most of the plateau is desert or
l
Farmers of Egypt are called as Faillah.
semi desert. It is rich in minerals such as gold and
iron ore.
l
Suez canal links the Mediterranean sea with
the Red sea. This canal is 173 km long. The central lowlands extend from Gulf of Carpentaria
South Africa l
Pretoria is administrative capital and Cape in North to Southern shores. The Murray and the
(Country of Town is legislative capital of South Africa. Darling are the major rivers of Australia flowing
Diamond and l
Drakensberg is the main mountain range. through central lowlands.
Gold) Wall and Orange rivers originates from here. The Eastern highlands form a long belt of elevated
l
Limpopo is Major river which cuts Tropic of plateaus known as Great Dividing Range.
Capricorn twice.
Mt. Kosciusko (2234m) is the highest peak in
l
The plateau region in South Africa is covered
Australia. Most of the rivers of Australia rise in
with grasses. It is called “The Veld”. It is
called as triangle of maize. Eastern highlands. World famous Great Barrier Reef is
l
The centre of diamond mining is Kimberley
found along the North-East coast of Australia.
and centre of gold mining are near
Johannesburg. Climate
Most of the Australia is dry. The Eastern,
North-Eastern and South-Western parts of Australia
Australia come in the way of winds blowing from sea and thus
Australia is the only country in the world that covers receive heavy rainfall.
the entire continent. Australia was discovered by Eastern highlands act as barrier to these rain bearing
Captain James Cook, an English seaman, in 1770. winds.
Australia is the smallest continent. It lies entirely in Therefore very large part of central and Western
Southern hemisphere. Together with New Zealand Australia has no rain at all. Thus a hot, desert type of
and nearby islands, it is known as ‘Australasia’. climate is found in vast interior of Australia.
The country is divided into six self-governing States The Southern coast of Australia enjoys the
and two centrally administered territories. Mediterranean type of climate.
Tropic of Capricorn passes almost through the middle The island of Tasmania receives plenty of rain
of the continent. Australia is known as Island throughout the year from the winds blowing from the
Continent as it is surrounded by water on all sides. West.
The continent of Australia is often called Sahul, The Northern part of the Australia receives rains from
Australinea or Meganesia to differentiate it from the the monsoon winds in summer. This region is cool
country of Australia. and dry in winter and wet in summer.
156
Forest and Grasslands Kangaroo is the symbol of Australia which lives on

grass and leaves.
Eucalyptus is the most common tree in Australia and
Koala is another marsupial of Australia which
is known as ‘gum trees’. Some of the varieties such
resembles teddy bear.
Jarrah and Karri are valuable for their timber.
Dingo, wild dog and Platypus are also found in
Wattle is another common tree. It is tall and bears
Australia. Emu, Kookaburra and Lyrebird are some of
golden flowers in summer.
the birds of Australia.
The tropical grasslands of Australia are found in
North. They are called Savannas. The temperate Crops
grasslands found in the Murray-Darling basin are
called Downs. These grasslands are known for Wheat is the most important food crop of Australia.
pastoral farming. New South Wales and Western Australia are main
wheat growing States.
The vegetation of semi-arid regions consists of salt
bush and mulger plants. Cactus and thorny grass Barley, oats and maize are other food crops grown in
plants are found in more arid parts. Australia. Rice is cultivated in irrigated areas.
Sugarcane, tobacco and cotton are important crops
Wildlife grown in Queensland.
Many of the animals of Australia are marsupials Pineapple, banana and papaya are grown in the
(pouch like fold of skin near stomach to carry baby). tropical North whereas apple, oranges and grapes are
grown in the temperate South.
157
Sheep Rearing Though Australia is mainly an agricultural and

pastoral country, most of the Australians live in
Australia has highest number of sheep in the world. towns. 85% of the people live in eight capital cities.
Sheep are reared mainly for wool.
Aborigines are the native tribes of Australia. They
The best sheep lands are the lands between the rivers originally spoke around 200 languages and dialects.
Murray and Darling.
Merino is the most important breed of the sheep
producing the best wool. Large farms (sheep stations)
North America
are run by labours known as Jakaroos. North America is the third largest continent of the
world. It is located at 54.5260°N, 105.2551°W.
Cattle Rearing North America stretches between Alaska in North,
The finest beef producing cattle is reared on the West Labrador in the North-East and Panama in
grounds of Queensland and the Northern territory. South.
The main areas of dairy farming are in the East and To the North is the Arctic ocean where the continents
Southern-East part of the Australia. These regions have breaks off into a series of cold and barren islands.
sufficient rainfall for the growth of grasses. It has extensive forest, rich farmlands, abundant
minerals, huge water power resources and extensive
Minerals coastal fishing grounds.
Australia produces a fairly good amount of gold. North America has five time zones and is the only
Australia possesses large reserve of coal, iron-ore, continent with every type of climate.
bauxite, manganese and tin. North America was named after the explorer
It is the largest producer of bauxite in the world. Amerigo Vespucci and is also known as the New
It also has some reserve of oil and natural gas. World.
The largest fresh water lake in the world, Lake
Industry Superior is located in this continent.
Most of the manufacturing industries are located in The world’s third longest river, the Mississippi (3778
Victoria and New South Wales. km) is located in North America.
Australia produces iron and steel, agricultural When compared with the other continents, North
machinery, motor vehicles, electrical goods, America has the highest average per-person income.
chemicals, paper, ships, machine tools and refined oil. The average food intake of individuals is the highest
Australia produces cotton, wooden textiles, sugar, on this continent.
condensed and powdered milk, butter, cheese, tinned
fruits and meat. Physical Features
North America has four major physical divisions which
Transport are as follows :
The only transcontinental railway running from The Canadian Shield
one end of the continent to the other is the
It covers nearly half of Canada in North. Its average
Trans-Australian Railway (4000 km). It runs between
height is 300 to 400 metres.
Sydney and Perth.
A large part of it is covered with swamps and lakes
The major roads in Australia are called
like Great Bear, Winnipeg and the Great Lakes (Lake
Commonwealth highways. They are like national
Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie and
highways in India.
Lake Ontario).
One interesting feature of the air transport in Australia
The Southern parts of the shield are low lands of
is the air ambulance system. Sydney is the largest city
Great Lakes and St Lawrence river. St Lawrence river
and important seaport of Australia.
is the busiest inland waterway in North America. St
Lawrence and the Great Lakes provides the largest
The People inland waterways in the world as they link USA and
The population of Australia is approximately 23, 401, Canada.
892 and population density is 2 persons per sq. km.
The shield is a treasure house of valuable mineral
Most of its population is concentrated in the Eastern resources like gold, silver, nickel, iron, copper,
coastal lowlands and South Eastern parts of the platinum, radium, cobalt and uranium.
continent.
158
The Appalachian Mountains or Eastern Highlands The Central Lowlands

The height of this mountain varies from 1000 m in Central lowlands stretch about 2000 km between
South-Western Pennsylvania to 1800 m in Mount Western Cordilleras and Eastern highland.
Washington. Its extension is more than 6000 km from the delta of
The Hudson river flows through the Appalachian river Mackenzie to coastal plain in Texas.
Mountains. It is joined to the Great Lakes by the Erie The central and Southern parts are River basin of
canal. A number of mineral resources such as coal, Missouri- Mississippi Rivers. This river basin has very
copper and lead are found here. fertile soil and has rich agricultural resources.
159
The Western Cordilleras South of Taiga region (South-East Canada and

Mountain region known as Western Cordilleras North-East United States) has coniferous and
stretches from North to South along the entire length deciduous forests. Trees like beech, birch, maple and
of the continent. Mt McKinley (6187m), in Alaska is oak are found here.
the highest peak of Cordilleras. Most of the rivers of Tropical forests are found in central America, Eastern
North America rise in Western Cordilleras. Mexico and West Indies. Palm, mahogany and
Rocky mountain, Coastal range and Sierra Nevada are logwood are common trees found in North America.
the mountain ranges found in Western Cordilleras. Grasslands are found in the interior plains of North
The Great Basin is the largest intermontane plateau of America. They are known as Prairies. The Prairies are
this continent. known for tall and nutritious grasses.
South of the Great Basin is the Colorado plateau. The extreme South-West part of the United States and
The Grand Canyon of Colorado is the largest of its North-Western Mexico receives scanty rainfall.
kind and famous all over the world for its beauty. The natural vegetation consists of a variety of cactus
The Western Cordilleras have many active volcanoes plants.
in Alaska and Mexico. The most famous Old Faithful The Mediterranean type of climate is found on the
geyser in Yellow Stone Park lies here. West coast of California. Olive, pine, orange and cork
The Western Cordilleras is also rich in coal, lead, zinc, oak trees are found here.
gold and copper. The Grand Bank near the coast of Newfoundland is
famous for fishing. On the Pacific coast, tuna and
Climate salmon are the main fish catches. The world’s
North America has varied climate extending between smallest owl, the Elf, is found on this continent.
the tropical zone in South and frigid Zone in North. The moose and the elk, found in North America, are
The Western highlands and Appalachian mountains the first and second tallest animals on the continent.
provides cold winds from the North and warm winds The other major animals of North America are brown
from South. bears, hummingbirds, bald eagles, brown bears,
bullfrogs.
Summers are hot except at Arctic zone and Western
cordilleras.
Crops
The Western coast in the North faces the winds coming
from West known as Westerlies and South-Eastern Maize, wheat and barley are the important cereals
coast comes under the influence of trade winds. grown in North America. The other important crops
are cotton, tobacco, soyabean and linseed.
Both these winds bring heavy rainfall. However, parts
of South-West United States and North-West Mexico Almost half of the world’s maize is grown in North
remains extremely dry. America. Here it is known as corn. Maize crop
probably originated in South Mexico.
Winters are cold over much of the North America.
Winter temperature is much below the freezing point Wheat is grown in the prairie region of Canada and
in the Northern and central parts. Temperature United States. North America produces about one-fifth
decreases from South to North. of the world’s wheat.
Cotton and tobacco are grown in the Southern parts of
Vegetation and Animals the Mississippi river basin. United States and Mexico
are the leading producers of cotton in North America.
In the extreme North of the continent, the climate is
very cold and severe. This region is known as Along the Gulf Coast, rice and sugarcane are grown.
Tundra. Here snow covers the ground for eight to The tropical lowland of central America is famous for
nine months. growing banana. West Indies is known for sugarcane
cultivation.
During this period, only mosses, lichens, grasses
grow. Polar beer, caribou, musk-ox and reindeer are North America accounts for about one-fourth of the
the important animals of this region. total cow’s milk produced in the world. It is also a
leading producer of meat.
To the South of the Tundra region is a wide belt of
coniferous forests known as Taiga. It stretches from The world’s largest producer of maize, wheat and
Atlantic to the Pacific across Canada. The forest soyabean is North America.
consists of balsam, fir and white and red pines. The world’s largest sugar exporter among the seven
Similar forests are also found on the Western continents, Cuba, also called the sugar bowl of the
cordilleras. world is located in North America.
160
Forest form the largest and busiest inland waterways in the

world.
Coniferous forests cover most of Canada, Northern
The Kennedy airport in New York is the busiest
United States and the Western Cordilleras.
international airport in the world.
These forests are great source of softwood which
provides some very useful products such as pulp and Population
paper, douglas fir and white pine (provides house The North American population consists of original
building material), cellulose, resin, turpentine etc. inhabitants (the native Indians) and the people who
In the Southern part of the temperate regions, came from different parts of the world.
deciduous trees, pineapple, oak and beech grow along Total population of North America is 366 million
with coniferous trees. (2019) and population density is 23 people per sq. km.
White pine and spruce trees yield pulp for newspaper; 90% of Canada is still virtually uninhabited because of
the wood of oak and willow trees is used for furniture harsh climate. The majority of its people lives along
and the sap of the maple tree yields sugar. the narrow Southern fringe.
Tropical rain forests are found in Southern Mexico
and countries of Central America. These forests yield Major Countries of North America
good quality hardwoods such as mahogany and Country Description
logwood.
Canada l
Canada’s coastline is world’s longest
Minerals (243, 042 km).
l
Wood Buffalo National Park is Canada’s largest
North America is a major producer of petroleum,
national park located in north Canada.
natural gas, nickel, zinc, asbestos, gold, silver, copper
l
Wood cutters in Canada are known as
and iron ore.
‘Lumberjacks’.
The Canadian Shield contains deposits of nickel, iron l
Canada’s biggest iron and steel industry is
ore, gold, platinum and copper. Lake Superior is the situated at Hamilton.
leading producer of high grade iron ore, gold is found
United States l
Washington DC, the capital of United States of
mainly in Ontario, which has the largest gold mine in of America America is situated on the river bank of river
the world. Potomac.
The Appalachian highlands produce a large amount l
United States of America is the leading
of anthracite and high grade bituminous coal. They producer of aeroplanes in the world.
have the largest soft coal field in the world. l
The leading production center of United States
The Gulf Coast and the Atlantic coastal plain of America is Boston, New York, Philadelphia,
Detroit and Chicago.
produce much of the world’s petroleum and
natural gas.
United States is the second largest producer of the
natural gas in the world. Sulphur, phosphate and
South America
potash are also found here. South America is the fourth largest continent of the
Western Cordilleras have vast deposits of copper. world. Most part of South American continent lies in
This region also possesses mineral oil, natural gas, Southern hemisphere.
coal and rock phosphate. Its Andes mountains are next only to Himalayas in
The largest deposits of lead and zinc in the world are their average height.
found in British Columbia. Mexico has been leading South America, Central America, Mexico and West
producer of silver in world for many years. Indies together make up Latin America.
South America is bounded by the Caribbean Sea to the
Transport North-West and North, the Atlantic Ocean to the
The Panama canal connects two great oceans North-East, East and South-East and the Pacific Ocean
–Atlantic and Pacific ocean. It is of great commercial to the West.
and strategic importance. South America is connected to North America through
In North America, highways are known as Freeways the Isthmus of Panama.
or Superways. Brazil is the largest country in South America,
Mississippi and St Lawrence are the large navigational encompassing around half of the continent’s land area
rivers. The Great lakes together with St Lawrence and population.
161
The smallest country in South America is Physical Features

Suriname. It has the smallest population in
the world. South America has following divisions :
South America is home to the world’s highest The Western Coastal Strip
uninterrupted waterfall, Angel Falls in Venezuela. There is a narrow strip of lowland along the Pacific
South America is also home to the highest single drop coast in Western part. It has great variations in its
waterfall Kaieteur Falls in Guyana. width from North to South.
Paraguay
y
ua
ug
Ur
162
The Western Mountains South of the tropical grasslands of Southern Brazil lies
the region of temperate grasslands. This region has
These mountains run from Caribbean sea to
warm climate with rain throughout the year (more in
the Southern tip of South America. They are called
summer).
Andes.
On the Eastern side of Andes, desert of Patagonia is
Andes form the second highest mountain system in
found. Its climate is dry because it lies in the rain
the world next to Himalayas.
shadow area of Western mountains.
Andes are called young fold mountains as they have
There are seven types of climate are found in South
been formed recently in the Earth’s history.
America- Equatorial Climate, Savanna type of climate,
Lake Titicaca, one of the largest lake of the South Prairie Climate, Tropical Climate, Desert Climate,
America is located on Bolivian plateau. Mediterranean Climate and Temperate Maritime
Mt. Aconcagua (6962m) is the highest peak of Andes. Climate.
Cotopaxi in Ecuador is the highest active volcano in
the world. Vegetation
The Amazon basin is covered with equatorial rain
The Central Plains forests locally known as Selvas.
Central plain lies between Andes and Eastern Savanna type of climate is region of grasslands. In the
highlands. North, in the Orinoco river basin, it is locally known
The central plain mainly consists of basins of Orinoco, as Llanos and in the South in central Brazil, it is
Amazon and the Plata. known as Campos.
Amazon is the largest river (6280 km) in the world. Low lands of Northern Argentina and Western
It rises in the Andes and after flowing through entire Paraguay is covered with thick forests and grasslands
width of Brazil, falls into Atlantic ocean. locally known as Gran Chaco.
The Eastern Highlands Desert type of climate consists of scrubs, prickly pear
The Guyana and the Brazilian highlands along the and cactus.
Eastern coast form the Eastern highlands. Mediterranean type of climate consists of evergreen
The Andes Falls is the highest waterfall in the world. forests with trees such as oak, walnut, chestnut and fig.
It is located in the South-Eastern part of the Ocean or Marine type of climate is region of
Venezuela. temperate, mixed forests where beech and pine are
valuable trees.
Climate Temperate grasslands in central Argentina are known
The larger part of South America lies in tropical zone as Pampas.
and hence, generally hot.
The Amazon basin has equatorial type of climate.
Forests
It is hot and wet all the year. A very large part of the South America is covered with
On the other side of Amazon forests, Savanna type of forests. Most of these, in Amazon basin are tropical
climate is found. In this region, there is distinct dry rain forests. They are storehouse of hardwood such as
period and rain occurs mainly in summer. mahogany. Amazon basin is home of the rubber tree.
In the low lands of Northern Argentina and Western The lightest wood in the world Balsa comes from
Paraguay, it is dry during winter and wet during Amazon rain forests.
summer. The region experiences heavy rains. The Carnauba palm trees of Brazil yield wax. It is used
Parts of Southern Peru and Northern Chile have a for furniture polish, shoe polish and candles.
typical hot, desert type of climate. This region is Cinchona bark is used for medicine and quinine.
known as Atacama desert. Chicle is used for chewing gum.
In central Chile, Mediterranean type of climate is Yerba is an important tree of the Eastern highlands.
found. This region has rainy winters and warm and dry Its leaves are brewed like tea.
summers. Quebracho meaning Axe breaker is an important
In Southern Chile, there is oceanic or marine type of hardwood tree of Gran Chaco. It yields tannic acid
climate is found. Rainfall occurs here throughout the used for tanning leather.
year and the climate is cool. The forests along the Eastern slopes of Andes are
known as Montana. They yield valuable softwood.
163
Crops Mineral
Only 10% of the soil is suitable for farming. Most of About one-seventh of the world’s mineral oil comes
the good farmland is found in Argentina and Uruguay. from South America. Venezuela and the island of
Wheat and maize are the important crops of South Trinidad and Tobago have huge deposits of mineral
America. oil.
Wheat is grown in Argentina and Chile. Much of the oil is being drilled from below the lake
waters in Maracaibo in Venezuela.
Brazil and Argentina are the main producers of maize
(native to the South America). Brazil has one of the largest iron-ore deposits of the
world. Asphalt or coal-tar is found in Trinidad.
Coffee, sugarcane, cocoa and banana are important
cash crops of South America. Chile is the major producer of copper in the world.
Bolivia is world’s fourth largest producer of tin.
Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador are among the leading
producers of coffee in the world. South America possesses rich deposits of nitrates
(important source of manures and fertilisers) in the
Cotton is another important cash crop grown in
deserts of Atacama. Chile is the largest producer of
Brazil.
nitrates.
Wildlife Guano islands, off the coast of Peru, has world’s most
concentrated single source of natural manure.
South American continent possesses about 1500
species of very colourful birds. Candor is the largest South America possesses sizeable reserves of
bird of prey in the world. bauxite, manganese, silver and antimony.
Rhea is flightless bird. It is like Ostrich of Africa and Surinam and Guyana are the major producers of
emu of Australia. bauxite in South America.
The spider monkeys are known for their acrobatic
skills. The owl monkeys are night lovers and squirrel
Population
monkeys are known for their gentleness. The total population of South America is 435, 375, 625
as of 2021 and population density is 25 persons per
Anaconda, a very large python (about 10 m long) is
sq. km. The people of South America belong to three
found in South America.
main racial groups namely American Indians, Blacks
Puma is a dangerous animal of the cat family. It is and Europeans.
stronger than leopard, is found in South America.
A large number of people of mixed races namely
Llamas are found in the highlands of Andes. Being Mestizos (people of mixed Indian and European
surefooted, they are used as beasts of burden in this blood), Mulattos (people of mixed European and Black
mountainous region. These long necked animals blood) and Zambo (people of mixed Black and Indian
belong to the family of camel and can go without blood) are found in South America.
water for many days.
Large areas of Amazon lowlands, Llanos, Gran Chaco,
Alpaca is a smaller variety of Llama found on the Guyana highlands, Atacama and Patagonia deserts are
high plateaus and Guanaco is a wild variety of Llama, uninhabited.
found in the desert of Patagonia.
The major languages spoken on this continent are
South America accounts about one-fifth of the world’s Portuguese and Spanish.
total fish production. Peru is one of the leading
The longest mountain range, the Andes (whose
countries of the world in fishing industry.
highest mountain is Aconcagua at 6962 m).
Animal Rearing The driest non-polar place on Earth, the Atacama
Desert. The largest rainforest, the Amazon Rainforest.
The most important cattle rearing areas in South
America are the semi-humid parts of Argentina, The highest capital city, La Paz, Bolivia.
Uruguay and Brazil. The highest commercially navigable lake in the world,
In this area, original grass is replaced by more Lake Titicaca.
valuable variety of grass called Alfalfa. The alfalfa is a The world’s Southernmost permanently inhabited
leguminous plant which besides being nutritious, community, Puerto Toro, Chile.
helps in maintaining the fertility of the soil. The largest salt lake in the world is Salar de Uyuni
The sheep rearing areas are in Argentina and Chile. (Bolivia and Chile).
Argentina is one of the largest meat exporters.
164
Major Countries of South America Land

Country Description Europe may be divided into four major physical divisions :
Brazil l
In area, this is fifth largest country in the The North-Western Highlands
(Coffee pot of world.
the World) It extends from Finland through Sweden, Norway and
l
Brazil got its present name from the redwood
tree brasil. Brazilian forests are among the British Isles to Iceland. The Northern part of this
richest in the world because they provide highland is called Fenno-Scandian Shield. These shields
many useful products. rocks are oldest in Europe.
l
Coffee is most common crop of Brazil. A very This area is fairly rich in metallic minerals such as iron
large coffee estate plantation in Brazil is
and copper but almost without fossil fuels such as coal,
called ‘Fazenda’.
oil and natural gas.
l
Some of the highest railways of the world are
across the Andes in Chile. Along the Norwegian coast, they reach into Atlantic
ocean, creating Fjords.
Argentina l
Argentina is mainly a country of lowlands.
(The land of The large grasslands known as Pampas are The North European Plain
Wheat and called heart of the Argentina. It is famous for
Cattle) wheat production. It extends from the Urals in the East to the Atlantic coast
l
Quebracho is the most important tree of
in the West. It is bounded in the East by the White sea
Argentina. Tannin can be extracted from it and North-Western highlands and in the South by central
bark used for tanning leather. uplands. It has long been an important farming area.
l
The lofty mountains of Andes form a This plain is drained by large navigational rivers such as
boundary between Argentina and Chile. Seine and Rhine. Danube, Dnieper, Don and Volga are
l
The trans- Andean railway line between other important rivers.
Chile and Argentina passes over some of the
highest mountains of the world.
This plain is under laid with deposits of coal, oil and
natural gas.
The Central Uplands
Europe The Meseta in Spain and Portugal, the Massif central and
Europe is a peninsula of the Eurasian continent. Jura mountains in France, the Black forest in Germany
Among the seven continents it ranks sixth in area. and several low ranges in Czech and Slovak republics are
Europe is most densely populated continent of the part of this region.
world. Two major rivers in this region namely Rhine flows
Its boundaries are Arctic ocean in North, Atlantic Northwards and Rhone flows Southward. Rhine-Rhone
ocean in West and Mediterranean sea in South. canal, connecting the two rivers, makes it possible to
cross the continent through waterways.
In the East, it is separated from Asia by the Ural
mountains, Caucasus mountains and Caspian Sea. The Alpine System
Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark are It stretches from Atlantic ocean in west to the Caspian
collectively known as Scandinavia. sea in East from where it further extends into Asia. Alps
Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia are together known is most important mountain system. Mont Blanc (4807m)
as the Baltic States. Belgium, Netherlands and is the highest peak of the Alps. It is located in France.
Luxemburg are called Low Countries. Other important mountain ranges are Pyrenees,
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), Slovenia, Carpathian and Caucasus. The highest mountain peak of
Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, the Europe is Mount Elbrus (5633m) in Caucasus.
Bulgaria, Greece, Romania and Albania are known
as Balkan States. Plateaus/Mountain Ranges/Peninsulas
Vatican city is a small and independent state in a n Major Plateaus of Europe Iberian plateau, Central
part of Rome with a population of few hundred plateaus of France, the Vosages and Black Forest (Black
people. It is the seat of the Pope and headquarters Mountain) of Germany and Bohemian plateau.
of the Roman Catholic Church. n Major Mountain ranges of Europe Cantabrian, Pyrenees,
Apennines, Dinaric Alps, Carpathian, Kjolen and Balkan
The British Isles include the two main islands of
ranges.
Ireland (Northern Ireland and Irish Republic) and
n Major Peninsulas of Europe Jutland and the
the Great Britain (Scotland, Wales and England) as
Scandinavian, Iberian, Italian and Balkan peninsulas.
well as a number of small islands.
165
Climate Continental type In central and Eastern Europe,

summers are hot and winters are very cold and
Major part of the Europe lies in temperate zone but Europe’s less rainfall as influence of ocean reduces
climate is described as mild. Eastward.
West European type The moderating influence of Tundra Climate In Northern Europe (the area
westerlies and nearness to seas and oceans keeps North to the Arctic Circle), precipitation is very
summers warm and winters cool in Western Europe. scanty and mostly in the form of snow.
The temperature remains equable and rainfall is well
Summers are short with long and warm days. Sun
distributed throughout the year.
is visible even at midnight for a brief period. For
Mediterranean Type In Southern Europe, summers are the major part of the year, land is covered with
long, hot and dry. Winters are warm and wet. snow.
166
Vegetation Minerals
Olive, fig, grapes and oranges are the most common Coal is found in Great Britain and mainland region of
fruits of Mediterranean region. Tundra type consists Europe (North-East France to Poland). Coal is also
of lichens, moss and few stunted trees. Taiga, South of found in Spain, Ukraine and Russia.
Tundra consists of pine, spruce, and fir. Petroleum is found in North Sea, Romania, Georgia,
South of the above belt lies the belt of mixed forest. Armenia, Azerbaijan and Russia.
Oak, ash and poplar are common trees of this region. Iron ore, Manganese, copper, bauxite, sulphur and
In the South-East part of the Europe, there is extensive potash are found in France, Ukraine, Azerbaijan,
grassland called steppes. This region extends from the Sweden, United Kingdom, Germany, Russia and Spain.
Danube valley in Romania to Ukraine. Italy, Belgium, Czech, Slovak and Poland make steel
by importing iron ore from other countries.
Crops Austria, Switzerland, Czech, Slovak, Belgium and
In Europe, wheat is grown in Ukraine, Paris basin, Netherlands are known for electronic instruments,
Low Countries, North European plain, plains of watches, metallurgical and glass articles and
Hungary and Po valley in Italy. The staple food crop of chemicals.
Europe, Barley and oats (supplement of wheat) is also
grown here. Drainage System
Sugar-beet (main source of sugar) and potatoes are Danube, Dnieper, Don, Elbe, Loire, Oder, Po, Rhine,
grown in the plains of central and Eastern Europe. Rhone, Shannon, Tagus and Volga are the major rivers
Flax is the only fiber crop of Europe, used for making of Europe.
linen. It is grown in Belgium and Baltic States. Rhine is the busiest inland waterway of Europe.
Large varieties of fruits such as apple, olives, figs, Seine, Thames, Danube and Volga are other important
grapes, peaches and oranges are grown in Europe. waterways. 99 km long Kiel Canal connects North Sea
Mediterranean region, Bulgaria, Netherlands and and Baltic Sea.
Belgium of Europe are known for vegetables. The location of Cologne city (Germany) is very
The roses of Bulgaria and tulips of Netherlands are important because most of the sea going vessels on the
well known. Rhine river pass through it.
Netherlands has reclaimed land from the sea by In a medium sized country like Romania, there are
making big embankments along the sea front. They nine ports on the entirely navigable river Danube over
are called Dykes. The water from the enclosed land a distance of only 1075 km.
called Polders is pumped into sea. Denmark comprises the Jutland peninsula and over
400 islands..
Fisheries
Major Countries of Europe
Countries around North Sea of Europe especially
Denmark is famous for dairy industry. Country Description
Dogger Bank and the Great Fisher Bank in Europe are United l
It is separated from the mainland of Europe by
important fishing grounds. Kingdom the English Channel.
The major fishing countries are Norway, Sweden, (UK) l
Ben Nevis (1343m) is the highest peak of UK.
Iceland, Denmark, Netherlands, France, Germany, London, its capital is situated on the banks of the
United Kingdom, Spain and Portugal. river Thames.
l
Dogger bank is main fishing ground over here.
Norway has transferred its technology to India to l
City of Sheffield is the biggest cutlery city of
develop deep sea fishing along the Kerala coast. world.
l
Birmingham is known as steel city of UK.
Forests
France l
Paris, capital of France is known as city of
A large part of the forest cover in Europe is confined fashion.
to Scandinavian, Alpine mountains and taiga region of l
Paris is situated on the banks of the river Seine.
Russia. l
More than 90% of its iron-ore comes from the
Logging and lumbering are important activities of the Loraine field.
forest areas. Timber and wood-pulp are important l
Champagne is a famous wine here.
forest products. News print, paper, rayon and other l
Toulouse city is the largest center for aerospace.
synthetic fibers are produced from wood.
167
Country Description
Antarctica
Germany l
Berlin, capital of Germany is situated on the
banks of Spree river.
Antarctica is fifth largest continent in size.
l
Ruhr is the biggest coal producing area of Antarctica lies completely in Southern hemisphere
Europe. It is also called as heart of industrial with South Pole almost in its centre.
Europe.
It is the only continent which is completely frozen,
l
Dresden is known for its ceramics, Munich is
therefore known as White Continent.
known for breweries.
l
Germany is one of the largest producers of rye, It is coldest and loneliest continent on Earth.
potatoes and sugar beet. The mainland of this continent was first discovered in
Russia l
Area wise, it is the biggest country in the world. 1820. Antarctica is called a continent for science.
l
Ural mountains, Ural river and Caspian sea The mainland of this continent was first discovered in
divides Russia into Europe and Asiatic parts. 1820, but real exploration began only in 20th century.
l
Mt. Elbrus (5633m) in the Caucasus Mountains The highest peak of Antarctica is Vinson Massif
is the highest peak of Russia.
(4892 m) and Mount Erebus is the only live volcano
l
Verkhoyansk, coldest place on Earth is situated
at Tundra region of Russia. on it.
l
Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway in
the world. St Petersburg and Moscow are Land and Climate
connected with the industrial centers of Siberia About 99% of the continent remains covered
by the Trans-Siberian Railway.
permanently with ice.
l
Moscow is a port of five seas-Caspian sea, Black
sea, Baltic sea, lake Ladoga and Arctic ocean Antarctica continent is surrounded by Southern ocean.
through White sea. It is a cold ocean where surface temperature of water
rarely rising above 40°C.
The People At South Pole, lowest temperature has been recorded
at −95°C during winters.
According to World Population Prospect, 2019, the
population of Europe is 747 million and population It is summer in Antarctica from November to February.
density is 34 persons per sq. kilometres. The Sun never sets during this period. Midsummer
temperature normally does not rise above 0°C.
Europe is very unevenly distributed. The plains of
Europe have a fairly high density of population. During winters (May, June, July and August), Sun
never rises.
The industrial regions of UK, France, Germany and
Italy have high density of population whereas Eastern Wind blow at high speed throughout the year which is
and Southern Europe has moderate density while relatively calm at the centre of the continent.
Northern Europe is thinly populated.
London, Paris, Frankfurt, Berlin, Geneva, Rome,
Resources
Moscow and Amsterdam are major international Some amount of coal, iron and copper has been found
airports of Europe. but their commercial utilisation is not possible due to
difficulties.
Russia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey
are transcontinental countries, partially located in About 70% of the world’s supply of fresh water is
both Europe and Asia. stored in the ice caps and ice sheets of Antarctica.
Armenia and Cyprus are politically considered Huge masses of ice from these ice caps break away
European countries, though geographically they are and float in the surrounding sea. These are called
located in the West Asia territory. icebergs.
Europe is surrounded by water-bodies from all three The land surface is mostly barren and is a cold desert.
sides- Arctic Ocean in the North, Atlantic Ocean in Penguins, sea birds and seals are abundant. Whales
the West and Mediterranean Sea in the South. are found in surrounding sea.
Europe is separated from Asia by Caspian Sea and Krill is very small fish (length up to six cm and weight,
Ural mountains. Mt. Elbrus is the highest peak of 1-105 gm) which provides fish meat, krill meat paste
Europe. (used as bread spread) and krill protein.
Finland is called the Land of Lakes because several There is no time zone in Antarctica continent.
lakes are formed due to the melting of ice-sheets. The largest land animal in Antarctica is a 1.3 cm long
Spain and Portugal together form the Iberia. insect known as Belgica Antarctica.
168
— Till date, India has launched 40 scientific expeditions to Antarctica. The Indian Antarctic expeditions began in
1981, led by Dr. SZ Qasim.
— India has now credited to have built three permanent research base stations in Antarctica namely
Dakshin Gangotri, Maitri and Bharati.
— As of today, India has two operational research stations in Antarctica named Maitri and Bharati.
— The National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), Goa, manages the entire Indian Antarctic
program.
Ross Sea
Indian Geography 169
CHAPTER 15
Location and
Structure of India
Sources Class-VI New NCERT Chap 6 (Our Country : India), Class-IX New NCERT Chap 1 (India : Size and Location),
Class-XI New NCERT Chap 1 (India : Location), Class-XII Old NCERT Chap 1 (Introduction to India)
The Tropic of Cancer (23°30′ N) passes through eight

Geographical Location states in India i.e., Gujarat (Jasdan), Rajasthan
India is located latitudinally in the Northern (Kalinjarh), Madhya Pradesh (Shajapur), Chhattisgarh
Hemisphere and longitudinally in the Eastern (Sonhat), Jharkhand (Lohardaga), West Bengal
Hemisphere. (Krishnanagar), Tripura (Udaipur) and Mizoram
The Indian mainland extends between 8°4' North (Champhai).
and 37°6' North latitudes and from 68°7' East and
Extreme Points of India
97°25' East longitudes. Thus, the latitudinal and the
North-South extent is 3214 km and East-West extent The Southernmost point of the country is the
is 2933 km. Pygmalion Point or Indira Point and is located at 6° 45'
N latitude.
The 82°30'E longitude passes through Mirzapur
(in Uttar Pradesh). This is the Standard Meridian of The Southernmost point of mainland India is
the country. The 82°30' East has been selected as Kanyakumari.
Standard Meridian because there is a time lag of The Northernmost point is Indira Col in Kashmir.
almost two hours between Gujarat and Arunachal The Westernmost point is Guhar Mothi in Rann of
Pradesh. Kachchh.
Therefore, a Central Meridian is selected to The Easternmost point is Kibithu in Arunachal Pradesh.
determine the time for the whole country. Indian
Standard Time (IST) is ahead of Greenwich Mean Areas and Size
Time (GMT) by 5 hours and 30 minutes. India with its area of 3.28 million sq. km accounts for
India lies largely on the Indian Plate, the Northern 2.4% of the world’s land surface area and stands as the
portion of the Indo-Australian Plate, whose seventh largest country in the world.
continental crust forms the Indian subcontinent India stands apart from the rest of Asia, marked off as it
Physical divisions, are marked by natural is by mountains and the sea, which gives the country a
configuration. distinct geographical entity.
India is divided into six physiographic divisions on India has a land boundary of about 15,200 km and the
the basis of the varied physiographic features i.e., total length of the coastline of the mainland, including
Northern and North-Eastern Mountain; Northern Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep, is 7,516.6 km.
Plain; Peninsular Plateau; Indian Desert; Coastal At present, there are 28 states and 8 Union Territories
Plains; and Islands. in India.
170
Indian States and their Capital

State Capital State Capital
India and Its Neighbourhood
Andhra Pradesh Amravati Manipur Imphal India is part of Asian continent. India is surrounded
by water from three sides. Arabian sea in West, Bay of
Arunachal Itanagar Meghalaya Shillong
Pradesh Bengal in the East and Indian Ocean in the South.
Assam Dispur Mizoram Aizawl Towards its North-West is Pakistan and Afghanistan.
Bihar Patna Nagaland Kohima China, Bhutan, Tibet and Nepal lie to its North.
Chhattisgarh Raipur Odisha Bhubaneshwar Bangladesh and Myanmar lie to its East. Sri Lanka
Goa Panaji Punjab Chandigarh
and Maldives are located in the Indian Ocean towards
its South.
Gujarat Gandhinagar Rajasthan Jaipur
Haryana Chandigarh Sikkim Gangtok The Indian subcontinent, or simply the subcontinent,
is a physiographic region in South Asia. It is situated
Himachal Shimla Tamil Nadu Chennai
Pradesh on the Indian Plate and projecting Southwards into
Jharkhand Ranchi Telangana Hyderabad the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas.
Karnataka Bengaluru Tripura Agartala It generally includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, the British
Kerala Thiruvananth Uttar Pradesh Lucknow Indian Ocean Territory, India, Maldives, Nepal,
apuran Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
Madhya Pradesh Bhopal Uttarakhand Dehradun A total of 9 countries share borders with India. Out of
Maharashtra Mumbai West Bengal Kolkata these, 7 countries share land borders while 2
countries share sea borders with India. Bhutan is the
List of Union Territories and their Capital smallest neighbouring country of India in terms of
Union Territories Capital land borders.
Andaman and Nicobar Island Port Blair
Neighbouring Countries of India
Chandigarh Chandigarh
Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman Neighbouring Name of Length of Bordering States
Country the Border Border
Daman and Diu
(in kms)
Delhi Delhi
Afghanistan Durand 106 Jammu and Kashmir
Ladakh NA
Line
Lakshadweep Kavaratti
Bangladesh Radcliffe 4096.7 West Bengal, Mizoram,
Jammu and Kashmir NA
Line Meghalaya, Tripura and
Puducherry Pondicherry Assam
States/UTs with the Length of Coastline Bhutan N/A 699 Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Sikkim and
States / Union Territories Length of the Coastline (in kms) West Bengal
Gujarat 1214.7
China MacMahon 3488 Jammu and Kashmir,
Andhra Pradesh 973.7
Line Himachal Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu 906.9 Uttarakhand, Sikkim
Maharashtra 652.6 and Arunachal Pradesh
Kerala 569.7 Myanmar N/A 1643 Arunachal Pradesh,
Odisha 476.4 Manipur, Mizoram and
Karnataka 280 Nagaland
Goa 160.5 Nepal N/A 1751 Sikkim, West Bengal,
West Bengal 157.5 Bihar, Uttar Pradesh
Puducherry 30.6 and Uttarakhand
Pakistan Radcliffe 3323 Jammu and Kashmir,

Top 5 States (According to Area) Line Punjab, Gujarat and
State Area (In Sq km) Rajasthan
Rajasthan 342239 Sri Lanka N/A Sea Separated from India by
Madhya Pradesh 308245 Border Gulf of Mannar
Maharashtra 307713 Maldives N/A Sea The South-West part of
Uttar Pradesh 240928 Border the Indian Ocean below
Gujarat 196024 the Lakshadweep Island
171
60° E 64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° 100° E
36°
36° N.
N.
Jammu
and
Kashmir
Ladakh INDIA
Srinagar Administrative
32°
32° Himachanl
Pradesh
an
Simla
st
Chandigarh
ki
Pa
Dehradun China
(Tibet) 28°
Haryana Uttaranchal Arunachal
28° Pradesh
New Delhi Ne 97º25' E
pa Sikkim
l
Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh
24° Gangtok Bhutan Itanagar
Jaipur Lucknow Assam Nagaland
68º7' E Dispur
24°
Shillong Komima
Bihar
Meghalaya Imphal
Patna
Gujarat Bangladesh Manipur
Jharkhand West Agartala Alzawl Tropic of Cancer
Gandhinagar
Bhopal Bengal Mizoram
Madhya Pradesh Ranchi Kolkata 20°
20° Chhattishgarh Myanmar
Diu Sivassa Raipur Orissa

Bhubaneshwar
Mumbai Maharashtra
16°
16° BAY
OF
Hyderabad BENGAL
Andhra
ARABIAN Pondicherry (Yanam)
Pradesh
SEA Panaji 12°
12° Goa Karnataka
International Boundary
National Capital
Bengaluru Chennai
State Capital
8°
8° Pondicherry Union Territory Capital
Port Blair
Tamilnadu Karaikal
Kavaratti Anddaman and
(Pondicherry)
Lakshadeep nicobar islands
Islands Kerala
4° 4°
N. Thiruvananthapuram Sri N.
INDIAN Lanka OCEAN
68° E. 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° E.

172
Important Straits/Channels
India and the World
Location Channel/Strait
India’s contacts with the world have continued through
the ages, but its relationships through the land routes are Indira Point-Indonesia Great Channel
much older than its maritime contacts. Little Andaman and Nicobar 10° Channel
The various passes across the mountains in the North
Minicoy-Lakshadweep 9° Channel
have provided passages to the ancient travellers while
oceans restricted such interactions. Maldives-Minicoy 8° Channel
The ideas of the Upanishads and the Ramayana, the India-Sri Lanka Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait
stories of the Panchtantra, Indian numerals and decimal
system have reached many parts of the world. Countries Sharing International
Spices, muslin and other merchandise were taken from Boundaries with Indian State
India to different countries. State/UTs Country
The influence of Greek sculpture and the architectural
Gujarat Pakistan
style of domes and minarets from West Asia can be seen
in many parts of India. Rajasthan Pakistan
Punjab Pakistan
Other Important Facts About India Jammu and Kashmir Pakistan
There are two major island groups in India – one in the
Ladakh China, Pakistan, Afghanistan
Bay of Bengal and the other in the Arabian Sea.
Himachal Pradesh China
South Andaman and Little Andaman are separated by
Duncan Passage. Uttarakhand China, Nepal
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are also known as the Uttar Pradesh Nepal
Emerald Islands.
Bihar Nepal
The Adam’s Bridge is situated between Tamil Nadu
(India) and Sri Lanka. Pamban Island is a part of the West Bengal Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh
Adam’s Bridge. Rameshwaram is situated on this Island. Sikkim Bhutan, China, Nepal
The Coco Strait is between the North Andaman Islands Arunachal Pradesh Bhutan, China, Myanmar
and the Coco Islands of Myanmar.
Assam Bhutan, Bangladesh
The largest district is Kachchh (Gujarat) and the
smallest district is Mahe (Puducherry). Nagaland Myanmar
Barren Island is India’s only active volcano situated in Manipur Myanmar

the Andaman Sea about 135 km North-East of Port Blair Mizoram Myanmar, Bangladesh
in the Andaman Islands.
Meghalaya Bangladesh
Narcondam Island is a volcanic island which is situated
in the Northern-Eastern part of North Andaman. Tripura Bangladesh
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 16 173
Geological History and

Physiography of India
Sources Class-VIII Old NCERT Chap 12 (India : The Land), Class-IX New NCERT Chap 2 (Physical Features of India),
Class-X Old NCERT Chap 1 (Physical Features), Class-XI New NCERT Chap 2 (Structure and Physiography),
Class-XII Old NCERT Chap 5 (Physical Divisions of India)
India is mostly located on the Indian Plate, which Thus, from geological history two main structural divisions of
is generally called the Northern portion of the India are:
Indo-Australian Plate. 1. Himalayan Mountain Chain, which is a part of Laurasia
The Indian subcontinent, Australia, New Guinea, or Angaraland.
and Tasmania, New Zealand etc have a common 2. Southern pan called Gondwanaland of which Peninsular
geological history by virtue of being an integral India formed one of the blocks.
part of the Mesozoic Gondwana supercontinent
until 160 million years ago. The intervening space between the two giant continental
blocks was filled with water. It was a shallow sea called
Tethys Sea.
Geological History of India During the subsequent geological periods, the Indian
In the late Paleozoic period (542 – 250 million Peninsular block began drifting Northward leaving a huge
years ago), supercontinent Pangaea was formed gap filled with water, which truly came to be called the
that existed during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic Indian Ocean.
eras. As the peninsular block continued its drift Northward, the
Pangaea started to break up approximately 200 Indian Ocean continued to advance and filled up the
million years ago, before the component depressions on either side of the landmass when it
continents were separated into their current compressed the Tethys Sea. Thus, the Arabian Sea and Bay
configuration. It first broke into Northern of Bengal were formed.
Laurasia (Angaraland) and Southern
Gondwanaland. Geological Aspects of India
Later, the Laurasia and Gondwana drifted apart.
Gondwana included Antarctica, South America, The geology of India started with the geological evolution
Africa, Madagascar, Australia-New Guinea and of the Earth.
New Zealand, as well as Arabia. India entirely falls under the Indian plate that was formed
It also consisted the Indian subcontinent, which when it split off from the major tectonic plate of ancient
have now moved entirely into the Northern continent Gondwanaland. It was an ancient landmass
Hemisphere. consisting of the Southern part of the super continent
Pangaea.
174
Geological Structure of India They were metamorphorised around 1000 million

years ago and are found in Karnataka, Madhya
Geologically, India represents a monumental assemblage of Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha,
rocks of different character belonging to different ages, Meghalaya and Rajasthan. They also occur in the
ranging from Pre-cambrian era to the recent times. Central and Northern Himalayas.
The Geological Survey of India (by Sir T Holland) divides Some of the rocks of this system are schist,
geological formations of India into four groups slates, quartzites and conglomerates. This system
1. The Archaean Rock System First half of carries minerals like gold, manganese ore, iron ore,
the Pre-cambrian era (about 4000 million years ago). chromium, copper, uranium, thorium, mica, etc and
2. The Purana Rock System Second half of the building materials like granites, marbles, etc.
Pre-cambrian era (1400-600 million years old).
2. The Purana Rock System
3. The Dravidian Rock System Cambrian to middle
In India, the word ‘Purana’ has been used in place of
Carboniferous (600-300 million years old).
Proterozoic. This rock system includes two divisions
4. The Aryan Rock System Upper Carboniferous to the
The Cuddapah System A long interval of time
Pleistocene (300 million years old) to the present age.
elapsed before the rock system next to the dharwars
Classification of Indian Rock System and peninsular gneisses began to be deposited. A
great thickness of unfossiliferous clay, slates,
Archaean Rock Purana Rock Dravidian Rock Aryan Rock sandstones and limestone was deposited
System System System System presumably in great synclinal basins.
Gondwana System
This formation is known as the Cuddapah System,
from the occurrence of the most typical and first
Gneisses Dharwar Cuddapah Vindhyan Deccan Trap
and System System System
studied outcrops of these rocks in Cuddapah
Tertiary System districts of Andhra Pradesh.
Schist
System Quaternary System The Vindhyan System This system of ancient
sedimentary rocks stands over the Cuddapah rocks.
1. The Archaean Rock System Except a few traces of animal and vegetable life,
The word Archaean was first used by JD Dana for rock this group do not contain any recognisable fossils.
structure prior to the Cambrian system. These rocks do not It covers a large area in Madhya Pradesh,
contain fossils due to its ancient origin depicting absence of Chhattisgarh, North of Bihar, Rajasthan, Karnataka
life forms. The term Archaean is also used for ancient. It and Andhra Pradesh.
includes the following two rock groups This system contains rocks like limestones,
Gneisses and Schist System This system contains the sandstones, shales and slates often over 4000 m
earliest formed rocks of the Earth. These rocks in the thick which are useful as building materials.
peninsula are found primarily in Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Odisha, Meghalaya, Madhya 3. The Dravidian Rock System
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Chhota Nagpur plateau of These rocks do not occur in the Peninsular plateau
Jharkhand. They also cover the whole of Bundelkhand in as it was above the sea level at that time, but are
the North and to the North-West, they are formed in a found in continuous sequence in the Himalayas.
number of isolated outcrops, extending from North of Most rocks of this system are found in the extra
Vadodara to a long distance along the Aravallis in peninsular region and in one or two patches of
Rajasthan. lower Permian age, near Umaria, Madhya Pradesh.
The Dharwar System This system derives its name from The rocks belonging to the Dravidian System
the rocks that were first studied in the Dharwar district contain abundant fossils, which help in finding the
of Karnataka. These are the earliest formed sedimentary inclusions of rocks of different periods like the
rocks, found today in metamorphic forms. The earliest rocks of Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian
rock deposits are over 3100 million years old and the and Carboniferous periods.
latest one about 2300 million years old.
175
4. The Aryan Rock System greater part of the Barail series of Assam, where they
The marine sedimentary rocks belonging to late were overlain with a marked unconformity by lower
Paleozoic to tertiary periods are exposed today in the Miocene rocks.
Northern part of the Central Himalayan axis The Miocene System It is fully developed in India and
extending from Kashmir to Sikkim. is found in all the tertiary areas of the extra-peninsula.
These rocks in the peninsula occur in several places It is also found in outcrop of Murre series in Jammu
in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and North-Eastern hills, in the Dagshai-Kasauli band of Shimla, in the coal
India. The divisions of this system are discussed measures of Assam and in the Garo hills.
below : Besides, some rocks of Kachchh in Gujarat, Mayurbhanj
in Odisha, Durgapur in West Bengal and Kollam in
The Gondwana System Kerala also belong to this group.
The peninsula during the Upper Carboniferous period
experienced crustal movements, which led to the Quaternary System
formation of basin-shaped depressions. These It has two divisions without any clear cut boundary in
depressions had countless terrestrial plants and between them
animals, which were buried to form coal deposits in — The older is the Pleistocene, which is marked by cold
India known as the Gondwana rocks. climate and glaciations.
These rocks have also marks of the climatic changes — The younger division is called recent, started about
from arctic cold to tropical and desert conditions. 1200 years ago since, the withdrawal of the last
These rocks are found mainly in the Damodar, glaciations.
Mahanadi and Godavari valleys of the peninsula. The important quaternary formations are ice age
The Deccan Trap deposits in Kashmir, formation of Alluvial plains in
North India, creation of Rajasthan deserts, Rann of
Towards the end of the Mesozoic era, intensive
Kachchh, laterite formation in the peninsula and the
volcanic activity took place, which flooded vast areas
formation of regur soils.
of Maharashtra and other parts of the Deccan with
lava, known as the Deccan Traps.
The volcanic rocks contain some thin fossiliferous Physical Divisions of India
sedimentary layers found between the solidified India has the topographical diversity. The reasons for
lava flows. This indicates that the lava flow was not variation in the topography could be:
continuous. — Differences in the rock formations. These landmasses
The volcanic activity led to two great events : have been formed in different geological periods.
— Break up of the Gondwanaland. — Number of processes such as weathering, erosion and
— Uplift of the Himalayas out of the Tethys sea. deposition have modified these features to their
present forms.
The Tertiary System
India is a country of physical diversity. There are high
The tertiary rocks were formed from Eocene to
mountain peaks in some areas while in others, lie the
Pliocene. It is the most significant period in India’s flat plains formed by rivers.
geological history because the Himalayas were born and
India’s present form came into being. It is the age of the On the basis of physical features, India can be divided
into following six divisions :
mammals. It is generally divided into three systems :
1. The Northern Mountains
The Eocene System It is mainly found in Jammu and
2. The Northern Plains
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and
in the North-Eastern part of India. Some Eocene 3. The Peninsular Plateau
deposits have recently been noticed in Puducherry. 4. The Indian Desert
The Oligocene System It is very poorly developed in 5. The Coastal Plains
India. Rocks of the Oligocene period are found in the 6. The Islands
176
1. The Northern Mountains or Himalayas

Himalayas are the young fold mountains. This is the highest mountain range in the world. The Himalayas act as a
natural barrier. The extreme cold, snow and rugged topography discourage the neighbours from entering India
through the Himalayas.
They run from West-East direction from Indus to Brahmaputra along the Northern boundary of India covering a
distance of 2500 km. Their width varies from 400 in the West and 150 km in the East.
177
Longitudinal Division of Himalayas Regional Classification of Himalayas

The Himalayas may be divided into three parallel ranges: Himalayas are divided in following four transverse
The Greater Himalayas or Himadri The Greater regions demarcated by river valleys :
Himalayas comprises the Northernmost ranges and Punjab Himalayas This part of Himalayas lies
peaks. It has an average height of 6000 m and width lies between Indus and Sutlej. It is regionally known as
between 120 to 190 kms. It is the most continuous range. Kashmir and Himachal Himalayas.
It is snow bound and many glaciers descend from this Kumaon Himalayas This part of Himalayas lies
range. It has high peaks like Mt. Everest, Kanchenjunga, between Sutlej and Kali rivers.
Makalu, Dhaulagiri, Nanga Parbat, etc. having a height of
Nepal Himalayas This part of Himalayas lies
more than 8000 m. Mt. Everest (8848 m) is the highest
between Kali and Teesta rivers.
peak of the world and Kanchenjunga is the highest peak
of Himalayas in India. Assam Himalayas This part of Himalayas lies
between Teesta and Dihang rivers.
The Lesser Himalayas or Himachal The altitude of this
range lies between 1000 and 4500 m and the average Classification of Himalayas on the
width is 50 km. The Prominent ranges in this are Pir Basis of Relief and Alignment
Panjal, Dhaula Dhar and Mahabharata ranges. It
comprises many famous hill stations like Shimla, The Himalayas have large regional variations. Their
Dalhousie, Darjeeling, Chakrata, Mussoorie, Nainital, etc. sub-division on the basis of orientation, relief and
other geomorphological features are as follows :
The Outer Himalayas or the Shiwaliks It is the
outermost range of the Himalayas. The altitude varies 1. Kashmir or North-Western Himalayas
between 900-1100 m and the width lies between 10-50 Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar and Pir Panjal ranges,
km. They have low hills like Jammu Hills, etc. The etc., lie in the North-Western Himalayas.
valleys lying between Shiwalik and Lesser Himalayas The North-Eastern part of these Himalayas is a
(Himachal) are called Duns like Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun Cold Desert which lies between the Karakoram
and Patli Dun. ranges and Greater Himalayas and between the
The Trans-Himalayan ranges It extends North of greater Greater Himalayas and Pir Panjal is the famous
Himalaya and parallel to it is called Zaskar range. North valley of Kashmir and Dal lake.
of Zaskar range lies Ladakh range. The Indus river flows Important glaciers of Asia such as Baltoro and
between Zaskar and Ladakh range. The Karakoram range Siachen can be located in this region.
lies extreme North of the country.
The Pamirs
Kun
lun
h Rakaposhi Ag Mo
Kus (7788) h
Ka il Pas
unta
in
du Harmosh
Hin INDUS (7397)
K 2 ra
(8611)
ko
s Mountain Range THE
Sh ram Karakoram Peak
Nanga Parbat
(8126)
G
yo
k Pass
Pass HIMALAYAS
R.
PAKISTAN River
us
R
Ind
0 200 400 600 km

R.
E
Ka
lum b R. Baralacha La
Jhe
ila
a Le X
en
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h ss Ra
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A
C er
R. X Shilpki La ng
vi Su e
Ra tlej ke CHINA
sarowar La
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m
R. Man (7728) (TIBET)

ala
tlej Nanda andhata Namcha Barwa

Devi Gurla M
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(7817)
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.
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(8850)
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rat Lipu X Black Mt
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. Gh Lekh Nathu tra R

Hills
ag
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178
Important passes in this region: Zoji La (Great These Himalayas along with Arunachal Himalayas have
Himalayas), Banihal (Pir Panjal), Photu La an absence of Shiwalik formation. Rather they have dual
(Zaskar), Khardung La (Ladakh). formation. Hence, these are important for the
Some of the important freshwater lakes are Wular development of tea gardens.
and Dal. Saltwater lakes are Pangong Tso and Tso Important Passes of Himalayas
Moriri.
This region is drained by the Indus and its Jammu and Kashmir
tributaries like Jhelum and Chenab. Name Connects
Famous places of pilgrimage in this region are Mintaka Pass Kashmir with China
Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Charar-e-Sharif, etc. Parpik Pass Kashmir with China
The Southern part of this region has longitudinal Khunjerab Pass Kashmir with China
Valleys called Duns. e.g., Jammu and Pathankot Aghil Pass Ladakh region of India with the Xinjiang (Sinkiang)
Duns. Province of China
This region is famous for Karewa formations, Banihal Pass Jammu and Srinagar
which are useful for the cultivation of Zafran Chang-La Ladakh with Tibet
(a local variety of Saffron). Khardung La Near Leh in the Ladakh range
2. Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas Lanak La India with China (Akasai-Chin area of Jammu and
Kashmir)
This region lies between the Ravi and Kali rivers
and is drained by two major river systems, that is Pir-Panjal Pass Across the Pir Panjal range
the Indus and the Ganga. Qara Tag La Indo-China border across the Karakoram Range
Major tributaries are the Ravi, Beas and Sutlej of Imis La Ladakh region of India with Tibet in
the Indus system, Yamuna and Ghaghara of the China
Ganga system. Pensi La Vital link between the Kashmir Valley and Kargil
The Northernmost part of this region is an Zoji La Important road link between Srinagar on one side
extension of the Ladakh cold desert, which lies in and Kargil and Leh on the other side
the district of Lahaul and Spiti. Himachal Pradesh
Some of the important places such as Baralacha La Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir
Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, Kausani,
Rohtang Pass Acts as road link between Kullu, Lahaul and Spiti
Kasauli, Almora, etc. are in this region. Valleys
This region also has Duns such as Shipki La Himachal Pradesh with Tibet
Chandigarh-Kalka Dun, Nalagarh Dun, Dehra Dun,
Hari-ke-dun, etc. Uttarakhand
Some of the important places of pilgrimage such as Lipu Lekh Trijunction of Uttarakhand (India), Tibet (China)
the Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath and with Nepal borders
Hemkund Sahib are in this region. Mana Pass Uttarakhand with Tibet
This region also has the five famous Prayags Niti Pass Uttarakhand with Tibet
i.e., Devprayag, Rudraprayag, Karnaprayag, Muling La Uttarakhand with Tibet
Nandaprayag and Vishnuprayag.
Sikkim
3. The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas Nathu La Sikkim with Tibet
This region lies between the Nepal Himalayas in Jelep La Sikkim-Bhutan border
the West and the Bhutan Himalayas in the East. It
is very small in comparison to other subdivisions. Arunachal Pradesh
High mountain peaks like Kanchenjunga and Deep Bom Di La Arunachal Pradesh with Bhutan
valleys reside here. Dihang Pass Arunachal Pradesh with Myanmar
Lepcha tribes live here in the Northern part and Yong Yap Pass Arunachal Pradesh with Tibet
the Southern part is inhabited by a mixed Dipher Pass Trijunction of India, China and Myanmar
population of Nepalis, Bengalis and other central
Chankan Pass Arunachal Pradesh with Myanmar
Indian tribes.
179
4. The Arunachal Himalayas Name Length State/UT Mountain Range

(in km)
This region extends from East of the Bhutan
Bandarpunch 12 Uttarakhand Western Edge of the
Himalayas to the Diphu pass (Arunachal Pradesh – Glacier High Himalayan
tripoint of China-India-Burma). Range
The general direction of this region is from Sonapani Glacier 11 Himachal Pir Panjal
South-West to the North-East. Pradesh
Some of the important mountain peaks of this region Pindari Glacier 9 Nanda Devi, Upper Reaches of
are Kangtu and Namcha Barwa. Uttarakhand The Kumaon
Himalayas
Some of the important rivers of this region are the
Kameng, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang and Lohit. State-wise Highest Mountain Peaks in India
This subdivision has a high potential for
Peak Range/Region State Height
hydro-electric power.
Arma Konda Eastern Ghats Andhra Pradesh 1680 m
Some of the important tribes of this region are the
Monpa, Abor, Mishmi, Nyishi and Nagas. Kangto Eastern Arunachal 7060 m
Himalaya Pradesh
Most of the people here practice Jhumming, which is
Someshwar West Champaran Bihar 880 m
also known as Shifting or Slash and Burn agriculture.
Fort District
5. The Eastern Hills and Mountains Bailadila Dantewada Chhattisgarh 1276 m
These Himalayas are in the North-South direction. Range District
They have their local names in different regions such Sonsogor Western Ghats Goa 1166 m
as Patkai Bum, Naga hills, the Manipur hills and Mizo Girnar Junagadh District Gujarat 1069 m
or Lushai hills. Karoh Peak Morni Hills Haryana 1467 m
People in these areas practice Jhum cultivation too. Reo Purgyil Western Himachal Pradesh 6816 m
Loktak Lake in Manipur is in this region. Mizoram is Himalaya
known as the Molasses basin, which is made up of Parasnath Parasnath Hills Jharkhand 1370 m
soft unconsolidated deposits. Mullayanagiri Western Ghats Karnataka 1930 m
Important Glaciers in Himalayas Anaimudi Western Ghats Kerala 2695 m

Dhupgarh Satpura Madhya Pradesh 1350 m
Name Length State/UT Mountain Range
(in km) Kalsubai Western Ghats Maharashtra 1646 m
Siachen Glacier 72 Jammu and Karakoram Mount Iso Senapati District Border of 2994 m
Kashmir Mountain Range Manipur and
Nagaland
Hispar Glacier 60 Jammu and Karakoram
Kashmir Mountain Range Shillong Peak Khasi Hills Meghalaya 1965 m
Batura Glacier 58 Jammu and Karakoram Phawngpui Saiha District Mizoram 2157 m
Kashmir Mountain Range Mount Naga Hills Nagaland 3826 m
Baltoro Glacier 58 Jammu and Karakoram Saramati
Kashmir Mountain Range Deomali Eastern Ghats Odisha 1672 m
Bara Shigri Glacier 27 Himachal Pir Panjal Range of Guru Shikhar Aravalli Range Rajasthan 1722 m
Pradesh The Inner
Himalayas Kanchenjunga Eastern Sikkim 8586 m
Himalaya
Gangotri Glacier 26 Uttarkashi, Himalayas
Uttarakhand Doddabetta Nilgiri Hills Tamil Nadu 2637 m
Zemu Glacier 26 Sikkim Eastern Himalaya Doli Gutta Deccan Plateau Border of 965 m
Located on Telangana and
Kanchenjunga Peak Chhattisgarh
Sunderdhunga 24 Uttarakhand Kumaon-Garhwal Betlingchhip Jampui Hills Tripura 930 m
Glacier Amsot Peak Shiwalik Hills Uttar Pradesh 945 m
Godwin Austen 16 Ladakh Karakoram Nanda Devi Garhwal Uttarakhand 7816 m
Chorabari Glacier 14 Uttarakhand Kumaon-Garhwal Himalaya
Satopanth Glacier 13 Uttarakhand Kumaon-Garhwal Sandakphu Eastern West Bengal 3636 m
Himalaya
180
2. The Northern Plains Bhangar region It is that higher part of the plains,
where the flood water cannot reach. It is made up of
The Northern Plains are located between South of the old alluvium. It is often seen in the structure of a
Himalayas and North of the Peninsular plateau. terrace.
It is formed by the deposition of the sediments brought
by three main river systems namely: the Indus, Ganga Reh or Kollar
and Brahmaputra. n Reh or Kollar comprises saline efflorescences of drier
From West to East, this plain is about 3200 km long. areas in Haryana.
Its width varies from about 300 km in the West to about n Reh areas have spread in recent times with increase in
150 km in the East. It mainly includes the states of irrigation (capillary action brings salts to the surface).
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal
and Assam. Parts of Northern Plains
This plain is very fertile due to alluvial sediments The Northern Plain This lies to the West of the Indus
brought by the rivers from the Himalayas. This plain is river. It is mainly made up of the old alluvium i.e.
one of the largest and most fertile plains of the world. Bhangar. Dhoros and Dhands are important feature
Major crops such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, pulses, oil here. Dhoros are depressions formed by the former
seeds and jute are grown here. rivers and Dhands are alkaline lakes.
Due to proper irrigation, the plain makes a significant Punjab-Haryana Plain This plain is located to the
contribution in the production of food grains. East and North-East of the Great Indian Desert (Thar)
and West of the Yamuna river. A part of this plain is
made-up of doabs from East to West. Intensive
agriculture is practiced in this region.
Ganga Plain It is very vast and the largest unit of the
Great Plain of India. According to convenience it is
divided into three sub-divisions, namely, Upper
Ganga Plain, Middle Ganga Plain and Lower Ganga
Plain. Upper Ganga Plain comprises course of Yamuna
river, Middle Ganga Plain comprises Eastern Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar and Lower Ganga Plain covers
some districts of Bihar and whole of West Bengal.
Rajasthan Plain Thar or Great Indian Desert
covered by sand dunes is the Westernmost region of
Great Indian Plains in the Western Rajasthan. A
semi-arid plain, lying to the East of Thar desert is
On the basis of characteristics of the alluvium, surface known as Rajasthan Bagar.
gradient, drainage channels and regional traits, this plain is The Luni is the only South-West flowing river of this
divided into the following four parts: region. The Sambhar (largest), Kuchaman and
Bhabar region This region is found along the foothills Didwana are important lakes situated to the North of
of Shiwaliks from Indus to Teesta without any break. Luni Basin.
Its width is 8-16 km. Since, it is made up of stones and Brahmaputra Plain The low plains formed by the
pebbles, it is highly porous, which make rivers Brahmaputra river system is situated between Eastern
disappear beneath the ground in this region. Himalaya (Arunachal Pradesh) in the North, Patkai
Terai region This region is found to the South of the and Naga hills in the East, Garo-Khasi-Jaintia, Mikir
Bhabhar region. The underground streams of the hills, lower Ganga plain and Indo-Bangladesh border
Bhabar re-emerge on the surface and give birth to in the West.
marshy area. The speed of river flow in this region is Doab
slow. This is the region of dense forests and high n It refers to a tract of land lying between two converging
biological diversity. or confluent rivers. In the Western region of seven
Khadar region It is made up of new alluvium. In this rivers, where Aryan settled first, the sequence of doabs
region, floods bring new alluvium every year. Khadar from West to East are is Sindhu Sagar doab of Indus
region is generally found in the delta regions. e.g. the and Jhelum, Chhaj doab of Jhelum and Chenab, Rechna
Ganga-Brahmaputra delta spread in India and doab of Chenab and Ravi, Bari doab of Ravi and Beas,
Bangladesh is a Khadar region. Bist doab of Beas and Sutlej.
181
3. The Peninsular Plateau River Betwa, Chambal and Ken are the important
rivers of Malwa plateau while Mahadeo, Kaimur and
It is part of an ancient landmass called Gondwana Maikal are the important hills of Chhota Nagpur plateau.
land. It covers an area of nearly 5 lakh sq.km.
The valley of Narmada lies between the Vindhyas and
It is spread over the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, the Satpura which flows East to West and joins the
Bihar, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Arabian sea.
Narmada river divides the peninsular plateau into two
parts : (ii) The Deccan Plateau
The Deccan plateau is separated by a fault
(i) The Central Highlands (A fracture in the rock along which rocks have been
It extends from Narmada river and the Northern relatively replaced), from Chhota Nagpur plateau.
plains. The black soil area in the Deccan plateau is known as
Aravalli is an important mountain range which Deccan trap.
extends from Gujarat through Rajasthan to Delhi. It is formed due to volcanic eruptions.
The highest peak of the Aravalli hills is Guru
This soil is good for cotton and sugarcane cultivation.
Shikhar (1722m) near Mt. Abu.
The Deccan plateau is broadly divided into the western
The Malwa Plateau and Chhota Nagpur plateau are
and Eastern Ghats.
parts of the central highlands.
INDIA
Relief Features of Peninsula
ge
an
iR
an
all
th
av
s
ja
Ar
Ra
Kachchh
ur
Baghelkhand Chhota Nagp
rh
ga
wil
Ga
Dandakaranye
Kals Painganga
u
(164 bai
6)
a
al
u lim lls
N H i
a
ond
Palk nge
Ra
m
Lakshadweep (India)
lls y
Hi a ro
ev
Palghat
Sh
Anamalai
Cauvery
Hills
182
The Western Ghats 4. The Indian Desert

The Western Ghats or Sahyadris lie on the Western The Indian Desert lies towards the Western margin
edge of the Deccan plateau. of Aravalli Hills. It is also called Thar Desert.
It runs parallel to the Western coast for about 1600 km. It is a land of undulating topography dotted with
The average elevation of the Western Ghats is 1500 m. longitudnal dunes and barchans.
The famous peaks in this area are Dodabetta, Anaimudi It is the ninth largest desert in the world. It spreads
and Makurti. over the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan.
The highest peak in this region is Anaimudi (2695 m). This region has semi-arid and arid weather
Western Ghats are continuous and can be crossed conditions. It receives less than 150 mm of rainfall
through passes like Pal Ghat, Thal Ghat and Bhor Ghat. per year.
The rivers like Godavari, Bhima and Krishna flow The vegetation cover is low with thorny bushes.
Eastward while the river Tapti flows Westward. Luni is the main river in this area.
The streams form rapids and water falls before entering All other streams appear only at the time of rainfall
the Arabian Sea. otherwise they disappear into the sand.
The famous waterfalls are Jog Falls on Sharavathi,
Shiva Samudram falls on Kaveri, etc. 5. The Coastal Plains
The Eastern Ghats The coastal plains in India run parallel to the
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal along the Peninsular
The Eastern Ghats are discontinuous low belts. Plateau.
Their average elevation is 600 m. The coastal plains are belts for growing spices, rice,
They run parallel to the East coast from South of coconut, pepper, etc.
Mahanadi valley to the Nilgiri hills. They are centres of trade and commerce.
The highest peak in this region is Mahendragiri (1501 The coastal areas are known for fishing activities,
m). therefore a large number of fishing villages have
The famous hills are Mahendragiri hills, Niyamgiri developed along the coasts.
hills in Orissa, Nallamala hills in Southern Andhra
Pradesh, Kollimalai and Pachaimalai in Tamil Nadu. Western Coast
The area is drained by the Mahanadi, Godavari, The Western coastal plain is a narrow belt along the
Krishna and Kaveri river systems. Arabian sea of about 10-20 km wide.
The Nilgiri hills join Western and Eastern Ghats in the Western coastal plains comprises three sectors -
South. Konkan Coast (Mumbai to Goa), Karnataka coast
from Goa to Mangalore and Malabar Coast
(Mangalore to Kanyakumari).
The North-Eastern Plateau It stretches from Rann of Kachchh to Kanyakumari.
The North-Eastern Plateau region consists of the Meghalaya
Vembanad is a famous lagoon which is located at
plateau and Karbi Anglong plateau (Assam). It is believed
that this region is the extension of the main peninsula. But,
Malabar coast.
due to the movement of the Indian plate in the Eastern Coast
North-Eastward direction, at the time of Himalayan origin,
they got detached.
The Eastern coast runs along the Bay of Bengal.
The Meghalaya plateau is further divided into three: It is wider than the Western coastal plain.
n The Garo Hills, n The Khasi Hills and Its average width is about 120 kms.
n The Jaintia Hills
The Northern part of the coast is called Northern
These names were given after the tribes living in those Circar and the Southern part is called Coromandel
regions. The Meghalaya plateau is also rich in mineral Coast.
resources like coal, iron ore, sillimanite, uranium and
Eastern coastal plain is marked by Deltas made by
limestone.
the rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri.
This region receives the highest amount of rainfall in
comparison to other parts of India. The Chilika, largest salt water lake in India in
Odisha is located to the South of Mahanadi Delta.
183
6. The Islands Arabian Sea Island Group

There are two major island groups in India – one in the The islands of the Arabian Sea include Lakshadweep
Bay of Bengal and the other in the Arabian Sea. and Minicoy.
These are scattered between 8°-12°N and 71°-74°E
Bay of Bengal Island Group longitude.
The Bay of Bengal island group consists of about 572 These islands are located at a distance of 280 km -
islands/islets. 480 km off the Kerala coast. The entire island group is
These are situated roughly between 6°-14°N and built of coral deposits.
92°-94°E. They cover an area of 32 sq km. Kavaratti is the capital
The two principal groups of islets include the of Lakshadweep.
Ritchie’s archipelago and the Labyrinth Island. There are approximately 36 islands, of which 11 are
The entire group of islands is divided into two broad inhabited.
categories – the Andaman in the North and the Minicoy is the largest island with an area of 453 sq. km.
Nicobar in the South.
The entire group of islands is broadly divided by the 11°
They are separated by a water body which is called channel, North of which is Amini Island and to the
the 10° channel. South is Cannanore Island.
CHAPTER
184 17
Drainage System of India
Sources Class-IX New NCERT Chap 3 (Drainage), Class-X New NCERT Chap 3 (Water Resources),
Class-XI New NCERT Chap 3 (Drainage System), Class-XII Old NCERT Chap 2 (Relief and Drainage)
Drainage Pattern refers to the system of flow of surface Discordant drainage A pattern of drainage that bears
water mainly through the forms of rivers and basins. no relation to the structure of the underlying rock.
It refers to a design which a river and its tributaries Concordant Drainage (also called accordant
form together from its source to its mouth. The drainage) The pattern of drainage which arises from
drainage pattern of an area is the outcome of : and closely follows the trends of the underlying strata
— the geological time period is called concordant drainage.
— nature and structure of rocks Dendritic Drainage Pattern It is the most common
— topography form and resembles the branching pattern of tree
— slope roots. The dendritic pattern develops where the river
— amount of water flowing channel follows the slope of the terrain.
— the periodicity of the flow The pattern develops in areas where the rock beneath
the stream has no particular structure and can be
eroded equally easily in all directions.
Types of Drainage Pattern Tributaries join larger streams at acute angles (less
As per the lie of channels, drainage systems can fall into than 90°). It examples are the rivers of the Northern
one of several categories, known as drainage patterns. plains; Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.
These depend on the topography and geology of the land. Parallel Drainage Pattern It develops in regions of
Antecedent Drainage The drainage pattern was parallel, elongated landforms where there is a
already present before a period of uplift and folding pronounced slope to the surface. Tributary streams
that formed the present structure. As the uplift took tend to stretch out in a parallel-like Pattern following
place, the rivers were able to cut down at the slope of the surface. e.g., the rivers originate in the
approximately the same rate and that’s why Western Ghats; Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna and
maintained their courses. This process is called Tungabhadra.
antecedence and the drainage system thus developed Trellis Drainage Pattern Trellis drainage develops in
is called antecedent drainage. folded topography where hard and soft rocks exist
Many of the Himalayan rivers have antecedent origin parallel to each other. Down-turned folds called
i.e. these rivers existed even before the Himalayan synclines form valleys in which reside the main
ranges were uplifted. channel of the stream.
Superimposed Drainage The drainage pattern Such a pattern is formed when the primary tributaries
developed on rock strata that have since, been of main rivers flow parallel to each other and secondary
removed by erosion. The drainage pattern thus tributaries join them at right angles. e.g., the rivers in
developed is called superimposed drainage (or the upper part of the Himalayan region; Indus, Ganga
Epigenetic or Superinduced Drainage). Its examples and Brahmaputra.
are the Damodar, Subarnarekha, Chambal, Banas.
185
Rectangular Drainage Pattern The

rectangular drainage pattern is found in regions
Classification of Drainage Systems
that have undergone faulting. It develops on a of India
strongly joined rocky terrain. Streams follow Drainage Systems Based on the Size of the Catchment Area
the path of least resistance and thus are On the basis of catchment area, rivers in India can be
concentrated in places where exposed rock is classified as follows:
the weakest.
The tributary streams make sharp bends and Division Size of catchment area in sq km
enter the main stream at high angles. e.g. Major river 20,000
Streams found in the Vindhya mountain range;
Medium river 20,000 – 2,000
Chambal, Betwa and Ken.
Minor river 2,000 and below
Radial Drainage Pattern The radial drainage
pattern develops around a central elevated
point and is common to conically shaped Drainage Systems Based on the Type of Drainage The
features such as volcanoes. river systems of India can be classified into the following :
— Himalayan rivers, Deccan rivers, and Coastal rivers that
When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in
all directions, the drainage pattern is known as drain into the sea.
Radial. e.g. the rivers originating from the — Rivers of the inland drainage basin (endorheic basin).
Amarkantak range; Narmada and Son (tributary — Streams like the Sambhar in Western Rajasthan are mainly
of Ganga). seasonal in character, draining into the inland basins and
Centripetal Drainage Pattern It is just the salt lakes. In the Rann of Kachchh, the only river that
opposite of the radial as streams flow toward a flows through the salt desert is the Luni.
central depression. During rainy season, these Drainage Systems Based on Orientation to the Sea The
streams feed ephemeral lakes, which evaporate Bay of Bengal drainage (Rivers that drain into Bay of Bengal),
away during dry periods. Sometimes, salt flats (East flowing rivers) Arabian sea drainage (Rivers that drain
are also created in these dry lake beds as salt into Arabian sea), (West flowing rivers).
dissolved in the lake water precipitates out of
solution and is left behind when the water Difference between Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea Drainage
evaporates away. e.g., Loktak lake in Manipur. Bay of Bengal Drainage Arabian Sea Drainage
It includes rivers that drain It includes rivers that drain into Arabian
Basic Terminology related to into Bay of Bengal. sea.
Drainage System Its rivers are east flowing Its rivers are west flowing rivers.
n Distributary The small river that branches out rivers.
from the main river and then never meets Its 77% of the drainage area of Its 23% of the drainage area of the
again. It thus decreases the river’s water the country is oriented towards country is oriented towards the Arabian
volume. Distributaries are commonly found on the Bay of Bengal. sea.
deltas but are also important in the formation of
The Ganga, the Brahmaputra, The Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the
alluvial fans and cones.
the Mahanadi, the Godavari, Sabarmati, the Mahi and the large
n Tributary A stream or smaller river which joins the Krishna, the Cauvery, the number of swift flowing Western coast
a larger stream or river and thus increases its Penneru, the Pannaiyar, the rivers descending from the Sahyadris.
water volume. Vaigai, etc.
n Mouth The point where the river comes to the
end, usually when entering a sea. The area covered by the Bay of Bengal drainage and Arabian
n River Basin All the area drained by a river and Sea drainage are not proportional to the amount of water that
its tributaries. drains through them.
n Catchment area It refers to all the area of land Over 90% of the water drains into the Bay of Bengal; The rest
over which rain falls and is caught to serve a is drained into the Arabian Sea or forms inland drainage.
river basin.
Drainage Systems Based on Origin The drainage systems of
n Watershed As a water divide, it refers to an
elevated line from where the water flows in
India are mainly controlled by the different relief features of
different directions into different river basins. the subcontinent. Accordingly, the Indian rivers are divided
n River Profile It refers to the cross-section of a into two major groups:
river from its source to mouth representing the — The Himalayan rivers
height of the river at various points. — The Peninsular rivers
186
There is no clear-cut line of demarcation between these This dismembered was probably due to the
two drainage systems, as many of the peninsular rivers Pleistocene upheaval in the Western Himalayas,
like the Chambal, Betwa, Sind, Ken and Son are much including the uplift of the Potwar Plateau (Delhi
older in age and origin than the Himalayan rivers. Ridge), which acted as the water divide between the
Indus and Ganga drainage systems.
Drainage System of India During the mid-Pleistocene period, the
down-thrusting of the Malda gap (Garo-Rajmahal
Drainage system of India can be classified into Himalayan Gap) area between the Rajmahal hills and the
and peninsular Drainage systems. Meghalaya plateau diverted the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra systems to flow towards the Bay of
1. Himalayan Drainage System Bengal.
During the Miocene period, Shiwalik or
Indo-Brahma river traversed the entire longitudinal Indus River System
extent of the Himalaya river Assam to Punjab and to It is one of the largest river basins of the world. It is
Sind and finally it discharged into the Gulf of Sind also known as the Sindhu and is the Westernmost of
near lower Punjab. the Himalayan rivers in India.
The continuity of the Shiwalik and its alluvial deposits It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in the
consisting of sands, silt, clay, boulders and Tibetan region in the Kailash Mountain range and
conglomerates support this viewpoint. Himalayan falls into Arabian Sea in Karachi.
rivers later got dismembered into three major systems. In Tibet, it is known as Singi Khamban or Lion’s mouth.
INDIA
Major Rivers
tan
kis
Pa
Darker
N
China
j
S utle (Tibet)
Tsangpo
Ga iver
R
ng
a
Ya
m er
u Bhutan Riv
River l na Gha
Luni a g ha tra
Ga
b
a m n d Rive Go ra K
Ri osi a pu
r
h
n
i
Rive
C r ma m
da
S ve h
ti r Bra
ki
Ganga
a ti
River Bangladesh
r
n r
ive
twa
So ive
arm
Ke
i R
R
Be
ah
Sab
Tropic of
M
Cancer
Narmada Mah
Tapi an Myanmar
Pain River adi
God ga n
ava ga
ri R Rive
iver r
Arabian Bay of
Sea Kri
sh Bengal
Rive na
r
ra
ad
a bh er
ng iv
Tu R Water divide
Ca
uve
ry
Ri
ve
r
Andaman and Nicobar

Lakshadweep
0 200 400 600 km Islands
(India)
(India)
Sri
Lanka
187
The Indus flows in India only through the Leh district in At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi merges with another
the Union Territory of Ladakh. river, i.e., the Alaknanda; and from here, it is
Its right-bank tributaries are Shyok, Gilgit Hunza, known as the Ganga.
Nubra, Kabul, Khurram, Tochi, Gomal, Sangar, Kunar. The Alaknanda originates from the Satopanth
Its left-bank tributaries are Zaskar, Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, glacier above Badrinath.
Chenab and Jhelum. The Ganga enters the Northern plains at Haridwar.
Note ‘Panjnad’ joins Indus a little above Mithankot. The Panjnad is the Ganga flows through the states of Uttarakhand,
name given to the five rivers of Punjab - Sutlej, Beas, Ravi,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.
Chenab and Jhelum.
Ganga flows into the Bay of Bengal near the Sagar
Tributaries of Indus Island.
Important tributaries of Indus are as follows : Its flow is minimum during January to June and
Jhelum maximum during August-September. In Farakka,
maximum average flow of Ganga is 55000 cusec and
The Jhelum, an important tributary of the Indus, rises
minimum flow is 1300 cusec.
from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot of the Pir
Panjal. The total length of the Ganga in India is 2,525 km,
which is shared by Uttarakhand (110 km); Uttar
The Jhelum flows through Srinagar and the Wular Lake
Pradesh (1,450 km); Bihar (445 km); and West
before entering into Pakistan.
Bengal (520 km).
Jhelum joins the Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan.
The Ganga river system is the largest river system
Chenab in India.
Formed by two streams i.e. the Chandra and the Bhaga, Tributaries of Ganga
the Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus.
Important tributaries of Ganga are as follows :
Chenab is also known as Chandrabhaga.
Yamuna
The Chenab flows about 1,180 km before entering into
Pakistan. It is the largest tributary of the Ganga River.
It originates from the Yamunotri glacier, at the
Ravi Bandarpoonch peak in Uttarakhand.
Ravi is one of the important tributaries of the Indus. The main tributaries joining the river include the
It originates from the Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of Sin, Hindon, Betwa, Ken and Chambal.
Himachal Pradesh and flows through the Chamba valley
of the state. Tons
It is the largest tributary of the Yamuna.
Beas
The catchment of the river extends to the states of
Originating from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,
at an elevation of 4,000 m above the mean Sea level, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh.
Beas is also an important tributary of the Indus.
Beas enters into the Punjab plains and meets with the Chambal
Sutlej near Harike. The Chambal rises near MHOW (Military
Headquarters of War) in Madhya Pradesh and
Sutlej traverses through Rajasthan to finally join Yamuna
Also popular as Langchen Khambab (in Tibet), the at Rajasthan-Uttar Pradesh border. It is famous for
Sutlej originates from the Rakas lake near Mansarovar at its badland topography known as Ravines.
an altitude of 4,555 m in Tibet.
Ghaghara and Gandak
The Sutlej passes through the Shipki La on the
Himalayan ranges and enters into the Punjab plains. The Ghaghara and the Gandak rise in the Nepal
Himalaya. Both of them bring floods to the parts of
The Sutlej is the river that feeds the canal system of the
the Northern plains of Uttar Pradesh every year. They
Bhakra Nangal project. cause widespread damage to life and property but
Ganga River System enriches the soil for the extensive agricultural lands.
The Ganga originates from the Gangotri glacier near Kosi
Gaumukh in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand. It rises from Nepal Himalayas. It is known as
However, the river, when it originates from the Gangotri Sorrow of Bihar. It has this distinction for changing
glacier, is known as the Bhagirathi. its path frequently.
188
It brings huge amount of sediments and as it reaches The Teesta joins the Brahmaputra on its right bank in
the Bihar plains. These sediments get deposited Bangladesh and from here, the river is known as the
blocking the path of the river and consequently, it Yamuna.
changes course. It is one of the largest rivers of the world and has its
Mahananda origin in the Chemayungdung glacier (Kailash range)
near the Mansarovar lake.
It is another tributary of the Ganga rising in the
Darjeeling hills. In Bangladesh, it merges with the river Padma, which
falls in the Bay of Bengal.
Son
A large bank tributary Son originates from the radial 2. Peninsular Drainage System
drainage site of Amarkantak plateau. After forming a Geologists believe that the Sahyadri-Aravali axis was
series of waterfalls, it joins Ganga at Arrah in Bihar. the main water divide in the past.
Ramganga According to one hypothesis, the existing peninsula is
It rises in Kumaun Himalayas near Nainital. Its total the remaining half of a bigger landmass.
length is 696 km. It joins the left bank of Ganga near The Western Ghats were located in the middle of this
Farukkhabad. landmass. So one drainage was towards East flowing
into Bay of Bengal and the other towards West
Sharda or Saryu
draining into Arabian Sea.
It originates from Milap Glacier of Nepal Himalayas
The Western part of the Peninsula cracked and
as Gauriganga. In India, it is known by the name of
submerged in the Arabian Sea during the early
Kali river and joins Ghaghara river.
Tertiary period (coinciding with the formation of
Himalayas).
Panch Prayag
During the collision of the Indian plate, the Peninsular
n Vishnuprayag It is a place where the river Alaknanda
block was subjected to subsidence in few regions
meets river Dhauli Ganga.
creating a series of rifts (trough, faults).
n Nandprayag It is a place where river Alaknanda meets
river Mandakini. The peninsular rivers are characterised by fixed
n Karnaprayag It is a place where river Alaknanda course, absence of meanders and non-perennial flow
meets river Pindar. of water.
n Rudraprayag It is a place where river Alaknanda The drainage system is older than the Himalayan one.
meets river Mandakini. The Western Ghats running close to the Western coast
n Devprayag It is a place where river Alaknanda meets act as the water divide between the major Peninsular
river Bhagirathi. rivers.
Most of the major Peninsular rivers except Narmada
Brahmaputra River System and Tapi flow from West to East. The other major
The Brahmaputra originates from the river systems of the Peninsular drainage are
Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery.
Mansarovar.
Narmada River System
In Tibet, the Brahmaputra is known as the Tsangpo
The Narmada is a river located in central India.
(means ‘The purifier’). The river emerges from the
foothills of Himalayas under the name of Siang or It rises to the summit of the Amarkantak Hill in
Dihang. Madhya Pradesh state.
The Rango Tsangpo is the major right bank tributary It outlines the traditional frontier between North India
of the Brahmaputra in Tibet. and South India.
The Brahmaputra enters into India near the West of It is one of the major rivers of peninsular India. Only
Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh. the Narmada, the Tapti and the Mahi rivers flow from
East to West.
Major left bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra are
Lohit, Dibang or Sikang, Burhi Dihing and Dhansari. Since the river flows through a narrow valley confined
by precipitous (dangerously high or steep) hills, it
Major right bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra are
does not have many tributaries.
the Subansiri, Kameng, Manas and Sankosh.
189
The absence of tributaries is especially noted on Asia’s largest rail-cum-road bridge which links Kovvur
the right bank of the river where the Hiran is the and Rajahmundry is located on the river Godavari.
only exception. Its flow is minimum in May and maximum in
The other right bank tributaries are the Orsang, July-August.
the Barna and the Kolar. Its left-bank tributaries are Dharna, Penganga,
The river flows through the states of Madhya Wainganga, Wardha, Pranahita [conveying the combined
Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra. waters of Penganga, the Wardha and Wainganga], Pench,
Its flow is minimum during January to July but Kanhan, Sabari, Indravati etc.
maximum in the month of August. Its right-bank tributaries are Pravara, Mula, Manjra,
It drains into the Arabian Sea in the Bharuch Peddavagu, Maner.
district of Gujarat. Krishna River System
Tapi River System Krishna is one of the longest rivers of India, which
It is a central Indian river. It is one of the most originates from Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra.
important rivers of peninsular India with the run It flows through Sangli and drains the sea in the Bay of
from East to West. It originates in the Eastern Bengal.
Satpura Range of Southern Madhya Pradesh state. The river flows through the states of Maharashtra,
It flows in a Westward direction. It drains historic Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
places like Madhya Pradesh’s Nimar region, East Its right bank tributaries are the Ghatprabha, the
Vidarbha region and Maharashtra’s Khandesh Malprabha and the Tungabhadra.
region and South Gujarat before falling into the
Its left bank tributaries are the Bhima, the Musi and the
Gulf of Cambay of the Arabian Sea.
Munneru.
The River Basin of Tapi River lies mostly in
Eastern and Northern districts of Maharashtra Cauvery River System
state. The Cauvery is also known as Ganga of South India
The river also covers some districts of Madhya Dakshin Bharat ki Ganga.
Pradesh and Gujarat as well. It originates from Talakaveri located in the Western
Its right-bank tributaries are the Suki, the Gomai, Ghats. It is a famous pilgrimage and tourist place in the
the Arunavati and the Aner. Kodagu district of Karnataka.
Its left-bank tributaries are the Vaghur, Amravati, The headwaters of the river are in the Western Ghats
Buray, Panjhra, Bori, Girna, Purna, Mona and range of Karnataka state, and from Karnataka through
Sipna. Tamil Nadu.
The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. The river
Godavari River System
supports irrigation for agriculture and is considered as a
The Godavari River is the second-longest course in means of support of the ancient kingdoms and Modern
India with brownish water. cities of South India.
The river is often referred to as the Dakshin Its left bank tributaries the Harangi, the Hemavati, the
(South) Ganga or Vriddhi (Old) Ganga. Shimsha and the Arkavati.
It is a seasonal river, dried during the summers, Its right bank tributaries Lakshmantirtha, the Kabbani,
and widens during the monsoons. the Suvarnavati, the Bhavani, the Noyil and the Amaravati
This river originates from Trimbakeshwar, near join from right.
Nasik in Maharashtra.
The Mahanadi River System
It flows South-East across South-Central India
The Mahanadi originates from the Satpura Range of
through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Telangana,
central India and it is a river in Eastern India.
Andhra Pradesh and Orissa and drains into the Bay
of Bengal. It flows East to the Bay of Bengal. The river drains the
state of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Orissa.
The river forms a fertile delta at Rajahmundry.
The largest dam, the Hirakud Dam, is built on the river.
The banks of this river have many pilgrimage sites,
Nasik(MH), Bhadrachalam(TS), and Trimbak. Its left bank tributaries are the Seonath, the Hasdeo, the
Some of its tributaries include Pranahita Mand and the Ib.
(Combination of Penuganga and Warda), Indravati Its right bank tributaries are the Ong, the Tel and the
River, Bindusara, Sabari, and Manjira. Jonk.
190
Brahmani River The Brahmani river comes into

Percentage Contribution of Water by existence by the confluence of the Koel and the Shankh
Various Rivers rivers near Rourkela.
n Brahmaputra - 40 n Ganga -25
It has a total length of 800 km. The basin is bounded in
n Godavari - 6.4 n Mahanadi - 3.5
the North by Chhota Nagpur plateau, in the West and
n Krishna - 3.4 n Narmada - 2.9
South by the Mahanadi basin and in the East by the Bay
n Rest - 20 of Bengal. The basin flows through Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh and Orissa States and drains into Bay of
West Flowing Small Rivers Bengal.
Mahi The river originates from Dhar district of Ponnaiyar River The Ponnaiyar is a small stream
Madhya Pradesh. The river flows through Madhya which is confined to the coastal area only. It covers a
Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Gujarat. The river drains in small area in the state of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
the Gulf of Cambay. Mahi Bajaj Sagar Dam and Andhra Pradesh.
Kadana Dam are the major Hydro Power stations The Basin is bounded on the North -West and South by
situated on this river. various ranges of the Eastern Ghats like the Velikonda
Sabarmati River Sabarmati River is a combination Range, the Nagari hills, the Javadi hills, the Shevaroy
of two streams the Sabar and Hathmati. The river is hills, the Chitteri hills and the Kalrayan hills and in the
flowing through Rajasthan and Gujarat. It originates East by the Bay of Bengal.
from Tepur in the Udaipur district of Rajasthan. Vaigai River South of the Cauvery delta, there are
The Wakal, the Hathmati, the Vatrak, and the Sei several streams, of which the Vaigai is the longest. The
are the major tributaries of Sabarmati River. Vaigai basin is an important basin among the 12 basins
Sabarmati reservoir, Hathmati reservoir, and Meshwo lying between the Cauvery and Kanyakumari.
reservoir project are the major projects situated on this This basin is bounded by the Varusanadu hills, the
river. Andipatti hills, the Cardamom hills and the Palani hills
Luni Luni is an endorheic river. It is also known as on the West and by the Palk strait and Palk Bay on the
East. The Vaigai drains an area of 7,741 Sq. km, which
the Sagarmati. It originates from the Western slopes
entirely lies in the state of Tamil Nadu.
of the Aravalli ranges near Ajmer.
Tawa River The river rises from the Satpura Range Difference between Himalayan and Peninsular River System
of Betul in Madhya Pradesh. This river is the longest
tributary of River Narmada. Characteristics Himalayan River Peninsular River
Sharavati River This is an important river in the Place of origin Himalayan mountains Peninsular plateau and
state of Karnataka flowing towards the West. The (covered with glaciers). central highland.
Sharavati River originates from the Shimoga district Nature of flow Perennial; receive water Seasonal; dependent on
of Karnataka. The river drains a catchment area of from glaciers and monsoon rainfall.
2,209 sq. km. The Jog Falls is created by the rainfall
Sharavati River. Type of drainage Antecedent and Superimposed,
consequent leading to rejuvenated resulting
East Flowing Small Rivers dendritic pattern in in trellis, radial, and
plains. rectangular patterns.
Pennar River The Pennar (also known as Uttara
Pinakini) is one of the major rivers of the peninsula. Nature of river Long course, flowing Smaller, fixed course
The Pennar rises in the Chennakesava hill of the through the rugged with well adjusted
mountains experiencing valleys.
Nandidurga range, in Chikkaballapura district of
headward erosion and
Karnataka and flows towards East eventually river capturing; In
draining into the Bay of Bengal. plains, meandering and
Subarnarekha The Subarnarekha originates from shifting off course.
the Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand forming the Catchment area Very large basin. Relatively smaller basin.
boundary between West Bengal and Odisha in its
Age of the river Young and youthful, Old rivers with graded
lower course. It joins Bay of Bengal forming an active and deepening in profile, and have
estuary between the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas. the valleys almost reached their
Its total length is 395 km. base levels.
191
River Basin and their Area Name Location

Basin Dudhsagar Falls Goa (Mandovi river)
Basin Name Area (sq.km)
Code Barkana Falls Karnataka (Sita river)
1. Indus (Up to border) 3,21,289 Unchalli Falls Karnataka (Aghanashini river)
2A Ganga 8,61,452 Gokak Falls Karnataka (Ghataprabha river)
2B Brahmaputra 1,94,413 Gersoppa (Jog) Karnataka (Sharavathi river)
Falls (Highest)
2C Barak and others 41,723
Shivanasmudra Falls Karnataka (Cauvery river)
3. Godavari 3,12,812
Palaruvi Falls Kerala
4. Krishna 2,58,948
Chachai Falls Madhya Pradesh (Bihad river)
5. Cauvery 81,155
Rajat Prapat Falls Madhya Pradesh (Pachmarhi river)
6. Subarnarekha 29,196
Dhuandhar Madhya Pradesh (Narmada river)
7. Brahmani and Baitarani 51,822 (Marble) Falls
8. Mahanadi 1,41,589 Kune Falls Maharashtra
9. Pennar 55,213 Nohkalikai Falls Meghalaya
10. Mahi 34,842 Elephant Falls Meghalaya
11. Sabarmati 21,674 Vantawng Falls Mizoram (Lau river)
12. Narmada 98,796 Barehipani Falls Odisha (Budhabalanga river-Simlipal

National Park)
13. Tapi (Tapti) 65,145
Khandadhar Falls Odisha (Kaprani stream)
14. West flowing rivers from Tapi to Tadri 55,940
Catherine Falls Tamil Nadu
15. West flowing rivers from Tadri to 56,177
Kanyakumari Kutralam Falls Tamil Nadu (Siruvani river)
16. East flowing rivers between Mahanadi 86,643 Thalaiyar Falls Tamil Nadu (near Kodaikanal)
and Pennar Birthi Falls Uttarakhand (Pancholi peak)
17. East flowing rivers between Pennar and 1,00,139 Vasudhara Falls Uttarakhand (near Badrinath)
Kanyakumari
Kapildhara Falls Madhya Pradesh (Narmada river)
18. West flowing rivers of Kachchh and 3,21,851
Saurashtra including Luni
19. Area of inland drainage in Rajasthan Lakes

20. Minor rivers draining into Myanmar 36,202 A lake is defined as an area of variable size filled with
and Bangladesh water, localised in a basin, that is surrounded by land,
apart from any other river or outlet surrounded by the
List of Major Waterfalls in India lake.
They lie on land and not part of the ocean, and are
Name Location usually bigger than ponds. They have still water.
Talakona Falls Andhra Pradesh (Tirupati) They can be broadly split into two, natural lakes and
Tirathgarh Falls Chhattisgarh (Mugabahar river) artificial lakes.
Bundla Falls Himachal Pradesh (Bundla stream)
Natural Lakes
Chulia Falls Rajasthan (Chambal river) They are generally found in mountainous areas and rift
Hundru Falls Jharkhand (Subarnarekha river) zones. They form due to a number of processes like :
— A tectonic movement of mountain range
Lodh Falls Jharkhand (Burha river)
— Landslides or global leakages
Dasam Falls Jharkhand (Subarnarekha river)
— Spits and bars form lagoons
192
Name State/UT Type Details

Artificial Lakes
Prashar Himachal Holomitic It has a floating Island
They are constructed or man-made, for industrial or lake Pradesh
agricultural purposes.
Renuka Himachal Freshwater It is designated as the
It is also used for irrigation, hydro power supply, lake Pradesh Ramsar site
domestic water supply and so on. Lakes can be
Dal lake Jammu and Warm Remnants of past glacial
further classified into the following: Kashmir monomitic period
— Freshwater Lakes — Saltwater Lakes
Pangong Ladakh Endorheic Indo-China Border
— Natural Lakes — Oxbow Lakes Tso Lake (saline
— Artificial Lakes water)
— Crater Lakes Wular lake Jammu and Tectonic Largest freshwater lake
Kashmir lake (fresh in India
water)
Some Important Facts about Lakes Tso Moriri Ladakh Saltwater High altitude lake
n Wular lake one of the biggest freshwater lakes of Asia. Bellandur Karnataka Freshwater –
n Upper lake in Madhya Pradesh is the largest artificial Lake
lake in Asia. Ashtamudi Kerala Brackish Ramsar wetland site
n Chilika Lake in Odisha is the largest saline water lake Kayal water
in India. Kuttanad Kerala Backwater paddy
n Vembanad Lake in Kerala is the longest lake in India. cultivation
n Cholamu Lake in Sikkim is the highest lake in India. Vembanad Kerala Brackish Ramsar wetland, boat
water race
Sasthamko Kerala Freshwater Ramsar wetland
Important Lakes in India tta
Name State/UT Type Details Bhojtal Madhya. Freshwater Ramsar site; largest
Pulicat Andhra Brackish It encompasses Pradesh artificial lake in India
Lake Pradesh Water Pulicat Lake Bird Salim Ali Maharashtra Freshwater Birdwatching
Sanctuary;
Shivsagar Maharashtra Freshwater Koyna dam
Satish Dhawan Space
Centre is located here Lonar lake Maharashtra Crater lake National Geo-Heritage
monument
Kolleru Andhra Freshwater Home to migratory
Lake Pradesh birds Loktak lake Manipur Lenticular Ramsar wetland;
freshwater Phumdis (Floating
Nagarjuna Andhra Freshwater Artificially Islands); Multipurpose
Sagar Pradesh constructed, Krishna project
river
Chilika Odisha Brackish India’s largest brackish
Haflong Assam Freshwater High altitude lake lake water water lake; lagoon
Lake
Harike Punjab Freshwater Ramsar wetland site
Deepor Assam Freshwater Under Ramsar
Beel Convention Rupar Punjab Freshwater Manmade riverine lake
Kanwar Bihar Oxbow Asia’s largest Kanjli Punjab Freshwater Ramsar wetland site
Lake (freshwater) freshwater oxbow Sambhar Rajasthan Saltwater Ramsar wetland; largest
lake lake inland saltwater lake in
Hamirsar Gujarat Artificial Situated in centre of India
lake Bhuj Rajsamand Rajasthan Freshwater –
Blue Bird Haryana Freshwater Migratory Birds, Kodaikanal Tamil Nadu Artificial Boat club, boathouse,
Lake Wetland Habitat Lake lake and boat service
Chandra Himachal Fresh water Ramsar wetland site Govind Uttar Man-made Rihand dam
Taal Pradesh Ballabh Pradesh lake
Pant Sagar
Suraj Taal Himachal Fresh water Bhaga River inflow
Pradesh Bhimtal Uttarakhand Freshwater Medium altitude lake
Maharana Himachal Freshwater Ramsar site East West Bengal Brackish Ramsar wetland
Pratap Pradesh Calcutta water
Sagar wetlands
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 18 193
Climate in India
Sources Class-VIII Old NCERT Chap 13 (The Climate), Class-IX New NCERT Chap 4 (Climate),
Class-X Old NCERT Chap 2 (Climate), Class-XI New NCERT Chap 4 (Climate)
Climate is a measure of the average pattern of Salient Features of Indian Climate

variation in temperature, humidity, atmospheric
pressure, wind, precipitation, atmospheric Following are the salient features of the Indian climate:
particle count and other meteorological variables Reversal of winds The Indian climate is characterised by
in a given region over long periods of time. the complete reversal of wind systems with the change of
Any independent study of each of these elements season in a year.
does not put forward any comprehensive view of During the winter season, winds generally blow from
climate. On the basis of these elements, there North-East to South-West in the direction of trade winds.
could be many of types of climates in the world. These winds are dry and devoid of moisture. They are
characterised by low temperature and high pressure
conditions over the country. During summer season,
Climate and Weather complete reversal in the direction of the winds is observed
Weather consists of the short-term (minutes to and these blow primarily from South-West to North-East.
months) changes in the atmosphere while Formation of alternatively high and low pressure areas
climate is the average of weather over an over the land There is a change in the atmosphere
extended time. pressure conditions with the change of season. During the
In most places, weather can change from winter season due to low temperature conditions, high
minute-to-minute, hour-to-hour, day-to-day pressure areas are formed over the Northern part of the
and season-to-season. country. On the other hand, the intense heating of the land
However, climate, is the average of weather over during summer season leads to the formation of a
an extended time. thermally induced low pressure cell over the
North-Western part of the country. These pressure areas
control the direction and intensity of wind.
Climate of India Seasonal and variable rainfall In India, over 80% of
The climate of India belongs to the ‘tropical annual rainfall is obtained in the latter part of the summer
monsoon type’ indicating the impact of its whose duration ranges from 1-5 months in different parts
location in the tropical belt and the monsoon of the country. Since the rainfall is in the form of heavy
winds. downpour, it creates problems of floods and soil erosion.
Huge part of the country lies North of the Tropic Sometimes there is continuous rain for many days and
of Cancer and thus, falls in the Northern sometimes, there is a long spell of dry period.
temperate zone. Similarly, there is a spatial variation in the general
The presence of the Himalayas and the Indian distribution of rainfall. Cherrapunji has received in a single
Ocean in the South play a significant role in day an amount equal to 10 years of rainfall at Jaisalmer,
providing India a distinctive climatic Rajasthan. The Indian climate is characterised by climatic
characteristics. extremes and varieties.
194
Plurality of seasons The Indian climate is Areas which are North of the Tropic of Cancer
characterised by constantly changing weather experience extreme climate with a high daily and
conditions. There are three main seasons but on annual range of temperature as they are away from
broader consideration. But their number goes to six a the Equator,.
year (winter, fall of winter, spring, summer, rainy and
Himalayan Mountains
autumn).
The lofty Himalayas in the North along with its
Unity of Indian Climate – the Himalayas and the
extensions act as an effective climatic divide between
associated mountain ranges extend to the North of India
Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.
from East to West. These tall mountain ranges prevent
the cold Northerly winds of Central Asia from entering The cold and chilly winds that originate near the
into India. Arctic Circle are obstructed by the Himalayas and
give a distinctive taste to the climate of India.
Therefore, even the parts of India extending North of
the Tropic of Cancer experience a tropical climate. Due Distribution of Land and Water
to this the entire country comes under the influence of India is surrounded by the Indian Ocean on three
the monsoon winds. In this manner, the climate in the sides in the South and girdled by a high and
entire country becomes monsoon type. continuous mountain-wall in the North.
Diversity of Indian climate In spite of the unity of As compared to the landmass, water heats up or cools
Indian climate, it is characterised by regional down slowly.
differences and variations. For example, while in the
This differential heating of land and sea creates
summer, the mercury occasionally touches 55°C in the
different air pressure zones in different seasons in
Western Rajasthan, it drops down to as low as minus
and around the Indian subcontinent.
45°C in winter around Leh.
These differences are visible in terms of winds, Distances from the Sea
temperature, rainfall, humidity and aridity etc. With a long coastline, large coastal areas have an
These are caused by differences in the location, altitude, equable climate. Areas in the interior of India are far
distance from the sea, distance from mountains and away from the moderating influence of the sea. Such
general relief conditions at different places. areas have extremes of climate.
Characterised by natural calamities Due to its That is why, the people of the Konkan coast have
peculiar weather conditions especially rainfall, the hardly any idea of extremes of temperature and the
Indian climate is characterised by natural calamities seasonal rhythm of weather.
like floods, droughts, famines and even epidemics. On the other hand, the seasonal contrasts in weather
at places in the interior of the country such as
Factors Determining the Kanpur and Amritsar affect the entire sphere of life.
Climate of India Altitude
India’s climate is controlled by a number of factors Temperature decreases with height. Due to thin air,
which can be broadly divided into two groups : places in the mountains are cooler than places on the
— Factors related to location and relief plains.
— Factors related to air pressure and winds For example, Agra and Darjeeling are located on the
same latitude, but the temperature of January Agra in
Factors Related to Location and Relief January is 16°C whereas it is only 4°C in Darjeeling.
Factors related to location and relief are as follows :
Relief
Latitude
The physiography or relief of India also affects
The Tropic of Cancer passes through the central part the temperature, air pressure, direction and speed
of India in an East-West direction. Thus, the Northern of wind and the amount and distribution of
part of India lies in a sub-tropical and temperate zone rainfall.
and the part lying South of the Tropic of Cancer falls in
The windward sides of Western Ghats and Assam
the tropical zone.
receive high rainfall during June-September whereas
The tropical zone being nearer to the equator, the Southern plateau remains dry due to its leeward
experiences high temperatures throughout the year situation along the Western Ghats.
with small daily and annual range.
195
Factors Relating to Air Pressure and Winds Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay of Bengal
and the Indian Ocean. These tropical cyclones have
The mechanism of air pressure and wind in context of the
very high wind velocity and heavy rainfall and hit
Indian climate, can be understood with reference to winter
the Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa coast.
and summer seasons of the year separately.
Most of these cyclones are very destructive due to
Weather Conditions in Winter Season high wind velocity and torrential rain that
Weather conditions in winter season are as follows : accompanies it.
Surface Pressure and Winds Weather Conditions in the Summer reason

During the Northern hemisphere’s winter, high Weather conditions in summer season are as follows :
pressure is built up in Central and West Asia. Surface Pressure and Winds
This centre of high pressure gives rise to the flow of air As the summer sets in and the Sun shifts
at the low level from the North towards the Indian northwards, the wind circulation over the
subcontinent, South of the Himalayan mountain subcontinent undergoes a complete reversal at both,
range, in the form of a dry continental air mass. the lower as well as the upper levels.
These continental winds come in contact with trade
winds over North-Western India. By the middle of July, the low pressure belt nearer
the surface, termed Inter Tropical Convergence
The contact zone is not stable and sometimes it shifts up
Zone (ITCZ), shifts Northwards, roughly parallel to
to the middle Ganga valley thus bringing the entire
the Himalayas between 20° N and 25° N. It extends
North-Western India under the influence of the
from Punjab to the Chhota Nagpur plateau.
North-Westerly winds.
By this time, the westerly jet stream withdraws from
Jet Stream and Upper Air Circulation the Indian region. There is a cause and effect
A different pattern of air circulation is observed at a relationship between the Northward shift of the
height of about 3 km above the surface. Direction and ITCZ and the withdrawal of the westerly jet stream
velocity of winds at this height are different from those from over the North Indian Plain.
of the surface winds. Being an area of low pressure, the ITCZ attracts
All of Western and Central Asia remains under the winds from all around. The maritime tropical air
influence of westerly winds along the altitude of mass (mT) from the Southern hemisphere, after
9-13 km from West to East. crossing the Equator, rushes to the low pressure
These winds blow across the Asian continent at area in the South-west direction.
latitudes North of the Himalayas roughly parallel to the These winds cross the Equator between 40°E and
Tibetan highlands. These are known as Jet Streams. 60°E longitudes. Blowing over the ocean for a long
Tibetan highlands act as a barrier in the path of these jet distance, they pick up a large amount of moisture.
streams. As a result, jet streams get bifurcated – one to It is this moist air current which is popularly known
the South and other to the North of this mountain chain as the South-West monsoon.
along 25° N latitude.
Jet Streams and Upper Air Circulation
This jet stream is responsible for bringing Western
disturbances from the Mediterranean region into the At the upper layers of the troposphere, the winds
Indian sub-continent. blow in a direction reverse to that of the surface
winds. An easterly jet stream flows over the
Winter rain and hail storms in North-Western plains
Southern part of the Peninsula in June and has a
and occasional heavy snowfall in hilly regions are
maximum speed of 90 km per hour.
caused by these disturbances.
In August, it is confined to 15° N latitude and in
Western Cyclonic Disturbance and Tropical Cyclones September up to 22° N latitudes.
The Western cyclonic disturbances which enter the
Indian subcontinent from the West and the North-West Tropical Cyclones
during the winter months originate over the The easterly jet stream steers the tropical
Mediterranean Sea and are brought into India by the depressions into India. These depressions play a
westerly jet stream. significant role in the distribution of monsoon
An increase in the prevailing night temperature rainfall over the Indian subcontinent.
generally indicates an advance in the arrival of these The tracks of these depressions are the areas of
cyclone disturbances. It brings little rain in winter highest rainfall in India. Their frequency, direction
months. This rain is considered to be very good for and intensity determine the rainfall pattern during
wheat crops in Northern plains. the South-West monsoon period.
196
Also the low pressure areas are not stationary and the
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
rainfall is not only convectional but a mix of
n It is a zone between the Northern and Southern
orographic, cyclonic and convectional rainfall.
hemisphere where winds blowing equator-ward from
the mid-latitudes and winds flowing poleward from Dynamic Concept
the tropics meet.
n It shifts from North and South seasonally according to The Dynamic concept about the origin of monsoons
the movement of the Sun. was put forward by a German meteorologist Flohn in
n For example, when the ITCZ is shifted to North of the 1951. According to this concept, monsoon is the result
Equator, the South-East trade wind changes to a of seasonal migration of planetary winds and pressure
South-West wind as it crosses the Equator. belts.
n The ITCZ shifts only between 40° to 45° of latitude The equatorial Westerlies become South-West or
North or South of the equator based on the pattern of summer monsoons. As the Earth rotates, the trade
land and ocean. winds of the Southern hemisphere after crossing the
equator turn towards their right (Coriolis effect).
The Northern Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
Indian Monsoon (NITCZ) is associated with numerous atmospheric
India’s climate is ‘tropical monsoon’ type. The word storms (cyclones), which yield heavy rainfall during
‘monsoon’ has been derived from the Arabic word wet monsoon months (July to September).
‘Mausim’ which means ‘season’. Originally, this word
was used by Arab traders to describe a system of Modern Concept about the Origin of
seasonal reversal of winds along the shores of the
Indian Ocean. Monsoons are especially prominent
Indian Monsoon
within the tropics on the eastern sides of the great After World War II, the upper atmospheric circulation has
landmass, but in Asia, it occurs outside the tropics in been studied significantly. It is now believed that the
China, Korea and Japan. differential heating of sea and land alone can’t produce
Monsoon is a complex meteorological phenomenon. the monsoon circulation. Apart from it, the recent concept
Experts of meteorology have developed a number of of monsoon relies heavily on the role of :
concepts about the origin of the monsoon. Himalayas and Tibetan plateau as a physical barrier
Some of the important concepts about the origin of and a source of high-level heat.
monsoon have been given as follows : Circulation of upper air jet streams in the troposphere.
Existence of upper air circum-polar whirl over North
Thermal Concept and South poles in the troposphere.
Halley, a noted astronomer in 1866 hypothesised that The occurrence of ENSO (El-Nino and Southern
the primary cause of the annual cycle of the Indian Oscillation) in the South Pacific Ocean.
monsoon circulation was the differential heating Walker cell in the Indian Ocean.
effects of the land and the sea. According to this
Indian Ocean Dipole
concept, monsoons are the extended land breeze and
sea breeze on a large scale.
During winter, the huge landmass of Asia cools more
Nature of Indian Monsoon
rapidly than the surrounding oceans with the result Systematic studies of the causes of rainfall in the South
that a strong high pressure centre develops over the Asian region help to understand the salient features of the
continent. monsoon, particularly some of its important aspects, such as:
On the other hand, the pressure over adjacent oceans Onset and advance of monsoon
is relatively lower. As a consequence the Rain-bearing systems and the relationship between
pressure-gradient is directed from land to sea. their frequency and distribution of monsoon rainfall.
Therefore, there is an outflow of air from the Break in the monsoon
continental landmass towards the adjacent oceans so Retreat of the monsoon
that it brings cold, dry air towards the low latitudes.
In summer, the temperature and pressure conditions 1. Onset and Advance of Monsoon
are reversed. The differential heating of land and sea is still believed
Halley’s concept is criticised because it fails to to be the primary cause of the monsoon by many
explain the intricacies of monsoon such as sudden meteorologists. Low pressure at ITCZ which is located
burst of monsoon, breaks in monsoon, spatial and over North India in the month of May becomes so
temporal distribution of monsoon. intense that it pulls the trade winds of the Southern
197
hemisphere Northwards. These South-East trade winds cross the Equator and enter the Bay of Bengal. The
Arabian Sea, is only surrounded by air circulation over India. Passing over the equatorial warm currents,
they bring with them moisture in abundance. With the Northwards shift of ITCZ, an easterly jet stream develops
over 15° N.
The rain in the South-West monsoon season begins rather abruptly. It can substantially bring down the
temperature. This sudden onset of the moisture-laden winds associated with violent thunder and lightning, is
often termed as the break or burst of the monsoons.
South-West monsoon first of all reaches the Andaman-Nicobar Islands on 15th May. Kerala coast receives it on 1st
June. It reaches Mumbai and Kolkata between 10th and 13th June. By 15th of July, South-West monsoon covers
the whole of India.
Srinagar
1st July
15th July
Chandigarh
PAKISTAN
1 Sep
15th June
Delhi NEPAL 10th
June
e
Jun BHUTAN
Jaipur 5 th
1 Oct
Lucknow Shillong
Imphal
Patna BANGLADESH
ep
1S Tropic of Cancer
Bhopal
p Ahmedabad
Se Kolkata
15
Nagpur
MYANMAR
ne
ne
1 s t Ju
5th Ju
Bhubaneshwar
10th June Mumbai
25th May
Bay of
Hyderabad Bengal
5th June
25th May
1st June
Bengaluru
5th June Chennai
Andaman & Nicobar Islands

(India)
Lakshadweep Islands
(India)
1st June
Sri
Lanka OCEAN
198
2. Rain Bearing Systems and A third branch of this monsoon wind strikes the
Saurashtra Peninsula and the Kachchh. It then
Distribution of Rainfall passes over West Rajasthan and along the Aravallis,
The South-West monsoon splits into two branches, the causing only a scanty rainfall. In Punjab and
Arabian Sea Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch near the Haryana, it too joins the Bay of Bengal branch.
Southernmost end of the Indian Peninsula. These two branches, reinforced by each other, cause
rains in the Western Himalayas.
Bay of Bengal Branch
The first branch originates in the Bay of Bengal causing 3. Break in the Monsoon
rainfall over the plains of North India. The Bay of During the South-West monsoon period after having
Bengal branch strikes the coast of Myanmar and part of rains for a few days, if rain fails to occur for one or
South-East Bangladesh. But the Arakan Hills along the more weeks, it is known as break in the monsoon.
coast of Myanmar deflect a big portion of this branch These dry spells are quite common during the rainy
towards the Indian subcontinent. Therefore, the monsoon, season.
enters West Bengal and Bangladesh from South and
South-East instead of the South-Westerly direction. These breaks in the different regions are due to
different reasons:
From here, this branch splits into two under the
— In Northern India rains are likely to fail if the
influence of the Himalayas and the thermal low is
rain-bearing storms are not very frequent along the
North-West India. One branch moves Westward along
the Ganga plains reaching as far as the Punjab plains. monsoon trough or the ITCZ over this region.
— Over the West coast the dry spells are associated
The other branch moves up the Brahmaputra valley in
with days when winds blow parallel to the coast.
the North and the North-East, causing widespread rains.
Its sub-branch strikes the Garo and Khasi hills of
Meghalaya.
4. Retreat of Monsoon
Mawsynram, located on the crest of Khasi hills, receives Monsoon starts retreating in September. On the first
the highest average annual rainfall in the world. The of September, it starts retreating from
Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during this season because North-Western part of India.
it is situated in the rainshadow area of Arabian Sea This day is the last day of the rainy season in
branch of the South-West monsoon and lies parallel to Jaisalmer and Barmer in Rajasthan. By 15th
the Bay of Bengal branch of South-West monsoon. September, monsoon leaves Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Arabian Sea Branch
The area under the monsoon influence shrinks
The monsoon winds originating over the Arabian Sea slowly and the monsoon retreats from all parts of
further split into three branches : India except the Southern peninsular region.
One branch is obstructed by the Western Ghats. These Monsoon winds in most parts of the country are
winds climb the slopes of the Western Ghats and as a replaced by the North-Easterly trade winds.
result of orographic rainfall phenomenon, the windward
These winds blowing over the Bay of Bengal pick up
side of Ghats receives very heavy rainfall ranging
moisture from there and cause rainfall in Tamil
between 250 cm and 400 cm.
Nadu.
After crossing the Western Ghats, these winds descend
and get heated up. This reduces humidity in the winds.
As a result, these winds cause little rainfall East of the El-Nino and La-Nina
Western Ghats. This region of low rainfall is known as n Weather conditions in India are also influenced by
the rain-shadow area. El-Nino which causes widespread floods and
droughts in tropical regions of the world.
Another branch of the Arabian Sea monsoon strikes the n This warming of tropical Pacific waters affects the
coast North of Mumbai. Moving along the Narmada and global pattern of pressure and wind systems
Tapi river valleys, these winds cause rainfall in including the monsoon winds in the Indian Ocean.
extensive areas of central India. n It is believed that the severest droughts in India have
The Chhota Nagpur plateau gets 15 cm rainfall from this been caused by El-Nino. La-Nina is thought to be
part of the branch. Thereafter, they enter the Ganga favourable to India as it brings rains.
plains and mingle with the Bay of Bengal branch.
199
68°E 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°E
36° N
36°N
15 Sep
INDIA
Retreating Monsoon
PAKISTAN Srinagar
32°
1 Sep 32°
CHINA
Chandigarh (Tibet)
28° Delhi 1 Oct

NE
PA
L BHUTAN
Jaipur Imphal
Lucknow Shillong
ep
1S Patna
BANGLADESH
p
Se 24°
15
Ahmedabad Tropic of Cancer
Bhopal
MYANMAR
Nagpur
20° Bhubanseshwar
20°
Mumbai
Bay of
Bengal
Hyderabad 15 Oct
1 Nov
16°
15 Nov
1 Dec. 20°
ct
1O
t
Oc
Bengaluru
Chennai
15
12°
ov.
12°
1N
v.
c.
No
De
15

15
(India)
Lakshadweep
(India) 0 200 400 600 km
8°N
8°N
ec.
Sri
ec.
15 D
72°E 76° Lanka 84° 88° 92°E

1D
Features of Monsoon Rainfall Western Rajasthan to more than 400 cm in certain parts
Monsoon rain is seasonal in character which occurs of Western Ghats and North-East India.
between June and September. Spatial distribution The monsoon rainfall has a declining trend with
of rainfall is largely governed by relief or increasing distance from the sea. Rainfall decreases from
topography. East to West in plains as one branch of monsoon enters
For instance, the windward side of the Western from Eastern side. Kolkata receives 119 cm, Allahabad
Ghats registers a rainfall of over 250 cm. 76 cm and Delhi 56 cm only.
Again, the heavy rainfall in the North-Eastern states Breaks in rainfall are related to the cyclonic depressions
can be attributed to their hill ranges and the mainly formed at the head of the Bay of Bengal and their
Eastern Himalayas. Rainfall ranges from 20 cm in crossing into the mainland.
200
Besides the frequency and intensity of these depressions, Distribution of Rainfall in Different Regions
the passage followed by them determines the spatial
Category Rainfall Regions
distribution of rainfall.
in cms
The rains sometimes end considerably earlier than usual,
causing great damage to standing crops and making the Heavy More Western coast, Western Ghats,
Rainfall than 200 sub-Himalayan region of North-
sowing of winter crops difficult. East, Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills
of Meghalaya. In some parts, rain
Variability of Annual Rainfall exceeds 1000 cm.
Variability of rainfall refers to variations in rainfall from the Moderate Between 100 cm isohyet extends from
average amount. Rainfall 100 Gujarat to south up to
The variability of rainfall is computed with the help of the to 200 Kanyakumari parallel to Western
ghats. Northern Andhra Pradesh,
following formula: Eastern part of Maharashtra,
Coefficient of Variation Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, some
CV = (Standard Deviation / Mean) × 100 parts of Jammu and Kashmir
The rainfall in India is highly variable. The actual rainfall Low Between Most parts of Tamil Nadu,
of a place in a year deviates from its average rainfall by 10 Rainfall 60 to 100 Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
to over 60%. Eastern Rajasthan, South-Western
Uttar Pradesh
Distribution of Annual Rainfall Inadequate Less Punjab, Haryana, North-Western
Rainfall than 60 Rajasthan, Kachchh, Kathiawar
The distribution of average annual rainfall in India is shown in
the below figure :
Monsoons and the
INDIA Economic Life in India
Annual Rainfall Monsoon is that axis around which the entire
agricultural cycle of India revolves. It is because
N
about 64% people of India depend on agriculture
for their livelihood and agriculture itself is based
Pakistan
China
on south-West monsoon.
(Tibet)
Except the Himalayas all the parts of the country
have temperatures above the threshold level to
grow the crops or plants throughout the year.
Regional variations in monsoon climate help in
growing various types of crops.
Variability of rainfall brings droughts or floods
every year in some parts of the country.
Myanmar
Bay of
Agricultural prosperity of India depends very
Bengal much on timely and adequately distributed
Rainfall in cm
rainfall. If it fails, agriculture is adversely
Above 400 affected particularly in those regions where
200 - 400 means of irrigation are not developed.
100 - 200 Sudden monsoon bursts create a problem of soil
60 - 100
erosion over large areas in India.
40 - 60
20 - 40
0 - 20 Seasons
Andaman and Nicobar islands
Lakshadweep (India) Seasons are a special feature of the Indian climate.
Islands
0 200 400 600 km
(India)
Sri
Temperature, pressure, wind direction and the
Lanka amount and duration of rain varies from one season
INDIAN OCEAN
to the other.
201
Meteorologists identify four seasons in India : 3. Rainy Season or South-West Monsoon

— The cold weather season or winter season, Season (June-September)
— The hot weather season or summer season,
June to September are the months of advancing
— The South-West monsoon season or Rainy season, and South-West monsoon season. By the end of May,
— The season of the retreating monsoon. the monsoon trough further intensifies over
North India due to high temperature.
1. Winter Season
The general direction of the wind during this
During the winter season, the temperature decreases with
season is from South-West to North-East. These
increasing latitude in India from 25°C in the South to near
winds are strong and blow at an average velocity
zero temperature in the North. This season is characterised
of 30 km per hour.
by fog and frost in North and North-West India.
These moisture laden winds first hit the
There is light rainfall in this region due to Western
Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the last week of
disturbances. There is a sustained snowfall on the higher
May and Kerala coast in the first week of June
slopes of the Himalayas.
with violent thunder and lightning. This
In India, rains occur in winter due to the North East South-West monsoon that flows into India brings
Monsoon. During the winter season, North-East trade about a major change in its weather.
winds prevail over India. They blow from land to sea and
that is why for most parts of the country, it is a dry season. 4. Retreating Monsoon Season
A part of North-East trade winds blow over Bay of Bengal. October and November are the months of post
They gather moisture which causes rainfall in the (or retreating) monsoon season.
Coromandel coast while the rest of the country remains The temperatures during September-October
dry. In the Northern part of the country, the weather is start decreasing in North India. Monsoonal
marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low humidity. trough also becomes weak over North-West
The winter rainfall is very important for the cultivation of India. This is gradually replaced by a high
Rabi crops. pressure system.
2. Summer Season The South-West monsoon winds weaken and
start withdrawing gradually from North Indian
By the end of February, the temperature starts rising and
Plains by November. In October, the weather
there is a hot weather season in India from March to May.
remains humid and warm due to continuing high
During these months, the central part of peninsular India temperature and moist land in the month of
experiences extreme hot weather and an elongated low October. In Northern plains, hot and humid
pressure belt which is called monsoonal trough created, weather becomes oppressive at this time.
which extends from Jaisalmer in Western Rajasthan to
It is commonly called October Heat. However,
Jharkhand and parts of Odisha to the East.
towards the end of October, temperature starts
However, over the Indian Ocean South of the equator high decreasing, making nights pleasant.
pressure belt begins to develop in this season.
By the month of November, the low pressure of
In North-West India, afternoon dust storms are common. North India shifts to Bay of Bengal and this is the
During summer, very hot and dry winds blow over North time of cyclonic storms which develop in the Bay
Indian plains. of Bengal. These storms create havoc in coastal
They are locally called Loo. At the same time, localised areas of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
thunderstorms, associated with violent winds, torrential Nadu, especially in the deltas of Mahanadi,
downpours, often accompanied by hail occur in many parts Godavari and Krishna rivers.
of India. In West Bengal, these storms are known as the
Kaal Baisakhi (calamity for the month of Baisakh). Traditional Indian Seasons
In the Indian tradition, a year is divided into six,
Pre-Monsoon Showers two-monthly seasons. This cycle of seasons,
n Towards the close of the summer season, pre-monsoon which the common people in North and central
showers are common, especially in Kerala and Karnataka, India follow, is based on their practical
which help in the early ripening of mangoes and are often experience and age-old perception of weather
referred to as ‘mango showers’. phenomena.
n The thunderstorms which occur during summer to bring
However, this system does not match with the
some rainfall in Karnataka are also known as Cherry Blossom
Showers. seasons of South India where there is little
variation in the seasons.
202
Traditional Indian Seasons — Tropical Savanna type (Aw) Almost the entire peninsular
Season Months according Months according to region except for some coastal parts experiences this type
to Indian Calendar English Calendar of climate.
Vasanta Chaitra-Vaisakha March-April — Semi-arid steppe climate (BShw) This climatic region
includes the interior parts of the peninsular plateau and
Grishma Jyaistha-Asadha May-June
some parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab and
Varsha Sravana-Bhadra July-August
Jammu and Kashmir.
Sharada Asvina-Kartika September-October — Hot desert type (BWhw) This type of climate is found only
Hemanta Margashirsa-Pausa November-December in the Western part of Rajasthan.
Shishira Magha-Phalguna January-February — Monsoon type with dry winters (Cwg) Largely Northern
plains of India experiences this type of climate.
Climatic Regions of India — Cold-humid winter type with short summer (Dfc) This
climate is characterised by a short summer season. This
India is often referred to as a country with
region covers the North-Eastern parts of India.
tropical monsoon type of climate. However,
there is great variations in the distribution of — Polar type (E) This type of climate is experienced in
temperature and precipitation in India. It is due Jammu and Kashmir and the neighbouring mountain
to the large latitudinal extent, the presence of ranges.
Himalayas in the North and the Indian Ocean in 68° E 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° E
the South have resulted in.

The climate of North is different from that of India
CLIMATIC REGIONS
South and so is the climate of East from that of 36°
According to Koeppen’s Scheme 36°
N (E) N
the West. Polar Type
To study the variations of climate in various
(BShw) G (Dfc)
parts, India is divided into a large number of 32° Steppe 32°
Cold Humid Winter
climatic regions of small size. (BWhw) with Short Summers
Hot Desert
A climatic region is that area which possesses a
broad uniformity of climatic conditions caused 28° (Cwg) 28°
by the combined effects of climatic elements – Monsoon Type with
temperature, pressure, winds, humidity and Dry Winter
precipitation. Tropic of
I N D I A Cancer 24°
24°
Temperature and rainfall are two important
elements which are considered to be decisive in
(Aw)
all the schemes of climatic classification. (BShw) Tropical Savannah
There are different schemes of classification of 20° Steppe Climate Type BAY OF 20°
BENGAL
climate.
ARABIAN
Koeppen scheme of Climatic classification is SEA
based on monthly values of temperature and 16° 16°
precipitation. India’s climate is divided into the (Amw)

(As)
Monsoon Type
following climatic regions: with Short Monsoon with Dry
Dry Season Season in Summer
— Monsoon type with short dry season (Amw) 12° 12°
The Western coastal region South of Goa

ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS
experiences this type of climate. Lakshadweep (INDIA)
(INDIA) 0 200 400 600 km
— Monsoon type with dry season in summers 8° 8°
SRI
(AS) The region of this type of climate extends N INDIAN LANKA OCEAN N
along the Coromandel coast. 72° E 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° E
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 19 203
Natural Vegetation
and Soil in India
Sources Class-IX New NCERT Chap 5 (Natural Vegetation and Wildlife), Class-X Old NCERT Chap 3 (The Flora, the Fauna and
the Soils), Class-XI New NCERT Chap 6 (Soils), Class-XI New NCERT Chap 5 (Natural Vegetation)
Natural Vegetation Floristic Regions

It refers to a plant community which has grown Floristic regions are the areas recognised by the plant
naturally without human aid and has been left geographers for the district plant life.
undisturbed by humans for a long time (also called In 1898, CB Clarke, divided into six floristic regions :
as virgin vegetation). — Himalayas region
The natural vegetation includes tall trees, shrubs, (a) Eastern Himalaya (b) Western Himalaya
grasses, bushes and flowering plants which live in — Arid — Malabar
association with one another in a given — Coromandel — Ganga Plain
environment. — Assam Region
However, it does not include the crops, fruits and
In 1939, D Chatterjee, on the basis of indigenous plant
other plant species which are cultivated by
species in different parts of the country, divided India
humans.
into eight main floristic regions :
India is a land of great variety of natural vegetation — Western Himalaya — Eastern Himalaya
i.e.,
— Assam Region — Ganga Plain
— Himalayas have temperate vegetation
— Indus Plain — Deccan Region
— Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar Islands
— Malabar Region — Andaman - Nicobar Region
have tropical rain forests
— Deltaic regions have tropical forests and Factors Influencing Natural Vegetation
mangroves The climatic conditions of a country highly influence
— Desert and semi-desert areas of Rajasthan are the type of natural vegetation of that country. This is
known for cacti and a wide variety of bushes and because each plant species has different and in few cases
thorny vegetation. even unique requirements for its growth. The various
The virgin vegetation which is purely Indian are factors that influence the natural vegetation are :
known as endemic or indigenous species but those Land The nature of the land, whether it is a
which have come from outside India are termed as mountainous region or plateaus or plains, influences the
exotic species. type of natural vegetation.
Lantana as and water hyacinth are used as the For example, the mountain regions have hydrophilous
ornamental plants in the gardens. Water hyacinth is vegetation which have the ability to withstand the humid
also known as Terror of Bengal as it spread in and cold climatic conditions while the vegetation in
almost all water routes, rivers, ponds, etc. plains does not possess such abilities.
204
Soil The nature of the soil and the nutrients present in it, Percentage of Different Types of Forests in India
provide a basis for different types of natural vegetation.
Forest Type in India % of Total Area
For example, the sandy soil has very few nutrients and
Tropical Moist Deciduous 37
poor water holding capacity and hence, it is not suitable
for vegetation, whereas the loamy soil which is rich in Tropical Dry Deciduous 28
nutrients and possesses an ability to retain moisture is Tropical Wet Evergreen 8
suitable for vegetation.
Sub-Tropical Moist Hill 6
Precipitation Rainfall is an important factor which
influences natural vegetation. Areas with rainfall over Tropical Semi-Evergreen 4
200 cm and above have a dense and evergreen vegetation Rest below 4 %
when compared to ones which receive less than 50 cm
rainfall. A. Moist Tropical Forests
The natural vegetation in India is highly determined by the
There are following types of moist tropical forests :
advancing South-West monsoon and retreating North-East
monsoon, which brings maximum rainfall to the country. 1. Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests
Temperature Along with the nature of soil and These forests are found where the annual rainfall
precipitation, the temperature of a region determines the exceeds 250 cm, the annual temperature is about
character and extent of the natural vegetation. 25°-27°C and the average annual humidity
Particularly the vegetation in hills and mountains is exceeds 77%.
highly influenced by the temperature. The dry season is distinctly short in these forests.
For example, in the Himalayas, tropical evergreen Due to high heat and high humidity, the trees of
vegetation can be found in lower altitudes. However, as the these forests do not shed their leaves together and
altitude increases, the temperature falls and thus the hence, are evergreen.
nature of vegetation changes from evergreen to alpine.
Plants are mesophytic, i.e., adapted to neither too
Photoperiod Another crucial factor which determines dry nor too wet type climate.
the natural vegetation of a region is the amount of
The trees are lofty and often reach 45 – 60 metres in
sunlight received by them.
height. From the air, the tropical rain forest appears
Photoperiod i.e duration of light exposure and the like a thick canopy of foliage, broken only where it
intensity of the light influences a process called is crossed by large rivers or cleared for cultivation.
photosynthesis which enables the plants to carry out
All plants struggle upwards (most epiphytes) for
necessary physiological processes for their survival.
sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer arrangement.
The entire morphology looks like a green carpet
Classification of when viewed from above.
Natural Vegetation of India The sunlight cannot reach the ground due to the
Classification of Natural Vegetation of India is primarily thick canopy. The undergrowth is formed mainly of
based on spatial and annual variations in rainfall. bamboos, ferns, climbers, orchids, etc.
Temperature, soil and topography are also considered. They are found in the Western side of the Western
India’s vegetation can be divided into five main types and Ghats (500 to 1370 metres above sea level), some
16 sub-types as given below : regions in the Purvanchal hills and in the Andaman
Classification of Natural Vegetation in India and Nicobar Islands.
Mesophytes
Moist Tropical Forests Montane Sub-tropical Forests Alpine Forests n Unlike hydrophytic plants, such as water lily or
Tropical Wet Evergreen Sub-tropical broad leaved hill Sub-Alpine pondweed, that grow in saturated soil or water, or
Tropical Semi-Evergreen Sub-tropical moist hill (pine) Moist Alpine scrub xerophytic plants, such as cactus, that grow in
Tropical Moist Deciduous Sub-tropical dry evergreen Dry Alpine scrub extremely dry soil, mesophytes are ordinary plants
Littoral and Swamp that exist between the two extremes.
Dry Tropical Forests Montane Temperate Forests n Mesophytic environments are marked by average to
Tropical Dry Evergreen Montane Wet Temperate hot temperatures and soil that is neither too dry nor
Tropical Dry Deciduous Himalayan Moist Temperate too wet.
Tropical Thorn Himalayan Dry Temperate
205
The timber of these forests is fine-grained, hard and varies from 24°C to 27°C and the relative humidity is
durable. about 75%. Here the dry season is not short like in
It has high commercial value, but it is highly tropical evergreen forests.
challenging to exploit due to dense undergrowth, They are found in the Western coast, Assam, Lower
absence of pure stands and lack of transport facilities. slopes of the Eastern Himalayas, Odisha and
The important species of these forests are mahogany, Andamans.
mesua, white cedar, jamun, canes, bamboo, etc. The semi-evergreen forests are less dense.
2. Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests These forests are characterised by many species.
They are transitional forests between tropical wet The important species are laurel, rosewood, mesua,
evergreen forests and tropical deciduous forests. thorny bamboo in Western Ghats and white cedar,
Indian chestnut, champa, mango, etc in Himalayan
They are comparatively drier areas compared to
region.
tropical wet evergreen forests.
Timber industry in these forests is better than in
These forests are found where the annual rainfall is
evergreen forests).
between 200-250 cm, the mean annual temperature
206
3. Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests B. Dry Tropical Forests

These forests are found where the annual rainfall is Dry Tropical Forest can be further classified as follows :
between 100 to 200 cm, the mean annual
temperature of about 27°C and the average annual 1. Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
relative humidity of 60 to 75%. They are found in the following along the coasts of
The trees drop their leaves during the spring and Tamil Nadu.
early summer when sufficient moisture is not These forests occur in the areas where the annual
available. rainfall is around 100 cm [mostly from the North-East
The general appearance is with leaves in extreme monsoon winds in October-December], the mean
summers (April-May). The Tropical moist deciduous annual temperature is about 28°C and the mean
forests present irregular top canopy i.e., 25 to 60 m. humidity is about 75%.
They have heavily buttressed trees and fairly The growth of evergreen forests in areas of such low
complete undergrowth. rainfall is a bit strange.
These forests occupy a much larger area than the They have short statured trees, up to 12 m high, with
evergreen forests, but large tracts under these forests complete canopy.
have been cleared for cultivation. Bamboos and grasses are not conspicuous.
These provide valuable timber like Teak. The important species are jamun, tamarind, neem, etc.
The main species found in these forests are teak, sal, Most of the land under these forests has been cleared
laurel, rosewood, amla, jamun, bamboo, etc. for agriculture or casuarina plantations.
They are found in the belt running along the It reduces damage in the event of natural calamities.
Western Ghats surrounding the belt of evergreen Line planting in the coastal areas helps in controlling
forests and a strip along the Shiwalik range the wind force. It is also used for tourism promotion in
including terai and bhabar from 77° E to 88° E. view of its ornamental appearance.
They are also found in Manipur and Mizoram, hills It provides top quality firewood.
of Eastern Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh,
The wood is suitable for paper pulp and useful raw
Chhota Nagpur Plateau, most of Odisha, parts of
material for the manufacture of paper for writing,
West Bengal and Andaman and Nicobar islands.
printing and wrapping.
4. Littoral and Swamp Forests The characteristics which make it a suitable species for
They can survive and grow both in fresh as well as wasteland development include adaptability to a wide
brackish water (The mixture of seawater and fresh range of habitats, fast growth, salt tolerant, drought
water in estuaries is called brackish water and its resistant, ability to reclaim land and stabilise sand dunes.
salinity can range from 0.5 to 35 ppt). Intercrops such as groundnut, cucumber, watermelons,
It provides hard and durable timber which is used sesamum and pulses can also be raised along with the
for construction, building purposes and making plantation.
boats.
The important species found in these forests are Casuarina Plantation
Sundri, agar, rhizophora, screw pines, canes and n It resembles feathery conifer in general appearance.
palms, etc. n They are rapid-growing, carefree species for sites and
They occur in and around the deltas, estuaries and climates as varied as coastal sand dunes, high mountain
creeks prone to tidal influences (delta or tidal slopes, hot humid tropics and semi-arid regions.
forests) and littoral (on the shore of the sea or a lake) n They have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. It
forests occur at several places along the coast. grows 15 to 25 m in height on average.
n Casuarina is the most popular farm forestry in the states
They are confined to the deltas of the Ganga, the
of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Odisha,
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Karnataka.
Cauvery.
Dense mangroves occur all along the coastline in 2. Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests
sheltered estuaries, tidal creeks, backwaters, salt
marshes and mudflats. It provides useful fuel wood. These forests are found in the areas where the annual
rainfall is between 100-150 cm.
The most pronounced and the densest is the
Sunderban in the Ganges delta where the These are similar to moist deciduous forests and shed
predominant species is Sundri (Heriteera). their leaves in the dry season.
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The major difference is that they can grow in areas of These forests are not so distinct in the Southern
comparatively less rainfall. parts of the country.
They represent a transitional type – moist deciduous on They occur only in the Nilgiri and Palni hills at
the wetter side and thorn forests on the drier side. 1070-1525 m above sea level.
They have a closed but uneven canopy. The forests are The higher parts of the Western Ghats such as
composed of a mixture of a few species of deciduous Mahabaleshwar, the summits of the Satpura and the
trees rising up to a height of 20 m. Maikal Range, highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in
Enough light reaches the ground to permit the growth of the Aravalli Range carry sub-types of these forests.
grass and climbers. 2. Sub-tropical Moist Pine Forests
Large tracts of this forest have been cleared for Chir or Chil is the most dominant tree which forms
agricultural purposes. These forests suffer from over pure stands.
grazing, fire, etc.
It provides valuable timber for furniture, boxes and
The important species are teak, axlewood, rosewood, buildings.
common bamboo, red sanders, laurel, satinwood, etc.
It is also used for producing resin and turpentine.
They occur in an irregular wide strip running from the
They are found in Western Himalayas between 73°E
foothills of the Himalayas to Kanyakumari except in
and 88°E longitudes at elevations between 1000 to
Rajasthan, Western Ghats and West Bengal.
2000 m above sea level. They are also found in some
3. Tropical Thorn Forests hilly regions of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Naga
These forests are found in the areas where the annual Hills and Khasi Hills.
rainfall is less than 75 cm, humidity is less than 50% 3. Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
and the mean temperature is 25°-30°C.
They are found in the Bhabar, the Shiwaliks and the
The trees are low (6 to 10 m maximum) and widely Western Himalayas up to about 1000 m above sea
scattered. level.
Acacias and Euphorbias are very prominent in these These forests are found in the areas where the
forests. annual rainfall is 50-100 cm (15 to 25 cm in
The Indian wild date is common. Some grasses also December-March).
grow in the rainy season. The summers are sufficiently hot and winters are
They degenerate into desert type in the Thar desert. very cold.
The important species are neem, babul, cactii, etc. They have low scrub forest with small evergreen
They are found in Rajasthan, South-Western Punjab, stunted trees and shrubs. Olive, acacia modesta and
Western Haryana, Kachchh and neighbouring parts of pistacia are the most predominant species.
Saurashtra.
Such forests also grow on the leeside of the Western D. Montane Temperate Forests
Ghats covering large areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Montane temperate forests are of following types :
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. 1. Montane Wet Temperate Forests
C. Montane Sub-Tropical Forests These forests are found at a height of 1800 to
3000 m above sea level in the areas where the mean
There are following types of montane sub-tropical forests :
annual rainfall is 150 cm to 300 cm, the mean
1. Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill Forests annual temperature is about 11°C to 14°C and the
These forests are found in the areas where the mean average relative humidity is over 80%.
annual rainfall is 75 cm to 125 cm, the average annual They are found in the higher hills of Tamil Nadu
temperature is 18°-21°C and humidity is 80%. and Kerala, in the Eastern Himalayan region.
They are found in the Eastern Himalayas to the East of These are closed evergreen forests. Trunks have
88°E longitude at altitudes varying from 1000 to 2000 m. large girth. Their branches are clothed with mosses,
They are forests of evergreen species. ferns and other epiphytes.
The commonly found species are evergreen oaks, The trees rarely achieve a height of more than 6
chestnuts, ash, beech, sals and pines. metres. Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, birch,
plum, machilus, cinnamomum, litsea, magnolia,
Climbers and epiphytes (a plant that grows
blue pine, oak, hemlock, etc. are important species.
non-parasitically on a tree or other plant) are common.
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2. Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests These are classified under the following categories :
These forests are found in the areas where the (i) Reserved Forests More than half of the total forest
annual rainfall varies from 150 cm to 250 cm. land has been declared reserved forests. Reserved
They are found in the temperate zone of the forests are regarded as the most valuable as far as the
Himalayas between 1500 and 3300 m. conservation of forest and wildlife resources are
concerned.
They cover the entire length of this mountain range
in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under
Darjeeling and Sikkim. permanent forests, constituting 75% of its total forest
They are mainly composed of coniferous species. area. Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and
Trees are 30 to 50 m high. Pines, cedars, silver fir,
spruce, etc. are the most important trees. Maharashtra have large percentages of reserved
forests of its total forest area.
They form high but fairly open forest with shrubby
(ii) Protected Forests Almost one-third of the total forest
undergrowth including oaks, rhododendrons and
area is protected forest, as declared by the Forest
some bamboos.
Department.
They provide fine wood which is of much use for
This forest land is protected from any further
construction, timber and railway sleepers.
depletion. Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal
3. Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan have a bulk of area
The precipitation is below 100 cm and is mostly in under protected forests (6.98%).
the form of snow. (iii) Unclassed Forests These are other forests and
They are coniferous forests with xerophytic shrubs in wastelands belonging to both government and private
which deodar, oak, ash, olive, etc. are the main trees. individuals and communities All North-eastern states
and parts of Gujarat have a very high percentage of
Such forests are found in the inner dry ranges of the
Himalayas where South-West monsoon is very feeble their forests as unclassed forests managed by local
like Ladakh, Lahaul, Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal and communities.
Sikkim.
Medicinal Plants
E. Alpine Forests India is known for its herbs and spices from ancient times.
Some 2,000 plants have been described in Ayurveda and at
The altitude ranges between 2,900 to 3,500 m. least 500 are in regular use.
These forests can be divided into sub-alpine, moist The World Conservation Union’s Red List has named 352
alpine scrub and dry alpine scrub. medicinal plants of which 52 are critically threatened and
The sub-alpine forests occur in lower alpine scrub 49 endangered.
and grasslands. The commonly used plants in India are:
It is a mixture of coniferous and broad-leaved trees in n Sarpagandha Used to treat blood pressure; it is found
which the coniferous trees attain a height of about 30 only in India.

m while the broad-leaved trees reach only 10 m. n Jamun The juice from ripe fruit is used to prepare
Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc are important species. vinegar, which is carminative and diuretic, and has
digestive properties. The powder of the seed is used for
The moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen dense controlling diabetes.
growth of rhododendron, birch, etc. which occurs n Arjun The fresh juice of leaves is a cure for earache. It is
from 3,000 m and extends up to the snowline. also used to regulate blood pressure.
The dry alpine scrub is the uppermost limit of scrub n Babool Leaves are used as a cure for eye sores. Its gum
xerophytic, dwarf shrubs, over 3,500 m above sea is used as a tonic.

level and found in the dry zone. Juniper, n Neem Has high antibiotic and antibacterial properties.
honeysuckle, Artemisia, etc., are important species. n Tulsi Is used to cure cough and cold.
n Kachnar Is used to cure asthma and ulcers. The buds
Types and Distribution of Forest and roots are good for digestive problems.
It is difficult to manage, control and regulate forest

resources. In India, much of its forests are either Forest Conservation
owned or managed by the government through the
Forests have an intricate interrelationship with life and
Forest Department or other government
environment. These provide numerous direct and
departments.
indirect advantages to our economy and society.
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Hence, conservation of forest is of vital importance to It combines forestry with agriculture, thus, altering
the survival and prosperity of humankind. the simultaneous production of food, fodder, fuel,
Accordingly, the Government of India proposed to timber and fruit.
have a nation-wide forest conservation policy and Community forestry involves the raising of trees on
adopted a Forest Policy in 1952, which was further public or community land such as the village pasture
modified in 1988. and temple land, roadside, canal bank, strips along
According to the New Forest Policy, the Government railway lines, and schools etc.
will emphasise sustainable forest management in Community forestry programme aims at providing
order to conserve and expand forest reserve on the benefits to the community as a whole. Community
one hand, and to meet the needs of local people on the forestry provides a means under which the people of
other. landless classes can associate themselves in
The forest policy aimed at : tree-raising and thus, get those benefits which
— Bringing 33% of the geographical areas under forest
otherwise are restricted for landowners.
cover. Farm Forestry
— Maintaining environmental stability and to restore Farm forestry is a term applied to the process under
forests where ecological balance was disturbed. which farmers grow trees for commercial and
— Conserving the natural heritage of the country, its non-commercial purposes on their farm lands.
biological diversity and genetic pool. Forest departments of various states distribute
— Checks soil erosion, extension of the desert lands seedlings of trees free of cost to small and medium
and reduction of floods and droughts. farmers.
— Increasing the forest cover through social forestry Several lands such as the margins of agricultural
and afforestation on degraded land. fields, grasslands and pastures, land around homes
— Increasing the productivity of forests to make and cow sheds may be used for raising trees under
timber, fuel, fodder and food available to rural non-commercial farm forestry.
population dependent on forests, and encourage the
substitution of wood.
Initiatives for the Conservation of Forests
— creating of a massive peoples movement involving
n Chipko Movement The famous Chipko movement in
women to encourage planting of trees, stop felling of the Himalayas has not only successfully resisted
trees and thus, reduce pressure on the existing forest. deforestation in several areas but has also shown that
Based on the forest conservation policy the following community afforestation with indigenous species can
steps were initiated: be enormously successful.
n Beej Bachao Andolan and Navdanya Attempts to
Social Forestry revive the traditional conservation methods or
developing new methods of ecological farming are now
Social forestry means the management and protection
widespread. Farmers and citizen’s groups like the Beej
of forests and afforestation on barren lands with the Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have shown
purpose of helping in the environmental, social and that adequate levels of diversified crop production
rural development. without the use of synthetic chemicals are possible and
The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) has economically viable.
classified social forestry into three categories. n Joint Forest Management (JFM) In India, JFM
programme furnishes a good example for involving
Urban Forestry local communities in the management and restoration
Urban forestry pertains to the raising and of degraded forests.
management of trees on public and privately owned n The programme has been in formal existence since
lands in and around urban centres such as green 1988 when the state of Odisha passed the first
belts, parks, roadside avenues, industrial and resolution for joint forest management. JFM depends on
commercial green belts, etc. the formation of local (village) institutions that
undertake protection activities mostly on degraded
Rural Forestry forest land managed by the forest department.
Rural forestry lays emphasis on promotion of n In return, the members of these communities are
agro-forestry and community-forestry. entitled to intermediary benefits like non-timber forest
produces and share in the timber harvested by
Agro-forestry is the raising of trees and agriculture ‘successful protection’.
crops on the same land inclusive of the waste patches.
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According of ISFR 2021, 17 states/UTs in India consist

Community and Conservation 33% of forests on their total geographical area.
Conservation strategies are not new in our country. State with maximum forest cover is Madhya Pradesh
In some areas of India, local communities are and minimum forest cover is Haryana.
struggling to conserve these habitats along with
government officials, recognising that only this will Top Five States with Maximum Forest Area
secure their own long-term livelihood. State Area
In Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, villagers have Madhya Pradesh 77493
fought against mining by citing the Wildlife
Arunachal Pradesh 66431
Protection Act. In many areas, villagers themselves
are protecting habitats and explicitly rejecting Chhattisgarh 55717
government involvement. Odisha 52156
The inhabitants of five villages in the Alwar district Maharashtra 50798
of Rajasthan have declared 1,200 hectares of forest as
the Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, declaring their own Top Five States/UTs with
set of rules and regulations which do not allow Maximum Forest Percentage
hunting, and are protecting the wildlife against any
State/UTs Forest %
outside encroachments.
Lakshadweep 90.33
Mizoram 84.53
Cultural Significance of Forests
n Certain societies revere a particular tree which they Andaman and Nicobar Islands 81.74
have preserved from time immemorial. The Mundas Arunachal Pradesh 79.39
and the Santhal of Chhota Nagpur region worship
mahua (Bassia latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocaphalus Meghalaya 76.00
cadamba) trees.
n The tribals of Odisha and Bihar worship the tamarind
(Tamarindus indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) Soil
trees during weddings. To many of us, peepal and Soil is the topmost layer of the continental crust
banyan trees are considered sacred. having weathered particles of rocks. The soils of India
are the product of physical factors as well as human
factors.
Forest Cover in India Soil can be simply defined as a mixture of small rock
Indian government released its 17th India State of particles and organic materials that supports the
Forest Report (ISFR) on 13th January, 2022. growth of plants.
According to the report, total forest cover in India is
71.37 million hectare (7137898 sq km) which 21.71% Factors influencing Soil Formation
of the total geographical area. Factors that influence soil formation are as follows:
According to the report, tree cover in India is 9.57 Parent Material/Rock Soil is made up from erosion of
million hectare (95748 sq km) which is 2.9% of the soft rocks. It provides soil material, texture, porosity
total geographical area. and pH value. Soft rocks means better soil formed than
Total forest and tree cover in India is 80.93 million hard rocks.
hectare (809537 sq km) which is 24.62% of the total Relief/Topography Steep gradient gives
geographical area. underdeveloped soil and plain area gives well
In ISFR 2021, maximum growth in forest cover was developed soil.
achieved by Andhra Pradesh (647 sq km) and Climate Wind, water, glaciers are agents of erosion.
minimum growth in forest cover was achieved by Climate determines the type of erosion and its
Jharkhand (110 sq km). intensity.
On the basis of tree cover, states with maximum area Natural Vegetation & Biological Factors Microbes
under forest are Maharashtra, Rajasthan and enrich the soil. Roots from plants help in weathering of
Madhya Pradesh while Sikkim, Manipur and rocks and humus content from plants enriches the soil.
Tripura have minimum area under forest tree cover.
Time Soil formation is a long term process. Time
On the basis of percentage of geographical area, state decides the maturity of the soil.
with maximum tree cover is Kerala.
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Soil Types in India Classification the Soils as per the USDA Soil Taxonomy
The first scientific classification of soil was done by Vasily Order Area (in Thousand Percentage
Dokuchaev. In India, the Indian Council of Agricultural Hectares)
Research (ICAR) has classified soils into 8 categories. Inceptisols 130372.90 39.74
1. Alluvial Soil Entisols 92131.71 28.08
2. Black Cotton Soil Alfisols 44448.68 13.55
3. Red Soil Vertisols 27960.00 8.52
4. Laterite Soil Aridisols 14069.00 4.28
5. Mountainous or Forest Soils Ultisols 8250.00 2.51
6. Arid or Desert Soil Mollisols 1320.00 0.40
7. Saline and Alkaline Soil Others 9503.10 2.92
8. Peaty and Marshy Soil/Bog Soil Total 100
This classification scheme is based on constitutional
characteristics – colour and the resource significance of Source : Soils of India, National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land
Use Planning. Publication Number 94
the soils.
INDIA
Major Soil Types
n
ta
kis
N
Pa
China
(Tibet)
Ne
pal
Bhutan
Bangladesh
Cancer
Tropic of
Myanmar
Arabian Bay of
Sea Bengal
Forest and Mountainous Soil

Alluvial Soil
Red and Yellow Soil
Black Soil
Laterite Soil
Desert Soil
Andaman and Nicobar Island

Lakshadweep (INDIA)
(INDIA) 0 200 400 600 km
Sri
Indian Lanka Ocean
212
1. Alluvial Soils Geological Divisions of Alluvial soils

Alluvial soils are formed mainly due to silt deposited Geologically, the alluvium of the Great Plain of India
by Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra rivers. In coastal is divided into newer or younger khadar and older
regions, some alluvial deposits are formed due to bhangar soils.
wave action.
Bhabar
Rocks of the Himalayas form the parent material.
The bhabar belt is about 8-16 km wide running along
Thus, the parent material of these soils is of
the Shivalik foothills. It is a porous, Northern-most
transported origin.
stretch of Indo-Gangetic plain.
They are the largest soil group covering about 15 lakh
Rivers descending from the Himalayas deposit their
sq km or about 40% of the total area.
load along the foothills in the form of alluvial fans.
They support more than 40% of India’s population by These alluvial fans (often pebbly soils) have merged
providing the most productive agricultural lands. together to build up the bhabar belt.
Characteristics of Alluvial Soils The porosity of bhabar is the most unique feature. The
They are immature and have weak profiles due to porosity is due to deposition of a huge number of
their recent origin. Most of the soil is sandy and clayey pebbles and rock debris across the alluvial fans.
soils are not uncommon. The streams disappear once they reach the bhabar
They vary from loamy to sandy-loam in drier regions region because of this porosity. Therefore, the area is
and clayey loam towards the delta. marked by dry river courses except in the rainy
Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare. Kankar (calcareous season.
concretions) beds are present in some regions along The area is not suitable for agriculture and only big
the river terraces. trees with large roots thrive in this belt.
The soil is porous because of its loamy (equal Terai
proportion of sand and clay) nature.
Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and thickly
Porosity and texture provide good drainage and other
forested narrow tract (15-30 km wide) to the South of
conditions favorable for agriculture.
Bhabar running parallel to it.
These soils are constantly replenished by the
The underground streams of the Bhabar belt
recurrent floods.
re-emerge in this belt. It is a swampy lowland with
The proportion of nitrogen is generally low in these silty soils.
soils. The proportion of potash, phosphoric acid, and
The terai soils are rich in nitrogen and organic matter
alkalis are adequate.
but are deficient in phosphate.
The proportion of iron oxide and lime vary within a
These soils are generally covered by tall grasses and
wide range.
forests but are suitable for a number of crops such as
Distribution of Alluvial Soils in India wheat, rice, sugarcane, jute, etc.
They occur all along the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra This thickly forested region provides shelter to a
plains except in few places where the top layer is variety of wildlife.
covered by desert sand.
Bhangar
They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, the
The Bhangar is the older alluvium along the river beds
Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery, where they
forming terraces higher than the floodplain (about 30
are called deltaic alluvium (coastal alluvium).
metres above the flood level).
Some alluvial soils are found in the Narmada, Tapi
It is of a more clayey composition and is generally
valleys and Northern parts of Gujarat.
dark-coloured.
Crops in Alluvial Soils A few meters below the terrace of the bhangar are
They are mostly flat and regular soils and are best beds of lime nodules known as Kankar.
suited for agriculture.
Khadar
They are best suited to irrigation and respond well to
The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and forms
the canal and well/tube-well irrigation.
the flood plains along the river banks.
They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat, sugarcane,
The banks are flooded almost every year and a new
tobacco, cotton, jute, maize, oilseeds, vegetables and
layer of alluvium is deposited with every flood. This
fruits.
makes them the most fertile soils of the Ganges.
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They are sandy clays and loams, drier and leached, 6-8% of lime and magnesium carbonates,
less calcareous and carbonaceous (less kankary). Potash is variable (less than 0.5%) and
A new layer of alluvium is deposited by river floods
phosphates, nitrogen, and humus are low.
almost every year.
They are rich in iron and lime but deficient in humus,
Alluvial Regions with Rainfall nitrogen and phosphorous content.
Above 100 cm – Suitable for paddy
Distribution of Black Soils
B/w 50-100 cm – Suitable for wheat, sugarcane,
tobacco, and cotton It is found in the Deccan lava plateau region of India.
Below 50 cm – Coarse grains (millets) Spread over 46 lakh sq km (16.6% of the total area)
across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, parts of
2. Black Soils Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and
They are formed due to weathering of these basaltic Tamil Nadu.
rocks which emerged during fissure eruption of the Crops Grown in Black Soils
Cretaceous period.
These soils are best suited for cotton crops. Hence,
The parent material for most of the black soil are the
these soils are called as regur and black cotton soils.
volcanic rocks that were formed in the Deccan
Plateau (Deccan and the Rajmahal trap). Other major crops grown on the black soils include
wheat, jowar, linseed, Virginia tobacco, castor,
In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schist form the parent
sunflower, and millets.
material. The former are sufficiently deep while the
later are generally shallow. Rice and sugarcane are equally important where
irrigation facilities are available.
These are the regions of high temperature and low
rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil group typical to the dry Large varieties of vegetables and fruits are also
and hot regions of the Peninsula. successfully grown on the black soils.
Its extent is 15 % of the total soil area. This soil has been used for growing a variety of crops
for centuries without adding fertilisers and manures,
Characteristics of Black Soils with little or no evidence of exhaustion.
A typical black soil is highly argillaceous (containing
clay) with a large clay factor, 62% or more. 3. Red Soil
In general, black soils of uplands are of low fertility This soil developed on Archean granite occupies the
while those in the valleys are very fertile. second largest area of the country.
The black soil is highly retentive of moisture. It swells The presence of ferric oxides makes the colour of soil
greatly on accumulating moisture. Strenuous effort is red, ferric oxides occurring as thin coatings on the soil
required to work on such soil in rainy season as it gets particles.
very sticky. The top layer of the soil is red and the horizon below is
In summer, the moisture evaporates and the soil yellowish.
shrinks and is seamed with broad and deep cracks. Its Extent is 18.5 % of the area.
The lower layers can still retain moisture. The cracks
permits oxygenation of the soil to sufficient depths Its texture ranges from sandy to clay and loamy.
and the soil has extraordinary fertility. This soil is also known as the omnibus group.
The black colour is due to the presence of a small Characteristics of Red Soils
proportion of titaniferous magnetite or iron and black
These are well drained soil and the structure is sandy.
constituents of the parent rock.
Once irrigated and added with humus, it gives a high
In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra Pradesh, the black
colour is derived from crystalline schist and basic yield because the mineral base is rich.
gneisses. They are rich in iron and potash but deficient in other
Various tints of the black colour such as deep black, minerals.
medium black, shallow black , a mixture of red and Types of Red Soil
black may be found in this group of soils.
Rainfall is highly variable. Thus, the soil has developed
When dry, it develops cracks and has blocky structure 3 subtypes
which increases its self ploughing capacity.
1. Red & Yellow Soil The required rainfall is 200cm.
The chemical composition of black soils is as follows : They are found in Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur Hills,
10% of alumina, parts of Malabar coast. They require quick drainage.
9-10% of iron oxide,
214
2. Red Sandy Soil It is found in drier plateaus like Crops Grown in Laterite Soil
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Rayalaseema. It is famous for crops like groundnut, cashew nut, etc.
The required rainfall is 40-60 cm.
Laterite soil of Karnataka is given to coffee, rubber, and
3. Red Alluvial Soil It is found along river valleys spices farming.
and has good fertility.
Generally, these soils are deficient in phosphate, lime, 5. Forest Soil/ Mountain Soil
magnesia, humus and nitrogen. It is principally found on mountains with steeper slopes,
high relief, shallow profiles.
Distribution of Red Soils
They are mainly found in the Peninsula from Tamil Characteristics
Nadu in the South to Bundelkhand in the North and Raj It is thin layered and the profiles and horizons are
Mahal in the East to Kathiawad in the West. poorly developed.
Due to fast drainage, it has been vulnerable to soil erosion.
Crops Grown in Red Soil It is rich in organic content – humus content is also
It supports rice, sugarcane, cotton cultivation. adequate but other nutrients are deficient. It is a loamy
Millets and pulses are grown in drier areas. soil when sand, silt, and clay are in mixed form.
Kaveri and Vaigai basins are famous for red alluvium Large area also given to shifting agriculture where the
and if irrigated well, are suitable for paddy. soil fertility deteriorates after 2-3 years.
Large regions of Karnataka and Kerala have Due to less scope of agriculture, silvi pastoral farming
developed Red soil regions for rubber and coffee (forest+grasses) can be sustained.
plantation farming. Distribution
4. Laterite Soil These are generally found over 900 m altitude.
This soil has emerged in those regions where the Himalayas, Himalayan foothills, mountain slopes of
following conditions are fulfilled : Western Ghats, Nilgiri, Annamalai, and Cardamom
hills.
There must be laterite rock or structure (Laterites
are rich in iron and aluminium content). Crops Grown in Forest Soil
Alternating dry and wet periods are more suitable It is very helpful to those crops which need favourable
for the development of laterite soils. air and water drainage which is provided by this soil by
Characteristics virtue of being on slopes.
Generally used for rubber plantation, bamboo
It is brown in colour.
plantation and also tea, coffee and fruits farming.
It is composed essentially of a mixture of hydrated
oxides of aluminium and iron. 6. Desert Soil
Iron oxides are found in nodules form. This soil is deposited by wind action and mainly found in
It is rich in iron and aluminium but poor in nitrogen, the arid and semi-arid areas like Rajasthan, West of the
phosphorous, potash, lime and magnesia. Aravallis, Northern Gujarat, Saurashtra, Kachchh, Western
Its humus and water-retaining capacities are parts of Haryana, and Southern part of Punjab.
moderate. Characteristics
Bacterial activities have been very high and heavy It lacks moisture content. Humus content is less and
precipitation develops leaching of humus as a result Nitrogen is originally low, but some of it is available in
humus content is moderate to low. the form of nitrates.
Distribution They are sandy with low organic matter. Living
It is found in patches in Western Ghats (Goa and microorganisms are low in content.
Maharashtra). It is rich in iron contents. Phosphorus content is nearly
Belgaum district of Karnataka and in laterite plateau adequate, rich in lime and bases.
of Kerala, the state of Orissa, in the Eastern Ghats, It has low soluble salts and moisture with very low
Amarkantak plateau region of MP, Panchmahal retaining capacity.
district of Gujarat and Santhal Pargana divisions of If irrigated, this soil gives a high agricultural return.
Jharkhand.
215
Crops Grown in Desert Soil Characteristics of Indian Soils

These are suitable for less water-intensive crops like Bajra, Most soils are old and mature. Soils of the
pulses, fodder and guar. peninsular plateau are much older than the soils of
Distribution the great Northern plain.
Western Rajasthan, Rann of Kachchh, in patches in South Indian soils are largely deficient in nitrogen,
Haryana and South Punjab. mineral salts, humus and other organic materials.
Plains and valleys have thick layers of soils while
7. Saline and Alkaline Soil hilly and plateau areas depict thin soil cover.
It is both natural and anthropogenic. Some soils like alluvial and black soils are fertile
Natural includes dried up lakes of Rajasthan and Rann of while some other soils such as laterite, desert and
Kachchh. It has emerged in the Palaya basin (a clay basin alkaline soils lack fertility and do not yield good
in the midst of the desert). harvest.
Anthropogenic is developed in Western Uttar Pradesh Indian soils have been used for cultivation for
and Punjab due to faulty agriculture. hundreds of years and have lost much of their
fertility.
Characteristics
It lacks of moisture, humus, and living microorganisms, Problems of Indian Soils
as a result, humus formation is almost absent. The following are the problems of Indian soils :
It is alkali soil contains a large content of NaCl and is Soil erosion in Himalayan region, Chambal
infertile. These are also called Reh, Usar, Kallar, Rakar, Ravines, etc. Deficiency in fertility in the Red,
Thur, and Chopan. lateritic and other soils.
Sodium chloride and sodium sulphate are present in this Desertification around the Thar desert,
soil. It is suitable for leguminous crops. rain-shadow regions like parts of Karnataka,
Distribution Telangana, etc.
These are mainly found in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Waterlogging in Punjab-Haryana plain.
Pradesh, Bihar and Maharashtra. Salinity and alkalinity in excessively irrigated
regions of Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka, etc.
8. Peaty and Marshy Soil/Bog Soil Wasteland and overexploitation of soils due to
This soil originates from the areas where adequate drainage increase in population.
is not possible. It is rich in organic matter and has high Encroachment of agricultural land due to urban
salinity. They are deficient in potash and phosphate. and transport development.
Characteristics
Soil Erosion
Dominance of clay and mud which make it heavy.
Soil erosion is the loosening and displacement of
Rich in moisture content but at the same time, greater
topsoil particles from the land. Soil erosion is a
content of salt and every day inundation by high tide has
natural process that occurs on all lands.
made it infertile soil.
Soil erosion may occur at a slow or fast rate.
No organic activity due to excessive moisture content.
Soil erosion in nature maybe :
Distribution — a slow process (or geological erosion) or
It is characteristic of the delta region of India. — a fast process promoted by deforestation, floods,
Besides the delta region, it is also found in Alleppey tornadoes or other human activities.
(Kerala) (known as Karri along the backwaters or Kayals Types of Soil Erosion
of Kerala) and Almora (Uttarakhand).
Soil erosion is classified on the basis of the physical
Crops Grown in Peaty Soil agent responsible for erosion.
Over Bengal delta, it is suitable for jute and rice and over The various types of soil erosion are consequently
Malabar, it is suitable for spices, rubber, big sized rice. referred to as:
It has to some extent been favorable to the Mangrove 1. Water erosion
forests of India. 2. Wind erosion
216
1. Water Erosion Deposition of silt results in damage of crops and

Running water is one of the main agents, which carries pastures and sedimentation of water bodies like
away soil particles. Soil erosion by water occurs by streams, dams, reservoirs, etc.
means of raindrops, waves, or ice. Sedimentation of water bodies deteriorates water
quality and damages aquatic habitats and organisms.
Soil erosion by water is termed differently according to
the intensity and nature of erosion which are as follows: Coastal erosion causes the adjourning land to become
covered by sand.
Raindrop erosion Raindrops behave like tiny bombs
when falling on exposed soil, displace soil particles 2. Wind Erosion
and destroy soil structure. Soil erosion by wind is more common in areas where the
Average size of a raindrop is approximately 5 mm in natural vegetation has been destroyed. Such conditions
diameter, falling through the air hits the soil at a occur mainly in arid and dry areas along the sandy shores
velocity of 32 km/hr. of oceans, lakes and rivers.
Presence of vegetation on land prevents raindrops The loose soil particles are blown and transported from
from falling directly on the soil thus erosion of soil in wind by following three ways:
areas covered by vegetation is prevented.
Siltation blown by the wind in a series of short
Sheet erosion The detachment and transportation of bounces.
soil particles by flowing rainwater is called sheet or
Suspension transported over long distances in the form
wash off erosion. This is a very slow process and
of suspended particles.
often remains unnoticed.
Surface creep transported at ground level by
Rill erosion In rill erosion, finger-like rills appear
high-velocity winds.
on the cultivated land after it has undergone sheet
erosion. These rills are usually smoothened out Consequences of Wind Erosion
every year while forming. Wind erosion removes the finer soil material including
Each year the rills slowly increase in number and organic matter, clay, etc. slit. It leaves behind coarser
become wider and deeper. When rills increase in size, and less fertile material.
they are called gullies. Ravines are deep gullies. The productive capacity of the soil is lost as most of the
Stream-bank erosion The erosion of soil from the plant nutrients which remain attached to smaller
banks (shores) of the streams or rivers due to the colloidal soil fractions are lost.
flowing water is called bank erosion. Wind erosion also damages roads and fertile agricultural
Landslide A sudden mass movement of soil is fields by depositing large quantities of air blown soil
called a landslide. Landslides occur due to particles.
instability or loss of balance of land mass with
respect to gravity. Soil Erosion caused by Human Activity
Coastal erosion Coastal erosion of soil occurs Certain human activities like deforestation, farming,
along seashores. It is caused by the wave action of mining, developmental work, human settlements and
the sea and the inward movement of the sea into transport accelerate soil erosion.
the land. Deforestation
Consequences of Water Erosion Deforestation includes cutting and felling of trees,
Erosion removes the most fertile part of the soil. The removal of forest litter, etc. Browsing and trampling by
less fertile subsoil is left. livestock, forest fires, also leads to deforestation.
The fine particles of the topsoil which contain the Deforestation leads to erosion. It further leads to land
bulk of nutrients and organic matter needed by the degradation, nutrient and the disruption of the delicate
plants are lost from soil erosion. soil-plant relationship.
Erosion may result in the removal of seeds or Farming
seedlings so that the soil becomes bare. Bare soil is Agriculture is a major human activity that causes soil
more vulnerable to erosion both by wind and water. erosion. Crops are grown, harvested, land re-ploughed,
Removal of seeds and seedlings reduces the ability of exposed to wind and rain intermittently.
soil to store water. All this prevents replenishment of moisture.
Sheet, rill, gully and stream bank erosion also cause Agriculture also causes the worst type of soil erosion on
siltation of rivers, streams and fields. farmland in the form of wash off or sheet erosion.
217
The following agricultural practices can lead to Agrochemical and Their Harmful effects
accelerated soil erosion: on Land
— Tilling or ploughing increases the chances of erosion Excess use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides leads
because it disturbs the natural soil surface and to the following problems:
protective vegetation.
Most of the chemical fertilisers used in modern
— Continuous cropping Continuous cropping of the same
agriculture contain macronutrients like nitrogen,
land and extending of cultivation of marginal and phosphorus and potassium (NPK).
sub-marginal lands encourages soil erosion.
The excessive addition of NPK to the soil however,
— Cultivation on mountain slopes Cultivation on
causes the plants to absorb more micronutrients
mountain slopes without appropriate land treatment from the soil.
measures such as bounding, terracing, and trenching
As a result, the soil becomes deficient in
cause soil erosion and loss of soil nutrients.
micronutrients like zinc, iron, copper, etc. and the
— Monoculture A monoculture crop is harvested all at
soil productivity decreases.
one time, which leaves the entire fields bare exposing it
Fertiliser which is not used by plants is washed
to both water and wind.
down with rainwater and carried into water bodies,
Without vegetation natural rainfall is not retained by
resulting in eutrophication or algal bloom leading
the soil and flows rapidly over the surface rather than
to the death of aquatic life.
into the ground. It also carries away the topsoil which
results in soil erosion and degradation. About one-fourth of the applied fertiliser is not
used by the crop plants and is leached down into
— Overgrazing It means too many animals are allowed to
the soil and underground water aquifer.
feed on a piece of grassland. Trampling and grazing by
cattle destroy the vegetation of the area. In the absence Excess nitrates in water are harmful especially in
of adequate vegetative cover, the land becomes highly bottle-fed infants who cause the disease,
susceptible to both wind and water erosion. methemoglobinemia.
— Economic activities Soil erosion also occurs due to Problems due to Excessive Irrigation
economic activities. The extraction of useful natural Excessive irrigation of soil may lead to waterlogging
resources such as metals, minerals and fossil fuels, etc., and accumulation of salt in the soil. Both these
from the land causes serious disturbance to the land degrade the soil.
leading to soil erosion and drastic changes in the
Waterlogging Excessive irrigation of land without
landscape.
proper drainage raises the water table. This causes
— Developmental activities Soil erosion may also occur
the soil to become drenched with water or
because of various developmental activities such as waterlogged.
housing, transport, communication, recreation, etc.
This waterlogged soil cannot support good plant
Building construction also promotes soil erosion growth due to a lack of air, particularly oxygen in
because accelerated soil erosion takes place during the the soil, which is essential for the respiration of
construction of houses, roads, rail tracks, etc. plant roots.
The construction of such facilities causes massive Waterlogged soils lack mechanical strength and
disturbance to the land, resulting in soil erosion and cannot support the weight of plants that fell down
disruption of the natural drainage system. and got logged thus becoming submerged in the
mud.
Land/Soil Degradation Salt affectation In areas of high temperature,
Degraded land is classified on the basis of the productive excessive irrigation of land usually causes the
capacity of the land. Slight degradation refers to the accumulation of salt in the soil. This is because
condition where crop yield potential is reduced by 10%. water evaporates fast leaving behind traces of salt
Moderate degradation refers to 10-50% reduction in yield in the soil.
potential and in severe degradation means that the land As cycles of irrigation are repeated the leftover salt
that has yield potential is lost more than 50% of its accumulates and forms a thick layer of grey or white
potential yield capacity (productive capacity). effervescence on the surface.
Some causes of land degradation are : The productivity of salt-affected soil is low. Plants in
— Use of agrochemical (chemical fertilisers and pesticides) saline soil are unable to absorb nutrients and so face
— Excessive irrigation water stress (lack of water) even when moisture is
— Cultivation of high yielding plant varieties abundant in the soil.
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Impact of High Yielding Plant Varieties on No-till cultivation Is also used as a preventive
Leads to Soil Degradation method for soil erosion. Specialised machinery is
available that can loosen the soil, plant seeds and
High Yielding Varieties (HYV) have helped to increase
take care of weed control all at once with minimum
food production but at the same time, they have greatly
disturbance to the soil.
impacted the environment are man-made varieties of
agricultural plants, fodder plants, forest trees, livestock However, there is an adverse effect due to this practice
and fishes. as weed and insect populations can increase since they
are not continuously being removed and so can
The HYVs require adequate irrigation and extensive
compete or destroy crops.
use of fertilisers, pesticides to be successful.
Polyvarietal cultivation Also helps in controlling soil
As we have already seen about land degradation due to
erosion. In this method, the field is planted with
agrochemicals.
several varieties of the same crop.
Measures for Preventing Soil Erosion As the harvest time varies for different varieties of the
crops, they are selectively harvested at different times.
and Land Degradation As the entire field is not harvested at one time and so it
To prevent soil erosion by wind, trees should be is not bare or exposed all at once and the land remains
planted in such a way so that they break the force of protected from erosion.
the wind. The trees not only cover soil from the Sun, Addition of organic matter To the soil is also an
wind and water, they also help to hold the soil important method for reducing soil erosion. This is
particles. achieved by ploughing in crop residues or entire the
Cultivation, farming and agricultural techniques help crop grown specifically for being ploughed into the
in the prevention of soil erosion and land degradation. ground.
Microbes in the soil decompose the organic matter and
Cultivation and Farming Techniques produce polysaccharides which are sticky and act in
Ploughing style The ploughing style substantially gluing in the soil particles together and thus help the
reduces the amount of erosion. Tilling the field at right soil to resist erosion.
angles to the slope called counter ploughing in the soil
of the land helps prevent or reduce soil erosion. Agriculture Techniques
The ridges that are created act like tiny dams and hold Organic farming or green manures Instead of
the water and help its seepage into the soil instead of let applying chemical fertiliser for supplementing the
it run down freely the slopes causing soil pollution. nitrogen content of the soil, we can use the natural
process that involves the use of nitrogen-fixing
Contour ploughing can reduce soil erosion by up to 50%.
bacteria in the legume root nodules.
Strip Farming This is another controlling method of
In addition to this, the use of organic forms of
soil erosion. This involves planting the main crops in
fertilisers such as cow dung, agricultural wastes also
widely spaced rows and filling in the spaces with
improves the nutrients status of soils.
another crop to ensure complete ground cover.
The ground is completely covered so it retards water This may also help to reduce the excessive and
flow which thus soaks down into the soil, consequently prolonged use of chemical fertilisers and thus
reducing erosion problems. minimise their toxic effects.
Terracing It is another method of reducing or Biofertilisers Micro-organisms are important
preventing soil erosion on mountain slopes. In this constituents of fertile soils. They participate in the
method, terraces are created on the steep slopes. development of soil structure, add to the available
nutritional elements and improve the physical
Terracing is usually done on slopes, by leveling off areas
conditions of the soil. A large variety of
on the slope to prevent the flow of water down it.
microorganisms are being used as biofertilisers for
There are disadvantages to terracing, however, in that improving the nutritional status of the crop fields.
the terraces themselves can be easily eroded and they
Biological pest control (biological control) The
generally require a lot of maintenance and repair.
natural predators and parasites of pests play a
The time or season at which a field is tilled can also significant role in controlling plant pests and
have a major effect on the amount of erosion that takes pathogens. They are nowadays used by farmers to
place during the year. If a field is ploughed in the fall, control or eliminate plant pests.
erosion can take place all winter long, however, if the
The biological control agents of pests do not enter in
ground cover remains until spring, there is not as much
the food chain or poison animals and so are not likely
time for the erosion to take place.
to harm mankind.
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 20 219
Natural Resources of India
Sources Class-X New NCERT Chap 1 (Resources and Development), Chap 3 (Water Resources), Class-X Old NCERT
Chap 4 (Land Use and Water Resources), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 5 (Land Resources and Agriculture),
Class-XII Old NCERT Chap 1 (Natural Resources of India)
Abiotic Resources These resources include all

Natural Resources non-living elements of the environment. Land, water,
Natural resources are resources that exist without any air and minerals e.g., iron, copper, gold, silver etc.,
actions of humankind. This includes the sources of are abiotic resources.
valued characteristics such as commercial and They are exhaustible and non-renewable as they
industrial use, aesthetic value, scientific interest and cannot be regenerated or reproduced.
cultural value.
On Earth, it includes sunlight, atmosphere, water, land, On the Basis of Exhaustibility
all minerals alongwith all vegetation and animal life. On the basis of exhaustibility, natural resources can be
Natural Resources are naturally occurring substances categorised as follows :
that have been considered valuable in their natural Renewable Resources
form. Its value rests in the amount available and
demands for it. Renewable resources can be replenished naturally.
Some of these resources, like sunlight, air, wind,
Classification of Resources water, etc., are continuously available and their
quantities are not noticeably affected by human
Natural resources may be further classified as follows:
consumption.
On the basis of origin Biotic and abiotic
Though many renewable resources do not have such
On the basis of exhaustibility Renewable and a rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible
non-renewable to depletion by over-use.
On the basis of ownership Individual, community,
Resources from a human use perspective are
national and international
classified as renewable so long as the rate of
On the basis of status of development Potential, replenishment/ recovery exceeds that of the rate of
developed stock and reserves. consumption.
On the Basis of Origin They replenish easily compared to non-renewable
resources.`
On the basis of origin, natural resources can be
categorised as follows : Non-renewable Resources
Biotic Resources These resources include all living Non-renewable resources either form slowly or do not
elements of the environment. Forests and forest naturally form in the environment.
products, crops, birds, wildlife, fishes and other Minerals are the most common resource included in
marine lives are the examples of biotic resources. this category.
These resources reproduce and regenerate themselves, From the human perspective, resources are
hence, are renewable. Coal and mineral oil are also non-renewable when their rate of consumption
biotic resources but they are non-renewable. exceeds the rate of replenishment/recovery; a good
220
example of this are fossil fuels, which are in this On the Basis of Status of Development
category because their rate of formation is
On the basis of status of development, natural resources can
extremely slow (potentially millions of years),
be categorised as follows :
meaning they are considered non-renewable.
Potential Resources Potential resources are those that
Some resources naturally deplete in amount
may be used in the future. For example, petroleum in
without human interference, the most notable of
sedimentary rocks that, until drilled out and put to use
these being radio-active elements such as uranium,
remains a potential resource.
which naturally decay into heavy metals.
Actual Resources Those resources that have been
Of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by
surveyed, quantified and qualified and are currently
recycling them, but coal and petroleum cannot be
used in development, such as wood processing and are
recycled.
typically dependent on technology.
Once they are completely used, they take millions of
Reserve Resources The part of an actual resource that
years to replenish.
can be developed profitably in the future.
On the Basis of Ownership Stock Resources Those that have been surveyed, but
On the basis of ownership, natural resources can be cannot be used due to lack of technology e.g., hydrogen.
categorised as follows :
Individual Resources These are also owned Land Resource in India
privately by individuals. Many farmers own land Land is an important resource as humans live on it and
which is allotted to them by government against the obtain most of their needs from land. It is a mother of
payment of revenue. In villages there are people biotic resources or biosphere.
with land ownership but there are many who are
landless. The utilisation of land depends upon physical factors
like topography, soil and climate as well as upon human
Urban people own plots, houses and other property. factors such as the density of population, duration of
Plantation, pasture lands, ponds, water in wells etc., occupation of the area, land tenure and technical levels
are some of the examples of resources ownership by of the people.
individuals.
There are spatial and temporal differences in land
Community Owned Resources There are resources utilisation due to the continued interplay of physical and
which are accessible to all the members of the human factors.
community. Village commons (grazing grounds,
burial grounds, village ponds, etc), public parks, In India, various types of physical features are found like
picnic spots, playgrounds in urban areas are de mountain, plateau, plains, islands, etc. Around 43% land
facto accessible to all the people living there. area is plain which is suitable for agriculture. Mountain
constitute 30% and 27% are plateaus.
National Resources Technically, all the resources
belong to the nation. The country has legal powers Land Use Pattern
to acquire even private property for public good.
You might have seen roads, canals, railways being Net Sown Area is 46% of the total geographic area
constructed on fields owned by some individuals. because of the extensive availability of flat terrain in
Urban Development Authorities get empowered by India. About 22% of the country is under forest cover.
the government to acquire land. Barren and unculturable waste land amounts to
All the minerals, water resources, forests, wildlife, about 8.5%.
land within the political boundaries and oceanic area About 5.5% land is under non-agricultural uses like
up to 12 nautical miles (22.2 km) from the coast houses, industries, etc.
termed as territorial water and resources therein Rest of the area is under tree crops, grooves, permanent
belong to the nation. pastures and grazing lands, etc.
International Resources There are international
institutions which regulate some resources. Land Use Categories
The oceanic resources beyond 200 nautical miles Land use records are maintained by the land revenue
of the Exclusive Economic Zone belong to open department.
ocean and no individual country can utilise these The land use categories add up to the reporting area,
without the concurrence of international which is somewhat different from the geographical area.
institutions.
221
The difference between the two concepts is that while 3. Barren and Wastelands
the former changes somewhat depending on the
The land which may be classified as a wasteland such
estimates of the land revenue records, the latter does as barren hilly terrains, desert lands, ravines, etc.,
not change and stays fixed as per Survey of India normally cannot be brought under cultivation with
measurements. the available technology.
The Survey of India is responsible for measuring the As the pressure on land increased, both from the
geographical area of administrative units in India. agricultural and non-agricultural sectors, the
The land use categories as maintained in the Land wastelands and culturable wastelands have witnessed
Revenue Records are as follows : a decline over time.
1. Forests The amount of this land has been variable right from
1950-51 to 2010-11, the data for which are available.
It is important to note that the area under actual forest
It accounted for 13.8% of the total reported area in
cover is different from the area classified as forest. The
1999-2000.
latter is the area which the Government has identified
and demarcated for forest growth. The land revenue The largest amount of land in this category of land is
records are consistent with the latter definition. Thus, in Andhra Pradesh followed by Rajasthan, Himachal
there may be an increase in this category without any Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat,
increase in the actual forest cover. Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Area under forest cover was 40.41 million hectares in 4. Area under Permanent Pastures
1950-51 which increased to 69 million hectares in
1999-2000. The total forest cover of the country is
and Grazing Lands
7137898 sq km which is 21.71% of the geographical Most of this type of land is owned by the village
area of the country according to the India State of ‘Panchayat’ or the Government. Only a small
Forest Report (ISFR) 2021. proportion of this land is privately owned. The land
owned by the village panchayat comes under
Tree and forest cover together made up 24.62%
(809537 sq km) of India’s area. In the last assessment, Common Property Resources.
it was 24.56%. A total area of 10.3 million hectares is devoted to
However, 24.39% of forest land to the total reporting permanent pastures and other grazing lands. This
area is not sufficient for a tropical country like India amounts to about 4% of the total reporting area of the
where about 33% of the total land should be under country.
forests. Grazing takes place mostly in forests and other
This will require massive tree plantations, vigorous uncultivated lands wherever pasturage is available.
restrictions on the reckless felling of trees, reclaiming The area presently under pastures and other grazing
of forest area, etc. lands is not sufficient keeping in view the large
The increase in share under forest can be accounted population of livestock in the country.
for by an increase in demarcated area under forest About one-third of the reporting area in Himachal
rather than the actual increase in forest cover in the Pradesh is under pastures. The proportion varies
country. from 4 to 10% in Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka,
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Odisha. It is less
2. Land put to Non-agricultural Uses than 3% in the remaining parts of the country.
Land under settlements (rural and urban), The decline in land under pastures and grazing lands
infrastructure (roads, canals, etc) industries, shops, can be explained by pressure from agricultural land.
etc., are included in this category. Illegal encroachment due to the expansion of
The rate of increase is the highest in the case of areas cultivation on common pasture lands is largely
under non-agricultural uses. This is due to the responsible for this decline.
changing structure of the Indian economy.
An expansion of area under both urban and rural 5. Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and
settlements has added to the increase in area under Groves (Not included in net sown area)
non-agricultural uses. Thus, the area under Land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves
non-agricultural uses is increasing at the expense of include all cultivable land which is not included
wastelands and agricultural land. under net area sown but is put to some agricultural
The largest amount of land in this category is in use. Land under casuarina trees, thatching grass,
Andhra Pradesh followed by Rajasthan, Himachal bamboo, bushes, other groves for fuel, etc., which are
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar not included under orchards are classed under this
Pradesh, and Bihar. category.
222
Most of this land is privately owned. Land 7. Current Fallow

under this category declined sharply from 198
Fallow of one year is called current fallow.
million hectares in 1950-51 to only 4.46 million
hectares in 1960-61 and further to 4.29 million There has been an increase in the area under current fallow
hectares in 1970-71. from 10.68 to 14.70 million hectare from 1950-51 to
1999-2000.
After that juncture, the area under
miscellaneous tree crops and groves has shown Andhra Pradesh with about 2.2 million hectares has the
varying trends and stood at 3.21 million largest area as current fallow. This is followed by over 1.3
hectares or | percent of the total reporting area million hectares in Rajasthan, 1.2 million hectares in Bihar.
in 1999-2000, Fallowing is a cultural practice adopted for giving the land
Odisha has the largest area in this category rest. The land recoups the lost fertility through natural
followed by Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, processes.
Andhra Pradesh Assam and Tamil Nadu. The trend of current fallow fluctuates a great deal over
years, depending on the variability of rainfall and cropping
6. Culturable Wasteland cycles.
The ‘wasteland survey and reclamation
committee’ defines ‘culturable waste’ as the 8. Fallow other than Current Fallow
land available for cultivation but not used for This is also a cultivable land which is left uncultivated for
cultivation for one reason or the other. more than a year but less than five years.
This land was used in the past but has been There had been a sharp decline in fallow lands other than
abandoned for some reason. It is not being used current fallow from 17.4 million hectare to 11.18 million
at present due to such constraints as lack of hectare from 1950-51 to 1999-2000.
water, salinity or alkalinity of soil, soil erosion, The largest area of over 1.7 million hectare of fallow land
waterlogging, an unfavorable physiographic other than current fallow is in Rajasthan followed by 1.5
position, or human neglect. million hectares in Andhra Pradesh and over one million
Any land which is left fallow (uncultivated) for hectares in Maharashtra.
more than five years is included in this
category. It can be brought under cultivation
9. Net Sown Area
after improving it through reclamation The physical extent of land on which crops are sown and
practices. harvested is known as net sown area.
Reh, bhur, usar and khola tracts of Uttar This area has a special significance in an agricultural
Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana as well as in country like India because agricultural production largely
several other parts of the country are examples depends upon this type of land.
of such lands. The net sown area in 1950-51 was 118.7 million hectares
Rajasthan has 4.3 lakh hectare of cultivable which increased to 141.58 million hectares in 2010-11 as it
wasteland which is about 36% of the total was in 2000-01.
wasteland of India. The other states with The per capita cultivated land has gone down drastically from
considerable culturable wasteland are Gujarat 0.53 hectares in 1951 to 0.11 hectares in 2011-12.
(43.6%), Madhya Pradesh (10.2%), Uttar It may be noted that agricultural prosperity does not depend
Pradesh (6.93%), and Maharashtra (6.83%). as much on the total net sown area as it does on the
The land under this category has declined percentage of net sown area to the total reporting area.
considerably from about 22.9 million hectare in There are large variations in the proportion of net sown area
1950-51 to 13.8 million hectare in 1999-2000. to total reporting area from one state to another. Punjab and
This decline in the wasteland is due to some Haryana had some of the highest proportions of 82.6 and
land reclamation schemes launched in India 80.5% respectively while Arunachal Pradesh had 3%.
after Independence. The decline in the net sown area is a recent phenomenon
For long term conservation and maintenance of that started in the late nineties, before which it was
eco balance, this land should be put under registering a slow increase. There are indications that most
afforestation and not under crop farming. of the decline has occurred due to the increase in area under
As the pressure on land increased, both from non-agricultural use.
the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors, The Cropping Intensity (CI) is calculated as follows :
the wastelands and culturable wastelands have GrossCropped Area (GCA)
witnessed a decline over time. Cropping Intensity = × 100
Net Sown Area (NSA)
223
Changes in Pattern of Land Use Reasons for the Changes in Land use Pattern
The agricultural land use has also recorded some Population Growth In India, the rapidly growing
substantial changes in the cropping pattern. The area population and the consequent high pressure on
under wheat and rice has increased at the cost of pulses, the existing resources have an adverse effect on the
millets and fodder while the area under oilseeds, land resources. The cities are expanding and
sugarcane, vegetables and orchards has increased. getting urbanised far beyond their formal limits.
Unfortunately, about 70% of the good quality Land Encroachment and Extensive use of Forest
agricultural land has gone out of agriculture Resources An increase in food and shelter
(Urbanisation, industrialisation and development of demands have resulted in expansion by encroaching
roads and railways, etc.,) and the former fallow land, the uncultivated land areas and forest, shrubs and
pastures and degraded forests areas have been brought wetlands. The IPCC report on climate change and
under agriculture. land has stated that agricultural land for food, animal
feed and fiber are behind the land-use change.
Changes in Pattern of Land use in India Overgrazing The farmers are abandoning their
Land use change represents almost 25% of total global cultivated land for grazing purposes due to decline
emissions. It can be a factor in CO2 (carbon dioxide) in its soil fertility status. Thus, we can conclude
atmospheric concentration and is thus a contributor to that there are two types of land-use change – one is
global climate change. direct anthropogenic and the other is indirect
changes. Examples of anthropogenic changes
Land degradation is affecting 3.2 billion people
include deforestation, reforestation and
worldwide – Ecosystem services e.g., forest, agriculture,
afforestation, agriculture and urbanisation, while
grassland tourism, etc., worth $10.6 trillion are lost due
the indirect changes include climate change or
to land degradation annually.
change in CO2 concentration that leads to change in
A report analysis done by the Food and Agriculture vegetation and land use patterns.
Organisation of the United Nations, states that by 2050,
over 500 million hectares of new agricultural land will be Common Property Resources
needed to meet the global food demand.
Common Property Resources are usually non-exclusive
According to the Intergovernmental Platform on resources to which rights of use are distributed
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), over among a number of co-owners, generally identified
70% of all-natural, ice-free land in the world is affected by their membership in a community or a village.
by human use and this could further rise to 90% by 2050.
In the context of Indian villages, common property
General land use categories 1960-61 resources include community forests, common
grazing grounds, tanks and their beds, foreshores,
Reporting Area : 100 Percent
threshing grounds, rivers and riverbeds, where
18.11%
46.26% well-defined property regimes may not exist.
Forest In pre-British India, a large part of the country’s
Barren and unculturable waste land natural resources was freely available to the rural
18.11%
Area under non-agricultural uses population. These resources were largely under the
Permanent pasture and grazing land control of the local communities.
4.95%
Area under misc. tree crops and
4.71% groves Gradually, the extension of state control over these
1.50% resources resulted in decay of the community
6.23%
3.73% 3.50%
management system and in this process, the
General land use categories 2014-15 common property resources available to the
villagers declined substantially over the years.
45.5% 23.3%
Land Degradation and Desertification

Culturable waste land
Land degradation is caused by multiple forces,
5.5% Fallow other than current fallow
including extreme weather conditions, particularly
Current fallow
Net sown area drought. It is also caused by human activities that
8.7%
pollute or degrade the quality of soils and land utility.
3.3%
1% Land degradation within dry land regions (arid,
4.0%
3.6%
4.9%
semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions) is termed as
‘desertification’.
224
Desertification is the process by which the biological Water Scarcity Land degradation has resulted in a
productivity of drylands is reduced due to natural or deterioration in the quantity and quality of both
manmade factors. It does not mean the expansion of surface and groundwater resources. The dryland
existing deserts. population vulnerable to water stress and drought
intensity is projected to reach 178 million under the
Statewise Data most ideal conditions of 1.5° C warming by 2050.
Around 23.79% of the area undergoing desertification
/ land degradation with respect to TGA of the country Water Resource
was contributed by Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Karnataka, Ladakh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Water is a cyclic resource with abundant supplies on
the globe. Approximately, 71% of the Earth’s surface
Pradesh and Telangana.
is covered with it but freshwater constitutes only
India witnessed an increase in the level of about 3% of the total water.
desertification in 28 of 31 states and Union territories
India accounts for about 2.45% of the world’s surface
between 2011-13 and 2018-19.
area, 4% of the world’s water resources and about
16% of the world’s population.
Causes of Land Degradation The total water available from precipitation in the
Loss of Soil Cover Loss of soil cover, mainly due to country in a year is about 4,000 cubic km.
rainfall and surface runoff, is one of the biggest
India experiences an average precipitation of
reasons for desertification. It is responsible for 11.01%
1170 mm per year. The availability from surface water
of the desertification in the country. Cutting forests
and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 cubic km.
adversely affect the soil and cause degradation. As
Out of this only 60% can be put to beneficial uses.
urbanisation increases, the demand for resources is
Thus, the total utilisable water resource in the country
also increasing.
is only 1,122 cubic km.
Vegetation Degradation Vegetation degradation is
defined as, ‘the temporary or permanent reduction in Water Resources of India
the density, structure, species composition or
Water resources of India can be classified in the following
productivity of vegetation cover’. It is found to be
categories :
responsible for 9.15% of desertification in the country.
Water Erosion It results in badland topography Surface Water Resources
which itself is an initial stage of desertification. There are four major sources of surface water. These
Badlands are a type of dry terrain where softer are rivers, lakes, ponds, and tanks.
sedimentary rocks and clay-rich soils have been The mean annual flow in all the river basins in India
extensively eroded. In 2011-13, water erosion was is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km.
responsible for 10.98% of desertification in the However, only about 690 cubic km (37%) of the
country. available surface water can be utilised because :
Wind Erosion Sand encroachment by wind reduces — Over 90% of annual flow of the Himalayan rivers
fertility of the soil making the land susceptible to occur over a four-month period.
desertification. It was found to be responsible for — Potential to capture such resources is complicated
5.46% of the desertification in India. and limited by suitable storage reservoir sites.
Climate Change It may exacerbate desertification
through alteration of spatial and temporal patterns in Groundwater Resources
temperature, rainfall, solar radiation and winds. The total replenishable groundwater resources in the
country are about 432 cubic km.
Impact of Land Degradation Ganga and the Brahmaputra basins, have about 46%
Economic Impact Land degradation threatens of the total replenishable groundwater resources.
agricultural productivity. It reduces soil health, thus The level of groundwater utilisation is relatively high
in turn impacting the livelihood of rural people. in the river basins lying in North-Western region and
Climate Change It is exacerbating climate change parts of South India.
events, which in turn, are causing even greater The groundwater utilisation is very high in the states
degradation. of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.
For example, degraded land loses its capacity to absorb However, there are States like Chhattisgarh, Odisha,
carbon dioxide (CO2), a Greenhouse Gas (GHG) that is Kerala, etc., which utilise only small proportion of
the biggest factor in worsening global warming. their groundwater potentials.
225
India also relies excessively on groundwater Although, water is generally brackish in these water
resources, which accounts for over 50% of irrigated bodies, it is used for fishing and irrigating certain
area with 20 million tube wells installed. varieties of paddy crops, coconut, etc.
India has built nearly 5,000 major or medium dams,
barrages, etc., to store the river waters and enhance Water Demand and Utilisation
ground water recharging. India has traditionally been an agrarian economy and
about two-third of its population have been dependent
Lagoons and Backwaters
on agriculture.
India has a vast coastline and the coast is very
Development of irrigation to increase agricultural
indented in some states. Due to this, a number of
production has been assigned a very high priority in
lagoons and lakes have formed.
the Five Year Plans and multipurpose river valleys
The States like Kerala, Odisha and West Bengal projects, like the Bhakra-Nangal, Hirakud, Damodar
have vast surface water resources in these lagoons Valley, Nagarjuna Sagar, Indira Gandhi Canal Project,
and lakes. etc., have been taken up.
68° E 96° E
36° N
INDIA 36° N
RIVER BASINS
PAKISTAN
West Flowing Rivers

Group 1 rivers in Kuchchh,
CHINA
Saurashtra and river Luni
(TIBET)
Bhutan
BANGLADESH
Tropic of
Cancer
MYANMAR
BAY OF
BENGAL
East Flowing Rivers

Group 1 rivers between
Mahanadi and Pennar
West Flowing Rivers
Group 2 rivers south
of Tapi West Flowing
East Flowing
East Flowing Rivers

Group 2 rivers between
Pennar and Kanyakumari
LAKSHADWEEP (INDIA)
(INDIA)
600 km
INDIAN OCEAN
8° N 72° E 92° E
8° N
226
In fact, India’s water demand at present is Deterioration of Water Quality

dominated by irrigational needs. Agriculture
With the growing demand of water, its quality has been
accounts for most of the surface and groundwater
degrading day by day.
utilisation, it accounts for 89% of the surface
water and 92% of the groundwater utilisation. Water quality refers to purity of water, or water without
unwanted foreign substances. Water gets polluted by
The share of industrial sector is limited to 2%
foreign matters, such as micro-organisms, chemicals,
of the surface water utilisation and 5% of the
industrial and other wastes.
groundwater, the share of domestic sector is
higher (9%) in surface water utilisation as Such matters deteriorate the quality of water and render it
compared to groundwater. unfit for human use.
The share of agricultural sector in total water When toxic substances enter lakes, streams, rivers, ocean
utilisation is much higher than other sectors. and other water bodies, they get dissolved or lie suspended
However, in future, with development, the shares in water. This results in pollution of water, whereby quality
of industrial and domestic sectors in the country of water deteriorates affecting aquatic systems.
are likely to increase. Sometimes, these pollutants also seep down and pollute
groundwater. The Ganga and the Yamuna are the two
Demand of Water for Irrigation highly polluted rivers in the country.
In agriculture, water is mainly used for
irrigation. Irrigation is needed because of Water Conservation and Management
spatio-temporal variability in rainfall in the With the declining availability of freshwater and
country. increasing demand, the need has arisen to conserve and
The large tracts of the country are deficient in effectively manage this precious life giving resource for
rainfall and are drought prone. sustainable development.
Winter and summer seasons are more or less dry Water availability from sea/ocean, due to high cost of
in most part of the country. Hence, it is difficult desalinisation, is considered negligible.
to practise agriculture without assured irrigation India has to take quick steps and make effective policies
during dry seasons. and laws and adopt effective measures for its conservation.
Even in the areas of ample rainfall like West Besides developing water-saving technologies and
Bengal and Bihar, breaks in monsoon or its methods, attempts are also to be made to prevent the
failure creates dry spells detrimental for pollution.
agriculture. There is need to encourage watershed development,
Provision of irrigation makes multiple cropping rainwater harvesting, water recycling and reuse and
possible. It has also been found that irrigated conjunctive use of water for sustaining water supply in
lands have higher agricultural productivity than long run.
unirrigated land. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in
Further, the high yielding varieties of crops need collaboration with State Pollution Control Boards has been
regular moisture supply, which is made possible monitoring water quality of national aquatic resources at
only by a developed irrigation systems. 507 stations. The data obtained from these stations show
that organic and bacterial contamination continues to be
Green revolution strategy of agriculture
the main source of pollution in rivers.
development in the country has largely been
successful in Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar The Yamuna river is the most polluted river in the country
Pradesh. In these states, more than 85% of their between Delhi and Etawah.
net sown area is under irrigation. Other severely polluted rivers are: the Sabarmati at
Of the total net irrigated area 76.1% in Punjab Ahmedabad, the Gomti at Lucknow, the Kali, the Adyar, the
and 51.3% in Haryana are irrigated through wells Cooum (entire stretches), the Vaigai at Madurai and the
and tubewells. The over-use of groundwater Musi of Hyderabad and the Ganga at Kanpur and Varanasi.
resources has led to decline in groundwater table Groundwater pollution has occurred due to high
in these states. concentrations of heavy/toxic metals, fluoride and nitrates
In some states, like Rajasthan and Maharashtra, at different parts of the country.
over withdrawals of water has increased fluoride The legislative provisions such as the Water (Prevention
concentration in groundwater and this practice and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and Environment
has led to increase in concentration of arsenic in Protection Act 1986 have not been implemented
parts of West Bengal and Bihar. effectively.
227
The result is that in 1997, 251 polluting industries Tamil Nadu has made water harvesting structures in
were located along the rivers and lakes. The Water the houses compulsory. No building can be constructed
Cess Act, 1977, meant to reduce pollution has also without making structures for water harvesting.
made marginal impacts. There is a need to generate awareness regarding
There is a strong need to generate public awareness benefits of watershed development and management
about importance of water and impacts of water among people in the country, and through this
pollution. Integrated Water Resource Management approach
The public awareness and action can be very effective water availability can be ensured on sustainable basis.
in reducing the pollutants from agricultural activities, Rainwater Harvesting
domestic and industrial discharges.
In ancient India, along with the sophisticated
Recycle and Reuse of Water hydraulic structures, there existed an extraordinary
tradition of water-harvesting system.
Fresh water availability can be improved by recycle
and reuse of water. Use of water of lesser quality such People had in-depth knowledge of rainfall regimes
as reclaimed wastewater would be an attractive option and soil types and developed wide ranging techniques
for industries for cooling and firefighting to reduce to harvest rainwater, groundwater, river water and
their water cost. flood water in keeping with the local ecological
conditions and their water needs.
In urban areas, water after bathing and washing
utensils can be used for gardening. In hill and mountainous regions, people built
Water used for washing vehicle can also be used for diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of the
gardening. This would conserve better quality of Western Himalayas for agriculture.
water for drinking purposes. ‘Rooftop rainwater harvesting’ was commonly practised
to store drinking water, particularly in Rajasthan. In
Watershed Management the flood plains of Bengal, people developed
Watershed management basically refers to efficient inundation channels to irrigate their fields.
management and conservation of surface and In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were
groundwater resources. converted into rain fed storage structures that allowed
It involves prevention of runoff and storage and the water to stand and moisten the soil like the
recharge of groundwater through various methods Khadins in Jaisalmer and Johads in other parts of
Rajasthan.
like percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc.
In the semi-arid and arid regions of Rajasthan,
In broader sense, watershed management includes
particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi and Barmer, almost
conservation, regeneration and judicious use of all all the houses traditionally had underground tanks or
resources – natural (like land, water, plants and tankas for storing drinking water.
animals) and human with in a watershed.
The tankas were built inside the main house or the
Watershed management aims at bringing about balance courtyard. They were connected to the sloping roofs of
between natural resources on the one hand and society the houses through a pipe. Rain falling on the rooftops
on the other. The success of watershed development would travel down the pipe and was stored in these
largely depends upon community participation. underground ‘tankas’.
The Central and State Governments have initiated Rainwater or palar pani is considered the purest form
many watershed development and management of natural water in Rajasthan. In a remote backward
programmes in the country. village in Mysuru, Karnataka, Gendathur, villagers
Haryali is a watershed development project have installed rainwater harvesting system in their
sponsored by the Central Government which aims at household’s rooftop to meet their water needs.
enabling the rural population to conserve water for Rooftop rainwater harvesting is the most common
drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation. The practice in Shillong, Meghalaya. Cherapunjee and
Project is being executed by Gram Panchayats with Mawsynram are situated at a distance of 55 km from
people’s participation. Shillong. Although, they receive the highest rainfall in
Neeru-Meeru (Water and You) programme (in Andhra the world, yet the state capital Shillong faces acute
Pradesh) and Arvary Pani Sansad (in Alwar, shortage of water.
Rajasthan) have taken up constructions of various Nearly every household in the city has a rooftop
water-harvesting structures such as percolation tanks, rainwater harvesting structure. Nearly 15-25% of the
dug out ponds (Johad), check dams, etc., through total water requirement of the household is fulfilled
people’s participation. from rooftop water harvesting.
228
68°E 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°E
INDIA
36°N
The Ganga and Its
Tributaries 36°N
AN
KIST Good Quality
PA Water here
32°
CHINA 32°
(TIBET)
DELHI
Yam
Ga NE
u
Poor Quality PA
na
n ga L
Water here Riv BHUTAN
er Ri
ve
28° r
Varanasi
Allahabad
Allahabad
BANGLADESH
Poor Quality
Tropic of Cancer
Water here
20° AREA OF IRRIGATED LAND 24°
City of Varanasi MYANMAR
ARABIAN Other Big Cities
BAY OF BENGAL 20°
SEA 0 200 400 600 km
72°E 84° 88° 92°E. 96°E
Bamboo Drip Irrigation System National Water Policy, 2002

In Meghalaya, a 200-year-old system of tapping It was adopted by the National Water Resources Council on 1st
stream and spring water by using bamboo pipes, April, 2002.
is prevalent. The salient features of National Water Policy, 2002 are as follows:
About 18-20 litres of water enters the bamboo In the allocation of water, first priority should be given for
pipe system, gets transported over hundreds of drinking water, followed by irrigation, hydro-power,
metres. ecology, agro-industries and non-agricultural industries,
Finally, it reduces to 20-80 drops per minute at navigation and other uses, in that order.
the site of the plant. The exploitation of groundwater should be regulated with
reference to recharge possibilities and consideration of
Watershed Development social equity.
in Ralegan Siddhi Both surface water and ground water should be regularly
n Ralegan Siddhi is a small village in the district of
monitored for quality.
Ahmednagar, Maharashtra. It has become an
example for watershed development throughout Water should be made available to water short areas by
the country. In 1975, a youth group called Tarun transfer from other areas including transfer from one river
Mandal, repaired village tank that could not hold basin to another, after taking into account the requirements
water. of the areas/basins.
n The embankment wall leaked. The seven wells Planning of water resources development projects should,
below it swelled with water in summer for the be multipurpose with an integrated and multi-disciplinary
first time in the living memory of the people. approach having regard to human and ecological aspects
n The cultivation of water-intensive crops like including those of disadvantaged sections of the society.
sugarcane was banned. Crops such as pulses,
oilseeds and certain cash crops with low water Adequate emphasis needs to be given to the physical and
requirements were encouraged. People financial sustainability of existing water resources
volunteered to help each other in agricultural facilities.
operation. Needs of drought-prone areas should be given priority in
n At present, water is adequate; agriculture is the planning of project for development of water resources.
flourishing, though the use of fertilisers and These areas should be made less vulnerable through
pesticides is very high. various measures.
229
The water sharing /distribution amongst the states should National Project on Aquifer Management
be guided by a national perspective with due regard to (NAQUIM) It is being implemented by the
water resources availability and needs within the river Central Ground Water Board (CGWB).
basin. NAQUIM envisages mapping of aquifers(water
bearing formations), their characterisation and
Day Zero Instances development of Aquifer Management Plans to
n Day Zero is a situation when taps in a region start running facilitate sustainable management of
dry. groundwater.
n Day Zero instances in India It has been reported that Shimla, MGNREGA for Water Conservation Mahatma
Himachal Pradesh and Udupi and Mangaluru in coastal
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Karnataka are on the verge of becoming Tier 2 cities which
would have a ‘Day Zero’ situation soon.
Act is one of the biggest government funded
employment schemes in the world.
The huge workforce employed under the
Government’s Efforts for Water Conservation
MGNREGA has enabled the government to
NITI Aayog Composite Water Management Index With introduce water conservation as a project under
the objective of achieving effective utilisation of water, NITI the Act. The government aims to improve
Aayog has developed the Composite Water Management groundwater harvesting and build water
Index. conservation and storage mechanisms through
The index revolves around issues ranging from water MGNREGA.
scarcity and related morass like deaths due to lack of access Jal Kranti Abhiyan (2015-16) The government
to safe water, its projected increase in demand over the years is making active efforts to revolutionise villages
and finding ways for its effective conservation. and cities through block-level water
Interlinking of Rivers Project The interlinking of river conservation schemes.
project is a civil engineering project, which aims to connect For example; the Jal Gram Scheme under the Jal
Indian rivers through reservoirs and canals. The farmers Kranti Abhiyan is aimed at developing two model
will not have to depend on the monsoon for cultivation and villages in water-starved areas to lead the other
also the excess or lack of water can be overcome during villages towards water conservation and
floods or drought. preservation.
The government has identified four priority links for the National Water Mission The Government of
preparation of Detailed Project Reports (DPR) under the India has launched the National Water Mission
Peninsular Component with the objective of conservation of water,
— Ken Betwa Link Project (Uttar Pradesh and Madhya minimising wastage and ensuring more equitable
Pradesh) distribution both across and within states
— Daman Ganga Pinjal Link Project (Maharashtra and through integrated water resources development
Gujarat) and management. One of the objectives of the
— Par Tapi Narmada Link Project (Maharashtra and Mission is to increase the water use efficiency
Gujarat) by 20%.
— Godavari Cauvery Link Project (Andhra Pradesh and National Rural Drinking Water Programme It
Tamil Nadu) seeks to provide every rural person with
adequate safe water for drinking, cooking and
Central Water Commission (CWC) other basic domestic needs on a sustainable
It is a premier technical organisation in the country in the field of
basis.
water resources. It is charged with the general responsibilities of Jal Shakti Ministry and Jal Jeevan Mission The
initiating and coordinating, schemes for control, conservation efforts like the formation of Jal Shakti Ministry
and utilisation of water resources in consultation with the (to tackle water issues holistically) and the goal
Governments concerned states. They do so in order to, the to provide piped water to all rural households by
purpose of flood control, irrigation, navigation, drinking water 2024, under the Jal Jeevan Mission, are steps in
supply and water power development. the right direction.
230
Traditional Water Conservation Systems around India
Traditional System Description

Phad It is a community-managed irrigation system in the Tapi river basin in Maharashtra. It starts with a check dam built
across a river and canals to carry water to agricultural blocks with outlets to ensure excess water is removed from
the canals.
Zing It is found in Ladakh, are small tanks that collect melting glacier water. A network of guiding channels brings water
from the glacier to the tank.
Kuhls They are surface water channels found in the mountainous regions of Himachal Pradesh. The channels carry glacial
waters from rivers and streams into the fields.
Zabo or Ruza System It is practised in Nagaland. Rainwater that falls on forested hilltops is collected by channels that deposit the runoff
water in pond-like structures created on the terraced hillsides.
Jackwells The Shompen tribe of the Great Nicobar Islands uses this system, in which bamboos are placed under trees to collect
runoff water from leaves and carries it to Jackwells which are pits encircled by bunds made from logs of hardwood.
Pat System It is developed in Madhya Pradesh, in which the water is diverted from hill streams into irrigation channels by
diversion bunds. They are made across the stream by piling up stones and teak leaves and mud.
Eri It is a tank system, widely used in Tamil Nadu which acts as flood-control systems, prevents soil erosion and
wastage of runoff during periods of heavy rainfall and also recharges the groundwater.
Johads They are small Earthen check dams used to conserve and recharge ground water, mainly constructed in an area with
naturally high elevation.
Panam Keni The Kuruma tribe (a native tribe of Wayanad) uses wooden cylinders as a special type of well, which are made by
soaking the stems of toddy palms and immersing them in groundwater springs.
Ahar Pynes They are traditional flood water harvesting systems indigenous to South Bihar. Ahars are reservoirs with
embankments on three sides and Pynes are artificial rivulets led off from rivers to collect water in the ahars for
irrigation in the dry months.
Jhalara Jhalaras are typically rectangular-shaped stepwells that have tiered steps on three or four sides in the city of
Jodhpur.
Bawari Bawaris are unique stepwells that were once a part of the ancient networks of water storage in the cities of
Rajasthan.
Tanka It is a cylindrical paved underground pit into which rainwater from rooftops, courtyards or artificially prepared
catchments flows. It is indigenous to the Thar desert region of Rajasthan.
Khadin Also called Dhora, is a long Earthen embankment that is built across the hill slopes of gravelly uplands. It is
indigenous to the Jaisalmer region and similar to the irrigation methods of Ur region (Present Iraq).
Kund It is a saucer-shaped catchment area that gently slopes towards the central circular underground well. It is found in
the sandier tracts of Western Rajasthan and Gujarat.
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 21 231
Indian Agriculture
and Irrigation
Sources Class-VIII Old NCERT Chap 6 (Agriculture), Class XII New NCERT Chap 5 (Land Resources and Agriculture),
Class XII Old NCERT Chap 2 (Main Features of Agriculture), Chap 5 (Regional Development)
Majority of farmers in the country practice subsistence

Agriculture farming.
Agriculture is made up of two words –‘Ager’ + It is characterised by small and scattered land holdings
‘culture’. ‘Ager’ means soil and ‘culture’ means and the use of primitive tools.
cultivation.
As the farmers are poor, they do not use fertilisers and a
Agriculture is defined as the art, science and high-yielding variety of seeds in their fields to the
business of producing crops and livestock for extent they should do.
economic purposes.
Facilities like electricity and irrigation are generally not
Livestock, fisheries and poultry come under the available to them.
allied agricultural activities.
The whole family works on the farm, most of the work
Two-Third of the livelihood of the Indian population is done manually.
is directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture.
The farms are small, yield is not very high, most of the
70% of the labour force is directly or indirectly yield is consumed by the family with a very little
involved in agriculture. surplus for the family.
Agricultural sector accounts for 19.9% of India’s
GDP according to 2020-21.
Shifting Cultivation/Land Rotation/Jhumming
Shifting cultivation is called so because of the shifting
Types of Indian Agriculture/ of the land after the cultivation of a crop when the soil
losses its fertility (generally in 2 to 3 years).
Farming Systems
In shifting cultivation forest land is cleared and
Based primarily on nature of land, climatic cultivated. It is also called land rotation because the
characteristics and available irrigational facilities, the same crop (generally rice) is grown on a different piece
farmers in India practice different types of farming. of land.
Subsistence Farming Due to the cultivation of the same crop on the same
Subsistence agriculture occurs when farmers grow cleared forest land year after year, soil productivity is
food crops to meet the needs of themselves and their lost. After the land fertility is lost, the crop is shifted to
families on smallholdings. other slashed and burnt land.
Subsistence agriculturalists target farm output for Shifting cultivation leads to soil erosion. It is because
survival and for mostly local requirements, with clearing of forest land leads to the clearing of vegetation
little or no surplus. over the soil which in turn leads to soil erosion.
232
Shifting cultivation is practiced in North-Eastern states Rubber cultivation in Malaysia, coffee cultivation in
of India, Chhota Nagpur plateau of Jharkhand, Madhya Brazil, Tea cultivation in India and Sri Lanka are the
Pradesh and in Hilly areas of the Himalayas, the examples of plantation agriculture.
Western ghats and the Eastern ghats. It is capital intensive agriculture and demands good
This practice is known by different names in different managerial ability, technical know-how, machinery,
regions of India like: fertilisers, irrigation and transport facilities.
— Jhum in Assam Plantation agriculture is export-oriented agriculture.
— Ponam in Kerala
Sustainable Agriculture/Eco-Farming
— Podu in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha
The concept of sustainable agriculture has come up
— Bewar, Masha, Penda and Bera in various parts of
because yields from modern farming techniques are
Madhya Pradesh reaching a plateau and the environmental problems
due to excessive use of chemicals and fertilisers and
Crop Rotation pesticide residue in the food chain.
n Crop rotation is the reverse of land rotation (Shifting The high use of modern farming techniques has led
Cultivation) to the degradation of land and has led to various
n Crop rotation is the practice of planting different crops ecological problems like eutrophication, land
sequentially on the same plot of land to improve soil degradation, etc., which has depleted the quality of
health, optimise nutrients in the soil and combat pest land as a sustainable resource.
and weed pressure.
A system of agriculture which produces sufficient
n In crop rotation, there is repeated cultivation of crops
food to meet the needs of the present generation
and fallow land which is done in a certain sequence in a
scientific manner to conserve the fertility of the land. without eroding the ecological assets and
n Suitable crop rotation is the key of modern scientific
productivity of life supporting systems of the future
agriculture which aims to produce maximum yield by generation.
maintaining soil productivity. Sustainable agriculture is a system of cultivation
with the use of manures, crop rotation and minimal
Commercial Farming tillage.
Sustainable agriculture also involves agro-forestry
In areas where irrigation has been possible, the farmers
(growing trees near the crops), multi-level cultivation
use fertilisers and pesticides on a large scale. They
(growing trees of different heights in sequence) and
have also brought their land under a high yielding
integrated animal husbandry (growing crops with
variety of seeds. They have mechanised agriculture by
animal rearing practices).
introducing machines in various processes of farming.
The term sustainability denotes the characteristic of
Also known as industrial agriculture, it is
a process that can be maintained indefinitely. Here
characterised by a low fallow ratio and higher use of
with the help of sustainable farm practices, the needs
inputs such as capital and labour per unit land area.
of the present generation can be met out without
This is in contrast to traditional agriculture in which
compromising the needs of future generations.
the inputs per unit land are lower.
Plantation Agriculture Types of Agriculture and Their Objective
Plantation agriculture is a type of commercial farming in Types of Objective Quantity Output
which a single crop is grown for the entire year. Agriculture of Input
The major crops grown during plantation agriculture Subsistence To sustain life and Low Low
are Tea, Coffee, Sugarcane, Cashew, Rubber, Banana Agriculture family need
or cotton. Commercial To obtain high income High High
Major plantations are found in the tropical regions of Farming
the world. Plantations exist on every continent Sustainable Ecological balance Low High
possessing a tropical climate. Agriculture
233
However, this type of distinction in the cropping season

Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) does not exist in Southern parts of the country due to
n Zero Budget Natural Farming, a type of farming high temperature. The same crop can be grown thrice
that involves the elimination of chemical
a year.
pesticides, sustaining agriculture with eco-friendly
processes and restoring soil fertility and organic Major Crops cultivated
matter. Cropping season
n It is a unique chemical-free method that involves Northern States Southern States
agroecology. For the zero-net expenditure of
Kharif Rice, cotton, bajara, Rice, maize, ragi,
manufacturing, yields are known as the term zero June-September maize, jowar, tur jowar, groundnut
budget.
n ZBNF reduces farming expenses and promotes the Rabi Wheat, gram, Rice, maize, ragi,
use of natural fertilisers, biological pesticides and October-March rapeseeds and groundnut, jowar
mustard, barley
local seeds.
Zaid Vegetables, fruits, Rice, vegetables,
April-June fodder fodder
Dryland and Wetland Farming
Note There are some crops that are grown in both Kharif and Rabi
Dryland Farming It is practiced in the region seasons like maize, jowar and groundnut.
receiving low rainfall, like Rajasthan, some parts of
Gujarat and Maharashtra, etc. The soil is sandy
and has low water retention capacity. Crops like Major Crops Grown in India
peas, millets, grams and other drought-resistant India grows almost each and every crop.
crops or varieties can be grown. Dryland farming
The major crops are discussed in detail as follows :
helps in soil and water conservation.
Wetland Farming It is practiced in the regions Food Grains
receiving high annual rainfall, mainly done in
Rice, wheat, millets and pulses are the prominent food grains
river plains, North-East India, the Ghats of India,
grown in India.
etc., Crops requiring high irrigation can be easily
grown. Types of crops under wetland farming in Rice
India are rice, sugarcane, cotton, jute, etc.
Rice is the most important food crop of India. It is
predominantly a Kharif or summer crop. Maximum
Cropping Seasons in India population of India is rice consumer. It covers about
There are three distinct crop seasons in the Northern one-third of the total cultivated area of the country and
and interior parts of the country, namely Kharif, Rabi provides food to more than half of the Indian population.
and Zaid.
Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:
The Kharif season The crops which are grown in
Temperature Rice requires hot and humid conditions.
the Kharif season require a good amount of water,
The temperature should be fairly high i.e., 24°C mean
thus the sowing of Kharif crops largely coincides
monthly temperature with average temperature of 22°C
with the onset of the South-West Monsoon.
to 32°C.
The Rabi season The sowing of Rabi crops begins
Rainfall It repaires good amount of rainfall ranging
with the onset of winter in October-November and
between 150-300 cm in areas of Punjab, Haryana and
the harvesting is done in March-April. The
Western Uttar Pradesh where rainfall is less than 100 cm,
celebration of the festival Holi can be related to a
rice is cultivated with the help of irrigation.
good harvest in the month of March-April.
Soil Rice is grown in varied soil conditions but deep
The Zaid season It is a short duration summer
clayey and loamy soil provides the ideal conditions. Rice
cropping season beginning after harvesting of rabi
is primarily grown in plain areas. It is also grown below
crops. The cultivation of watermelons, cucumbers,
sea level at Kuttanad (Kerala), hill terraces of
vegetables and fodder crops during this season is
North-Eastern part of India and valleys of Kashmir.
done on irrigated lands.
234
68° E 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° E
36° N
36° N
INDIA
Rice Production Areas
PAKISTAN
32°
32°
CHINA
(TIBET)
28°
Bhutan
BANGLADESH
24°
Tropic of
Cancer
MYANMAR
20°
20°
BAY OF
BENGAL
16°
Major Areas 16°
Minor Areas
12°
12°
LAKSHADWEEP (INDIA)
(INDIA)
0 200 400 600 km
8° N INDIAN OCEAN
72° E 76° 84° 88° 92° E 8° N
Labour Rice cultivation requires easily available cheap labour because most of the activities associated with it are
labour oriented and are not very well suited for mechanisation.
Distribution Rice is grown in almost all the states of India. The main rice producing states are Tamil Nadu, West
Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Punjab, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka,
Assam and Maharashtra. It is also grown in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Gujarat and Kashmir Valley.
Wheat
Wheat is the second most important food crop of India next to rice. It is a Rabi or winter crop. It is sown in the
beginning of winter and harvested in the beginning of summer. Normally (in North India) the sowing of wheat begins
in the month of October-November and harvesting is done in the month of March-April. This is the staple food of
millions of people particularly in the Northern and North-Western regions of India. Unlike rice, wheat is grown mostly
as a Rabi or winter crop.
235
Some of the geographical conditions needed for wheat production are as follows:
Temperature It is primarily a crop of mid-latitude grassland. It requires a cool climate. The ideal temperature is
between 10°C to 15°C at the time of sowing and 21°C to 26°C at the time of ripening and harvesting.
Rainfall Wheat thrives well in areas receiving annual rainfall of about 75 cm. Annual rainfall of about 100cm is
the upper limit for wheat cultivation. As you know areas receiving more than 100 cm of rainfall are suitable for
rice cultivation. Like rice, wheat can also be grown by irrigation method in areas where rainfall is less than 75 cm.
But on the other hand, frost at the time of flowering and hailstorm at the time of ripening can cause heavy damage
to the wheat crop.
68° E 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° E
36° N
36° N
INDIA
Wheat Production Areas
PAKISTAN
32°
32°
CHINA
(TIBET)
28°
Bhutan
BANGLADESH
24°
Tropic of
Cancer
MYANMAR
20°
20°
Arabian BAY OF
Sea BENGAL
16°
Major Areas 16°
Minor Areas
12°
12°
LAKSHADWEEP (INDIA)
(INDIA)
0 200 400 600 km
8° N INDIAN OCEAN
72° E 76° 84° 88° 92° E 8° N
Soil Although wheat can be grown in a variety of soils but well drained fertile loamy and clayey loamy soil is best
suited for wheat cultivation. Plain areas are very well suited for wheat production.
Labour Wheat is highly mechanised and requires less labour.
236
Distribution The main regions of wheat production

Gram
in India are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,
It is the most important of all the pulses. It accounts for
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra.
about 37% of the production and about 30% of the total area
Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana together produce of pulses in India. It is a rabi crop which is sown between
more than 66% of the total wheat of the country. September and November and is harvested between
February and April. It is either cultivated as a single crop or
Millets mixed with wheat, barley, linseed or mustard.
Millets are short duration warm weather crops.
These are coarse grain crops and are used for both Some of the geographical conditions for growing pulses are
food and fodder. These are kharif crops. as follows:
These are sown in May-August and harvested in Temperature It is grown in a wide range of climatic
October-November. condition. Mild cool and comparatively dry climate
Today millets are mostly consumed by poor people with 20°C-25°C temperature.
as their staple food. In India, lots of millet is grown Rainfall 40-45 cm rainfall is favourable for gram
and these are known by various local names. cultivation.
Some of these are Jowar, Bajra, Ragi, Korra, Kodon, Soil It grows well on loamy soils.
Kutki, Hraka, Bauti, Rajgira. Distribution Although gram is cultivated in several
Some of the geographical conditions for growing these parts of the country, however, 90% of the total
crops are as follows: production comes from five states. These states are
Temperature These crops are grown where the Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana
temperature is high which ranges between 27°C to and Maharashtra.
32°C. Tur (Arhar)
Rainfall As mentioned earlier that millets are ‘dry (i) Tur is the second important pulse crop in the country.
land crops’, therefore, rainfall ranging from 50 to It is also known as red gram or pigeon pea.
100cm is ideal for their cultivation.
(ii) It is cultivated over Marginal lands and under rainfed
Soil Millets are less sensitive to soil deficiencies. conditions in the dry areas of Central and Southern
They can be grown in inferior alluvial or loamy soil. states of the country.
Distribution Jowar, Bajra, is grown both in North (iii) This crop occupies only about 2% of total cropped
and South India whereas ragi is generally area of India.
concentrated in Southern India. Jowar, Bajra, is (iv) Maharashtra alone contributes about one-third of the
grown in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, total production of tur. Other leading producer states
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra are Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat and Madhya
Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. Ragi is generally Pradesh.
concentrated in the Southern India i.e., Tamil Nadu, (v) Temperature needed for growth of this crop is
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. 20° C − 25° C .
Pulses (vi) Rainfall – 40-80 cm,
It includes a number of crops which are mostly Soil type – Alluvial and Black soil.
leguminous and provide invaluable proteins to the
vegetarian population of India. As they have fewer Commercial Crops
sources of proteins in comparison to those who As mentioned in the beginning of the lesson, commercial
consume meat and fish. They also serve as excellent crops are those crops which are grown for sale either in
forage and grain concentrates in the cattle feed. raw form or semi processed form. In this section we will
Apart from that, these leguminous crops have the learn more about selected cash crops i.e., sugarcane, cotton
capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil and and jute; two beverages- tea and coffee; three oil seeds i.e.,
are normally rotated with other crops to maintain groundnut, mustard and rapeseed.
and restore soil fertility. A large variety of pulses are Sugarcane
found in India.
It is a Kharif crop. It is the main source of sugar, gur and
These are gram, tur or arhar (Pigeon Pea or Red
khandsari. It also provides raw material for the
Gram), urad (black gram), mung (green gram),
manufacturing of alcohol. Bagasse, the crushed cane
masur (lentil), kulthi (horse gram), matar (peas) etc.,
residue, has also multiple uses. It is used for manufacturing
But among these above-mentioned varieties only
paper. It is also an efficient substitute for petroleum
gram and tur or arhar are more important pulses.
products and a host of other chemical products.
237
A part of it is also used as fodder. Some of the geographical conditions for the growth of sugarcane are as follows :
Temperature It requires a hot and humid climate with an average temperature of 21°C to 27°C.
Rainfall 75-150 cm rainfall is favourable for sugarcane cultivation. Irrigation is required in those areas where
rainfall is less than the prescribed limit.
Soil It can grow in a variety of soils. In fact sugarcane can tolerate any kind of soil that can retain moisture. But
deep rich loamy soil is ideal for its growth. The soil should be rich in nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus but
neither should it be too acidic nor alkaline. Flat, plain and level plateau is an advantage for sugarcane cultivation
because it facilitates irrigation and transportation of cane to the sugar mills. Sugarcane cultivation requires heavy
manures and fertilisers because it exhausts the fertility of soils quickly and extensively.
Labour It is a labour oriented cultivation and requires cheap labour. Ample human hands are required at every
stage i.e.. sowing, hoeing, weeding, irrigation, cutting and carrying sugarcanes to the factories.
Distribution India has the largest area under sugarcane cultivation in the world and is the second largest producer
next to Brazil. As far as distribution of sugarcane cultivation in India is concerned, there are three distinct
geographical regions in the country. These regions are :
— The Sutlej-Ganga plain from Punjab to Bihar contains 51% of the total area and 60% of the country’s total
production.
— The black soil belt from Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu along the Eastern slopes of the Western Ghats.
— Coastal Andhra Pradesh and Krishna river valley.
68° E 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° E
36° N
36° N
INDIA
Sugarcane Production Areas
PAKISTAN
32°
32°
CHINA
(TIBET)
28°
Bhutan
BANGLADESH
24°
Tropic of
Cancer
MYANMAR
20°
20°
BAY OF
BENGAL
16°
16°
12°
12°
LAKSHADWEEP (INDIA)
(INDIA)
0 200 400 600 km
8° N INDIAN OCEAN
72° E 76° 84° 88° 92° E 8° N
238
Cotton areas where rainfall is less than 50 cm. High amount

of rainfall in the beginning and sunny and dry weather
Cotton is the most important fibre crop not only of India
at the time of ripening are very useful for a good crop.
but also of the entire world. It not only provides raw
material for cotton textile industry but also its seed is Soil Cotton cultivation is very closely related to Black
used in Vanaspati oil industry. The cotton seed is also soils of Deccan and Malwa plateau. However, it also
used as part of fodder for milch cattle for better milk grows well in alluvial soils of the Sutlej-Ganga plain
production. Cotton is basically a kharif crop and grown in and red and laterite soils of the peninsular region.
tropical and sub-tropical areas. Labour As picking of cotton has not been mechanised
Some of the geographical conditions are as follows : till now, therefore a lot of cheap and efficient labour is
required at the time of picking.
Temperature Cotton is the crop of tropical and
sub-tropical areas and requires uniformly high Distribution India has the largest area under
temperature varying between 21°C and 30°C. cultivation and third largest producer of cotton next
only to China and the USA. Within the country, two
Rainfall It grows mostly in the areas having at least third of total area and production is shared by four
210 frost free days in a year. It requires a modest states. The main states for cotton production are
amount of rainfall of 50 to 100cm. However, cotton is Punjab, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana.
successfully grown with the help of irrigation in the
68° E 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° E
36° N
36° N
INDIA
Cotton Production Areas
PAKISTAN
32°
32°
CHINA
(TIBET)
28°
Bhutan
BANGLADESH
24°
Tropic of
Cancer
MYANMAR
20°
20°
Arabian BAY OF
Sea BENGAL
16°
Major Areas 16°
Minor Areas
12°
12°
LAKSHADWEEP (INDIA)
(INDIA)
0 200 400 600 km
8° N INDIAN OCEAN
72° E 76° 84° 88° 92° E 8° N
239
Jute accounts for about one third of the world’s production.

Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat are three main
Jute is used for making coarse cloth, bags, socks
producers of groundnut in India and account for about
and decorative items.
60% of the total production. Another 30% of the total
It is a cash crop in West Bengal and adjoining production comes from Maharashtra, Karnataka and
Eastern parts of the country. Odisha.
India produces about three-fifth of jute production
of the world. Beverage Crops
West Bengal accounts for about three fourth of the Tea and coffee are the important beverage crops.
production in the country.
Tea
Temperature : 24 − 35°C
India is famous for its tea gardens. The tea plantations in
Rainfall : 125 − 200 cm
India were started by the Britishers in 1923 when wild tea
Soil : Sandy and Loamy plants were discovered by them in the hilly and forest areas
of Assam. Tea is made from tender sprouts of tea plants by
Rubber
drying them. At present, India is the leading tea producing
It is an equatorial crop, grown under special country in the world. China and Sri Lanka are respectively
conditions. It is also grown in tropical and the second and third largest producers of tea.
Sub-tropical areas.
It requires moist and humid climate with rainfall of Some of the geographical conditions for the growth of tea
more than 200 cm and temperature above 25° C are as follows :
It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Temperature It requires a hot and wet climate. The ideal
Karnataka and Andaman and Nicobar Islands and temperature for the growth of tea bushes and leaves
Garo hills of Meghalaya. varies between 20°C to 30°C. If the temperature either
rises above 35°C or goes below 10°C, it would be harmful
Oilseeds for the growth of tea bushes and leaves.
It is one of the important groups of commercial crops Rainfall As mentioned above tea requires a good amount
in India. In fact, India has the largest area and of rainfall ranging between 150-300 cm and the annual
production of oilseeds in the world. Oil extracted from rainfall should be well distributed throughout the year.
oilseeds not only forms an important item of our diet Long dry spell is harmful for tea.
but also serves as raw material for the manufacturing Soil Tea bush grows well in well drained, deep, friable
of hydrogenated oils, paints, varnishes, soaps, loamy soil. However, virgin forest soils rich in humus
lubricants etc. Oil-cake (the residue after the oil is and iron content are considered to be the best soils for
extracted from the oilseeds) forms an important cattle the tea plantation. Tea is a shade loving plant and grows
feed and manure. better when planted along with shady trees.
Groundnut Labour Cheap and efficient labour is required for tea
production.
It is the most important oilseed of India. Groundnut is
grown both as kharif and rabi crop but 90-95% of the Distribution Assam is the leading producer that
total area is devoted to kharif crop. Some of the accounts for more than 50% of tea production in India.
geographical conditions are as follows : Tea producing areas of Assam are the hill slopes
bordering the Brahmaputra and Surma valleys. West
Temperature It thrives best in the tropical climate Bengal is the second largest producer of tea where tea is
and requires 20°C to 30°C temperature. mostly grown in the districts of Darjeeling, Siliguri,
Rainfall 50-75 cm rainfall is favourable for Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar districts. Tamil Nadu is the
groundnut cultivation. It is highly susceptible to third largest producer where tea growing areas are
frost, prolonged drought, continuous rain and mostly restricted to Nilgiri hills.
stagnant water. Therefore dry winter is needed at
the time of ripening. Coffee
Soil Well drained light sandy loams, red, yellow It is the indigenous crop of Ethiopia (Abyssinian Plateau).
and black soils are well suited for its cultivation. From Ethiopia, it was taken to Yemen in the 11th century.
Distribution It is the most important oilseed of From Arabia, the seeds were brought by Baba Budan in the
India and accounts for about half of the major 17th century and were raised in Baba Budan hills of
oilseeds produced in the country. India is the Karnataka. But it was British planters who took keen
largest producer of groundnut in the world and interest and large coffee estates were established in the hills
of Western Ghats.
240
Some of the geographical conditions for the growth of coffee are as follows :
Temperature It requires a hot and humid climate with temperature varying between 15°C and 28°C. It is generally
grown under shady trees. Therefore, strong sunshine, high temperatures above 30°C, frost and snowfall are
harmful for coffee cultivation. Dry weather is necessary at the time of ripening of berries.
Rainfall It rainfall between 150 to 250 cm.
Soil Well drained, rich friable loamy soil containing a good deal of humus and minerals like iron and calcium are
ideal for coffee cultivation. The soil must be properly manured to retain and replenish fertility and to increase
productivity.
Labour Like tea, coffee cultivation also requires plenty of cheap and skilled labour for various purposes like
sowing, transplanting, pruning, plucking, dying, grading and packing of coffee.
Distribution Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu are the main states of coffee production in India.
68° E 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° E
36° N
36° N
INDIA
Tea and Coffee Production Areas
PAKISTAN
32°
32°
CHINA
(TIBET)
28°
Bhutan
BANGLADESH
24°
Tropic of
Cancer
MYANMAR
20°
20°
BAY OF
BENGAL
16°
Tea 16°
Coffee
12°
12°
LAKSHADWEEP (INDIA)
(INDIA)
0 200 400 600 km
8° N INDIAN OCEAN
72° E 76° 84° 88° 92° E 8° N
241
Horticulture More Farm Labourers than Farmers

Horticulture is the branch of agriculture concerned A farmer is usually a farm owner, while employees of
with intensively cultured plants directly used by man the farm are farm labourers, farmhands, etc.
for food, medicinal purposes and aesthetic As per recent estimates from the Labour Bureau,
gratification. 45% of India’s workforce is employed in agriculture.
In simpler words, it is cultivation, production and sale According to Census 2011, 55% of the agri-workforce
of vegetables, fruits, flowers, herbs, ornamental or comprises agri-labourers.
exotic plants. It is tough to drive or sustain growth in agriculture
The term ‘Horticulture’ is derived from the Latin words since farm labourers get no policy support or
hortus (garden) and cultura (cultivation). incentive to invest in farming.
LH Bailey is considered as the Father of American All benefits like seed kit, fertilisers, pesticides, farm
Horticulture and MH Marigowda is considered as the machinery, micro-irrigation, land development
Father of Indian Horticulture. assistance etc., are meant only for those who can
India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate prove land ownership.
fruits. Falling Investment in Agriculture
Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, The Gross Capital Formation (GCF) in agriculture as
Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, oranges of Nagpur and a percentage of the total GCF in the economy has
Cherrapunji (Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram, fallen from 8.5 % in Financial Year 2011-12 to 6.5 %
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, litchi and guava of Uttar in Financial Year 2018-19. This is because the share
Pradesh and Bihar, pineapples of Meghalaya, grapes of of private investment has shrunk.
Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra, apples, Though public investment has gone up it is not
pears, apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir sufficient to check the slide or keep the GCF at FY12
and Himachal Pradesh are in great demand the world level.
over.
India produces about 13% of the world’s vegetables. It Subsidy and Related Issues
is an important producer of pea, cauliflower, onion, A number of subsidies meant for agriculture also
cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato. flow to businesses, e.g., grants given to food
processing units and cold chain projects.
Issues with Agriculture in India As per the Indian Council for Research on
The following challenges are faced by Indian agriculture International Economic Relations- Organisation for
sector : Economic Cooperation and Development
(ICRIER-OECD) report, Indian farmers suffered net
Land Size losses and thus emerged to be net taxed despite
Area under agriculture has been shrinking, it reduced receiving subsidies. Despite the fact that many
from 159.5 million hectares (mn ha) in 2010-11 to 157 schemes are run to support and subsidise Indian
mn ha in 2015-16. farmers, there are of regressive policies on the
The number of operational holdings has been rising marketing side (both domestic and international
(increased from 138.3 million to about 146 million) trade policies) and the deficit of basic infrastructure
owing to increasing population. for storage, transportation etc.,
This leads to falling average landholdings’ size of Minimum Support Price (MSP) and
farmers, which has come down from 1.2 ha to about Related Issues
1.08 ha.
Selective Procurement The government declares
Due to small holdings caused by fragmentation, small MSP for 23 crops, only wheat and paddy (rice) are
and marginal farmers are forced to sell their produce at procured in large quantities as they are required to
the farm gate itself. This is especially so in states that meet the requirement of the Public Distribution
have a weak network of APMC (Agricultural Produce System (PDS), which is about 65 million tonnes.
Market Committee) mandis.
Stagnant Rates of MSP The government declaration
Bringing new technologies and practices to such a large of Minimum support prices do not increase at par
number of smallholders scattered over a vast with increase in cost of production.
countryside and integrating them with the modern
Unequal Access The benefits of this scheme do not
input and output markets is a huge challenge for Indian
reach all farmers and for all crops. There are many
agriculture.
242
regions of the country like the North-Eastern region This strategy of agricultural development paid
where the implementation is too weak. dividends instantly and increased the foodgrains
Non Scientific Practices MSP leads to non-scientific production at very fast rate. This spurt of
agricultural practices whereby the soil, water are agricultural growth came to be known as Green
stressed to an extent of degrading ground water table Revolution.
and salinisation of soil. The Planning Commission of India focused its
attention on the problems of agriculture in rainfed
Effect of Globalisation on Agriculture areas in 1980s.
n After globalisation in 1990, Indian farmers are facing It initiated agro-climatic planning in 1988 to
many challenges. induce-regionally balanced agricultural
n Despite of being major producers of rice, cotton, rubber, development in the country. It also emphasised on
tea, coffee, jute and spices, Indian agriculture is unable the need for diversification of agriculture and
to compete with developed nations. These countries are harnessing of resources for the development of dairy
provided high subsidy.
farming, poultry, horticulture, livestock rearing and
n Due to Green Revolution, quality of land degraded as use
aquaculture.
of chemical fertilisers led to loss of diversity and drying
of aquifers. Initiation of the policy of liberalisation and free
n At present, organic farming has emerged as a potential market economy in 1990s influenced the course of
solution to this problem in which agriculture is practiced development of rural infrastructure. Withdrawal of
with the use of chemicals. subsidies and price support, and impediments in
availing of the rural credits have lead to inter-
Agricultural Development in India regional and inter-personal disparities in rural areas.
Indian agricultural economy was largely subsistence in Bhoodan-Gramdan

nature before Independence. It had dismal performance
in the first half of 20th century. Mahatma Gandhi declared Vinoba Bhave as his
spiritual heir. He also participated in Satyagraha as
After Independence, the immediate goal of the one of the foremost satyagrahis. He was one of the
Government was to increase foodgrains production by votaries of Gandhi’s concept of Gram Swarajya.
— switching over from cash crops to food crops
After Gandhiji’s martyrdom, Vinoba Bhave
— intensification of cropping over already cultivated undertook padyatra to spread Gandhiji’s message,
land covered almost the entire country.
— increasing cultivated area by bringing cultivable and
Once when he was delivering a lecture at
fallow land under plough. Pochampalli in Andhra Pradesh, some poor landless
This strategy helped in increasing food grains villagers demanded some land for their economic
production, but agricultural production stagnated well-being. Vinoba Bhave could not promise it to
during late 1950s. them immediately but assured them to talk to the
To overcome this problem, Intensive Agricultural Government of India regarding provision of land for
District Area Programme (IAAP) was launched. But them if they undertook cooperative farming.
two consecutive droughts during mid 1960s resulted in Suddenly, Shri Ram Chandra Reddy stood up and
food crisis in the country. Consequently, foodgrains offered 80 acres of land to be distributed among
were imported from other countries. 80 land-less villagers. This act was known as
New seed varieties of wheat (Mexico) and rice Bhoodan.
(Philippines) known as High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) Later he travelled and introduced his ideas widely
were available for cultivation by mid-1960s. all over India. Some zamindars, owners of many
India took advantage of this and introduced package villages offered to distribute some villages among
technology comprising HYVs, along with chemical the landless. It was known as Gramdan.
fertilisers in irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western However, many land-owners chose to provide some
Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat. part of their land to the poor farmers due to the fear
Assured supply of soil moisture through irrigation was of Land Ceiling Act. This Bhoodan-Gramdan
a basic pre-requisite for the success of this new movement initiated by Vinoba Bhave is also known
agricultural technology. as the Blood-less Revolution.
243
— Eastern Plateau and Hills Chhota Nagpur Plateau,

Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Rajmahal Hills, Chhattisgarh and Dandakaranya.
n Kisan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident
— Aravalli-Malwa Highlands Nagpur plateau,
Insurance Scheme (PAIS) are some other schemes
introduced by the Government of India for the benefit Mahabharat plateau, Vindhyan Hills, Chhattisgarh,
of the farmers. Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand, Malwa.
n Moreover special weather bulletins and agricultural — Maharashtra Plateau Deccan Plateau.
programmes for farmers were introduced on the — Southern Plateau and Hills Southern Maharashtra,
radio and television. Karnataka, Western Andhra Pradesh, Northern Tamil
n The government also announces Minimum Support Nadu.
Price, remunerative and procurement prices for
— East Coast Plains and Hills Coromandel Coast, Utkal,
important crops to check the exploitation of farmers
by speculators and middlemen. North Circar.
— West Coast Plains and Hills Konkan, Karnataka and
Malabar Coast.
National Agriculture Policy, 2000
The Government of India announced its new Animal Husbandry/Cattle
agriculture policy on 28th July, 2000. Its envisages a
growth rate of 4% in the agriculture sector for the Rearing/Livestock Farming
next two decades. This agriculture policy has been Animal husbandry refers to livestock raising and
described as rainbow revolution. selective breeding. It is the management and care of
animals in which the genetic qualities and behaviour of
Rainbow Revolution animals are further developed for profit.
Revolution Related Areas A large number of farmers depend upon animal
Green Foodgrains husbandry for their livelihood. It supports the
livelihood of almost 55% of the rural population.
White Milk
As per the Economic Survey-2021, the contribution of
Yellow Oilseeds
Livestock in total agriculture and allied sector Gross
Red Meat/Tomato Value Added (at Constant Prices) has increased from
Pink Prawn 24.32% (2014-15) to 28.63% (2018-19).
Round Potato India is the highest livestock owner of the world.
Silver Eggs As per the 20th Livestock Census, the total Livestock
Golden Fruits population is 535.78 million in the country showing an
increase of 4.6% over Livestock Census-2012.
Grey Manure
Animal rearing has multidimensional potential.
Blue Fish
Buffaloes
Agro-Climatic Regions Buffaloes are an important source of milk supply in
The Planning Commission of India has divided India India contributing about 52.6% of the country’s total
into 15 major agro-climatic regions, delineated on production of milk although these constitute only 20%
the basis of a commonality of agro-climatic factors of the country’s total livestock.
like soil, rainfall, temperature, water resources, etc. Uttar Pradesh has the highest number of buffaloes
— West Himalayan Region Jammu and Kashmir, followed by Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya
Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal. Pradesh, Gujarat, Bihar, Maharashtra, Haryana and
— East Himalayan Region Sikkim, Darjeeling (West Punjab.
Bengal), Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh. The main buffaloes breeds include Murrah,
— Sutlej-Yamuna Plain (Trans Ganga Plain) Punjab, Bhadawari, Jaffarabadi, Surti, Mehsana, Nagpuri,
Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi, Western Uttar Rohtak, Nili Ravi and Deccan etc.
Pradesh.
— Upper Ganga Plain Western Uttar Pradesh, Goat Rearing
Haridwar, Uttaranchal. It is the main source of meat for the country (18.99%),
— Middle Ganga Plain Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar. the annual production being 4.88 lakh tonnes.
— Lower Ganga Plain Eastern Bihar, West Bengal, About 90% of the goats are of desi breed. Other
Assam. important breeds include Himalaya or Angora breed
244
(Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Jammu and earner, with fish being one of the most important
Kashmir), Jamunapari-Barbari (Western Uttar agricultural commodities to be exported from India.
Pradesh, Haryana and Delhi), Marwari Mehsana, Blue Revolution or the Neel Kranti Mission has the
Kathiawari and Zalwadi and Surti (Rajasthan, vision to achieve economic prosperity of the fishers
Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh) and Deccani (Peninsula). and fish farmers. It also aims to contribute towards
food and nutritional security through full potential
Sheep Rearing utilisation of water resources for fisheries
Sheep are an important source of mutton and wool in development in a sustainable manner, keeping in view
the country. In India, sheep areas are mainly found in the bio-security and environmental concerns.
low rainfall zones of the plateaus and hills. Andhra India is the world’s second-largest fish producer with
Pradesh accounts for one-third of the total sheep exports worth more than ` 47,000 crore.
population of the country followed by Rajasthan It has a marine fisher population of 3.5 million; 10.5
(16.36%), Karnataka (11.80%), Tamil Nadu (9.10%) million people are engaged in inland fishery and fish
and Jammu and Kashmir (5.55%). farming.
The important sheep breeds are the Deccani, Nellore, Andhra Pradesh stands at the top in terms of inland
Mandya, Bellary, Yalag and Bandur. fisheries production with 34.5 lakh tonnes. Gujarat
The country’s best quality sheep are found in the lead marine fisheries production with 7.01 lakh
Kashmir, Kullu, Chamba and Kangra valleys at an tonnes.
altitude of 2,000 m.
White Revolution
Poultry Farming n The phenomenal increase in the milk production of the
Poultry includes domestic fowls like chickens, ducks, country has been termed as white revolution.
geese, turkeys, etc., which are reared to obtain meat, n White revolution started with the launching of
eggs and feathers. Operation Flood I in July 1970 under the guidance of
The largest number of poultry population is found in Verghese Kurien, Chairman National Daily
Andhra Pradesh followed by Tamil Nadu, West Development Programmes (NDDB). Under this project
Bengal, Maharashtra, Karnataka. (NDDB), were started in 10 states of the country which
includes the development of infrastructural facilities
Poultry farms are being developed around almost all for the procurement of the milk from rural areas, its
the important urban centres of the country. processing, marketing, provision of cattle feed, factory,
In case of ducks, West Bengal occupies the foremost animal healthcare facilities, artificial insemination and
place followed by Assam, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra extension services.
Pradesh, Bihar and Odisha. n The Operation Flood II (1979-85) involves to cover
about one crore rural milk producer families. Under
Sericulture this project steps were taken to improve the quality of
catttle feed, increase pasture facilities, promote animal
Sericulture includes the rearing of silk worm for silk
health care facilities, improve cattle breed and provide
production. Silk worm thrives on the leaves of better facilities to milk producers.
mulberry, mahua, sal, ber and kusum trees. n The Operation Flood III which was completed in April
India is the second largest producer of silk in the 1996, helped in the organisation of 73,300 dairy
world. Here 17% of the world’s silk is produced. cooperative societies under 173 milksheds involving
India is unique country producing all the four over 9.4 million farmer members.
varieties of silk, viz, mulberry, tasar, eri and munga. n White Revolution is as important to dairy development
Karnataka is the largest producer of raw silk in the as Green Revolution has been to the foodgrains
production. Its outcome is based on the improvement
country (34.93%), followed by Andhra Pradesh, West
in cattle breeding and adoption of new technology. The
Bengal, Assam and Tamil Nadu.
rural cooperative societies have played pivotal role in
the success of White Revolution.
Fishing Industry in India
Fisheries and aquaculture are an important source of
food production, nutritional security, employment, Irrigation
and income in India. Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the
The fisheries sector is a direct source of livelihoods soil or agricultural field. It is the replacement or
for more than 20 million fishers and fish farmers supplementation of rainwater with another source of
contributes INR 1.75 trillion annually to the gross water. It is used in dry areas and during periods of
value added to India’s economy and is a major export inadequate rainfall.
245
The main idea behind irrigation systems is to assist in given field. Another difficulty with furrow irrigation
the growth of agricultural crops and plants by is the increased potential for water loss due to
maintaining the minimum amount of water required, runoff.
suppressing weed growth in grain fields, preventing soil Surge Irrigation Surge irrigation is a variant of
consolidation etc. furrow irrigation where the water supply is pulsed
on and off in planned time periods. The wetting and
Types of Irrigation System drying cycles reduce infiltration rates resulting in
The different types of irrigation systems are as follows : faster advance rates and higher uniformities than
Well and Tube Well Irrigation Wells are mainly found continuous flow.
in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, etc. Deep wells are Ditch Irrigation It is a rather traditional method,
more suitable for the purpose of irrigation as water from where ditches are dug out and seedlings are planted
them is available throughout the year. At places where in rows. The plantings are watered by placing
groundwater is available, a tube-well can be installed canals or furrows in between the rows of plants.
near the agricultural area. Siphon tubes are used to move the water from the
A deep tube well worked by electricity, can irrigate a main ditch to the canals.
much larger area (about 400 hectares) than a surface well Sub Irrigation or Seepage Irrigation It is a method
(half hectares). Tube wells are mostly used in Uttar of irrigation where water is delivered to the plant
Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Bihar and Gujarat. root zone from below the soil surface and absorbed
Canal Irrigation The main concentration of canal upwards. The excess may be collected for reuse. Its
irrigation is in the Northern plain of India, especially the advantages are water and nutrient conservation,
areas comprising Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. and labor-saving. The outfitting cost is relatively
Most of the canals in India are perennial. high. Potential problems, such as the possibility of
increased presence of disease in recycled water.
Tank Irrigation Tank comprises an important source of
irrigation in the Karnataka Plateau, Madhya Pradesh, Net Area Under Irrigation by Sources
Maharashtra, Odisha, Kerala, Bundelkhand area of Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Source Approx . Irrigated Area
Drip Irrigation In drip irrigation, water is applied near Tubewells and other wells 62%
the plant root through emitters or drippers, on or below Tanks 3%
the soil surface, at a low rate varying from 2-20 liters per
Canals 26%
hour. The soil moisture is kept at an optimum level with
frequent irrigation. Among all irrigation methods, drip Other Sources 9%
irrigation is the most efficient and can be practiced for a
large variety of crops, especially in vegetables, orchard
crops, flowers and plantation crops. MultiPurpose Projects
Sprinkler Irrigation In this method, water is sprayed A multipurpose project serves several purposes such as
into the air and allowed to fall on the ground surface flood control, irrigation, hydroelectric generation,
somewhat resembling rainfall. The spray is developed navigation, fishing, tourism and supply of drinking
by the flow of water under pressure through small water. Some of the important multi-purpose projects
orifices or nozzles. The sprinkler irrigation system is a are as follows :
very suitable method for irrigation on uneven lands and Bhakra Nangal Project
on shallow soils.
It is the joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and
Nearly all crops are suitable for sprinkler irrigation Rajasthan. The project comprises of :
systems except crops like paddy, jute, etc. The dry crops,
— Two dams at Bhakra and Nangal
vegetables, flowering crops, orchards, plantation crops
— Nangal hydel channel
like tea, coffee are all suitable and can be irrigated
through sprinklers. — Power houses
— Electricity transmission lines
Furrow Irrigation Furrow irrigation is a type of surface
irrigation in which trenches or ‘furrows’ are dug — Bhakra canal system for irrigation
between crop rows in a field. Farmers flow water down Damodar Valley Project
the furrows and it seeps vertically and horizontally to
refill the soil reservoir. Flow to each furrow is It consists of four dams. These are as follows :
individually controlled. One of the difficulties of furrow 1. Tilaiya Dam It has been constructed on Barakar
irrigation is ensuring uniform dispersion of water over a river.
246
2. Konar Dam It has been constructed on Konar river in Tungabhadra Multipurpose Project
Hazaribagh district of Jharkhand. It is a joint undertaking of Andhra Pradesh and
3. Maithon Dam It has been constructed on Barakar Karnataka.
river, a little upstream from the confluence of river It consists of a straight gravity masonry dam across
Damodar and Barakar. the Tungabhadra (a tributary of Krishna river) at
4. Panchet Dam This is an earthen dam with a concrete Mallapur in Bellary district of Karnataka.
spill-way, which has been constructed on the river Gandak Project
Damodar.
It is a joint venture of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Nepal
Hirakud Dam Project also derived some benefits from this project
It is an ambitious project of the state of Odisha, which according to an agreement signed in 1959.
consists of a dam on the river Mahanadi at Hirakud It consists of two major canals such as the main
about 14 km upstream off the city of Sambalpur. Western canal and the main Eastern canal.
The area served by the Hirakud is very rich in minerals Narmada Valley Project
like iron ore, bauxite, mica, manganese, which require
large supply of hydroelectricity. It is proposed on the Narmada river and the purpose
is to harness the Narmada river for the economic
Kosi Project prosperity of the concerned areas.
The entire project consists of three units such as a This is one of the largest river valley projects of the
barrage near Hanuman Nagar in Nepal, flood world because the entire project includes the
embankment on both sides of the river and construction construction of 30 major, 135 medium and 3000
of irrigation canal. minor dams on the river.
It has two major canals for irrigation purpose. They are : Some of the important dams of the Narmada valley
1. The Eastern Kosi canal projects are Sardar Sarovar dam, Maheshwar dam,
2. Western Kosi canal Omkareshwar dam, etc.
It is a joint venture of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
Rihand Valley Project This project is under controversy due to the
It consists of a straight gravity dam across the Rihand opposition from the farmers of the affected areas
river in Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh. The regarding environmental concerns, resettlement and
reservoir created by this dam is named as Govind rehabilitation.
Ballabh Pant Sagar.
Nagarjuna Sagar Project
It is the largest man-made reservoir in India. Flood
control in Son valley, fishing in Govind Ballabh Pant It consists of a concrete dam on Krishna river in
Sagar, tourism, prevention and control of soil erosion in Nalgonda district about 114 km to the South-East of
Baghelkhand region are some of the benefits of the Hyderabad. Two canals have been taken from it; one
project. from either side of the dam.
The Jawahar canal on the right side is irrigating the
Chambal Valley Project districts of Guntur, Prakasam, Nellore is whereas,
It is a joint venture of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh Lal Bahadur canal is on the left side of the districts
on the Chambal river, a tributary of Yamuna. The of Khammam, West Godavari and Krishna district.
project aims at harnessing the Chambal river for
irrigation, power generation and for prevention and Tehri Dam
control of soil erosion in the valley. The Tehri dam is situated at the confluence of the
The project is executed in three successive stages. Bhagirathi and the Bhilangana rivers in Garhwal
These are as follows : district of Uttarakhand.
1. The First Stage It consists of the construction of the This is a rock-fill dam with the purpose of
Gandhi Sagar dam at the border of Madhya Pradesh generation of electricity and irrigation of the arid
and Rajasthan. land between the Ganga and Yamuna.
2. The Second Stage It consists of the construction of the Beas Project

Rana Pratap Masonry dam at Rawatbhata (Rajasthan). It is a joint venture of the Punjab, Haryana and
3. The Third Stage It consists of the construction of the Rajasthan. The main components of the project are :
long gravity dam known as Jawahar Sagar dam or — Sutlej-Beas link
Kota dam. — Pong dam at Beas
247
List of the Projects, State, Location and their Purpose
Name of the Project Location State Purpose
Nagarjuna Sagar Multipurpose River Krishna Andhra Pradesh and Telangana Irrigation, Hydroelectricity
Project
Pochampadu Project River Godavari Telangana Irrigation
Lower Sileru Project River Sileru (Godavari) Andhra Pradesh Hydroelectricity
Kakrapar Project River Tapi Gujarat Irrigation
Kothagudem Project Singareni Coalfields Telangana Thermal power
Kosi Project River Kosi Bihar Flood control, Irrigation,

Hydroelectricity
Gandak Project River Gandak Uttar Pradesh, Bihar Irrigation, Hydroelectricity
Dhuvaran Power Station Kheda district Gujarat Thermal power
Sabarigiri (Pamba Kakki) Project River Pamba-Kakki Kerala Hydroelectricity
Idukki Project River Periyar Kerala Hydroelectricity
Chambal Project River Chambal Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh Irrigation, Hydroelectricity
Tawa Project River Tawa (Narmada) Madhya Pradesh Irrigation
Korba Project Near Korta Coalfields Chhattisgarh Thermal power
Satpura Power Station Patharkata Coalfields Madhya Pradesh Thermal power
Koyna Project River Koyna Maharashtra Hydroelectricity
Nagpur Power Station Koradi, near Nagpur city Maharashtra Thermal power
Tungabhadra Multipurpose River Tungabhadra Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh Irrigation, Hydroelectricity

Project
Upper Krishna Project River Krishna Karnataka Irrigation
Sharavathi Project River Sharavathi, near Jog Falls Karnataka Hydroelectricity
Hirakud Multipurpose Project River Mahanadi Odisha Irrigation, Hydroelectricity
Mahanadi Delta Project River Mahanadi Odisha Irrigation
Bhakra Nangal Multipurpose River Sutluj Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Irrigation, Hydroelectricity
Project Haryana
Indira Gandhi Canal Project River Sutluj and Beas in Punjab Rajasthan, Punjab Irrigation
Kundah Project River Bhavani Tamil Nadu Hydroelectricity
Ramganga Multipurpose Project Chuisot Stream near Kalagarh Uttarakhand Irrigation, Hydroelectricity
Matatila Multipurpose Project River Betwa Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh Irrigation, Hydroelectricity
Rihand Scheme River Rihand Uttar Pradesh Hydroelectricity
Damodar Valley Project River Damodar Jharkhand, shared with West Flood control, Irrigation
Bengal
Ukai Project River Tapi Gujarat Irrigation
Mahi Project River Mahi Gujarat Irrigation
Ghataprabha Project River Ghataprabha Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Irrigation
Bhima Project River Bhima Maharashtra Irrigation
Sardar Sarovar Project River Narmada Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh Irrigation and Hydroelectricity
Bansagar Project River Son Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh Irrigation

248
Name of the Project Location State Purpose
Dul Hasti Project River Chenab Jammu and Kashmir Hydroelectricity
Salal Project River Chenab Jammu and Kashmir Hydroelectricity
Thein Dam Project River Ravi Punjab Irrigation, Hydroelectricity
Malaprabha Project River Malaprabha Karnataka Irrigation
Jayakwadi Project River Godavari Maharashtra Irrigation
Beas Project River Beas Punjab and Haryana Hydroelectricity
Sharda Sahayak River Ghaghara and Sharda Uttar Pradesh Irrigation
Mayurakshi Project River Mayurakshi West Bengal Irrigation, Hydroelectricity
Rana Pratap Sagar Project River Chambal Rajasthan Hydroelectricity
Mettur Project River Cauvery Tamil Nadu Hydroelectricity
Pallivasal Project River Munnar Abuja Kerala Hydroelectricity
Papanasam Project River Thamirabarani Tamil Nadu Hydroelectricity
Loktak Project Lake Loktak Manipur Hydroelectricity
Tehri Project River Bhagirathi (Ganga) Uttarakhand Hydroelectricity
Farakka Project Ganga West Bengal Irrigation
Daman Ganga River Daman Ganga Gujarat Irrigation and River Link
Gima Project River Gima (Tributary of Tapi) Maharashtra Irrigation and River Link
Pamba Project River Pamba Kerala River Conservation and Irrigation
Tapovan-Vishnugad River Dhauliganga Uttarakhand Hydroelectricity
Omkareshwar River Narmada Madhya Pradesh Hydropower and Irrigation

NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 22 249
Energy and Mineral

Resources in India
Sources Class-VIII Old NCERT Chap 1 (Natural Resource (Minerals), Class-X New NCERT Chap 5 (Mineral and Energy Resources),
Class-X Old NCERT Chap 5 (Mineral and Power Resources), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 7 (Mineral and Energy Resources),
Class-XII Old NCERT Chap 1 (Natural Resources of India)
nickel, cobalt, etc., are important examples of

Mineral Resources ferrous minerals.
India is endowed with a rich variety of mineral Non-ferrous Minerals These minerals do not have
resources due to its varied geological structure. Bulk of iron content. Gold, silver, copper, lead, bauxite, tin,
the valuable minerals are products of Pre-Paleozoic age magnesium, etc., are important examples of
and are mainly associated with metamorphic and non-ferrous minerals.
igneous rocks of peninsular India.
The vast alluvial plain tract of North India is devoid of Non-metallic Minerals
minerals of economic use. The mineral resources These minerals do not contain metal. Limestone,
provide the country with the necessary base for nitrate, potash, dolomite, mica, gypsum, etc., are
industrial development. important examples of non-metallic minerals.
Coal and petroleum are also non-metallic minerals.
Types of Mineral Resources They are used as fuel and are also known as mineral
Mineral resources are categorised as follows : fuels.
Minerals
Other Classification of Minerals
The wide varieties of minerals that have been explored
Metallic Minerals Non-Metallic Minerals by man for general and commercial purposes to satisfy
his needs are classified into the following groups:
Ferrous Non-Ferrous Energy Resources Other metallic minerals Industrial metallic minerals Iron Ore
Ferroalloy metallic minerals Manganese, Chromium,
Conventional Non-Conventional Cobalt, Molybdenum, Vanadium, Nickel, etc.
Precious metallic minerals Gold (Au), Silver (Ag)
Metallic Minerals and Platinum (Pt).
These minerals contain metal. Iron ore, copper, Non-metallic minerals Salt, Tin, Potash, Asbestos,
manganese, nickel, etc., are important examples of metallic and Sulphur.
minerals. Metallic minerals are further subdivided into
Power Minerals (Mineral fuels) Coal, Petroleum
ferrous and non-ferrous minerals.
and Natural Gas which are non-metallic minerals
Ferrous Minerals These minerals have iron content. derived from vegetable remains
Iron-ore, manganese, chromite, pyrites, tungsten,
Other Uranium
250
Distribution of Minerals in India Ferrous Mineral

Most of the metallic minerals in India occur in the Ferrous minerals such as iron ore, manganese,
peninsular plateau region in the old crystalline rocks. chromite, etc., provide a strong base for the
Over 97% of coal reserves occur in the valleys of development of metallurgical industries.
Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari. Our country is well-placed in respect of ferrous
Petroleum reserves are located in the sedimentary minerals both in reserves and production.
basins of Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai High
i.e., off-shore region in the Arabian Sea. Iron Ore
New reserves have been located in the Krishna-Godavari India is endowed with fairly abundant resources of
and Kaveri basins. Most of the major mineral resources iron ore. It has the largest reserve of iron ore in
occur to the East of a line linking Mangalore and Kanpur. Asia.
Minerals are generally concentrated in three broad belts The two main types of ore found in our country are
in India. These belts are : haematite and magnetite.
It has great demand in the international market due
The North-Eastern Plateau Region to its superior quality.
This belt covers Chhota Nagpur (Jharkhand), Orissa
The iron ore mines occur in close proximity to the
Plateau, West Bengal and parts of Chhattisgarh.
coal fields in the North-Eastern plateau region of the
It has a variety of minerals viz. iron ore, coal, country which adds to their advantage.
manganese, bauxite, mica.
The total reserves of iron ore in the country were
The South-Western Plateau Region about 20 billion tonnes in the year 2004-05.
This belt extends over Karnataka, Goa and contiguous About 95% of total reserves of iron ore is located in
Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala. the states of Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,
This belt is rich in ferrous metals and bauxite. Karnataka, Goa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
It also contains high grade iron ore, manganese and In Odisha, iron ore occurs in a series of hill ranges
limestone. in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar. The
important mines are Gurumahisani, Sulaipet,
This belt packs in coal deposits except Neyveli lignite.
Badampahar (Mayurbhaj), Kiruburu (Kendujhar)
This belt does not have as diversified mineral deposits and Bonai (Sundergarh).
as the North-Eastern belt.
Similar hill ranges, Jharkhand has some of the
Kerala has deposits of monazite and thorium, bauxite
oldest iron ore mines and most of the iron and steel
clay. Goa has iron ore deposits.
plants are located around them.
The North-Western Region Most of the important mines such as Noamundi and
This belt extends along Aravalli in Rajasthan and part of Gua are located in Poorbi and Pashchimi
Gujarat and minerals are associated with the Dharwar Singhbhum districts.
system of rocks. This belt further extends to Durg, Dantewada and
Copper, zinc have been major minerals. Rajasthan is Bailadila. Dalli and Rajhara in Durg are the
rich in building stones i.e. sandstone, granite, marble. important mines of iron ore in the country.
Dolomite and limestone provide raw materials for the In Karnataka, iron ore deposits occur in
cement industry. Gujarat is known for its petroleum Sandur-Hospet area of Bellary district, Baba Budan
deposits. hills and Kudremukh in Chikmagalur district and
Gujarat and Rajasthan both have rich sources of salt. parts of Shimoga, Chitradurg and Tumkur districts.
The Himalayan belt is another mineral belt where copper, The districts of Chandrapur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri
lead, zinc, cobalt and tungsten are known to occur. in Maharashtra, Karimnagar, Warangal, Kurnool,
Cuddapah and Anantapur districts of Andhra
They occur in both the Eastern and Western parts.
Pradesh, Salem and Nilgiris districts of Tamil Nadu
Assam valley has mineral oil deposits.
are other iron mining regions.
Besides, oil resources are also found in off-shore-areas
Gua has also emerged as an important producer of
near Mumbai Coast (Mumbai High).
iron ore.
251
Major Iron-ore Reserves in India Odisha happens to be the largest producer of Bauxite.
Kalahandi and Sambalpur are the leading producers.
States Regions Important Mines
The other two areas which have been increasing their
Odisha l
Sundergarh Bonai
production are Bolangir and Koraput. The patlands of
l
Mayurbhanj Gurumahisani, Sulaipat,
Badampahar Jharkhand in Lohardaga have rich deposits.
l
Jhar Kiriburu Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and
Jharkhand l
Poorbi Singhbhum Noamundi Maharashtra are other major producers. Bhavanagar
and Jamnagar in Gujarat have major deposits.
l
Pashchimi Singhbhum Gua
Chhattisgarh has bauxite deposits in Amarkantak
Chhattisgarh l
Durg Dalli Rajhara
plateau while Katni-Jabalpur area and Balaghat in
l
Bastar Dantewada, Bailadila Madhya Pradesh have important deposits of bauxite.
Karnataka l
Ballari district Sandur-Hospet Kolaba, Thane, Ratnagiri, Satara, Pune and Kolhapur
l
Chikkamagaluru Baba Budan hills and in Maharashtra are important producers. Tamil Nadu,
district, Shivamogga, Kudremukh Karnataka and Goa are minor producers of bauxite.
Chitradurga, Tumkur
Major Bauxite Reserves in India
Manganese States Region
Manganese is an important raw material for smelting Jharkhand Palamau, Ranchi and Lohardaga districts
of iron ore and also used for manufacturing ferro Gujarat Bhavnagar, Junagadh and Amreli
alloys. Manganese deposits are found in almost all
Madhya Pradesh Mandla, Shahdol and Balaghat and Katni district
geological formations; however, it is mainly
associated with the Dharwar system. Chhattisgarh Surguja, Raigarh and Bilaspur in Amarkantak
plateau
Odisha is the leading producer of manganese. Major
Maharashtra Kolhapur, Raigarh, Thane, Satara and Ratnagiri
mines in Odisha are located in the central part of the districts
iron ore belt of India, particularly in Bonai,
Karnataka North-Western parts of Belgaum district
Kendujhar, Sundergarh, Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi
and Bolangir.
Copper
Karnataka is another major producer and here the
mines are located in Dharwad, Bellary, Belgaum, Copper is an indispensable metal in the electrical
North Canara, Chikmagalur, Shivamogga, Chitradurga industry for making wires, electric motors,
and Tumkur. transformers and generators.
It is alloyable, malleable and ductile.
Maharashtra is also an important producer of
manganese which is mined in Nagpur, Bhandara and It is also mixed with gold to provide strength to
Ratnagiri districts. The disadvantage to these mines is jewellery.
that they are located far from steel plants. The Copper deposits mainly occur in Singhbhum
The manganese belt of Madhya Pradesh extends in a district in Jharkhand, Balaghat district in Madhya
belt in Balaghat-Chhindwara-Nimar-Mandla and Pradesh and Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts in
Jhabua districts. Rajasthan.
Andhra Pradesh, Goa and Jharkhand are other Minor producers of copper are Agnigundala in Guntur
minor producers of manganese. district (Andhra Pradesh), Chitradurga and Hasan
districts (Karnataka) and South Arcot district (Tamil
Non-Ferrous Minerals Nadu).
India is poorly endowed with non-ferrous metallic
minerals except bauxite.
Non-metallic Minerals
Among the non-metallic minerals produced in India,
Bauxite mica is the important one.
Bauxite is the ore which is used in manufacturing The other minerals extracted for local consumption are
aluminium. limestone, dolomite and phosphate.
Bauxite is found mainly in tertiary deposits and is Mica
associated with laterite rocks occurring extensively
either on the plateau or hill ranges of peninsular India Mica is mainly used in the electrical and electronic
and also in the coastal tracts of the country. industries. It can be split into very thin sheets which
are tough and flexible.
252
Mica in India is produced in Jharkhand, Diamond

Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan followed by
Diamond is the purest form of carbon and is the hardest element
Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Madhya
found in nature. The world famous Kohinoor diamond was
Pradesh.
extracted from the Golconda mines in Andhra Pradesh.
In Jharkhand, high quality mica is obtained
Diamond regions in India include Panna and Satna districts of
in a belt extending over a distance of about
Madhya Pradesh; Raichur, Gulbarga of Karnataka; Anantpur
150 km, in length and about 22 km, in width
district and Krishna basin of Andhra Pradesh.
in lower Hazaribagh plateau.
In Andhra Pradesh, Nellore district produces Gypsum
the best quality mica. In Rajasthan, the Gypsum is a mineral commonly found in Earth crust. Its major
mica belt extends for about 320 kms from ores are selenite, satin Spar, alabaster, gibbsite, etc.
Jaipur to Bhilwara and around Udaipur. It is formed in the sedimentary rocks. Its largest producer is
Mica deposits also occur in Mysore and Rajasthan (90%). The largest producing region in Rajasthan is
Hasan districts of Karnataka, Coimbatore, Hanumangarh district.
Tiruchirapalli, Madurai and Kanyakumari in The other regions are Bikaner, Jodhpur, Nagpur and Jaisalmer.
Tamil Nadu, Alleppey in Kerala, Ratnagiri Also, gypsum is produced in Doda district in Jammu and
in Maharashtra, Purulia and Bankura in Kashmir and Kutch district in Gujarat. Gypsum is mainly used
West Bengal. in making ammonium sulphate fertiliser and in cement industry.
Ladakh
253
Non-Metallic Mineral Mines Over 90% of the lignite reserves are concentrated in
Tamil Nadu. Neyveli is the largest lignite coal mine
Non-Metallic Mines
Mineral of India.
Limestone Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, (iv) Peat It is the first stage of transformation of wood
Gujarat, Chhattisgarh into coal and contains less than 40% carbon. It is
Dolomite About 90% of the dolomite is found in Madhya found in Jharkhand state of India. Jharia area of
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Gujarat, Dhanbad district is the rich reserve of peat coal in the
Karnataka, West Bengal country.
Asbestos Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Distribution of Coal Fields in India
Gypsum Found in Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir Coal is one of the important minerals, which is mainly
Graphite Occurs in Kalahandi, Belangir (Odisha) and used in the generation of thermal power and smelting of
Bhagalpur (Bihar) iron-ore. About 80% of the coal deposits in India are of
bituminous type and of non-cooking grade. Coal occurs in
rock sequences mainly of two geological ages. These are
Energy Resources as follows
Energy resources can be categorised as conventional and (i) Gondwana Coal The Gondwana coal is mature coal.
non-conventional energy resources. The most important Gondwana coal fields of India
Conventional Energy Resources are located in Damodar valley and Jharkhand-Bengal
coal belt. The important coal fields in this region are
Mineral fuels are essential for generation of power, Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih and Karanpura.
required by agriculture, industry, transport and other Jharia is the largest coal field followed by Raniganj.
sectors of the economy.
The other river valleys associated with coal are
Mineral fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas
Godavari, Mahanadi and Son. The most important
(known as fossil fuels), nuclear energy minerals, are
coal mining centres are Singrauli in Madhya Pradesh
the conventional sources of energy. These
(part of Singrauli coal field lies in Uttar Pradesh);
conventional sources are exhaustible resources.
Korba in Chhattisgarh, Talcher and Rampur in Odisha,
Coal (Black Gold) Wardha, Kamptee and Bhander in Maharashtra;
It constitutes about 70% of the total commercial Singareni in Telangana and Pandur in Andhra Pradesh.
energy consumed in India. The power sector and (ii) Tertiary Coals The tertiary coal is young coal. It was
industries account for 94% of total consumption. formed around 15 to 60 million years ago. Tertiary
Coal has been described as the bridge into the future. coal fields share only 1% of coal production of India.
India ranks third in the world after China and USA in It is extracted from Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Mewlong
coal production. and Langrin (Meghalaya); Makum, Jaipur and Nazira
in upper Assam; Namchik-Namphuk (Arunachal
Note Jharkhand is the largest coal producing state in India. China
is the world’s largest producer of coal, while United States
Pradesh) and Kalakot (Jammu and Kashmir). Besides,
contains the world’s largest ‘recoverable’ coal reserves. the brown coal or lignite occurs in the coastal areas
of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Gujarat and Jammu and
Types of Coal Kashmir.
There are four major types of coal as follows Export of Coal
(i) Anthracite Coal It is the best quality of coal and Coal is under Open General Licence list. India exports
contains 80% to 95% carbon, also called as coal to the neighbouring countries such as Nepal,
‘smokeless fuel’. It is found only in Jammu and Bangladesh and Bhutan.
Kashmir in small quantity.
Import of Coal
(ii) Bituminous Coal This is the most widely used coal
Coal can be freely imported by the consumers
and contains 40% to 80% carbon. It is found in
themselves considering their needs and exercising
Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh
their own commercial judgements. Cooking coal is
and Madhya Pradesh.
imported by Steel Authority of India Ltd. and other
(iii) Lignite It is also known as brown coal. It is a steel sector manufacturers.
lower grade coal and contains about 40% to 50%
Non-coking coal is imported by sectors like power
carbon. It is found in Palana of Bikaner district in
plants, cement plants, sponge iron plants, industrial
Rajasthan, Neyveli of Tamil Nadu, Lakhimpur of
consumers and coal traders to minimise transport
Assam and Kerewa of Jammu and Kashmir.
expenses and against export entitlements.
254
2. Petroleum
Crude petroleum consists of hydrocarbons of liquid and gaseous states varying in chemical composition, colour
and specific gravity. It is an essential source of energy for all internal combustion engines in automobiles, railways
and aircraft. Its numerous by-products are processed in petrochemical industries such as fertiliser, synthetic
rubber, synthetic fibre, medicines, Vaseline, lubricants, wax, soap and cosmetics.
Crude petroleum occurs in sedimentary rocks of the tertiary period. Oil exploration and production was
systematically taken up after the Oil and Natural Gas Commission was set up in 1956. Till then, the Digboi in
Assam was the only oil producing region.
In recent years, new oil deposits have been found at the extreme Western and Eastern parts of the country. In
Assam, Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran are important oil producing areas.
The major oil fields of Gujarat are Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba and Lunej.
Mumbai High which lies 160 km off Mumbai was discovered in 1973 and production commenced in 1976.
Oil and natural gas have been found in exploratory wells in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basin on the East coast.
Oil extracted from the wells is crude oil and contains many impurities. It cannot be used directly. It needs to be
refined. There are two types of refineries in India - field based and market based. Digboi is an example of field
based and Barauni is an example of market based refinery.
68E. 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°E.

36°N. 36°N.
INDIA
Oil Refineries
32° 32°
G
Pakistan
Panipat China
28° Ne 28°
pa
l
Mathura
Bhutan
Barauni
Bangladesh 24°
Bina
Jamnagar Tropic of
Cancer
Myanmar
20° Paradip 20°
Mumbai
Arabian Bay of Bengal
Ocean
Visakhapatnam
16° Tatipaka
Oil Refineries
Mangalore Chennai
12° 12°
Nagapatinum
Kochi Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Lakshadweep
(India)
(India)
8°N. 0 200 400 600 km 8°N.
Sri
Indian Lanka Ocean
72°E. 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°E.
255
3. Natural Gas Many buses and commercial automotive fleets now

operate on CNG.
Natural gas (also called Fossil gas; sometimes just
gas) is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture It is an ingredient in dyes and inks. It is used in electric
consisting primarily of methane, but commonly power generation and rubber compounding operations.
including varying amounts of other higher alkanes, Ammonia is manufactured using hydrogen derived
and sometimes a small percentage of carbon dioxide, from methane. Ammonia is used to produce chemicals
nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, or helium. such as hydrogen cyanide, nitric acid, urea and a range
Natural Gas is also a fossil fuel and is found in the of fertilisers.
same geological structure where petroleum is found. Importance of Natural Gas to India
Sometimes, the pressure of natural gas forces oils up Currently, the largest share of Natural gas, about 40%,
to the surface. Such natural gas is known as is consumed in the production of fertilisers.
‘Associated gas’ or ‘wet gas’.
About 30% is used in power generation and 10% is
Some reservoirs contain gas and no oil. This gas is used in LPG. There have been complimentary growth
termed non-associated gas or dry gas. in Natural Gas production and all of these sectors.
Often natural gases contain substantial quantities of Especially after 1971, there has been a manifold
hydrogen sulfide or other organic sulfur compounds. increase in the production of Natural gas.
In this case, the gas is known as sour gas. Coal-Bed Power stations using gas accounted for nearly 10% of
Methane (CBM) is called sweet gas because of its lack India’s electricity.
of hydrogen sulfide.
Despite the country reeling under a power crisis, gas
In practice, purchases of natural gas are usually power stations are lying idle due to a lack of feedstock.
denoted as MMBTUs (millions of British thermal
Existing plants are operating below capacity on
units (BTU or Btu)) = ~1,000 cubic feet of natural gas.
expensive imported Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).
Natural gas is odourless and colourless; the slightly
India’s oil reserves are insufficient for its growing
sour smell that we associate with the gas coming
energy needs and the situation is made worse by policy
from a stovetop is due to an odorisation process (for
paralysis which increases the gestation period of the
safety and leak detection) which adds mercaptan
projects.
compounds to the end-use gas.
We need to diversify our energy basket through
India’s commercial production of Natural Gas started
alternate fuels so that we need not have to bear the
much later (since 1961).
brunt of external shocks.
The natural gas industry in India began in the 1960s
Natural gas contributes to about a quarter of global
with the discovery of gas fields in Assam and Gujarat.
energy consumption. In India, however, it constitutes
After the constitution of Gas Authority of India only 6% of the energy consumed, while crude oil and
(GAIL) in 1984, there has been much emphasis on coal dominate. The Indian government has promised
natural gas production. to raise the share of natural gas to 15% by 2030.
Natural gas is formed when layers of decomposing
plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat
Distribution of Natural Gas in India
and pressure under the surface of the Earth over Gulf of Kachchh, Gulf of Khambhat, Bassein field,
millions of years. Bombay High, Barmer in Rajasthan, KG basin,
Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Assam,
Uses of Natural Gas Tripura, etc.
It is used to turn turbines for wind and solar energy India’s economically viable reserve of natural gas is
generation. 541 BCM (off-shore, Assam and Gujarat), besides 190
It is a domestic fuel as well. It fires stoves in our BCM offshore in Bay of Cambay and 190 BCM(billion
houses and also runs heaters, ovens, boilers, etc. cubic metres) in Bombay High.
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is gas stored at high Recently a huge reserve of 400 BCM has been reported
pressure and also used in some households for in the Tripura Basin. Besides them, 72 BCM is in the
heating and cooking purposes. Rava structure and a huge reserve is reported around
CNG is also a cheap and environment-friendly Andaman and Nicobar island.
alternative for a transportation fuel used in low load On the basis of remote sensing information, Andaman
vehicles requiring high fuel efficiency. and Nicobar reserves are estimated to be around 1700
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is used to power BCM. Its economic viability is yet to be established,
vehicles such as off-road trucks and trains. that’s why production has not yet started.
256
This reserve will solve the problem or need of India for 100 years. This may produce an economic revolution in
Eastern India.
68°E 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°E
36°N INDIA
36°N
Energy Resources
Pakistan
N
32°
CHINA 32°
(Tibet)
Sahibabad Makum
Sonipat Babrala
Shahjahanpur NE Naharkatia
Delhi PA Digboi
28° Aonla L Sivasagar
Gurgaon BHUTAN Janji
Jagdishpur Najira
Auraiya Phoolpur
Anta BANGLADESH 24°

Singarauli
Vijaipur Bokaro Raniganj
Kalol Tropic of Cancer
Jharia
Jhabua KorbaKorba
Vadodara MYANMAR
Ankaleshwar
Hajira
Talcher
20°
Bassein 20°
Bay of Bengal
Bombay High Singareni
Arabian Sea
16° Coal Fields
Coal Mines
Oil Fields 20°
Major Natural Gas
Reserves
12° HVJ Natural Gas

Pipeline 12°
Neyveli

(India)
Lakshadweep
8°N (India) 0 200 400 600 km
8°N
Sri
Lanka
72°E 76° 84° 88° 92°E
4. Nuclear Energy Resources

Nuclear energy has emerged as a viable source in recent times. Important minerals used for the generation of
nuclear energy are uranium and thorium.
Uranium deposits occur in the Dharwar rocks. Geographically, uranium ores are known to occur in several
locations along the Singhbhum Copper belt.
It is also found in Udaipur, Alwar and Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan, Durg district of Chhattisgarh, Bhandara
district of Maharashtra and Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh.
257
Thorium is mainly obtained from monazite and Solar thermal technology has some relative advantages
Ilmenite in the beach sands along the coast of Kerala over all other non-renewable energy sources. It is cost
and Tamil Nadu. competitive, environment friendly and easy to
World’s richest monazite deposits occur in Palakkad construct.
and Kollam districts of Kerala, near Visakhapatnam Solar energy is 7% more effective than coal or oil
in Andhra Pradesh and Mahanadi river delta in based plants and 10% more effective than nuclear
Odisha. plants. It is generally used more in appliances like
The Atomic Energy Commission was established in heaters, crop dryers, cookers, etc.
1948, progress could be made only after the The Western part of India has greater potential for the
establishment of the Atomic Energy Institute at development of solar energy in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Trombay in 1954 which was renamed as the Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre in 1967. Wind Energy
Wind energy is absolutely pollution free, an
Important Nuclear Power Projects inexhaustible source of energy. The mechanism of
energy conversion from blowing wind is simple. The
Power Plant Location Total Power
Production kinetic energy of wind through turbines is converted
(MW) into electrical energy.
Tarapur Nuclear Tarapur 1400 (MW) The permanent wind systems such the trade winds,
Power (Maharashtra) Westerlies and seasonal wind like monsoon have been
used as a source of energy. Besides these, local winds,
Rajasthan Nuclear Rawatbhata, Kota 1180 (MW)
Power (Rajasthan) land and sea breezes can also be used to produce
electricity.
Madras Nuclear Power Kalpakkam, Chennai 440 (MW)
(Tamil Nadu) India has already started generating wind energy. It
has an ambitious programme to install 250
Kaiga Nuclear Power Kaiga (Karnataka) 880 (MW)
wind-driven turbines with a total capacity of 45
Narora Nuclear Power Narora, Bulandsher 440 (MW) megawatts, spread over 12 suitable locations,
(Uttar Pradesh) especially in coastal areas.
Kakarapara Nuclear Kakarapara, Surat 440 (MW) According to the estimation by the Ministry of Power,
Power (Gujarat)
India will be able to produce 3,000 megawatts of
Kudankulam Nuclear Kudankulam 1000 (MW) electricity from this source. The Ministry of
Power (Tamil Nadu) Non-conventional Sources of Energy is developing
wind energy in India to lessen the burden of the oil
Non-Conventional Energy Sources import bill.
Fossil fuel sources, such as coal, petroleum, natural The country’s potential of wind power generation
gas and nuclear energy use exhaustible raw materials. exceeds 50,000 megawatts, of which one-fourth can be
easily harnessed.
Sustainable energy resources are only the renewable
energy sources like solar, wind, hydro-geothermal In Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka,
and biomass. favorable conditions for wind energy exist. Wind
power plant at Lamba in Gujarat in Kachchh is the
These energy sources are more equitably distributed
largest in Asia. Another wind power plant is located at
and environmentally friendly.
Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu.
The non-conventional energy sources will provide
more sustained, eco-friendly cheaper energy after the Tidal and Wave Energy
initial cost is taken care of. Ocean currents are the store-house of infinite energy.
Since the beginning of the 17th and 18th century,
Solar Energy persistent efforts have been made to create a more
Sun rays tapped in photovoltaic cells can be efficient energy system from the ceaseless tidal waves
converted into energy, known as ‘solar energy’. and ocean current.
The two effective processes considered to be very Large tidal waves are known to occur along the West
effective to tap solar energy are : coast of India. Hence, India has great potential for the
— photovoltaic technology development of tidal energy along the coasts but so far
— solar thermal technology these have not yet been utilised.
258
Geothermal Energy Conservation of Resources

When the magma from the interior of earth comes out on
The challenge of sustainable development
the surface, tremendous heat is released. This heat energy
requires integration of the quest for economic
can successfully be tapped and converted to electrical
development with environmental concerns.
energy.
Traditional methods of resource use result in
Apart from this, the hot water that gushes out through the
generating enormous quantities of waste as well
geyser wells is also used in the generation of thermal energy.
as create other environmental problems.
It is popularly known as Geothermal energy. This energy is
now considered to be one of the key energy sources which Hence, sustainable development calls for the
can be developed as an alternate source. protection of resources for the future
generations.
The hot springs and geysers have been used since the
medieval period. In India, a geothermal energy plant has There is an urgent need to conserve the
been commissioned at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh. resources. The alternative energy sources like
solar power, wind, wave, geothermal energy are
Bio-energy inexhaustible resources.
Bio-energy refers to energy derived from biological products These should be developed to replace the
which includes agricultural residues, municipal, industrial exhaustible resources.
and other wastes. In case of metallic minerals, use of scrap metals
Bio energy is a potential source of energy conversion. It can will enable recycling of metals. Use of scrap is
be converted into electrical energy, heat energy or gas for especially significant in metals like copper, lead
cooking. and zinc in which India’s reserves are meagre.
It will also process the waste and garbage to produce Use of substitutes for scarce metals may also
energy. This will improve the economic life of rural areas in reduce their consumption.
developing countries, reduce environmental pollution, Export of strategic and scarce minerals must be
enhance self-reliance and reduce pressure on fuel wood. reduced, so that the existing reserve may be
One such project converting municipal waste into energy is used for a longer period.
in Okhla in Delhi.
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 23 259
Transport and
Communication in India
Sources Class-VIII Old NCERT Chap 10 (Trade, Transport and Communication), Class-X New NCERT Chap 7
(Lifelines of National Economy), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 10 (Transport and Communication),
Class-XII Old NCERT Chap 4 (Transport Systems)
Transport Land Transport

Transport is a facility or a service for the carriage of The modes of land transport were in use since ancient
persons and goods from one place to another using times. Roadways and railways are the chief modes of
humans, animals and different kinds of vehicles. land transport.
It is an organised service industry that handles With the economic and technological development,
loading, unloading and delivery. metalled roads and railways were developed to move
Several places (nodes) joined together by a series of large volumes of goods and people from one place to
routes (links) to form a pattern is called a ‘transport another.
network’. India has one of the largest road networks in the
world, the largest railway system in Asia and the
Modes of Transportation second-largest in the world.
The main modes of transportation are land, water, air
and pipelines. These are used for inter-regional and 1. Road Transport in India
intra-regional transport, and each one (except The pathways and unmetalled roads have been used
pipelines) carries both passengers and goods. for transportation in India since ancient times. Roads
are the most popular mode of transportation.
Means of Transport India has one of the largest road networks in the world
with a total length of 6,215,797 km (3,862,317 mi) as of
Land Water Air 31st March, 2020. About 85% of passengers and 70%
of freight traffic are carried by roads every year.
Road transport is relatively suitable for shorter
Road Pipeline National International
distance travel.
Railway
For the purpose of construction and maintenance,
Inland Seaways and
Ocean route roads are classified as :
— National Highways (NH)
The transport system in India includes rail transport, — State Highways (SH)
road transport, air transport, water transport and — Major District Roads
portal connectivity.
— Rural Roads
260
National Highways National Highway Development Project

The main roads which are constructed and National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has started following
maintained by the Central Government are Projects in different phases.
known as the National Highways. n Golden quadrilateral It comprises construction of 5,846 km long
These roads are meant for inter-state 4/6 lane, high-density traffic corridor, to connect India’s four big
transport and movement of defence men and metro cities of Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai-Kolkata.
material in strategic areas. With the construction of the Golden Quadrilateral, the
time-distance and cost of movement among the megacities of
These also connect the state capitals, India has been considerably minimised.
major cities, important ports, railway n North-South and East-West Corridor North-south corridor aims
junctions, etc. at connecting Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir with Kanyakumari

India has 151,019 km (93,839 mi) of in Tamil Nadu (including Kochi-Salempur) with a 4,076 km long
National Highways as of March 2021. The road.
n The East-West Corridor has been planned to connect Silchar in
National Highways constitute only 2% of the
total road length but carry 40% of the road Assam with the port town of Porbandar in Gujarat with 3,640 km
traffic. of road length.
NH-44 (Earlier NH-7) is the longest national

highway in India with total length of 3,745 State Highways
km. These are constructed and maintained by state governments
(PWDs). They join the state capitals with district headquarters
Some Important National Highways and other important towns.
Highway States through which it passes These roads are connected to the National Highways.
Number These constitute 4% of the total road length in the country.
NH1 Jammu and Kashmir
District Roads
NH2 Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram
These roads are the connecting link between District
NH3 Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu
Headquarters and the other important nodes in the district.
NH4 Andaman and Nicobar
They account for 14% of the total road length of the country.
NH5 Punjab, Chandigarh, Haryana, Himachal
Pradesh Rural Roads
NH6 Meghalaya, Assam, Mizoram These roads are vital for providing links in the rural areas.
NH7 Punjab, Chandigarh, Haryana, Himachal About 80% of the total road length in India are categorised as
Pradesh, Uttarakhand
rural roads.
NH8 Assam
There is regional variation in the density of rural roads because
NH9 Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh these are influenced by the nature of the terrain.
NH10 Sikkim, West Bengal
Classification of Roads
NH11 Rajasthan
NH12 West Bengal Name Responsibility of Connects
NH19 Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, National Highways Central Government State capitals
Jharkhand, West Bengal
State Highways State Government State Capital to District HQ
NH20 Bihar, Jharkhand
District roads Zila Parishad District HQ to Tehsil and Blocks
NH21 Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh
Village roads Gram Panchayat Villages to neighbouring towns
NH24 Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam
NH44 Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Atal Tunnel
(Longest Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, The world’s longest Highway tunnel - Atal Tunnel (9.02 km) has been
NH in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Telangana, built by Border Road Organisation. This tunnel connects Manali to
India) Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu Lahaul-Spiti valley throughout the year.
NH48 Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Earlier the valley was cut off for about 6 months each year owing to
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu heavy snowfall. The Tunnel is built with ultra-modern specifications
NH53 Gujarat, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, in the Pir Panjal range of Himalayas at an altitude of 3000 m from the
Odisha Mean Sea Level (MSL).
261
Other Roads – Border Roads and International Apart from the construction and maintenance of roads
Highways in strategically sensitive areas, the BRO also
undertakes snow clearance in high altitude areas.
Other roads include Border Roads and International
Highways. The international Highways are meant to promote a
harmonious relationship with the neighbouring
The Border Road Organisation (BRO) was
countries by providing effective links with India.
established in May 1960 for accelerating economic
development and strengthening defence preparedness The distribution of roads is not uniform in the
through rapid and coordinated improvement of country. The density of roads (length of roads per 100
strategically important roads along the Northern and sq km of area) varies from only 12.14 km in Jammu
North-Eastern boundary of the country. and Kashmir to 517.77 km in Kerala with a national
average of 142.68 km in 2011.
It is a premier multifaceted construction agency. It has
constructed roads in high altitude mountainous The density of roads is high in most of the Northern
terrain joining Chandigarh with Manali (Himachal states and major Southern states. It is low in the
Pradesh) and Leh (Ladakh). This road runs at an average Himalayan region, North-Eastern region, Madhya
altitude of 4,270 m above the mean sea level. Pradesh and Rajasthan.
Uri
INDIA
Srinagar
NATIONAL HIGHWAYS
18
18
Jammu
1A 20 N
AN
IST
15 22
Firozpur
K
94
PA
72
84
73 Dehradun CHINA
10 71 58 (TIBET)
74
87
Beaner
Bikner NE
24 PA Tripura
Jaisalmer 89 8
91
L Itanagar 52A 38
11 BHUTAN
85 52 61
15 281 31 310 37
92 3 28 Muzaffarpur
56 57 38
3 56 87 106 318 40
14 51 62 38
78 8 150
2 80 53
27
12 BANGLADESH
26 36 75 34 54
8 79 Bokaro 75 75
15 15 100
7 23
15 12 2 54 Tropic of Cancer
79 Bhopal 78 23 32 60
79 12A Bilashpur
3 59A
79 79
Porbandar 200
6 215 MYANMAR
8 6 201 42 42
Nasik Bhubaneswar
50 7 43
Mumbai 217
5 BAY OF
ARABIAN 211 16
BENGAL
SEA 17 202 Vizianagaram
4 Solapur 9 Visakhapatnam
Ratnagiri 9
Bijapur Vijayawada
Belgaum Kurnool Machilpatnam
Panaji 4A 18 5
63
4 Golden Quadrilateral
205
7 205 North-South Corridor
208
Mangaluru 4
48 219 46 4
212 209 East-West Corridor
Kishenganj
6 National Highway
17 68 151 5 with Number
213 45
67 Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Kochi 49 210 (INDIA)
Lakshadweep 47 48
(INDIA) 208 158
7 0 200 400 600 km
Thiruvananthapuram
Kanyakumari SRI
INDIAN LANKA OCEAN
262
Roadways in India (2021) Bullet Train in India

Types of Roadways Length (in km) Railway Ministry in its white paper ‘Vision 2020’
envisages the implementation of regional high speed
National Highway 1,36,440
rail projects to provide services at 250-350 km/h.
State Highway 1,76,166
Six corridors have been identified for technical
District Road 6,32,154 studies :
Village Road 45,00,000 — Delhi-Chandigarh-Amritsar
Total 54,44,760 — Pune-Mumbai-Ahmedabad
— Hyderabad-Vijayawada-Chennai
Factors Influencing Roadways — Howrah-Haldia
Terrain Nature of terrain and the level of economic — Nagaur-Mumbai
development are the main determinants of the density — Delhi-Ahmedabad
of roads. Construction of roads is easy and cheaper in
— Varanasi-Howrah
the plain areas while it is difficult and costly in hilly
— Chennai-Bengaluru-Thiruvananthapuram
and plateau areas
— Delhi-Agra-Lucknow-Varanasi-Patna
Climate Quality of roads is relatively better in plains
as compared to roads in high altitude areas, rainy and The first high speed corridor between Ahmedabad and
forested regions. Mumbai started construction in 2017. It will be
completed in 2022.
Economic development Areas with a high level of
economic development will have more road density Metro Rail
as compared to areas with a low level of economic India’s 1st and Asia’s 5th Metro rail was introduced in
development. e.g. Maharashtra has more road density Kolkata in 1972. It is a cost effective, eco-friendly and
than Himachal Pradesh energy efficiency mass transport system.
Industries Areas with more industrial concentration Now 7 Indian cities (Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai,
will have more road density as compared to areas Bengaluru, Jaipur and Lucknow) have Metro
with low industrial concentration. e.g., Jamshedpur is Transportation System in India.
having more road density than Patratu in Jharkhand.
It is planned that all Indian cities having population
Cities and towns Cities and towns will have more more 2 million will have metro rail system.
road density than rural areas.
Proposed metro rail projects are Mumbai, Bengaluru,
2. Indian Railways Hyderabad, Chennai and Kochi metro rail.
Indian Railways is among the world’s largest rail Metro Rail in India
networks. Indian Railways route length network is
spread over 1,23,236 km. City Start Length (km)
India’s railway network is the fourth largest railway Delhi 2002 348
network in the world and second largest in Asia, Bengaluru (Namma) 2011 42.3
under single management.
Gurgaon 2013 11.7
Indian Railway is also called as lifeline of India which
provides both freight and passenger mode of Jaipur 2015 11.9
transportation. Chennai 2015 45.1
It contributes in the National growth and economic
Hyderabad 2015 69
integration of the country.
Kochi 2017 27.8
Konkan Railways
It runs from Mangalore to Roha (40 km South of Lucknow 2017 23.7
Mumbai). Ahmedabad 2019 6.5
The network involves 3 states such as Maharashtra, Nagpur 2019 13.5
Goa and Karnataka.
Noida 2019 29.7
It has a total length of 738 km.
Almost 10% of the line passes through tunnels. Kanpur 2021 32
263
Growth and Development of Indian Railways Mughal Sarai to Lahore (now in Pakistan) was
The first railway line in India was opened for public completed.
traffic on 16 April 1853 between Mumbai and Thane In 1871, the Mumbai-Chennai route was also opened.
over a distance of 34 km. Thus, within a short span of 18 years from 1853 to
Meanwhile, the construction of the railway lines was 1871, most of the important cities of India were
going on in the Eastern part of the country, and the connected by rail.
first section of the East Indian Railway, from Howrah At present, India has the second-largest railway
to Hugli, a distance of 37 km was inaugurated on 15th network in Asia and the fourth largest in the world
August, 1854. after the USA (2, 27,736 km), Russia (2, 22,293 km),
In 1870, the all-rail route between Kolkata and and China (87,157 km). But India tops the world’s
Mumbai started functioning and the mainline from leading countries with regard to passenger/km earned.
68°E 72° 76° 80° 84° 78° 92° 96°E
36°N
36°N
INDIA
Railways
Pakistan Jammu
32°
N 32°
Amritsar
CHINA
Bhatinda Ambala (Tibet)
Dehradun
Anupgarh
Moradabad
28° Delhi NE
Bikaner PA
Jaisalmer L h
Agra r Dibrugar
Lucknow Faizabad orakhpu BHUTAN i
Jodhpur G Darjeeling a ha t
Kanpur w
Jaipur Hazipur Gu
Muzaffarpur Kohima
Barmer Jhansi Katihar Dhubri
Allahabad
har
Patna
Varanasi Gaya BANGLADESH
Silc
NaliyaKandla 24°
Ratlam Bhopal Katni
Okha Ahmedabad Bankura
Ranchi h
wra
Rajkot Jabalpur Ha
Vadodara Bilaspur Kolkata
Surat Jalgaon Haldia
Nagpur Raipur Sambalpur
Veraval
Delvada
20° Wardha
Akola 20°
Cuttack
Bhubaneshwar
Mumbai
Nanded
Pune Secunderabad Kirandul
a
ad Vishakhapatnam
Ratnagiri yw
16°
Wadi Hyderabad Vija
Guntur
Panaji Hospet
Hubali Guntakal 20°
Renigunta
Mangaluru aluru Chennai
12° Beng Port Blair
12°
Mysuru

(India)
0 200 400 600 km
8°N
8°N
72°E 76° 84° 88° 92°E

264
The railway is the largest Public Sector Undertaking Sahyadri can only be crossed through gaps like
of the country comprising a vast network route length Thalghat, Bhorghat and Palghat to reach coastal
of 63,122 km. trailheads like Mumbai, Vasco-da-Gama, Mangaluru
Today Indian Railways is operating in one of the most and Kochi.
difficult terrains in the world. Economic Factors
55 km long rail route-length between Jammu and Railways develop more in economically advanced
Udhampur, 837 km route length is added with the areas where the need for railway networks is felt
completion of the Konkan railway route. more. e.g. Delhi, Northern Plains, Mumbai, etc.
Indian railway is the largest government undertaking This is because of the economic linkages that we find
and is the largest employer with more than 10 lakh the highest density of railways near big urban and
employees working in operational and commercial industrial centers like Jamshedpur and in areas that
sections of railways. are rich in mineral and agricultural resources.
The longest rail route in India is from Dibrugarh in
Political and Administrative Factors
Assam to Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu. Covering
distance 4282 kilometres. The present railway system in India is the legacy of
British rule. The British administration planned the
Factors Affecting Railways direction and pattern of the railway lines in such a
The following factors affect railways in India : way that they could exploit the valuable raw materials
of India for the benefit of their industries and flood the
Geographical Factors
Indian markets with the finished goods from Britain.
North Indian plain The North Indian plain with its
Besides, the British wanted to maintain their military
level land, high density of population and rich
supremacy, for which quick movement of troops and
agriculture present the most favourable conditions for
arms was necessary and construction of railways
the development of railways. However, the presence
became unavoidable.
of a large number of rivers makes it necessary to
construct bridges that involve heavy expenditure. Thus, the top priority was given to the big ports of
Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai. These ports were
Plateau Region of South India The plateau region of
connected with their hinterlands by railway lines to
South India is not as suitable for railways as the North
facilitate imports and exports. It is from the ports that
Plain area. The undulating terrain makes it difficult
the railway network spread to the other parts of the
for railways to construct new projects along with
country.
operational difficulties. The concentration of
population is also less.
Facts About Indian Railways
Himalayan region The Himalayan region in the North n The Fairy Queen is the oldest functioning steam engine
is almost entirely devoid of railways due to its rugged in the World. It is plying between New Delhi and Alwar
topography. Some railway terminals such as Jammu in Rajasthan.
Tawi, Kotdwar, Dehradun, Kathgodam, etc. are found
n Four sites of Indian Railways have been declared as
on the foothills. Some narrow gauge railway tracks are
‘World Heritage sites’ by UNESCO. They are
found in the Himalayan region.
Darjeeling-Himalayan Railway, Nilgiri Mountain,
Sandy Areas of Rajasthan The sandy areas of Mumbai CST and Kalka-Shimla Railways.
Rajasthan are also not very favourable for railways. n Indian Railways was nationalised in 1951.
There was no railway line between Jodhpur and n Toilets were introduced on Indian Railways in 1909.
Jaisalmer till 1966. The reasons for less concentration n Indian Railways started computerised reservations in
of railway include the presence of less population, New Delhi in 1986.
lack of industries, hostile terrain, etc. n Indian Railways is the world’s second-largest network
Forested Areas Forested areas of Madhya Pradesh operated under a single administration and the largest
and Odisha, deltaic swamps of West Bengal, marshy rail network in Asia.
areas of Rann of Kachchh, and hilly tract of Sahyadri n In 2000, Mamta Banerjee was the first woman to
are also unfavourable for the development of become Railway Minister.
railways.
265
Zones in the Indian Railway Freight Traffic

Indian Railways is geographically organised into zones. Railway Freight traffic is vital for economic and
At present there are 19 Zonal Railways (including industrial progress of the country since Freight
Metro Railway, Kolkata). traffic consists of around 65% of the total revenue of
Indian Railways.
Zones in Indian Railway
But the problem is that only one-third of the total
Zones Route Km Headquarters Divisions trains running daily on Indian Railway are freight
Central (CR) 3905 Mumbai Mumbai, Bhusawal, Pune, trains.
Solapur, Nagpur
Diamond Quadrilateral
East Central 3628 Hajipur Danapur, Dhanbad,
(ECR) Mughal Sarai, Samastipur, It is a project of the Indian railways to establish a
Sonpur high speed rail network in India connecting across
East Coast 2572 Bhubaneswar Khurda Road, Sambalpur,
the four mega cities i.e. Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and
(ECoR) Visakhapatnam Chennai, similar to the Golden Quadrilateral
expressways.
Eastern (ER) 2414 Kolkata Howrah, Sealdah, Asansol,
Malda Six corridors under it connecting the metropolitan
North Central 3151 Allahabad Allahabad, Agra, Jhansi cities include :
(NCR) 1. Delhi-Mumbai
North Eastern 3667 Gorakhpur Izzatnagar, Lucknow, 2. Mumbai-Chennai
(NER) Varanasi 3. Chennai-Kolkata
North Western 5459 Jaipur Jaipur, Ajmer, Bikaner, 4. Kolkata-Delhi
(NWR) Jodhpur
5. Delhi-Chennai diagonal
North-East 3907 Guwahati Alipurduar, Katihar,
6. Mumbai-Kolkata diagonal
Frontier (NFR) Rangia, Lumding,
Tinsukia
3. Ports and Waterways
Northern (NR) 6968 Delhi Delhi, Ambala, Firozpur,
Lucknow, Moradabad
Water transport is the cheapest and the oldest mode
of transport.
South Central 5803 Secunderabad Secunderabad,
(SCR) Hyderabad, Guntakal, It operates on a natural track and hence does not
Guntur, Nanded, require huge capital investment in the construction
Vijayawada and maintenance of its track except in case of canals.
South-East 2447 Bilaspur Bilaspur, Raipur, Nagpur Water transport has played a very significant role in
Central (SECR) bringing different parts of the world closer and is
South-Eastern 2631 Kolkata Adra, Chakradharpur, indispensable to foreign trade.
(SER) Kharagpur, Ranchi
The following are the advantages of water transport :
South Western 3177 Hubli Hubli, Bengaluru, Mysuru — Cheapest means of transport Rivers are a natural
(SWR)
highway that does not require any cost of
Southern (SR) 5098 Chennai Chennai, Tiruchirappalli, construction and maintenance.
Madurai, Palakkad, Salem,
Trivandrum Even the cost of construction and maintenance of
West Central 2965 Jabalpur Jabalpur, Bhopal, Kota
canals is much less or they are used, not only for
(WCR) transport purposes but also for irrigation, etc.
Moreover, the cost of operation of inland water
Western (WR) 6182 Mumbai Mumbai Central, Ratlam,
Ahmedabad, Rajkot, transport is very low.
Bhavnagar, Vadodara Thus, it is the cheapest mode of transport for
Kolkata Metro 24.5 Kolkata carrying goods from one place to another.
— Least consumption of energy Waterways are a
fuel-efficient and environment-friendly mode of
Railway Gauges
transportation. The boats and steamers, even if
The Indian railway has 4 different types of gauges.
mechanised, consume much lesser fuel and do not
n Broad Gauge Width 1.676 metre
pollute the surrounding.
n Meter Gauge Width 1 metre
— Suitable for heavy bulky goods Waterway can

n Narrow Gauge Width .762 metre
n Lift Gauge Width .610 metre

carry much larger quantities of heavy and bulky
goods such as coal, and, timber, etc.
266
— No friction Since the boats and steamers flow in the As compared to boats, railways are quicker and
direction of water the friction force is less as reliable means of transport.
compared to road and railways. Since, Indian rivers fall from the shallow and sandy
— Eco-friendly The boats and steamers consume much delta’s so ships cannot sail from seashores to Inland
lesser fuel and do not pollute the surrounding. parts.
Types of Waterways But inland water transport has the inherent advantage
of cheap means of transport, especially for more load
Important types of waterways are as follows :
and long journey’s.
Inland Waterways One horsepower can carry 4000 kg load in water
Inland Water Transport consists of transport by rivers, whereas it can carry 150 kg and 500 kg load by road
canals, and lakes. Inland waterway is a network of and rail respectively, moreover, water transport is
rivers, canals, backwaters, and creeks that can be less polluting.
utilised for transportation instead of or in addition to National Waterways
roads and rails.
The National Waterways Act came into effect in 2016.
Some of the facts related to the Inland Waterway are:
It proposed 106 additional National Waterways and
— It is the cheapest mode of transport. merges 5 existing Acts which were declared the
— Water diversion from the rivers causes navigation 6 National Waterways which are as follows:
difficult making the Inland Waterway less
National It starts from Allahabad(Prayagraj) to Haldia
competitive.
Waterways 1 with a distance of 1620 km. The NW 1 runs
— The total navigable length of the Inland Waterway is through the Ganges, Bhagirathi and Hooghly
14500 km, out of which about 5200 km of river and river system with fixed terminals at Haldia,
4000 km of canals can be used by mechanised crafts Farakka and Patna and floating terminals at
most of the riverside cities like Kolkata,
Account for 1% of transport. Bhagalpur, Varanasi and Allahabad. It is the
— Out of 3700 km of navigable rivers which are longest National Waterways in India.
available for transport, only 2000 km is actually used. National It is a stretch on the Brahmaputra river from
— Canals are controlled by the Inland Waterway Waterways 2 Sadia to Dhubri in Assam state. The NW 2 is
Authority. one of the major freight transportation
waterways of North-East India and the
— The Inland Waterways Authority of India Act, 1985 third-longest Waterways with a total length of
empowers the Government to declare waterways 891 km.
with potential for the development of shipping and National It is located in Kerala state and runs from
navigation as National Waterways. Waterways 3 or Kollam to Kottapuram. The 205 km long West
the West Coast Coast Canal is India’s first waterway with an
Ocean-Transport Canal all-time navigation facility.
Ocean Transport is indispensable for foreign trade. It The NW3 consists of the West Coast Canal,
has brought the different parts of the world closer and Champakara Canal, and Udyogamandal Canal
has knitted together all the nations of the world into and runs through Kottappuram, Cherthala,
Thrikkunnapuzha Kollam and Alappuzha.
one big world market.
It operates on a natural track, i.e., the sea, and does not National It is connected from Kakinada to Puducherry
Waterway 4 through Canals, Tank and River Godavari along
require any investment in the construction and with Krishna river.
maintenance of its track. Ocean Transport includes The NW 4 the second-longest waterway of India
coastal shipping and overseas shipping. with a total length of 1095 km in Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Limitations of Inland Waterways in India
National It connects Odisha to West Bengal using the
In India, it rains heavily during monsoons, so the
Waterway 5 stretch on Brahmani River, East Coast Canal,
water current is so torrential that it is difficult to ply Matai river and Mahanadi River Delta. The 623
boats. km long canal system will handle the traffic of
During the dry winter and summer season, most rivers cargo such as coal, fertiliser, cement and iron.
run dry, not even have sufficient water for irrigation, National It is the proposed waterway in Assam state and
so navigation is hindered. Waterway 6 will connect Lakhipur to Bhanga in river Barak.
The 121 km long waterway will help in trading
Rivers of South India flow through rocky areas. Hence, between the town of Silchar to Mizoram State.
they are not fit for playing boats because of waterfalls.
267
Role of Inland Water Transport in Odisha. It is located at the confluence of river

Regional Development Mahanadi in Bay of Bengal in Odisha. It was the first
major port on the East Coast commissioned in
The river water transport can contribute significantly
independent India.
to the regional development of the country. This is the
cheapest mode of transport and except in the New Mangalore Port It is located at a side called
maintenance of ports, jetties, canals, not much money Panambur in Karnataka at Gurupura river confluence
is involved in its maintenance. with the Arabian Sea.
During the pre-colonial period, Inland Water Cochin Port It is located on the Willington Island on
Transport played a major part in the Growth of trade the South–West coast of India. It is located on the
and ‘regional development in north India. Even today crossroads of the East-West Ocean trade. The port is
it can play an important role in reducing the called the natural gateway to the vast industrial and
production cost of industries.’ agricultural produce markets of South–West India.
There are some regions like the deltaic regions of Jawaharlal Nehru Port It is also known as Nhava
Ganga where it is difficult and costly to construct Sheva. It is the largest container port in India,
roads and bridges across numerous distributaries, handling around half of the containers of all major
river waterway can be a good mode of transport, ports. It is located on the Eastern shore of Mumbai
facilitating the economic development of the region. harbour off Elephanta Island and is accessed via
Thane Creek.
In fact, Rural Water Transport (RWT), a specific
sub-sector of Inland Water Transport (IWT) is Vadhavan Port This will be the 13th major port in
particularly important due to its potential to help India. With the development of this port, India will
reduce isolation and poverty. become one of the countries in the top-10 container
ports in the world.
It mostly consists of small family-owned boats that
operate on river’s and canal networks, such boats The port will be developed on the landlord model.
transport service, employment & promote fishing and Vadhavan port has been planned by the Jawaharlal
additional employment is generated in boat making. Nehru Port Trust (JNPT) as an All Weather, All Cargo
satellite port to enhance capabilities in handling deep
Ocean Routes and Ports draft ships and larger vessels.
India has a coastline of about 7517 km. Mumbai Port One of the oldest modern ports of India.
There are 13 major ports and 200 minor ports. 95% of Initially, the location was used by the navies of
India’s foreign trade and 70% of the value is trade Shivaji.
takes place through seaways. Kandla Port Kandla port was built after partition as
Over 7500 km of coastline with 13 major and 60 the Karachi port on the Western coast had gone to
operational non-major ports. Pakistan. It is known for handling much of the crude
90% of the country’s trade by volume and 70% by oil imports of India.
value are moved through maritime transport. Visakhapatnam Port This port is located in Andhra
There are 13 major ports in India that handle Pradesh and is known for the bulk of cargo handling
approximately 58% of cargo traffic. on the East coast.
Cargo handled at major ports is bulk (44% iron ore, Chennai Port This is the largest port in the Bay of
coal and fertiliser), liquid (33% petrol, oil and Bengal and the second largest port of India after JNPT.
lubricants) and container (23%). It is the largest port at the East coast.
There are 13 major ports in the country; Tuticorin Port This port has been renamed as VO
7 on the Eastern coast and 6 on the Western coast. Chidambaranar Port. It is located in the Gulf of
Further, there are about 200 non-major ports. Mannar. It is an artificial port. Tuticorin is the only
port in South India to provide a direct weekly
Major Ports of India container service to the United States.
Kolkata Port Only riverine major port in India. Ennore Port This port is now named Kamarajar Port
Known for twin dock systems viz, Kolkata Dock Limited. It is the first corporate port of India and is
System (KDS) on the Eastern bank and Haldia registered as a public company with 68% stake held by
Dock Complex (HDC) on the Western bank of river the government.
Hooghly.
Mormugao Port This port in Goa is the leading iron
Paradip Port It is an artificial, deep-water port on the ore exporting port of India.
East coast of India in the Jagatsinghpur district of
268
The Sagar Mala Project Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project

On 15th August, 2005, Prime Minister Atal This project envisages dredging of a ship channel across the
Bihari Vajpayee announced this plan. Under Palk strait between India and Sri Lanka. The projects that
Sagar Mala Project, all major ports will be allow ships sailing between the East and West coasts of India
connected with the Golden Quadrilateral to have a straight passage through India’s territorial waters,
through high-speed expressways. instead of having circumvent Sri Lanka.
The rail connectivity to such ports will also be This will lead to a saving of upto 424 nautical miles (780 km)
strengthened, so that adequate line capacity and upto 30 hours in sailing time. Two channels will be
and speed of movement are available. created
Besides 12 major ports, there are 200 minor — Across North of Adam’s bridge (the chain of Islets and
ports, also in India. Maharashtra has highest shallows linking India with Sri Lanka) South-East of
53 minor ports followed by Gujarat, 42 minor Pamban Island
ports. Lakshadweep has 10 and Andaman and — Through the shallows of Palk bay, deepening the Palk strait.
Nicobar Islands has 23 minor ports. The total length of these two channels would be 89 km.
68° E 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° E
INDIA
36° N
MAJOR PORTS AND SEA ROUTES 36° N
PAKISTAN N
32°
32°
CHINA
(TIBET)
28° Bhutan
Kandla BANGLADESH
24°
Tropic of
Kolkata
Cancer
Mu Haldia
mb
a i to
Ka
rac
hi
MYANMAR
50 Paradip
0N
20° M
Aden to Mumbai Mumbai
20°
NM
1660 NM
NM M
BAY OF
0N
1 250
BENGAL
75
i1
ta
Visakhapatnam
NM
ba
00
Kolka
0
m
48
78
Mu
ai
t a
ka
b
o
bo to
16° l
um
et
Mormugao Ko 16°
h
oM
Ma
to
m
Mum
ai NM
nt
Colo
n 7 80
en ngon
ow
Ya
Ch ai to
bai to
n
eT
Chen
p
Ca
New Mangalore
Colo
12° Chennai
m
Chennai to
Po
bo 8
rt Blair 700 12°

NM
90 N
Ch
en nai
to
M
Cochin Pa ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS

na ng
LAKSHADWEEP Tuticorin (INDIA)
130
(INDIA) 0N
8° N M
8° N
INDIAN 0 200 400 600 km
Colombo
72° E 76° 84° OCEAN 88° 92° E
269
4. Pipelines The Pipelines face security threats from terrorist

organisations, which could jeopardise a country’s
Pipelines are the most convenient and suitable mode
economy, especially in the case of Transboundary
of transportation for petroleum products and gases
pipeline. The oil pipelines in the northeast are often
in bulk for longer distances.
blasted by anti-nationalist elements.
The products which can be transported through
The capacity cannot be increased once the pipelines are
pipelines are :
laid. For increasing the capacity the new pipelines need
— Petroleum products- Crude oil, jet fuel
to be laid.
— Liquid products- Water, Anhydrous Ammonia
The repair of pipelines is also very difficult, particularly
— Gases- Natural Gas, LPG, butane
in case of leakages; detection of leakages is quite
— Solid products- Coal, mineral, solid wastes, difficult.
Advantages of Pipelines
Pipelines consume very little energy in comparison Major Pipelines of India
to another mode of transportation. n Naharkatia-Nunmati-Barauni Pipeline
Transit losses are minimal in transportation through n Mumbai High-Mumbai pipeline
pipelines. n Ankleshwar-Koyoli Pipeline
The running cost of the materials through pipelines n Salaya-Koyali-Mathura Pipeline
is very low. It is less than 10 times more than surface n Mathura-Delhi-Panipat-Ambala-Jalandhar pipeline
transportation. n Haldia-Kolkata pipeline
The wastage of the transportation material is very n Hajira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) gas pipeline
less. E.g. slurry of coal and iron ore. n Jamnagar-Loni LPG Pipeline
Pipelines can be laid through difficult terrains as
n Kandla-Bhatinda Pipeline
well as underwater which is not possible in another
mode of transportation.
5. Airways
Pipelines are not affected by seasonal variations and
climatic hostilities like a flood, snowfall, rainfall, etc. Airways play a vital role as modern means of
Examples : transportation. It is very important for the growth of
trade and commerce.
(i) Bailadila produces high-grade ore which was
Rapid speed is the most peculiar feature of Air
exported through Vishakhapatnam Port. Now a
Transport. The aircrafts can fly at a speed of 500 km/h
270 km long slurry pipeline is constructed to
without any difficulty. Some planes can fly at a
bring the ore from the Bailadila mine to Vizag Steel
supersonic speed. No other means of transport can
Plant.
move at such speed.
(ii) At Kudremukh iron ore is mined on large scale for
Indian holds 9th position in the world in the civil
export, which is exported from New Mangalore
aviation market.
port, where it is transported through 70 km slurry
pipelines. The supreme advantage of air transport is its high speed.
It is the fastest mode of transport and thus it is the most
(iii) Rock phosphate concentration from Maltos mines suitable means where time is an important factor.
to Debari smelter plant in Rajasthan is transported
The significance of the aviation sector also increases
through the slurry pipeline.
because of the size of India which makes the aviation
Pipelines are safe, accident-free and environmentally sector indispensable for faster communication.
friendly.
Aircrafts are capable of making their way everywhere.
It brings about industrial development in adjoining It has no physical barriers as in the case of other modes
areas. E.g. establishment of fertiliser industries at the of transport. No roads, no railways, no ships can cross
places of gas pipeline (Jagdishpur, Shahjahanpur, etc). the world’s great mountain ranges.
Disadvantages of Pipelines The inaccessible, remote locations can be easily
Pipelines are prone to distortions in case of accessed through Airways. For example, deserts of
earthquakes. It is very difficult to find leakages and Rajasthan, high altitude regions of Leh, forested regions
cracks in case of distortions. of North-East India.
The initial cost of laying pipelines is very high. Aviation plays an important role in international travel
Though the cost of maintenance is low. and transport.
270
The significance of Airways multiplies during wartime situations and disaster management, natural calamities.
The cargo (freight) services are based mainly on the aviation sector.
Airway is the index of modernity of a region.
Air ways are free gift of nature and no capital is spent in their construction or maintenance.
Air services promote tourism and to cater to the needs of tourists, basic infrastructure i.e. roads, transportation
also gets the boost.
271
Growth and Development of Communication

Aviation Sector in India
Communication is an act of exchanging information.
The humble beginning of the aviation sector
From the very beginning of time, humans used various
started in 1911 when airmail operation started
means of communication.
between Allahabad and Naini.
The pace of change has been rapid in modem times.
The British, French, and Dutch carried forward the
Today, long distance communication is far easier without
aviation set up of India between 1920 and 1930.
physical movement of the communicator or receiver.
Indian National Airways was formed in 1933. By Personal communication and mass communication are
the end of World War II the major cities were the major means of communication in the country.
connected with air services.
After independence a lot of companies came into Personal Communication
the field of aviation and changed the face of the It is the process of transferring or transmitting a message
whole aviation sector. between two people. Mobile phones, postal letters are
In 1953, Indian Airlines Corporation was formed examples of personal communication.
as domestic aviation services. Air India
International was formed in the same year for Indian Post
international services. Postal services in India and started in 1776 AD by Lord
Vayudoot was set up in 1981 to augment the air Clive. It was opened for general public in 1837 AD. The
transport in the country. Indian Postal Network, handled by the Department of
Pawan Hans Limited was established in 1985. Post under the Ministry of Communication and
It provides helicopter services to the petroleum Information Technology (Government of India) is the
sector including ONGC, Oil India Ltd. and Enron largest in the world.
Oil and Gas, Mumbai High and connects remote It handles parcels as well as personal written
and inaccessible areas. communications. Mails in India are categorised viz,
International Airports Authority of India and first-class mail and second-class mail.
National Airports Authority were merged on Postcards, inland letter forms and envelopes are
1 April, 1995 to form Airports Authority of India considered first-class mail. They are airlifted between
(AAI). stations where air and land facilities are available.
This authority is responsible for providing safe and Second-class mail includes book packets, registered
efficient air traffic services and aeronautical newspapers and periodicals. They are carried by surface
communication services for effective control of air mail, covering land and water transport.
traffic in the Indian air space. Mail Channels
Today a lot of private companies like SpiceJet, To facilitate quick delivery of mail in large towns and
Indigo, Jet Airways have entered into the aviation cities, certain mail channels have been introduced.
sector providing quality services to passengers.
These are Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel, Green
The Ministry of Civil Aviation is the nodal Channel, Business Channel, Bulk Mail Channel and
ministry that oversees the aviation sector in India. Periodic Channel.
Factors for Development of Air Transport Telecom Networks
in India
To improve telephonic communications, the government
The weather conditions in India are also quite has made special provision to extend 24 hours Subscriber
congenial to Air Transport. Poor visibility due to Trunk Dialling (STD) facility to every village in the
clouds, fog and mist hinders air transport but India country.
is lucky to have clear weather for most part of the
This has been made possible due to the integration of
year except for a short duration in rainy season.
developments in space technology with communication
The central location of India which has Europe technology.
West Asia on the Western side and South-East Asia
and East Asia on the Eastern side. Mobile Telephony
India has extensive plains which provide suitable Telephones (both static and mobile) belong to the
landing sites in India. category of personal communication. This can be done by
The need for airways is high due to the larger size calling on the telephone, taking a conference call or by
of India. any other means.
272
India has one of the fastest growing mobile networks After INSAT-IA (National Television-DD1) became
in the world and one of the largest telecom networks operational, Common National Programmes (CNP)
in Asia. Mobile telephony has changed the way were started for the entire network and its services
Indians conduct business. were extended to the backward and remote rural areas.
Now, even low income group people like vegetable
Satellite Communication
vendors, plumbers and carpenters get better business
because they are connected through mobile phones. Satellites are modes of communication in themselves
as well as they regulate the use of other means of
Mass Communication communication.
It is a process of transferring or transmitting a However, the use of satellites in getting a continuous
message to a large group of people, which requires and synoptic view of a larger area has made satellite
the use of some forms of media. communication very vital for the country due to
economic and strategic reasons.
It provides entertainment and creates awareness
among people about various national programmes Satellite images can be used for the weather forecast,
and policies. These media include radio, television, monitoring of natural calamities, surveillance of
newspapers, internet, periodicals and magazines, border areas, etc.
books and films. On the basis of configuration and purposes, Satellite
systems in India can be grouped into two: Indian
Radio National Satellite System (INSAT) and Indian
Radio broadcasting started in India in 1923 by the Remote Sensing Satellite System (IRS).
Radio Club of Bombay. Since then, it gained The INSAT, which was established in 1983, is a
immense popularity and changed the sociocultural multi-purpose satellite system for telecommunication,
life of people. Within no time, it made a place in meteorological observation and for various other data
every household of the country. and programmes.
Government took this opportunity and brought this The IRS satellite system became operational with the
popular mode of communication under its control in launching of IRS-IA in March 1988 from Baikonur
1930 under the Indian Broadcasting System. in Russia. India has also developed her own
It was changed to All India Radio in 1936 and to Launching Vehicle PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch
Akashwani in 1957. All India Radio broadcasts a Vehicle).
variety of programmes related to information, These satellites collect data in several spectral bands
education and entertainment. and transmit them to the ground stations for various
Special news bulletins are also broadcast at specific uses.
occasions like sessions of parliament and state The National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) at
legislatures. Hyderabad provides facilities for acquisition of data
and its processing. These are very useful in the
Television (TV) management of natural resources.
Television broadcasting has emerged as the most
effective audio-visual medium for disseminating Films
information and educating masses. Initially, the TV India is the largest producer of feature films in the
services were limited only to the National Capital world. It also produces short films, video feature films
where it began in 1959. and video short films.
After 1972, several other centres became operational. The Central Board of Film Certification is the
In 1976, TV was delinked from All India Radio (AIR) authority to certify both Indian and foreign films
and got a separate identity as Doordarshan (DD). exhibited in India.
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 24 273
Industries in India
Sources Class VIII New NCERT Chap 16 (Industries), Class X New NCERT Chap 6 (Manufacturing Industries),
Class X Old NCERT Chap 7 (Progress of Industries), Class XII New NCERT Chap 8 (Manufacturing Industries)
An industry is a manufacturing unit, which converts Agriculture and industry are not exclusive to each
raw materials into usable goods. (goods can be other. They move hand in hand. For example
classified as final goods or capital goods.), this is called instance, the agro-industries in India have given a
the secondary sector of the economy. major boost to agriculture by raising its productivity.
The industry is at the heart of a country’s economy; it They depend on the latter for raw materials and sell
includes the manufacturing of goods, extraction of their products such as irrigation pumps, fertilisers,
metals and provision of services. All the products insecticides, pesticides, plastic and PVC pipes,
available for use in the market are finished products machines and tools, etc. to the farmers.
and are the result of some industries.
These industries are set up based on economic
Types of Industries
activities known as Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Industries are classified in a number of ways as follows :
Quaternary and Quinary activities. On the Basis of Ownership
Public Sector Industry It is owned and operated by
Importance of Manufacturing government agencies. e.g., BHEL, SAIL etc.
Manufacturing sector is considered as the backbone of
Private Sector Industry It is owned and operated by
development in general and economic development in
individuals or a group of individuals. e.g., TISCO,
particular mainly because:
Bajaj Auto Ltd, Dabur Industries.
Manufacturing industries not only help in modernising
Joint Sector Industry It is jointly run by the state and
agriculture, they also reduce the heavy dependence of
individuals or a group of individuals. Oil India Ltd.
people on agricultural income by providing them jobs
(OIL) is jointly owned by the public and private sector.
in secondary and tertiary sectors.
Cooperative Sector Industry It is are owned and
Industrial development is a pre-condition for
operated by the producers or suppliers of raw
eradication of unemployment and poverty from our
materials, workers or both. They pool in the
country. This was the main philosophy behind public
resources and share the profits or losses
sector industries and joint sector ventures in India.
proportionately. Such examples are the sugar
It was also aimed at bringing down regional disparities industry in Maharashtra, the coir industry in Kerala.
by establishing industries in tribal and backward areas.
Export of manufactured goods expands trade and
On the Basis of the Use of their Products
commerce, and brings in much needed foreign exchange. Basic Goods Industry This industry provides raw
Countries that transform their raw materials into a material for the other industries. e.g., cotton
wide variety of finished goods of higher value are production for textile industry.
prosperous. India’s prosperity lies in increasing and Capital Goods Industry This industry produces
diversifying its manufacturing industries as quickly as those capital goods that are used by other industries.
possible. e.g., machine industry.
274
Intermediate Goods Industry This industry produces On the Basis of Main Role
intermediate goods for other industries to make final Basic or Key Industry This industry supplies its
products. e.g., producing tyres for cycle manufacturing products as raw materials to manufacture other goods
company. e.g. iron and steel and copper smelting, aluminum
Consumer Goods Industry It produces those goods that smelting.
are consumed by consumers. e.g., edible oil etc. Consumer Industry It produces goods for direct use
On the Basis of Source of Raw Materials Used by consumers – sugar, toothpaste, paper, sewing
Agro Based Industry It obtains raw materials from machines, fans etc.
agricultural activities. e.g., raw cotton, wool, jute, silk
textile, rubber, sugar, tea, coffee, edible oil etc. Location of Industries
Forest Based Industry It obtains raw materials from Location of industries is influenced by several
forest. e.g., paper industry factors like access to raw materials, power, market,
capital, transport and labour, etc. Relative
Mineral Based Industry It obtains raw materials from
significance of these factors varies with time
minerals. e.g., iron and steel, cement, aluminium,
and place.
machine tools, petrochemicals etc.
There is a strong relationship between raw material
Industrially Processed Raw Material Industry
and type of industry. It is economical to locate the
It obtains raw materials from cottage and small
manufacturing industries at a place where cost of
industries. e.g., automobile industry.
production and delivery cost of manufactured goods
On the Basis of Nature of the to consumers are the least.
Manufactured Products Transport costs, to a great extent, depend on the
Metallurgical Industry e.g., Iron and steel Industry. nature of raw materials and manufactured products.
Mechanical Engineering Industry e.g., Automobile A brief description of factors influencing the location
industry. of industries are given below:
Chemical and Allied Industry e.g., Fertiliser industry. Raw Materials
Textile Industry e.g., Cotton textile. Industries using weight-losing raw materials are
Food Processing Industry e.g., Fishery located in the regions where raw materials are
located.
Electricity Generation Industry e.g., Transformer
manufacturing Similarly, the locations of pulp industry, copper
smelting and pig iron industries are located near
Electronics Industry e.g., Laptop manufacturing
their raw materials.
Communication Industry e.g., Telephone
This is why most of the iron and steel industries are
manufactuing
located either near coalfields (Bokaro, Durgapur,
On the Basis of Capital Investment etc.) or near sources of iron ore (Bhadravati, Bhilai,
Small scale industry It is defined with reference to the and Rourkela).
maximum investment allowed on the assets of a unit. Similarly, industries based on perishable raw
This limit has changed over a period of time. materials are also located close to raw material
At present, the maximum investment of one crore is sources.
allowed.
Power
Cottage Industry In this industry, production of goods
Power provides the motive force for machines, and
is done by family members with capital investment.
therefore, its supply has to be ensured before the
Large Scale Industry In this industry, production of location of any industry.
goods is done on large scale with the help of machine.
It requires huge capital investment. Market
Markets provide the outlets for manufactured
On the Basis of the Bulk and Weight of Raw
products. Heavy machines, machine tools, and heavy
Material and Finished Goods chemicals are located near the high demand areas as
Heavy Industry It uses heavy and bulky raw materials these are market orientated.
such as iron and steel. Cotton textile industry uses a non-weight losing raw
Light industry It uses light raw materials and produce material and is generally located in large urban
light goods such as electrical goods industries. centres, e.g. Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Surat, etc.
275
Petroleum refineries are also located near the markets Iron and Steel Industry
as the transport of crude oil is easier and several
products derived from them are used as raw material The development of the iron and steel industry
in other industries. Koyali, Mathura and Barauni opened the doors to rapid industrial development in
refineries are typical examples. Ports also play a India. Almost all sectors of the Indian industry depend
crucial role in the location of oil refineries. heavily on the iron and steel industry for their basic
infrastructure.
Transport The other raw materials besides iron ore and coking
The reasons for the concentration of industries in coal, essential for iron and steel industry are
Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi and Kolkata was due to the limestone, dolomite, manganese and fire clay.
fact that they initially became the nodal point having All these raw materials are gross (weight losing),
transport links. therefore, the best location for the iron and steel plants
The industries shifted to interior locations, only when is near the source of raw materials.
railway lines were laid. All major industrial plants are In India, there is a crescent shaped region comprising
located on the trunk rail routes. parts of Chhattisgarh, Northern Odisha, Jharkhand
Labour and Western West Bengal, which is extremely rich in
high grade iron ore, good quality coking coal and
Industries require skilled labour. In India, labour
other supplementing raw materials.
is available in large numbers due to our large
population. The Indian iron and steel industry consists of large
integrated steel plants as well as mini steel mills.
Historical Factors
It also includes secondary producers, rolling mills
Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai emerged as industrial and ancillary industries.
nodes because these locations were greatly influenced
The various integrated steel plants in India are as
by our colonial past.
follows:
During the initial phase of colonisation,
manufacturing activities received new impetus TISCO
provided by the European traders. Places like The Tata Iron and Steel plant lies very close to the
Murshidabad, Dhaka, Bhadohi, Surat, Vadodara, Mumbai-Kolkata railway line and about 240 km away
Kozhikode, Coimbatore, Mysuru etc., emerged as from Kolkata, which is the nearest port for the export
important manufacturing centres. of steel. The rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai
In the subsequent industrial phase of colonialism, provide water to the plant.
these manufacturing centres experienced rapid growth The iron ore for the plant is obtained from Noamundi
due to competition from the goods manufactured in and Badam Pahar. Coal is brought from Joda mines
Britain and the discriminatory policies of colonial in Odisha. Coking coal comes from Jharia and West
power. Bokaro coalfields.
Industrial Policy
IISCO
India, being a democratic country aims at bringing
The Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) set up its
about economic growth with balanced regional
first factory at Hirapur and later on another at Kulti.
development. Establishment of iron and steel industry
in Bhilai and Rourkela were based on the decision to In 1937, the Steel Corporation of Bengal was
develop backward tribal areas of the country. constituted in association with IISCO and set up
another iron and steel producing unit at Burnpur
At present, the government of India provides lots of
(West Bengal).
incentives to industries locating in backward areas.
All the three plants under IISCO are located very close
to Damodar valley coalfields (Raniganj, Jharia and
Major Industries Ramgarh). Iron ore comes from Singhbhum in
The iron and steel industry is basic to the industrial Jharkhand. Water is obtained from the Barakar River,
development of any country. The cotton textile Industry is a tributary of the Damodar.
one of our traditional industries. The sugar industry is
All the plants are located along the Kolkata-Asansol
based on local raw materials, which prospered even in the
railway line. Unfortunately, steel production from
British period. Petrochemical industry is also one of the
IISCO fell considerably in 1972-73 and the plants
important industries in India.
were taken over by the government.
276
Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL) Rourkela Steel Plant
The third integrated steel plant, the Visvesvaraya Iron The Rourkela Steel Plant was set up in 1959 in the
and Steel Works was initially called the Mysore Iron Sundargarh district of Odisha in collaboration with
and Steel Works. It is located close to an iron ore Germany.
producing area of Kemmangundi in the Baba Budan The plant was located on the basis of proximity to
hills. raw materials, thus, minimising the cost of
Limestone and manganese are also locally available. transporting weight losing raw material.
But this region has no coal. At the beginning, charcoal This plant has a unique locational advantage, as it
obtained by burning wood from nearby forests was receives coal from Jharia (Jharkhand) and iron ore
used as fuel till 1951. Afterwards, electric furnaces from Sundargarh and Kendujhar.
were installed, which use hydroelectricity from the Jog
The Hirakud project supplies power for the electric
Falls hydel power project.
furnaces and water is obtained from the Koel and
The Bhadravati river supplies water to the plant. This Shankh rivers.
plant produces specialised steels and alloys.
68°E 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°E
36°N
36°N
INDIA
Iron and Steel Plants
Pakistan
32° N
32°
China
(Tibet)
28° Ne
pa
l
Bhutan
Bangladesh
24°
Bokaro Durgapur
Jamshedpur Tropic of Cancer
Burnpur
Bhilai
Raurkela
20°
Kalinga Nagar Bay of 20°
Bengal
Dolvi
Arabian Vishakhapatnam
16° Sea
Vijaynagar
20°
Bhadravati
12°
12°
Salem
0 200 400 600 km

8°N
8°N
Sri
72°E 76° Lanka 84° 88° 92°E
277
Bhilai Steel Plant It is used to manufacture aircraft, utensils and wires.

It has gained popularity as a substitute of steel,
The Bhilai Steel Plant was established with Russian
collaboration in Durg district of Chhattisgarh and copper, zinc and lead in a number of industries.
started production in 1959. Aluminium smelting plants in the country are
Iron ore comes from Dalli-Rajhara mine and coal from located in Odisha, West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar
Korba and Kargali coal fields. Water comes from the Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Tamil
Tandula Dam and the power from the Korba Thermal Nadu.
Power Station. Bauxite, the raw material used in the smelters, is a
This plant also lies on the Kolkata-Mumbai railway very bulky, dark reddish coloured rock.
route. The bulk of the steel produced goes to the Regular supply of electricity and an assured source
Hindustan Shipyard at Visakhapatnam. of raw material at minimum cost are the two prime
factors for location of the industry.
Durgapur Steel Plant
Durgapur Steel Plant in West Bengal was set up in Aluminium Plants in India
collaboration with the government of the United
Supporting
Kingdom and started production in 1962. Company Units
Country
This plant lies in Raniganj-Jharia coal belt and gets
iron ore from Noamundi. Indian Aluminium - Muri (Jharkhand),
Company Limited Alwan (Kerala), Belur
Durgapur lies on the main Kolkata-Delhi railway route. (INDALCO) (West Bengal),
Hydel power and water is obtained from the Damodar Belgaum (Karnataka)
Valley Corporation (DVC). Hindustan Aluminium USA Renukoot (Uttar
Corporation Limited Pradesh)
Bokaro Steel Plant (HINDALCO)
This steel plant was set up in 1964 at Bokaro with Madras Aluminium Itlay Mettur (Tamil Nadu)
Russian collaboration. Company Limited
This plant was set up on the principle of transportation (MALCO)
cost minimisation by creating the Bokaro-Rourkela Bharat Aluminium Soviet Union Korba (Chhattisgarh)
combine. Company Limited
It receives iron ore from the Rourkela region and the (BALCO)
wagons on return take coal to Rourkela. National Aluminium France Angul (Odisha)
Other raw materials come to Bokaro from within a Company Limited
radius of about 350 km. (NALCO)
Water and hydel power is supplied by the Damodar

Valley Corporation. Textile Industry
Other Steel Plants Textile industry plays and important role in the Indian
New steel plants which were set up in the Fourth Plan economy. Cotton woollen and silk textile are the
period are away from the main raw material sources. All important textile industries.
three plants are located in South India. Cotton Textile Industry
The Vizag Steel Plant, in Visakhapatnam in Andhra
The cotton textile industry is one of the traditional
Pradesh is the first port-based plant which started
industries of India. In the ancient and the medieval
operating in 1992. Its port location is of advantage. times, it used to be only a cottage industry.
The Vijayanagar Steel Plant at Hospet in Karnataka India was famous worldwide for the production of
was developed using indigenous technology. This uses muslin, a very fine variety of cotton cloth, calicos,
local iron ore and limestone. chintz and other different varieties of fine cotton
The Salem Steel Plant in Tamil Nadu was cloth.
commissioned in 1982. The development of this industry in India was due to
several factors. One, it is a tropical country and
Aluminium Smelting cotton is the most comfortable fabric for a hot and
Aluminium smelting is the second most important humid climate. Second, a large quantity of cotton
metallurgical industry in India. It is light, resistant to was grown in India.
corrosion, a good conductor of heat, malleable and Abundant skilled labour required for this industry
becomes strong when it is mixed with other metals. was available in this country.
278
Mumbai as the Centre The cotton textile industry is located in the cotton
In 1854, the first modern cotton mill was established in producing Telangana region, where most of the
Mumbai. This city had several advantages as a cotton mills are spinning mills producing yarn. The important
textile manufacturing. centres are Hyderabad, Secunderabad and Warangal
in Telangana and Guntur in Andhra Pradesh.
It was very close to the cotton producing areas of
Gujarat and Maharashtra. Raw cotton used to be In Uttar Pradesh, Kanpur is the largest centre.
brought to Mumbai port to be transported to England. Some of the other important centres are Modinagar,
Therefore, cotton was available in Mumbai city itself. Hathras, Saharanpur, Agra and Lucknow.
Moreover, Mumbai even then was the financial centre In West Bengal, the cotton mills are located in the
and the capital needed to start an industry was Hugli region. Howrah, Serampore, Kolkata and
available there. As a large town, providing employment Shyamnagar are the important centres.
opportunities attracted labour in large numbers. Hence, Production of cotton cloth increased almost five
cheap and abundant labour too was available locally. times since independence.
The machinery required for a cotton textile mill could
be directly imported from England. Woollen Textile Industry
The first woollen textile mill was set-up in 1876 at
Features of Indian Cotton Industry
Kanpur, because Kanpur was the principal depot for
The cotton textile industry in India can be broadly the British Indian Army. But the industry did not
divided into two sectors, the organised sector and the flourish because of a short winter and long summer in
unorganised sector. India leading to an inadequate demand.
The decentralised sector includes cloth produced in Also, the textiles produced were of poor quality.
handlooms (including Khadi) and powerlooms. The After Independence, there was rapid development
production of the organised sector has drastically fallen of the industry mainly as an export oriented
from 81% in the mid 20th century to only about 6% in industry.
2000. At present, the power looms on the decentralised
The organised woollen textile industries provide
sector produce more than the handloom sector.
employment to about 12 lakh people, while the
Cotton is a ‘pure’ raw material, which does not lose decentralised or unorganised sector provides
weight in the manufacturing process. So other factors, employment to about 4 lakh people.
like, power to drive the looms, labour, capital or market
The woollen textile industry in India can be divided
may determine the location of the industry.
into cottage industry and factory industry.
At present the trend is to locate the industry at or close
to markets, as it is the market that decides what kind of Geographical Distribution
cloth is to be produced. Most of the woollen textile mills are situated in
Presently, the major centres of the cotton textile Punjab along the Amritsar-Gurdaspur-Ludhiana
industry are Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi, Solapur, belt and at Patiala and Dhariwal. The concentration
Kolhapur, Nagpur, Indore and Ujjain. All these centres in Punjab is due to its proximity to the high demand
are the traditional centres and are located close to the region in Northern India in general and the hilly
cotton producing regions. areas in particular.
Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu are the leading Also, because Punjab is close to the sheep-rearing
cotton producing states. West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, regions of Jammu and Kashmir (where the
Karnataka, and Punjab are the other important cotton Bakerwals are associated with sheep rearing) and
textile producers. Himachal Pradesh (where the Gaddis rear sheep).
Tamil Nadu has the largest number of mills and most of The state-wise survey of other centres in the country
them produce yarn rather than cloth. is given below :
Coimbatore has emerged as the most important centre — Uttar Pradesh Kanpur, Mirzapur
with nearly half of the mills located there. Chennai, — Rajasthan Jaipur, Jodhpur, Bikaner
Madurai, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin, Thanjavur, Ramanatha- — Madhya Pradesh Gwalior
puram and Salem are the other important centres. — Gujarat Jamnagar, Ahmedabad, Vadodara
In Karnataka, the cotton textile industry has developed — Maharashtra Mumbai
in the cotton producing areas in the North-Eastern part
— Karnataka Bengaluru
of the state. Davangere, Hubballi, Ballari, Mysuru and
— Jammu and Kashmir The state is a large producer
Bengaluru are important centres.
of woollen products
279
Silk Industry India is the only country producing all the five known
commercial varieties of silk viz mulberry, tasar, oak
Indian silk industry got great patronage during the
tasar, eri and muga.
medieval period.
Karnataka is the foremost silk producing state in India,
The famous ‘Silk-Route’ passed through India and
which accounts for 50% of mulberry silk of country
Indian silk found markets worldwide.
followed by Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
India is second largest producer of silk in the world.
68°E 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°E
36°N
36°N
Baramula
INDIA
Srinagar Textile Industries
Anantnag
32° N
32°
Amritsar
Ludhiana
Panipat Moradabad
28° Ne
Bikaner Gurgaon pa
l
Agra Shahjahanpur Bhutan
Jaipur
Kanpur
Gwalior
Varanasi
Mirzapur 24°
Bangladesh
Ahmedabad Murshidabad
Jamnagar Ujjain
Dewas Bankura Tropic of Cancer
Indore Haora
Rajkot
Vadodara Hugli
Porbandar
20° Surat Jalgaon Wardha
20°
Mumbai Aurangabad
Pune
16°
Belagavi
Cotton Textile
Woollen Textile 20°
Kolar Silk Textile

Bengaluru
Chennai
12°
Mysuru 12°
Coimbatore
Madurai
0 200 400 600 km
8°N
8°N
72°E 76° 84° 88° 92°E

280
Jute Textiles Uttar Pradesh is the second largest producer of sugar.

India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute The sugar factories are concentrated in two belts – the
goods and stands at second place as an exporter after Ganga-Yamuna doab and the terai region.
Bangladesh. Most of the mills are located in West The major sugar producing centres in the Ganga
Bengal, mainly along the banks of the Hugli river, in a -Yamuna doab are Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar,
narrow belt. Factors responsible for their location in Meerut, Ghaziabad, Baghpat and Bulandshahr
the Hugli basin are: districts; while Kheri Lakhimpur, Basti, Gonda,
— proximity of the jute producing areas, Gorakhpur, Bahraich are important sugar producing
— inexpensive water transport, districts in the Terai region.
— supported by a good network of railways, In Tamil Nadu, sugar factories are located in
— roadways and waterways to facilitate movement of Coimbatore, Vellore, Tiruvannamalai, Villupuram and
raw material to the mills, Tiruchchirappalli districts.
— abundant water for processing raw jute, Belagavi, Ballari, Mandya, Shivamogga, Vijayapura
and Chitradurg districts are the major producers in
— cheap labour from West Bengal and adjoining states
Karnataka.
of Bihar, Odisha and Uttar Pradesh.
— Kolkata as a large urban centre provides banking,
The industry is distributed in the coastal regions i.e.
insurance and port facilities for export of jute goods. East Godavari, West Godavari, Visakhapatnam districts
of Andhra Pradesh and Nizamabad and Medak
districts of Telangana.
First Jute Mill
The other states which produce sugar are Bihar,
The first jute mill was set up near Kolkata in 1855 at
Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
Rishra. After Partition in 1947, the jute mills remained in
India but three-fourth of the jute producing area went to Saran, Champaran, Muzaffarnagar, Siwan, Darbhanga,
Bangladesh (erstwhile East Pakistan). and Gaya are the important sugarcane producing
districts in Bihar.
Sugar Industry The relative significance of Punjab has declined,
although Gurdaspur, Jalandhar, Sangarur, Patiala and
The sugar industry is the second most important Amritsar are major sugar producers.
agro-based industry in the country.
In Haryana, sugar factories are located in Yamuna
India is the largest producer of both sugarcane and Nagar, Rohtak, Hisar and Faridabad districts. Sugar
cane sugar and contributes about 8% of the total industry is comparatively new in Gujarat.
sugar production in the world.
Sugar mills are located in the cane growing tracts of
Besides, khandsari and gur or jaggery are also Surat, Junagarh, Rajkot, Amreli, Valsad and Bhavnagar
prepared from sugarcane. This industry provides districts.
employment for more than 4 lakh persons directly
and a large number of farmers indirectly. Petrochemical Industries
Sugar industry is a seasonal industry because of the This group of industries has been growing very fast in
seasonality of raw materials. Development of the India. A variety of products come under this category
industry on modern lines dates back to 1903, when a of industries.
sugar mill was started in Bihar.
In the 1960s, demand for organic chemicals increased
Location of the Sugar Industry so fast that it became difficult to meet this demand. At
Sugarcane is a weight losing crop because its sucrose that time, the petroleum refining industry expanded
content on decreasing with time. The ratio of sugar to rapidly.
sugarcane varies between 9 to 12% depending on its Many items are derived from crude petroleum, which
variety. provide raw materials for many new industries, these
Its sucrose content begins to dry during haulage after are collectively known as petrochemical industries.
it has been harvested from the field. Better recovery This group of industries is divided into four sub-groups:
of sugar is dependent upon its being crushed within — polymers
24 hours of its harvesting. Sugar factories hence, are — synthetic fibres
located within the cane producing regions. — elastomers
Maharashtra has emerged as a leading sugar producer — surfactant intermediate
in the country and produces more than one-third of
Mumbai is the hub of the petrochemical industries.
the total production of the sugar in the country.
281
Cracker units are also located in Auraiya (Uttar Cement Industry

Pradesh), Jamnagar, Gandhinagar and Hajira
Cement is essential for construction activity such as
(Gujarat), Nagothane, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Haldia
building houses, factories, bridges, roads, airports,
(West Bengal) and Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh).
dams and for other commercial establishments.
Three organisations are working in the petrochemical
This industry requires bulky and heavy raw materials
sector under the administrative control of the
like limestone, silica and gypsum. Coal and electric
Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals.
power are needed apart from rail transportation.
The Indian Petrochemical Corporation Limited
The industry has strategically located plants in
(IPCL) is a public sector undertaking. It is responsible
Gujarat that have suitable access to the market in the
for the manufacture and distribution of the various
Gulf countries.
petrochemicals like polymers, chemicals, fibres and
fibre intermediates. The first cement plant was set up in Chennai in 1904.
The Petrofils Cooperative Limited (PCL), a joint After Independence, the industry expanded.
venture of the Government of India and weaver’s Improvement in the quality has found the produce a
cooperative societies. It produces polyester filament readily available market in East Asia, Middle East,
yarn and nylon chips at its two plants located at Africa and South Asia apart from a large demand
Vadodara and Naldhari in Gujarat. within the country.
The Central Institute of Plastic Engineering and Automobile Industry
Technology (CIPET), involved in imparting training Automobiles provide vehicles for quick transport of
in the petro-chemical industry. good services and passengers.
Polymers are made from ethylene and propylene. Trucks, buses, cars, motor cycles, scooters,
These materials are obtained in the process of refining three-wheelers and multi-utility vehicles are
crude oil. Polymers are used as raw materials in the manufactured in India at various centres.
plastic industry.
After the liberalisation, the coming in of new and
Among polymers, polyethylene is a widely used contemporary models stimulated the demand for
thermoplastic. Plastic is first converted into sheets, vehicles in the market, which led to the healthy
powder, resin and pellets and then used in growth of the industry including passenger cars, two
manufacturing plastic products. and three-wheelers.
Industries manufacturing nylon and polyester yarns The industry is located around Delhi, Gurugram,
are located at Kota, Pimpri, Mumbai, Modinagar, Mumbai, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore,
Pune, Ujjain, Nagpur and Udhna. Acrylic staple fibre Hyderabad, Jamshedpur and Bengaluru.
is manufactured at Kota and Vadodara.
Engineering Industries
Other Important Industries The engineering sector is the largest sector among the
Other important industries in India are : industrial segments in India and provides direct and
indirect employment to over 4 million skilled and
Fertiliser Industry non-skilled workers. Though a diverse industry, it can
The fertiliser industry is centred around the be divided into two broad categories :
production of nitrogenous fertilisers (mainly urea), 1. Heavy Engineering Segment This accounts for bulk
phosphatic fertilisers and Di Ammonium Phosphate of all engineering goods production in India and is
(DAP) and complex fertilisers, which have a responsible for the production of high-value
combination of nitrogen, phosphate and potash (NPK). products like heavy electrical, heavy engineering
The third, i.e. potash is entirely imported as the and machine tools and automotive parts.
country does not have any reserves of commercially
2. Light Engineering Segment This segment is
usable potash or potassium compounds in any form.
responsible for medium to low technology products
After the Green Revolution, the industry expanded to
like casting and forging components, medical and
several other parts of the country.
surgical equipments and industrial fasteners (high
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and tensile and mild tensile steel fasteners).
Kerala contribute towards half of the fertiliser
Leading Companies in the engineering industry are :
production. Other significant producers are Andhra
Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan, Bihar, Maharashtra, — Bharat Heavy Electrical Limited, (BHEL)
Assam, West Bengal, Goa, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh and — Engineers India Limited, Hindustan Aeronautics
Karnataka. Limited, Crompton Greaves
282
— Elgi Equipments Air Craft Industry

— Hindustan Machine Tools (HMT) The first air craft industry in India was established by
— Kirloskar Oil Engines Limited (KOEL) Walchand Hirachand in 1940 as Hindustan Air
— Larsen and Toubro Limited (L & T) Craft Limited (HAL) in Bengaluru.
— Thermax Limited, Cummins India Limited In 1942, this company was undertaken by
— Alfa Laval (India) Limited government of India and renamed as Hindustan
— Asea Brown Boveri Ltd (ABB) and Siemens Limited Aeronautics Limited. Its headquarters is at
Bengaluru (Karnataka).
Railway Equipment Industry
India is self-sufficient and a major exporting country in
Paper Industry
railway equipments. It is a vital and core industry for any country. The
raw materials for the paper industry include bamboo,
Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, a PSU set-up in 1950
salai and salai grasses, wastepaper, rags, pulp and
in Bardhaman district, West Bengal now producing
bagasse.
electric locomotives.
The location of the industry is influenced by raw
Diesel Locomotive Works set-up at Varanasi in 1961 to
material and to a lesser extent by market. The first
manufacture diesel locomotives.
paper mill in the country was set-up at Serampore
Diesel Component Works has its locomotive parts (Bengal) in 1832, which failed.
manufacturing units at Patiala, Kanpur, Bengaluru,
In 1870, a fresh venture was started at Ballygunge
Haridwar and Bhopal. New factories were also set-up at
near Kolkata. The planned development of paper and
Marhowra (Saran, for diesel locomotive) and
paper based industry began after Independence.
Madhepura (electric locomotives).
Geographical distribution West Bengal,
Tata Engineering and Locomotive Works at
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Jamshedpur manufacture spare parts.
Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, Haryana,
Integral Coach Factory set-up with Swiss Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Kerala.
collaboration at Perambur, Chennai manufacture
railway coaches. Electronic Industry
Rail Coach Factory is located at Kapurthala. Electronic industry includes production of electronic
Two more PSUs manufacturing rails, wagons and products such as television, telephone, cellphone,
coaches are M/S Jessops Company Limited at Kolkata computer, etc.
and Bharat Earth Movers Limited at Bengaluru. A new Bengaluru is developed as the Electronic Capital of
coach factory is being established at Raebareli, Uttar India.
Pradesh. The main centres of electronic industry are Mumbai,
A wheel and Axel plant has been set-up at Bengaluru. Delhi, Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata and
Shipbuilding Industry Lucknow. Maximum concentration of this industry is
in Bengaluru, Noida, Mumbai, Chennai, Hyderabad
Indian shipbuilding is mainly centred around 27 and Pune.
Shipyards (8 in public sectors and 19 in private sector)
with global market share of 1.3%. Knowledge based Industries
Important Shipyard/Shipbuilding Industries The advancement in information technology has had
a profound influence on the country’s economy.
Industry Location
The Information Technology (IT) revolution opened
Hindustan Shipyard Limited Visakhapatnam
up new possibilities of economic and social
Cochin Shipyard Limited Cochin transformation.
The Garden Reach Shipbuilding and Kolkata The IT and IT Enabled Business Process Outsourcing
Engineers Limited
(ITESBPO) services continue to be on a growth path.
The Mazagaon Dock (Naval Equipment) Mumbai
The Indian software industry has emerged as one of
The Goa Shipyard Limited (Advanced off Vasco-da-Gama
the fastest growing sectors in the economy.
shore Petrol Vehicles)
ABG Shipyard Magdalla, Dahej
The software industry has surpassed electronic
hardware production.
Bharati Shipyard Ratnagiri
283
The Indian Government has created a number of software parks in the country.
India’s software industry has achieved a remarkable distinction for providing quality products.
A large number of Indian software companies have acquired international quality certification.
A majority of the multinational companies operating in the area of information technology have either software
development centres or research development centres in India.
A major impact of this growth has been on employment creation, which is almost doubled every year.
68°E 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°E
36°N
INDIA 36°N
Important Software
Srinagar Technology Parks
Pakistan
32° N
32°
Mohali
China
(Tibet)
28° Ne
pa
Noida l
Jaipur Bhutan
Guwahati
Bangladesh
24°
ar
d hinag Tropic of Cancer
Gan Indore Korba Kolkata
20° Bhubaneshwar
20°
Mumbai Bay of
Pune Bengal
16° Vishakhapatnam
Hyderabad
20°
Bengaluru
12° Chennai
Mysuru 12°
Thiruvananthapuram
0 200 400 600 km

8°N
Sri 8°N
Lanka
72°E 76° 84° 88° 92°E
284
Leather Industry Industrial Regions in India

In India, different types of animals are found.
Industries are not evenly distributed in the country. They tend
According to 2020, India consists 33.38% of
to concentrate on certain locations because of the favourable
world cattle.
locational factors. Several indices are used to identify the
Indian leather industry has two components : clustering of industries. important among them are :
lather tanning and production of leather products — the number of industrial units,
like shoes, belts, purse, etc.
— number of industrial workers,
In India, main centres of leather shoe production
— quantum of power used for industrial purposes,
are Kanpur, Agra, Kolkata, Mumbai and
— total industrial output, and
Bengaluru.
— value added by manufacturing, etc.
Rubber Industry
Natural rubber and synthetic rubber are the two
1. Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region
important raw materials used in this sector. It extends from Mumbai-Thane to Pune and in adjoining
Natural rubber comes mainly from the Southern districts of Nashik and Solapur. Besides, industrial
states–Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. development has been rapid in Kolaba, Ahmednagar,
Now natural rubber is coming even from the Satara, Sangli and Jalgaon districts.
non-traditional areas like Maharashtra, Odisha, Development of this region started with the location of the
North-Eastern states and Andaman and Nicobar cotton textile industry in Mumbai.
islands. Mumbai, with cotton hinterland and moist climate favoured
The first factory of synthetic rubber was set-up the location of the cotton textile industry.
at Bareilly. The industries are located in the Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 provided impetus to the
Hooghly basin and in hinterland of Mumbai. growth of Mumbai port. Machineries were imported
Besides, it is located in Rajasthan and Kerala. through this port.
Tendu Industry Hydro-electricity was developed in the Western Ghat region
to meet the requirements of this industry.
In this industry, tendu leaves are used for
making bidis. Major producing states are With the development of the cotton textile industry, the
Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, South-Eastern chemical industry also developed. Opening of the Mumbai
Rajasthan and Maharashtra. high petroleum field and erection of nuclear energy plants
added additional pull to this region.
Liberalisation, Privatisation, Besides, engineering goods, petroleum refining,
petrochemicals, leather, synthetic and plastic goods, drugs,
Globalisation (LPG) and Industrial fertilisers, electrical, shipbuilding, electronics, software,
Development in India transport equipment and food industries also developed.
The new Industrial Policy was announced in Important industrial centres are Mumbai, Kolaba, Kalyan,
1991. The major objectives of this policy were to Thane, Trombay, Pune, Pimpri, Nashik, Manmad, Solapur,
build on the gains already made, correct the Kolhapur, Ahmednagar, Satara and Sangli.
distortions or weaknesses that have crept in,
maintain a sustained growth in productivity and 2. Hugli Industrial Region
gainful employment and attain international Located along the Hugli river, this region extends from
competitiveness. Bansberia in the North to Birlanagar in the South for a
Within this policy, measures initiated are : distance of about 100 km. Industries also have developed in
— abolition of industrial licensing Medinipur in the West. Kolkata-Haora from the nucleus of
this industrial region.
— free entry to foreign technology
— foreign investment policy
Historical, geographical, economic and political factors
have contributed much to its development. It developed
— access to capital market
with the opening of the river port on Hugli. Kolkata
— open trade emerged as a leading centre of the country.
— abolition of phased manufacturing programme — Development of tea plantations in Assam and Northern
— liberalised industrial location programme hills of West Bengal,
The policy has three main dimensions: — The processing of indigo earlier and jute later coupled
liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation. with the opening of coalfields of the Damodar Valley
285
— Iron ore deposits of the Chhota Nagpur plateau electrical, chemical, pharmaceuticals, fertiliser and
many factor contributed to the industrial petrochemical industries have also developed within
development of the region such as : this region.
Cheap labour available from thickly populated Factory of the Hindustan Motors Limited at Konnagar
parts of Bihar, Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Odisha and the Diesel Engine Factory at Chittaranjan are
also contributed to its development. landmarks of this region.
The establishment of the first jute mill at Rishra in Location of petroleum refinery at Haldia has facilitated
1855, ushered in the era of modern industrial the development of a variety of industries. Important
clustering in this region. The major concentration industrial centres of this region are Kolkata, Haora,
of jute industry is at Howrah and Bhatapara. Haldia, Serampore, Rishra, Shibpur, Naihati, Kakinara,
Cotton textile industry also grew along with jute Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur, Budge Budge, Birlanagar,
industry, paper, engineering, textile machinery, Bansberia, Belgurriah, Triveni, Hugli, Belur, etc.
68° E
36° N INDIA
MAJOR INDUSTRIAL REGIONS
PAKISTAN
CHINA
(TIBET)
Gurugram-Delhi- NE
PA
Meerut-Region L
Bhutan
BANGLADESH
Tropic of
Cancer
MYANMAR
BAY OF
BENGAL
Vishakhapatnam Guntur Region

LAKSHADWEEP
(INDIA)
(INDIA) Kollam
Rhiruvananthapuram 600 km
Region
80° N INDIAN OCEAN
72° E 92° E 8° N
286
3. Bengaluru-Chennai Industrial Region 5. Chhota Nagpur Region

This region witnessed the most rapid industrial growth This region extends over Jharkhand, Northern
in the post-independence period. Till 1960, industries Odisha and Western West Bengal and is known for
were confined to Bengaluru, Salem and Madurai the heavy metallurgical industries.
districts but now they have spread over all the districts This region owes its development to the discovery of
of Tamil Nadu except Viluppuram. coal in the Damodar valley and metallic and
Since, this region is away from the coalfields, its non-metallic minerals in Jharkhand and Northern
development is dependent on the Pykara hydroelectric Odisha. Proximity of coal, iron ore and other
plant, which was built in 1932. minerals facilitated the location of heavy industries
Cotton textile industry was the first to take roots due to in this region.
the presence of cotton growing areas. Along with cotton Six large integrated iron and steel plants at
mills, the loom industry spread very rapidly. Jamshedpur, Burnpur-Kulti, Durgapur, Bokaro and
Several heavy engineering industries converged at Rourkela are located within this region.
Bengaluru. To meet the power requirement, thermal and
Aircraft (HAL), machine tools, telephone (HTL) and hydroelectric plants have been constructed in the
Bharat Electronics are industrial landmarks of this Damodar valley.
region. Important industries are textiles, rail wagons, Densely populated surrounding regions provide
diesel engines, radio, light engineering goods, rubber cheap labour and Hugli region provides vast market
goods, medicines, aluminium, sugar, cement, glass, for its industries.
paper, chemicals, film, cigarette, match box, leather Heavy engineering, machine tools, fertilisers,
goods, etc. cement, paper, locomotives and heavy electricals are
Petroleum refinery at Chennai, iron and steel plant at some of the important industries in this region.
Salem and fertiliser plants are recent developments. Important centres are Ranchi, Dhanbad, Chaibasa,
Sindri, Hazaribag, Jamshedpur, Bokaro, Rourkela,
4. Gujarat Industrial Region Durgapur, Asansol and Dalmianagar.
The nucleus of this region lies between Ahmedabad and
Vadodara but this region extends upto Valsad and Surat 6. Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region
in the South and to Jamnagar in the West. This industrial region extends from Visakhapatnam
Development of this region is also associated with the district to Kurnool and Prakasam districts in the
location of the cotton textile industry since the 1860s. South.
This region became an important textile region with the Industrial development of this region hinged upon
decline of the cotton textile industry at Mumbai. Visakhapatnam and Machilipatnam ports and
Located in a cotton growing area, this region has the developed agriculture and rich reserves of minerals
double advantage of the proximity of raw materials as in their hinterlands.
well as of market. Coalfields of the Godavari basin provide energy.
The discovery of oilfields led to the establishment of Ship building industry was started at Visakhapatnam
petrochemical industries around Ankleshwar, in 1941.
Vadodara and Jamnagar. The port at Kandla helped in Petroleum refinery based on imported petroleum
the rapid growth of this region. facilitated the growth of several petrochemical
Petroleum refinery at Koyali provided raw materials to industries.
a host of petrochemical industries. The industrial Sugar, textile, jute, paper, fertiliser, cement,
structure is now diversified. Other important industries aluminium and light engineering are principal
are heavy and basic chemicals, motor, tractor, diesel industries of this region.
engines, textile machinery, engineering,
One lead-zinc smelter is functioning in Guntur
pharmaceuticals, dyes, pesticides, sugar, dairy products
district.
and food processing.
Iron and steel plant at Visakhapatnam uses the
The largest petroleum refinery has been set up at
Bailadila iron-ore.
Jamnagar.
Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Vijayanagar,
Important industrial centres of this region are Rajahmundry, Guntur, Eluru and Kurnool are
Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Bharuch, Koyali, Anand, Khera, important industrial centres.
Surendranagar, Rajkot, Surat, Valsad and Jamnagar.
287
7. Gurugram-Delhi-Meerut Region In this region, there is concentration of horticulture and

hydroelectricity.
Industries located in this region have shown very
fast growth in the recent past. Important industries of this region are cotton textiles,
sugar, rubber, matches, glass, chemical fertilisers and
This region is located far away from the mineral
fishery.
and power resources, and therefore, the industries
are light and market-oriented. Food processing, paper, coconut, fibre production,
aluminium and cement industry are also prominent in
Electronics, light engineering and electrical goods
this region.
are major industries of this region.
Besides these, cotton, woollen and synthetic
fabrics, hosiery, sugar, cement, machine tools, Minor Industrial Regions and Districts
tractor, cycle, agricultural implements, chemical Minor Industrial Regions (13)
and vanaspati industries, have been developed on n Ambala-Amritsar n Indore-Dewas-Ujjain
large scale. Software industry is a recent addition. n Jaipur-Ajmer n Northern Malabar
To the South lies the Agra-Mathura industrial n Middle Malabar n Adilabad-Nizamabad
area, which specialises in glass and leather goods. n Bhojpur-Munger n Durg-Raipur
Mathura with an oil refinery is a petrochemical n Bilaspur-Korba n Brahmaputra Valley
complex. n Allahabad-Varanasi-Mirzapur n Kolhapur-South Kannada
Among industrial centres, mention be made of n Saharanpur-Muzaffarnagar-Bijnor
Gurugram, Delhi, Faridabad, Meerut, Modinagar, Industrial Districts (15)

Ghaziabad, Ambala, Agra and Mathura. n Kanpur n Hyderabad n Agra
n Nagpur n Gwalior Bhopal
8. Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Region n
n Lucknow n Jalpaigudi n Cuttak

This region includes Thiruvananthapuram, n Gorakhpur n Aligarh n Kota
Kollam, Ernakulam, Kochchi and Alapuzza
n Purnia n Jabalpur n Bareilly
districts of Kerala.
CHAPTER
288 25
Population and
Human Settlement
Sources Class-VIII New NCERT Chap 6 (Population), Class-VIII Old NCERT Chap 18 (Human Resource),
Class-IX New NCERT Chap 6 (Population), Class-IX Old NCERT Chap 7 (Our Growing Population),
Class-XII New NCERT Chap 1 (Population), Chap 4 (Human Settlements)
Rural settlements in India can broadly be put into the

Human Settlement following four types:
A human settlement is defined as a place which Rural Settlements
is inhabited permanently. It means cluster of
dwellings of any type or size where human
beings live. (Clustered/Agglomerated/ (Semi-Clustered or (Hamleted Settlements)
There may be some settlements which are Nucleated/Settlements) Fragmented Settlements)
temporary and are occupied for short periods, or
for a season.
(Dispersed or Isolated Settlements)
Types of Settlements 1. Clustered Settlements

The different type of human settlements are as (Agglomerated or Nucleated)
follows :
The clustered rural settlement is a compact or closely built
Temporary settlements up area of houses.
Rural settlements (Countryside) In this type of village, the general living area is distinct and
Permanent settlements separated from the surrounding farms, barns and pastures.
Urban settlements (Towns and cities) The closely built-up area and its intervening streets present
some recognisable pattern or geometric shape
Rural Settlement Such settlements are generally found in fertile alluvial
Rural settlements are most closely and directly plains and in the North Eastern states. Sometimes they
related to land. They are dominated by primary develop along river valleys. Communities living in such
activities such as agriculture, animal husbandry, settlements are closely connected and share common
fishing etc. occupations.
The rural settlement size is relatively small. 2. Semi-Clustered (Fragmented) Settlements
Types of Rural Settlements Semi-clustered or fragmented settlements may result from
The sparsely located small settlements are called the tendency of clustering in a restricted area of dispersed
villages, specialising in agriculture or other settlement.
primary activities. More often such a pattern may also result from segregation
or fragmentation of a large compact village.
289
Such settlements are widespread in the Gujarat Patterns of Rural Settlement

plain and some parts of Rajasthan.
The various patterns of rural settlements are as follows:
3. Hamleted Settlements Linear Pattern In such settlements houses are located
These units are locally called panna, para, palli, along a road, railway line, river, canal edge of a valley
nagla, dhani, in various parts of the country. or along a levee.
This segmentation of a large village is often Rectangular Pattern Such patterns of rural settlements
motivated by social and ethnic factors. are found in plain areas or wide intermontane valleys.
The roads are rectangular and cut each other at right
4. Dispersed (Isolated) Settlements angles.
Dispersed or isolated settlement patterns in India
Circular Pattern Circular villages develop around
appear in the form of isolated huts or hamlets of few
lakes, tanks and sometimes the village is planned in
huts in remote jungles or on small hills with farms
such a way that the central part remains open. It is used
or pasture on the slopes.
for keeping the animals to protect them from wild
Many areas of Meghalaya, Uttarakhand, Himachal animals.
Pradesh and Kerala have this type of settlement.
Star like pattern Where several roads converge, star
A cultural feature such as a place of worship or a shaped settlements develop by the houses built along
market, binds the settlement together. Factors the roads.
affecting the location of rural settlements areas
T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped or Cruciform
follows:
settlements T-shaped settlements develop at
— Land People choose to settle near fertile lands
tri-junctions of the roads. Y-shaped settlements emerge
suitable for agriculture. as the places where two roads converge on the third one
— Upland Upland which is not prone to flooding was and houses are built along these roads. Cruciform
chosen to prevent damage to houses and loss of settlements develop on the cross-roads and houses
life. extend in all the four directions.
— Defense During the times of political instability, Double Village These settlements extend on both sides
war, hostility of neighboring groups villages were of a river where there is a bridge or a ferry.
built on defensive hills and Islands.
— Planned Settlements Sites that are not Problems of Rural Settlements
spontaneously chosen by villagers themselves, Rural settlements in the developing countries are large
planned settlements are constructed by in number and poorly equipped with infrastructure.
governments by providing shelter, water and other They represent a great challenge and opportunity for
infrastructures on acquired lands. planners.
— The scheme of villagisation in Ethiopia and the Supply of water to rural settlements in developing
canal colonies in the Indira Gandhi canal countries is not adequate. People in villages,
command area in India are some good examples. particularly in mountainous and arid areas have to walk
Water Supply Usually rural settlements are located long distances to fetch drinking water.
near water bodies such as rivers, lakes and springs Water borne diseases such as Cholera and Jaundice
where water can be easily obtained. Sometimes the tend to be a common problem.
need for water drives people to settle in otherwise The countries of South Asia face conditions of drought
disadvantaged sites such as Islands surrounded by and flood very often. Crop cultivation sequences, in the
swamps or low-lying river banks. absence of irrigation, also suffer.
Most water based ‘wet point’ settlements have many The general absence of toilet and garbage disposal
advantages such as water for drinking, cooking and facilities cause health related problems.
washing. Rivers and lakes can be used to irrigate farm
The houses made up of mud, wood and thatch, remain
land.
susceptible to damage during heavy rains and
Water bodies also have fish which can be caught for floods, and require proper maintenance every year.
diet and navigable rivers and lakes can be used for Most house designs are typically lack proper
transportation. ventilation.
Building Material The availability of building Unmetalled roads and lack of modern communication
materials- wood, stone near settlements is another networks creates a unique problem. During the rainy
advantage. Early villages were built in forest season, the settlements remain cut off and pose serious
clearings where wood was plentiful. difficulties in providing emergency services.
290
It is also difficult to provide adequate health and After independence, a large number of towns have been
educational infrastructure for their large rural developed as administrative headquarters,
population. e.g., Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar, Gandhinagar, Dispur,
etc., and industrial centres, such as Durgapur, Bhilai,
Urban Settlements Sindri, Barauni.
Urban settlements are generally compact and larger Some old towns also developed as satellite towns
in size. They are engaged in a variety of around metropolitan cities, such as Ghaziabad, Rohtak,
non-agricultural, economic and administrative Gurugram around Delhi. With increasing investment in
functions. rural areas, a large number of medium and small towns
Cities are functionally linked to rural areas around have developed all over the country.
them. Thus, exchange of goods and services is
performed sometimes directly and sometimes Difference Between Rural and Urban Settlement
through a series of market towns and cities. n It is widely accepted that settlements can be
Cities are connected directly as well as indirectly differentiated in terms of rural and urban, but there is no
with the villages and also with each other consensus on what exactly defines a village or a town.
n Although population size is an important criterion, it is
Evolution of Towns in India not a universal criterion since, many villages in densely
Towns flourished since prehistoric times in India. populated countries of India and China have populations
exceeding that of some towns of Western Europe and
Even at the time of Indus Valley civilisation, towns
United States.
like Harappa and Mohenjodaro were in existence.
On the basis of their evolution in different periods,
Indian towns may be classified as: Urbanisation in India
— Ancient Towns There are number of towns in The level of urbanisation is measured in terms of
India having historical background spanning over percentage of urban population to total population.
2000 years. Most of them developed as religious The level of urbanisation in India in 2011 was 31.16%,
and cultural centres. which is quite low in comparison to developed
— Varanasi is one of the important towns among countries.
these. Prayag (Allahabad), Pataliputra (Patna), Total urban population has increased eleven-fold
Madurai are some other examples of ancient during the twentieth century. Enlargement of urban
towns in the country. centres and emergence of new towns have played a
— Medieval Towns About 100 of the existing towns significant role in the growth of urban population and
have their roots in the medieval period. Most of urbanisation in the country.
them developed as headquarters of principalities But the growth rate of urbanisation has slowed down
and kingdoms. during last two decades.
— These are fort towns which came up on the ruins of
Trends of Urbanisation in India (1901-2011)
ancient towns. Important among them are Delhi,
Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra and Nagpur. year Number Urban Population % of Total Decennial
of Towns (in thousands) Population Growth (%)
— Modern Towns The British and other Europeans
have developed a number of towns in India. 1901 1,827 2,58,51.9 10.84 —
Starting their foothold on coastal locations, they 1911 1,815 2,59,41.6 10.29 0.35
first developed some trading ports such as Surat,
1921 1,949 2,80,86.2 11.18 8.27
Daman, Goa, Pondicherry, etc.
1931 2,072 3,34,56.0 11.99 19.12
— The British later consolidated their hold around
three principal nodes – Mumbai (Bombay), 1941 2,250 4,41,53.3 13.86 31.97
Chennai (Madras) and Kolkata (Calcutta) – and 1951 2,843 6,24,43.7 17.29 41.42
built them in the British style.
1961 2,365 7,89,36.6 17.97 26.41
Rapidly extending their domination either directly
1971 2,590 1,09,114 19.91 38.23
or through control over the princely states, they
established their administrative centres, hilltowns as 1981 3,378 1,59,463 23.34 46.14
summer resorts, and added new civil administrative 1991 4,689 2,17,611 25.71 36.47
and military areas to them. Towns based on modern
2001 5,161 2,85,355 27.78 31.13
industries also evolved after 1850. Jamshedpur can
be cited as an example. 2011 6,166 3,77,000 31.16 31.08
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Classification of Towns on the basis of Industrial towns Industries constitute prime motive
Population Size force of these cities, such as Mumbai, Salem,
Coimbatore, Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli,
Census of India classifies urban centres into six Bhilai, etc.
categories.
Transport Cities They may be ports primarily
Urban centre with population of more than one lakh is engaged in export and import activities such as
called a city or class I town. Kandla, Kochchi, Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam, etc.,
Cities accommodating population size between one to or hubs of inland transport, such as Agra, Dhulia,
five million are called metropolitan cities and more Mughalsarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc.
than five million are mega cities. Majority of Commercial towns Towns and cities specialising in
metropolitan and mega cities are urban agglomerations. trade and commerce are kept in this class. Kolkata,
An urban agglomeration may consist of any one of the Saharanpur, Satna, etc., are some examples.
following three combinations: Mining towns These towns have developed in
(i) a town and its adjoining urban outgrowths mineral rich areas such as Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi,
(ii) two or more contiguous towns with or without their Ankaleshwar, Singrauli, etc.
outgrowths Garrison Cantonment towns These towns emerged
(iii) a city and one or more adjoining towns with their as garrison towns such as Ambala, Jalandhar, Mhow,
outgrowths together forming a contiguous spread. Babina, Udhampur, etc.
More than 60 % of urban population in India lives in Educational towns Starting as centres of education,
Class I towns. Out of 468 cities, 53 cities/ urban some of the towns have grown into major campus
agglomerations are metropolitan cities. Six of them towns, such as Roorkee, Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani,
are mega cities with population over five million Allahabad, etc.
each. Religious and cultural towns Varanasi, Mathura,
More than one-fifth (21.0%) of urban population lives Amritsar, Madurai, Puri, Ajmer, Pushkar, Tirupati,
in these mega cities. Among them, Greater Mumbai is Kurukshetra, Haridwar, Ujjain came to prominence
the largest agglomeration with 18.4 million people. due to their religious/cultural significance.
Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru and Hyderabad Tourist towns Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla,
are other mega cities in the country. Pachmarhi, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Udagamandalam
(Ooty), Mount Abu are some of the tourist
Class-Wise Number of Towns and Cities and destinations. The cities are not static in their
their Population in India (2011) function.
Class Population Number Total Urban % of Total
Size of Cities Population (in Urban
thousand) Population Definitions of rural and Urban Areas
I. 1,00,000 and more 468 2,27,899 60.45
by Census of India
Rural Settlement
II. 50,000-99,999 474 41,328 10.96 n Population is less than 5000
III. 20,000-49,999 1,373 58,174 15.43 n Population density is less than 400 persons/Sq. km.
IV. 10,000-19,999 1,683 31,866 8.45 n More than 75 % of people are engaged in
V. 5,000-9,999 7,749 15,883 4.21 Agricultural and associated primary activities

n Run by Gram-Panchayats.
VI. Less than 5,000 424 1,956 0.51
Urban Settlement
Functional Classification of Towns n Population is greater than 5000
n Population density is greater than 400 persons/Sq.

On the basis of dominant or specialised functions, Indian
km. or 1000 persons/Sq. Mile
cities and towns can be broadly classified as follows: n More than 75 % of people are engaged in
Administrative towns and cities Towns supporting Non-Agricultural activities

administrative headquarters of higher order are n Run by the Municipality, Cantonment Board,
administrative towns, such as Chandigarh, New Delhi, Corporation, etc.

Bhopal, Shillong, Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar,
Gandhinagar, Jaipur, Chennai, etc.
292
Schemes for Rural/Urban Development them better. For example, making areas less
vulnerable to disasters, using fewer resources and
Important schemes for rural/urban development as follows : providing cheaper services. The focus is on
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan sustainable and inclusive development.
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan was launched on 2nd October, Top Five States with Maximum Urban Population
2014 by Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
State Percentage (in %)
It is a national campaign to clean the streets, roads and
Goa 62.2
infrastructure of the country.
It covers 4,041 statutory towns. This campaign Mizoram 52.1
accomplished the vision of a Clean India by 2nd Tamil Nadu 48.4
October, 2019, the 150th birthday of Mahatma Gandhi. Kerala 47.7
The Union Government initiated the Swachhata Maharashtra 45.2
Udayami Yojana to achieve the overall goal of the
cleanliness campaign under the scheme. Nirmal Bharat Top Five States with Minimum Urban Population
Abhiyan was re-launched in name of Swachh Bharat
Abhiyan. State Percentage (in %)
Himachal Pradesh 10.0
Shyama Prasad Mukherji Rurban Mission
Bihar 11.3
(SPMRM)
Assam 14.1
The SPMRM is a new initiative from the Modi
government that aims to set up 300 rural clusters by Odisha 16.7
2020. It was formally launched on 16th August, 2015 by Meghalaya 20.1
the Union Cabinet. PM Narendra Modi launched this
scheme as National Rurban Mission on 22nd February, Top Five States with Maximum Urban Population
2016.
State Population
The scheme of Providing Urban Amenities in Rural Areas
(PURA) is merged with Shyama Prasad Mukherjee Maharashtra 50818259
Rurban Mission. Rurban development model of Uttar Pradesh 44495063
urbanisation of the rural areas, through which people Tamil Nadu 34917440
living in the rural areas can get efficient civic
infrastructure and associate services. It was proposed in West Bengal 29093002
the budget speech of 2014-15. Andhra Pradesh 28219075
Amrut
Top Four States with Minimum Urban Population
The Government has renewed the 10-year-old Jawaharlal
Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) and State Population
named it after the first BJP Prime Minister. Sikkim 153578
The renewed scheme is known as Atal Mission for Arunachal Pradesh 317369
Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT).
Nagaland 570966
AMRUT for 500 Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities was also
launched alongwith smart city project. The states have Mizoram 571771
been asked to recommend cities which can be included
under this scheme. for the selected cities, Central
Government will provide 30% of the overall cost, if the Population
city has a population of more than 10 lakh and 50% if Demographics refer to statistical data relating to
under 10 lakh. the population in a region. This covers various
factors like population growth rate, the percentage
Smart Cities Mission
of different age groups within the population, the
The objective of the Smart Cities Mission is to promote literacy rates, the sex ratio, urban-rural population
cities that provide core infrastructure, a clean and ratios, etc.
sustainable environment and give a decent quality of life
According to the 2011 Census, India has a 1.21
to its citizens.
billion population. It comprises 17.5% of the
One of the features of Smart Cities is to apply smart world’s population with 2.4 % of the world’s land
solutions to infrastructure and services in order to make area.
293
In terms of population, India is the second-largest Growth of Population

country of the world and despite its growth rate
Population growth has two components namely;
declining, India continues to be a high-growth country.
natural and induced. While the natural growth is
Approximately one out of every six people in the world analysed by assessing the crude birth and death rates,
is from India. India’s population is almost equal to the induced components are explained by the volume
the combined population of the USA, Indonesia, of inward and outward movement of people in any
Brazil, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Japan together. given area.
India’s population is a little over twice the population The annual growth rate of India’s population is 1.64%
of Latin America and 1.2 times the population of the (2011).
whole of Africa. In terms of area, India stands
seventh, preceded by Russia, Canada, China, The India’s Population Growth Rates During 1951-2011
United States of America, Brazil and Australia. The growth rate of population in India over the last one
It can also be revealed from the fact that the total century has been caused by annual birth rate and death
population of North America, South America, and rate and rate of migration and thereby shows different
Australia added together is less than the population trends.
of India. There are four distinct phases of growth identified within
On top of it, we are adding over 17 million people this period:
each year. It is more than the total population of Phase I The period from 1901-1921 is referred to as a
Australia. In fact, the net addition to the Chinese period of stagnant or stationary phase of growth of
population each year is less than ours. India’s population, since in this period growth rate was
very low, even recording a negative growth rate during
Natural Growth of Population 1911-1921.
This is the population increase by difference between Both the birth rate and death rate were high keeping
births and deaths in a particular region between two the rate of increase low. Poor health and medical
points of time. services, illiteracy of people at large and inefficient
distribution system of food and other basic necessities
Natural Growth = Births − Deaths
were largely responsible for a high birth and death rates
Actual Growth of Population = Births − Deaths in this period.
+ In Migration − Out Migration Phase II The decades 1921-1951 are referred to as the
Positive Growth of Population This happens when period of steady population growth.
the birth rate is more than the death rate between two An overall improvement in health and sanitation
points of time or when people from other countries throughout the country brought down the mortality rate.
migrate permanently to a region. At the same time better transport and communication
Negative Growth of Population If the population system improved distribution system.
decreases between two points of time it is known as The crude birth rate remained high in this period
negative growth of population. It occurs when the leading to higher growth rate than the previous phase.
birth rate falls below the death rate or people migrate This is impressive at the backdrop of Great Economic
to other countries. Depression, 1920s and World War II.
Phase III The decades 1951-1981 are referred to as the
Crude Birth Rate and Death Rate period of population explosion in India, which was
n Crude Birth Rate (CBR) is expressed as the number of caused by a rapid fall in the mortality rate but a high
live births in a year per thousand of population. fertility rate of population in the country.
n Crude Death Rate (CDR) is the number of deaths in a The average annual growth rate was as high as 2.2%.
particular year per thousand of population in a
particular region.
In this period, developmental activities were
introduced through a centralised planning process and
economy started showing up ensuring the
Population in India improvement of living condition of people at large.
Population data are collected through Census Consequently, there was a high natural increase and
operations held every 10 years in our country. higher growth rate. Besides, increased international
The first population Census in India was conducted migration bringing in Tibetans, Bangladeshis, Nepalies
in 1872 but its first complete Census was conducted and even people from Pakistan contributed to the high
only in 1881. growth rate.
294
Phase IV In the post 1981 till present, the growth On the other hand, states of Mizoram, Sikkim and
rate of country’s population though remained high, Nagaland follow Arunachal Pradesh in terms of least
has started slowing down gradually. A downward densely populated states. Excluding North-Eastern
trend of crude birth rate is held responsible for such states, Himachal Pradesh becomes the least populated
a population growth. state with population density of 123. Among Union
This was, in turn, affected by an increase in the mean Territories, Andaman and Nicobar islands have got
age at marriage, improved quality of life particularly least density of 46 persons per sq km.
education of females in the country.
Top Five States with Maximum Population Density
The growth rate of population is, however, still high
in the country, and it has been projected by the World State Population Density/sq km
Development Report that population of India will Bihar 1102
touch 1,350 million by 2025. West Bengal 1029
Kerala 859
Demographic Composition
Uttar Pradesh 829
The demographic composition of India’s population is
discussed below : Haryana 573
Density of Population Top Five States with Minimum Population Density

It is defined as the number of persons per sq km
State Population Density/sq km
area. It is an important index of population, which
shows concentration of population in a particular Arunachal Pradesh 17
area. Mizoram 52
In Indian topography, fertility of the soil and Sikkim 86
availability of water determine the extent of the
Nagaland 119
concentration of population. However, in
contemporary time the concentration of population Manipur 122
is also influenced by the migration factor.
Sex Composition
Density of Population According to Census
Distribution pattern of male and female in a population
As per the population totals of Census 2011,
affects relative roles and economic relationships. There
the population density of India has gone up to 382
are different tools to measure gender equity in a
persons per sq km from 325 persons per sq km
population.
in 2001.
Sex ratio is one such widely used tool for cross
Among the ten most populous countries of the world,
sectional analysis to measure gender balance. Sex ratio
only Bangladesh has a higher population density
is defined in the Census of India as the number of
compared to India. At the beginning of the 20th
females per 1000 males in the population. According to
century i.e. in 1901, the density of India was as low
Census 2011, out of a total population of 1,21,01,93,422
as 77 persons per sq km. This steadily increased in
persons, 62,37,24,248 are males and 58,64,69,174
each decade to reach 382 persons per sq km in 2011.
females.
It constitutes a 17.5% increase over 2001, but the rate
As per this, the sex ratio of India is 940 (But according
of increase has slowed down. Nagaland is the only
to census of India 2011 final, sex ratio of India’s
state, where density of population has decreased in
population is 943. The sex ratio at the national level has
2011 Census (119) from its 2001 census value (120).
risen by 10 points since the last Census in 2001. This is
The states and Union Territories of our country vary the highest since 1971.
widely in terms of their density due to differences in
The sex ratio in India has been unfavourable to
climatic conditions, geo-physical characteristics,
females. In the pre- independence period, the sex ratio
availability of resources, etc.
declined consistently upto 1951, when it rose
The National Capital Region (NCR) area of Delhi marginally.
possesses the highest of the population density in
In the post-Independence period, the trend continued
India having a statistics of 11,320 per sq km.
and the sex ratio slipped down for two consecutive
The state of Arunachal Pradesh has the lowest record decades 946 in 1951 to reach 930 in 1971.
of population density having just 17 per sq km as per
After 1971 Census, trends were not consistent, showing
the Census 2011.
increase in one decade and decline in the next.
295
Patterns of Sex Ratio (2011) children. For the purposes of Census, a person aged
The patterns in sex ratio among the states and Union 7 and above, who can both read and write with
Territories are distinct. understanding in any language, is treated as literate.
The top three states recording the highest value of A person, who can only read, but cannot write, is not
overall sex ratio are neighbours located in the Southern literate.
part of India namely Kerala (1084), Tamil Nadu (996) The number of literates and illiterates aged 7 and
and Andhra Pradesh (993). above in India as per the population totals of Census
Among the UTs the top three are Puducherry (1037), 2011 is 77,84,54,120 and 27,29,50,015 respectively.
Lakshadweep (946) and the Andaman and Nicobar There has been a marked improvement in the
islands (878). proportion of literates in the last decade.
The lowest sex ratio among the states has been Top Five States with Maximum Literacy Rate
recorded in Haryana (879), Jammu and Kashmir (889)
and Sikkim (890). State Literacy Rate
Among the Union Terriotries, the lowest sex ratio has Kerala 94.0%
been registered in Daman and Diu (618), Dadra and Mizoram 91.3%
Nagar Haveli (774) and Chandigarh (818).
Goa 88.7%
Among the major states, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir
and Gujarat have experienced a fall in the sex ratio. The Tripura 87.2%
other Union Territories registering decline in overall Himachal Pradesh 82.8%
sex ratio include Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and
Diu and Lakshadweep.
Top Five States with Minimum Literacy Rate
The states having historically low sex ratio such as
Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Chandigarh have shown State Literacy Rate
appreciable increase in the sex ratio in Census 2011. Bihar 61.8%
Majority of the states identified as gender critical for
special attention and intervention as part of the Census Arunachal Pradesh 65.40%
2011, have shown increasing trend in the sex ratio as Rajasthan 66.1%
per the provisional results.
Jharkhand 66.4%
Top Five States with Maximum Sex Ratio Andhra Pradesh 67.0%
State Sex Ratio (Per 1000 male female)
Kerala 1084 Ethnic Composition
Tamil Nadu 995 India is a country with huge racial and ethnic diversity.
Andhra Pradesh 992 Indian people can be divided into six main ethnic groups.
Chhattisgarh 991 These include :
Meghalaya 986 Negritos They are originally from Africa. They were
the earliest people to have come to India. They have
Top Five States with Minimum Sex Ratio survived in their original habitat in Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
State Sex Ratio (Per 1000 male female)
Austrics They laid the foundation of Indian
Haryana 877 civilisation. They cultivated rice and vegetables and
Jammu and Kashmir 883 made sugar from sugarcane.
Sikkim 889 Now these people are found in some parts of India,
Myanmar and the islands of South-East Asia. Their
Punjab 893
languages have survived in the central and Eastern
Uttar Pradesh 912 India.
Mongoloids They are found in the North-Eastern
Literacy part of India.
Literacy rate and educational development are Mediterranean or Dravidians They are the people of
considered to be key variables in improving quality of South India. They have been believed to come before
life. They directly relate to life expectancy, infant the Aryans. They are reputed to have built up the
mortality, learning levels and nutritional levels of city civilisation of the Indus valley.
296
Western Brachycephalics They include the broad On the other hand, there are pull factors which
headed people living mainly on the Western side of the attract people from rural areas to cities. The most
country such as the Ganga valley. important pull factor for the majority of the rural
Nordics These were the last one to immigrate to India. migrants to urban areas is the better opportunities,
They came to India somewhere between 2000 and 1500 availability of regular work and relatively higher
BC. They are now mainly found in the Northern and wages.
Central part of India. Better opportunities for education, better health
facilities and sources of entertainment, etc are also
Linguistic Composition quite important pull factors.
India is a land of linguistic diversity. There are around It can be seen that the reasons for migration of males
179 languages and as many as 544 dialects spoken in and females are different. For example, work and
the country. In the context of modern India, there are employment have remained the main cause for male
about 22 scheduled languages and a number of migration 38% while it is only 3% for the females.
non-scheduled languages. Contrary to this, about 65% of females move out from
Among the scheduled languages, the speakers of Hindi their parental houses following their marriage.
have the highest percentage (40.42). The smallest This is the most important cause in the rural areas of
language groups are Kashmiri and Sanskrit speakers India except in Meghalaya where reverse is the case.
(0.01% each).
The major families are Indo-European or Aryan and
Consequences of Migration
Dravidian with 73% speakers and 20% speakers Migration is a response to the uneven distribution of
respectively, whereas Austric and Sino-Tibetan opportunities over space. People tend to move from a
constitute the other major families. place of low opportunity and low safety to a place of
higher opportunity and better safety.
Migration This in turn, creates both benefits and problems for the
Migration is the movement of people in and out of an areas people migrate from and migrate to. Consequences
area. Actually migration was recorded beginning from can be observed in economic, social, cultural, political
the first Census of India conducted in 1881. This data and demographic terms.
was recorded on the basis of place of birth. Economic Consequences A major benefit for the
However, the first major modification was introduced source region is the remittance sent by migrants.
in the 1961 Census by bringing in two additional Remittances from international migrants are one of
components viz; place of birth i.e., village or town and the major sources of foreign exchange.
duration of residence (if born elsewhere). Demographic Consequences Migration leads to the
Migration is another way by which population size redistribution of the population within a country.
changes. People may move within a country or Rural urban migration is one of the important factors
between countries. Emigrants are people who leave a contributing to the population growth of cities.
country; Immigrants are those who arrive in a country. Age and skill selective migration from the rural area
Causes of Migration have adverse effect on the rural demographic
People, generally, are emotionally attached to their structure.
place of birth. But millions of people leave their places Social Consequences Migrants act as agents of social
of birth and residence. There could be a variety of change. The new ideas related to new technologies,
reasons of it. family planning, girl's education, etc. get diffused
These reasons can be put into two broad categories- from urban to rural areas through them. Migration
push factors, which cause people to leave their place leads to intermixing of people from diverse cultures.
of residence of origin; pull factors, which attract Environmental Consequences Overcrowding of
people from different places. people due to rural-urban migration has put pressure
In India people migrate from rural to urban areas on the existing social and physical infrastructure in
mainly due to poverty, high population pressure on the the urban areas. This ultimately leads to unplanned
land, lack of basic infrastructural facilities like health growth of urban settlement and formation of slums
care, education, etc. shanty colonies.
Apart from these factors, natural disasters such as, Apart from this, due to over-exploitation of natural
flood, drought, cyclonic storms, earthquake, tsunami, resources, cities are facing the acute problem of
wars and local conflicts also give extra push to migrate. depletion of groundwater, air pollution, disposal of
sewage and management of solid wastes.
297
Others Consequences Migration of ‘women’ either Southern Zone This region comprises the Nilgiris
for education or employment enhances their together with the adjoining hilly regions in Andhra
autonomy and role in the economy but also increases Pradesh and Karnataka, which are the home land of
their vulnerability. If remittances are the major probably the smallest, the most backward and the
benefits of migration from the point of view of the most isolated tribal communities on the mainland.
source region, the loss of human resources Among the prominent tribes of this zone are the Toda,
particularly highly skilled people is the most serious Koya, Chenchu and Allars.
cost. Eastern Zone This zone includes West Bengal,
The market for advanced skills has become truly a Odisha and tribes such as Paraja, Kondhs, Bondas,
global market and the most dynamic industrial Bhumij, Gadabas, Bhutias and Saoras.
economies are admitting and recruiting significant Western Zone This zone includes Rajasthan and
proportions of the highly trained professionals from Gujarat and tribes such as the Bhils, Garasiya and
poor regions. Consequently, the existing under Meenas. The Bhils are regarded as a violent tribe.
development in the source region gets reinforced.
The Meenas are a very advanced and well educated
tribe and they have entered in the main stream of the
Tribes of India society.
India is the home to large number of indigenous Island Region This zone includes Andaman and
people, who are still untouched by the lifestyle of the Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep and Daman and Diu.
modern world with more than 104.2 million. India has The tribes include the great Andamanese, Sentinelese,
the largest population of the tribal people in the Jarawas, Onges, Nicobaris and Shompen.
world.
States/UTs with Maximum Scheduled Tribe Population
These tribal people are also known as the Adivasi and
some of them are still dependent on hunting, State Population Percentage (%)
agriculture and fishing. Some of the major tribal Madhya Pradesh 1,53,16,784 21.1
groups in India include Gonds, Santhals, Khasis,
Maharashtra 1,05,10,213 9.4
Angamis, Bhils, Bhutias and great Andamanese.
All these tribal people have their own culture, Odisha 95,90,756 22.8
tradition, language and lifestyle. Rajasthan 92,38,534 13.5
Major Tribal Groups in India (Zone-Wise) Gujarat 89,17,174 14.8
From the point of view of distribution and diversity of the

tribal population, India can be divided into seven zones States/UTs with Maximum Scheduled Tribe Percentage
North Zone This zone covers Himachal Pradesh, State Percentage (%)
Punjab, Uttarakhand, Sub-Himalayan Uttar Pradesh Lakshadweep 94.8
and Bihar. The prominent tribes here are Khasi,
Tharu, Bhoksa, Bhutias and Gujjars. The major Mizoram 94.4
problems of the tribes of this zone are inaccessibility, Nagaland 86.5
lack of communication, poverty, illiteracy and land Meghalaya 86.1
alienation.
Arunachal Pradesh 68.8
North-Eastern Zone This zone includes the seven
Manipur 35.1
North-Eastern states and the major tribal groups here
are Nagas, Khasi, Garo, Mishmi, Miri, Karbi and the
Apatanis. States/UTs with Minimum Scheduled Tribe Percentage
These tribes mainly belong to the Mongoloid stock State Percentage (%)
which gives them a distinct ethnic identity. These
Uttar Pradesh 0.6
tribes have a very high rate of literacy and conversions
to Christianity, mainly because of the missionary Tamil Nadu 1.1
activities during the colonial rule. Bihar 1.3
Central Zone This zone, which has the maximum Kerala 1.5
tribal concentration, stretches from Southern Madhya
Pradesh to South Bihar across Northern Odisha. Uttarakhand 2.9
298
Major Tribes of India Tribe States Major Trade

Miri Arunachal Pradesh Agriculture
Tribe States Major Trade
Mishing Assam Agriculture
Adi, Apatami Arunachal Pradesh Cultivation
Muria Madhya Pradesh Agriculture
Angami, Ao Nagaland Cultivation
Mikir Assam Slash and burn
Badaga Tamil Nadu Cultivation
cultivation
Baiga Madhya Pradesh, Cultivation
Munda Jharkhand Cultivation
Rajasthan and
Gujarat Oaron Jharkhand, Odisha Tea cultivation
Bhil Madhya Pradesh, Cultivation Onge Little Andamans Hunters and
Gujarat and gatherers
Rajasthan
Rabha Assam Agriculture
Bhotia Uttarakhand Shepherding, goat
herding and farming Rengma Nagaland Jhum cultivation
Bhutia Sikkim Cultivation Santhal West Bengal, Hunting, gathering

Jharkhand and cultivation
Birhor Jharkhand Cultivation
Naga Nagaland Cultivation
Bodo Assam Sericulture
Tiwa or Lalung Assam Cultivation
Chenchu Andhra Pradesh, Hunting
Odisha Khamti Assam Agriculture
Chutia Assam Agriculture Dimasas Assam Agriculture
Gaddi Himachal Pradesh Shepherding Sentinelese Andaman and Hunters and gatherers
Nicobar Island
Garo Meghalaya Cultivation
Shompen Great Nicobar Hunters and gatherers
Gond Madhya Pradesh, Cultivation Island
Odisha, Jharkhand
and Andhra Tagin Arunachal Pradesh Weaving
Pradesh Toda Tamil Nadu Cattle herding and
Great Andamanese Andaman Islands Nomadic hunting, dairy work
fishing and gathering Urali Kerala Agriculture
Irula Tamil Nadu Nomadic gathering Zeliang Nagaland Weaving
Jaintia Meghalaya Agriculture Agaria Madhya Pradesh Agriculture
Jarawa Little Andamans Nomadic hunting, Saharia Rajasthan and Forest gathering and
fishing and gathering Madhya Pradesh wood cutting
Kanis Kerala Handicraft Limbu Sikkim Agriculture
Kacharis, Karbi Assam Agriculture Dongria Kondh Niyamgiri hills of Forest gathering
Khamti Arunachal Pradesh Cultivation Odisha
Khasi Meghalaya, Assam Jhum cultivation Bonda Odisha Agriculture
Khond Odisha Agriculture Changpa Jammu and Animal rearing

Kashmir
Kol Madhya Pradesh Farming and forestry
Mishmi Arunachal Pradesh Agriculture
Kota Tamil Nadu, Artisans
Karnataka Kotwalia Gujarat Bamboo handicraft
Kuki Manipur, Assam Agriculture Hmar Meghalaya, Handicraft

Mizoram,
Lepcha or Rongpa Sikkim Hunting and fishing Assam,Tripura
Meena Rajasthan Agriculture Pawi Mizoram Cultivation
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 26 299
Map Studies
Sources Class-XI New NCERT Chap 1 (Introduction to Maps)
up with the setting up of the Survey of India in 1767,

Map which culminated with the map of Hindustan in 1785.
A map is a selective, symbolised and generalised Today, the Survey of India produces maps at different
representation of the whole or part of the Earth at a scales for the entire country.
reduced scale.
It is a two-dimensional form of the three-dimensional Classification of Maps
Earth. Hence, a map can be drawn by using a system Maps fulfill our different needs and show different
of map projections. important facts. Maps can be classified into following
As it is impossible to represent all features of the three types :
Earth’s surface in their true size and form, a map is Political Maps A political map is a type of map that
drawn at a reduced scale. represents political divisions or human-created
Cartography is an art, science and technology of boundaries, of the world, continents and major
making maps, charts, plans and other modes of geographic regions. Political features are
graphical expression as well as their study and use. characteristics such as country borders, roads,
population centres and landform boundaries.
History of Map Making Physical map A physical map is a representation
The history of map making is very ancient. The oldest of natural features of the earth such as mountains,
map was found in Mesopotamia drawn on a clay plateaus, plains, rivers, ocean etc. It is also called
tablet that belongs to 2,500 BC. Relief maps.
Greek and the Arab Geographers laid the foundation Thematic map A thematic map is a type of map that
of modern cartography. The measurement of the portrays the geographic pattern of a particular subject
circumference of the Earth and the use of the system matter (theme) in a geographic area. The theme
of geographical coordinates in map-making are some corresponds to the data selected and the data is
of the significant contributions of the Greeks and the connected to a particular geographic location.
Arabs.
The foundation of map-making in India was laid
Components of Maps
during the Vedic period when the expressions of There are three main components of maps are as follows :
astronomical truths and cosmological revelations Distance It is a measurement between two points
were made. ‘initial and final’. Distance is the major component of
The expressions were crystallised into ‘sidhantas' or a map, which tells about time indirectly in the terms
laws in classical treaties of Aryabhata, Varahamihira reaching at a particular place by fixed scale ratio of
and Bhaskara and others. Ancient Indian scholars Distance.
divided the known world into seven ‘dwipas’. This factor reduces the large area in the required work
The intensive topographical surveys for the preparation sheet as a map. On map a large distance is
of up–to–date maps of the entire country, were taken represented in small scale.
300
Direction Maps are drawn normally with North Types of Maps Based on Function
orientation. North direction in a map is always The maps may also be classified on the basis of their
towards the North Pole of the Earth. If we position functions. Broadly, maps based on their functions may be
ourselves looking at the North Pole, on our right classified into physical maps and cultural maps.
will be the East; our left will be the West; at our
back will be South. Physical Maps These maps show natural features such
as relief, geology, soils, drainage, elements of weather,
These four main directions are called the cardinal
climate and vegetation, etc.
directions. Direction is usually indicated on a map by
— Relief Maps These maps show general topography of
a North-South line, with the North direction
represented by an arrow head. an area like mountains and valleys, plains, plateaus
and drainage.
Symbol It is the third important component of a
— Geological Maps These maps are drawn to show
map. It is impossible to draw exact size of different
geological structures, rock types, etc
features such as buildings, roads, bridges, trees,
railway lines or a well on a map so, they are shown — Climatic Maps These maps depict climatic regions of
by using certain letters, shades, colours, pictures an area. Besides, maps are also drawn to show the
and lines. distribution of temperature, rainfall, cloudiness,
relative humidity, direction and velocity of winds and
Types of Maps other elements of weather.
Maps can be classified on the basis of scale and — Soil Maps Maps are also drawn to show the
function. distribution of different types of soil and their
properties.
Types of Maps Based on Scale
Cultural Maps These maps show man-made features.
On the basis of scale, maps may be classified into These include a variety of maps showing population
large-scale and small-scale. distribution and growth, levels of education attainment,
Large-scale Maps Large scale maps are drawn to occupational structure, location of settlements,
show small areas at a relatively large scale. These distribution and flow of different commodities, etc.
maps are further divided into the following types : They can be categorised as follows :
— Cadastral Maps These are large scale map drawn — Political Maps These maps show the administrative
at a scale of 1 : 500 to 1 : 4000 to show property divisions of an area such as country, state or district.
boundaries, designating each parcel of land with a These maps facilitate the administrative machinery in
number. planning and management of the concerned
— Topographical Maps The topographical maps are administrative unit.
based on precise surveys and are prepared in the — Population Maps The population maps are drawn to
form of series of maps made by the national show the distribution, density and growth of
mapping agencies of almost all countries of the population, age and sex composition, distribution of
world. religious, linguistic and social groups, occupational
For example, the Survey of India undertakes the structure of the population, etc.
topographical mapping of the entire country at Population maps serve the most significant role in the
1 : 250,000, 1 : 50,000 and 1 : 25,000 scale. planning and development of an area.
Small-scale Maps These maps are drawn to show — Economic Maps Economic maps depict production
large areas. These maps are further divided into the and distribution of different types of crops and
following types : minerals, location of industries and markets, routes for
— Wall Maps These maps are generally drawn on trade and flow of commodities.
large size paper or on plastic base for use in — Transportation Maps These maps show roads, railway
classrooms or lecture halls. The scale of wall lines and the location of railway stations and airports.
maps is generally smaller than the scale of
topographical maps but larger than Atlas maps. Uses of Maps
— Atlas Maps These maps are very small scale Geographers, planners and other resource scientists use
maps. These maps represent fairly large areas and maps. In doing so, they make various types of
present highly generalised picture of the physical measurements to determine distances, directions and
or cultural features. area.
301
To study the maps, different types of measurements are The total number of ‘whole squares’ are summed up,
considered. These are as follows : together with partial squares. The area can also be
calculated by using a fixed area polar planimeter.
Measurement of Distance
The linear features shown on the maps fall into two Essentials of Map Making
broad categories i.e. straight lines and erratic or zigzag
Cartography, being an art and science of mapmaking,
lines. The measurement of straight line features like
does include a series of processes that are common to
roads, railway lines and canals is simple. It can be taken
all the maps. These processes that may also be referred
directly with a pair of dividers or a scale placed on the
map surface. Such as the coastlines, rivers and streams. to as essentials of maps are:
The distances along all features can be measured by Scale The first decision that is taken for a map
placing a thread at the starting point and carrying it making is about the scale of the map. The choice of
along the line up to the end point. scale is of utmost importance.
The thread is then stretched and measured to determine The scale of a map sets limits of information contents
the distance. It can also be measured by using a simple and the degree of reality with which it can be
instrument called Rotameter. The wheel of the delineated on the map.
‘rotameter’ is moved along the route to measure the Projection The transformation of all-side-curved-
distance. geoidal surface into a plane surface is another
important aspect of the cartographic process.
Measurement of Direction
Such a radical transformation introduces some
Direction is defined as an imaginary straight line on the
unavoidable changes in directions, distances, areas
map showing the angular position to a common base
and shapes from the way they appear on a geoid.
direction. The line pointing to the North is zero
direction or the base direction line. A map always A system of transformation of the spherical surface to
shows the North direction. the plane surface is called a map projection.
All other directions are determined into this relation. Generalisation As maps are drawn at a reduced
The North direction enables the map-user to locate scale to serve a definite purpose, the third task of a
different features with respect to each other. cartographer is to generalise the map contents.
The four commonly known directions are North, South, In doing so, a cartographer must select the
East and West. These are also called the cardinal information (data) relevant to the selected theme and
points. simplify it as per the needs.
In between the cardinal points, one may have several Map Design It involves the planning of graphic
intermediate directions. characteristics of maps including the selection of
appropriate symbols, their size and form, style of
Measurement of Area lettering, specifying the width of lines, selection of
The measurement of area of features like that of colours and shades, arrangement of various
administrative and geographic units is also carried out elements of map design within a map and design for
over the surface of the map by map-users. map legend.
There are different methods in which areas can be Map Construction and Production In earlier times,
determined. One of the simplest but not very accurate much of the maps construction and reproduction
method to determine the area is by means of regular work used to be carried out manually.
pattern of squares. Maps were drawn with pen and ink and printed
In this method, the area to be measured is covered by mechanically. However, the map construction and
squares by placing a sheet of graph paper beneath the reproduction has been revolutionalised with the
map on an illuminated tracing table or by tracing the addition of computer assisted mapping and
area onto the square sheet. photo-printing techniques in the recent past.
302 Environment and Ecology
CHAPTER 27
Environment
Sources New NCERT Class-VI Chap 5 (Major domains of the Earth), New NCERT Class-XI Chap 1 (Environment),
New NCERT Class-XI Biology Chap 15 (Life on Earth), New NCERT Class-XI Biology Chap 13 (Organisms and populations),
New NCERT Class-XII Chap 14 (Ecosystem)
Environment Components of Environment

Environment is derived from French word Environer/ There are two components of environment :
Environner meaning ‘neighbourhood’. Environment is Abiotic Environment It is also known as
our basic life support system. It provides the air we physico-chemical factors. It includes all the physical
breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat and the and chemical aspects of an ecosystem. It is
land where we live. non-living parts of the environment that have
The place, people, things and nature that surround any influence on living organism.
living organism is called environment. It is a Abiotic factors include rainfall, temperature, sunlight,
combination of natural and human-made phenomena. atmospheric humidity, soil conditions, inorganic
substances (carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium,
Types of Environment phosphorus, potassium, etc.). All the factors are
The various types of environment are as follows : interrelated to each other.
Natural Environment The non-human-made Biotic Environment It is known as the world of
surroundings and conditions in which all living and living organisms. They are producers, consumers
non-living organisms exist on Earth are referred to as and decomposers. Biotic factors include the
the ‘natural environment’. Water (Hydrosphere), Air producers, the consumers (primary, secondary,
(Atmosphere), Land (Lithosphere), Living things tertiary) and the decomposers.
(Biosphere) comprises natural environment. The producers include all the green plants, which
manufacture their own food through photosynthesis.
Man-Made Environment The surroundings created by
humans to provide facilities for satisfying human
requirements are referred to as a Human-made or
Parts of Environment
Man-made environment. Man-made environment is The various parts of environment are as follows :
comprised of buildings, parks, bridges, road, industries,
monuments etc.
Biosphere
The Biosphere (Bios means life) is the narrow zone
Social or Cultural Environment Humans interact with
where we find land, water and air together, which
their surroundings and adapt them to suit their needs.
contains all forms of life.
Adapting to their circumstances was a natural process
for early humans. Community, Religion, Educational, All the living organisms including humans are
Economic and Political situation constitute Social or linked to each other and to the biosphere for
Cultural environment. survival.
303
The organisms in the biosphere may broadly be — Southern Ocean It comprises the Southernmost waters
divided into the plant kingdom and the animal of the world ocean. It is also known as Antarctic
kingdom Ocean.
Many ecologists regard the entire biosphere as a — The Arctic Ocean is located within the Arctic Circle
global ecosystem, as a composite of all local and surrounds the North Pole. It is connected with the
ecosystems on Earth. The annual net primary Pacific Ocean by a narrow stretch of shallow water
productivity of the whole biosphere is known as Bering strait.
approximately 170 billion tons (dry weight) of
organic matter. Atmosphere
The Earth is surrounded by a layer of gas called the
Lithosphere atmosphere. This thin blanket of air is an integral and
The solid portion of the Earth on which we live is important aspect of the planet. The density of the
called the Lithosphere (Lithos means Stone). atmosphere varies with height.
It comprises the rocks of the Earth’s crust and the It is maximum at the sea level and decreases rapidly as
thin layers of soil that contain nutrient elements we go up. The temperature also decreases as we go
which sustain organisms. upwards. The atmosphere exerts pressure on the Earth.
This varies from place to place.
The Earth’s surface is divided into two sections.
Some areas experience high pressure and some areas
The continents are the massive landmasses and the
low pressure. Air moves from high pressure to low
ocean basins are the vast bodies of water.
pressure. Moving air is known as wind.
Lithosphere is the domain that provides us forests, The atmosphere is divided into five layers based on
grasslands for grazing, land for agriculture and composition, temperature and other properties. These
human settlements. It is also a source of mineral layers starting from Earth’s surface are called the
wealth. troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the
Hydrosphere thermosphere and the exosphere.
Water covers a very big area of the Earth’s surface Layers of Atmosphere
and this area is called the Hydrosphere. The The troposphere is the Earth’s atmosphere’s lowest
Hydrosphere comprises water in all its forms, i.e., layer. The troposphere contains the majority of the
ice, water and water vapour. More than 71% of the Troposphere atmosphere’s mass (about 75-80%).
Earth is covered with water. That is why it is called The troposphere is home to the majority of clouds
the Blue planet. and it is also where practically all weather happens.
Oceans are the major part of hydrosphere. They are The stratosphere is the second layer of the
all interconnected. The ocean waters are always Stratosphere atmosphere of the Earth.
moving. The three chief movements of ocean The stratosphere extends from the top of the
troposphere to about 50 km (31 miles) above the
waters are the waves, the tides and the ocean ground. The ozone layer is found within this layer.
currents.
The mesosphere is a layer of the atmosphere that
The five major oceans are Pacific Ocean, Atlantic surrounds the Earth. The mesosphere is located
Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean and Arctic Mesosphere between the stratosphere and the thermosphere.
Ocean, in order of their size. It reaches a height of 50 to 85 kilometres (31 to 53
— The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean. It is miles) above our Earth. The temperature drops with
spread over one-third of the Earth. Mariana altitude in the mesosphere.
Trench, the deepest part of the Earth, lies in the The thermosphere is the layer of the Earth’s
Pacific Ocean. Thermosphere atmosphere that lies just above the mesosphere and
under the exosphere.
— The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest Ocean in
Because of the absorption of highly intense solar
the world. It is ‘S’ shaped. It is flanked by the radiation, the temperature of the atmosphere rises
North and South America on the Western side and with height.
Europe and Africa on the Eastern side.
The exosphere is the topmost part of the Earth’s
— The Indian Ocean is the only ocean named after a atmosphere, which progressively vanishes into
Exosphere
country, that is, India. The shape of ocean is space.
almost triangular. In the North, it is bound by The thermosphere is the layer directly beneath the
Asia, in the West by Africa and in the East by exosphere and the thermopause is the barrier
between the two.
Australia.
304
Human Impact on Environment The indirect impacts are experienced after long
time.
The impact of human on environment can be broadly
Majority of the indirect impacts of human activities
divided into two categories :
on the environment are related to pollution and
Direct Impact environmental degradation.
Direct or Intentional impacts are preplanned and
premeditated because man is aware of the Impact of Environment on Human
consequences, both positive and negative of any The direct impact of climatic factor on different
programme which can change or modify natural races can be seen on the colour of skin, hair, nose,
environment for the economic development of the region cheeks, shape of head, etc.
concerned. Some of the human geographers established a close
Such changes include land use changes, construction, relationship with the weather conditions and
nuclear programmes etc. The direct impacts are crimes like suicide, rape and murder.
noticeable within short period and may continue to Some scholars have also attempted to measure the
affect the environment for long time. These effects are suitability of an environment of human activity, and
reversible. his comfort and discomfort.
Indirect Impact For example, the people of central Asia region
The indirect impacts of man ,on the environment are not depend on livestock, the people of Kalahari and
premeditated and planned. e.g. activities which are Congo basin depend on hunting and conventional
directed to accelerate the pace of economic growth agriculture, and the people of polar region depend
especially industrial development. on hunting and other activities for their subsistence.
CHAPTER 28 305
Ecology, Ecosystem
and Biome
Sources New & Old NCERT Class-VI Chap 5 (Major Domains of the Earth), New NCERT Class-XI Chap 1 (Environment),
New NCERT Class-XI Biology Chap 15 (Life on Earth), New NCERT Class-XI Biology Chap 13 (Organisms and populations),
New NCERT Class-XII Chap 14 (Ecosystem)
Biotic Factors These are derived from the interactions

Ecology between different species of living organisms
The term ecology is derived from the Greek word (intra-specific as well as inter-specific).
‘oikos’ meaning ‘house’, combined with the word
‘logy’ meaning the ‘science of ’ or ‘the study of ’. Laws of Ecology
In 1866, the ecology was first used by the German Barry Commoner has given some ecological laws which
Zoologist Ernst Haeckel, in his book General are followed by the environment and its functioning.
Morphology of Organism. These laws are as follows :
Ecology is the study of the Earth as a ‘household’, of First Law of Ecology “Everything is connected
plants, human beings, animals and micro-organisms. (directly or indirectly) to everything else, we are all in
They all live together as interdependent components. it together.” It means that every component of
It is a study of interactions between life forms (biotic) ecological system is interrelated with each other.
and the physical environment (abiotic). Second Law of Ecology “Everything must go
somewhere”. This law means that in nature, there is
Ecological Factors no such thing as waste. Everything can be used for
The living organisms are influenced by a large number of various purposes. e.g. animals release carbon dioxide
environmental factors. These environmental factors are as a respiratory waste; this is an essential nutrient for
known as ecological factors or eco factors. These factors green plants.
may be biotic (living) or abiotic (non-living). Third Law of Ecology “There is no such thing as a
The ecological factors are broadly divided into four parts: free lunch.” This law states that everything in the
Climatic Factors These include light, temperature, ecological system (ecosystem) has some cost and
rainfall, wind, humidity and pH. A variation in one or their payment cannot be avoided, it can only be
more of these factors affects the distribution and delayed.
lifestyle of organisms. Fourth Law of Ecology “Nature knows best.” It means
Topographic Factors These include altitude, slope that any major man-made change in a natural system
and direction of mountain, exposure and valley. is likely to be detrimental to that system. The ecosystem
do evolve with time and in this process, the ecosystem
Edaphic Factors These include structure, formation moulds itself to function in a best possible manner.
and characteristics of different types of soils.
306
Levels of Organisation in Ecology Ecosystem

The concept of levels of organisation are It is a system formed by the interaction of all living
visualised as an ecological spectrum and as organisms with the physical and chemical factors of the
extended ecological hierarchy. Hierarchy means environment in which they live.
“an arrangement into a graded series”. Interaction All plants, animals and human beings are dependent on
with the physical environment (energy and their immediate surroundings. Often, they are also
matter) at each level produces characteristic interdependent on each other. This relation between the
functional systems. living organisms, as well as the relation between
The various levels of organisms are discussed the organisms and their surroundings form an ecosystem.
below : There is an ecosystem of large rain forest, grassland, desert,
Organism or Individual mountains, lake, river, ocean and even a small pond.
It is a group of genetically linked individuals that
can breed to generate fruitful offspring. Ecology
Components of Ecosystem
tries to understand how different organisms are The components of ecosystems can be grouped into two
adapted to their environment in terms of survival categories: Biotic and Abiotic.
and reproduction. Components of Ecosystem
Individuals are not considered members of the
same species if they are unable to generate Biotic Component Abiotic Component
offspring capable of having children.
The distinct role and position of and urganism in
its environment is called its niche. By this, each Decomposers
organism tolerate Various conditions, utilises

various resources etc.
Habitat
n A habitat is an ecological or environmental area
that is inhabited by a particular species of animal,
plant, or other organisms.There are four important
habitats found on the Earth–land, freshwater,
estuary and ocean.
Biotic Component
n The population in a habitat refers to the number of Biotic component can be further divided into Producers,
plants and animals living in that habitat. In present Consumers and Decomposers.
time, there is loss of biodiversity due to the loss of — The producers include all the green plants, which
habitat of plants and animals, which is caused due manufacture their own food through photosynthesis.
to anthropogenic factors. Hence, in order to protect
— The primary consumers include herbivorous animals
the biodiversity and ecosystem, the habitat must be
like deer, goats, mice and all plant-eating animals. The
protected.
carnivores include all the flesh-eating animals like
snakes, tigers and lions.
Population — Decomposers are those that feed on dead organisms (for
Population consists of all organisms of plants and example, scavengers like vultures and crows) and
species inhabiting in a given area. For example, further breaking down of the dead matter by other
all individuals of tiger and lion in an area decomposing agents like bacteria and various
constitute their population. microorganisms.
Community The producers are consumed by the primary consumers
whereas the primary consumers are, in turn, being eaten
Interdependence and interactions among
by the secondary consumers. The secondary consumers
populations of different species in a habitat lead to
are consumed by the tertiary consumers.
community organisation. This is a collection of
plant, animal, bacterial and fungal populations The decomposers feed on the dead at each and every
that reside in a certain area and interact with one level. They change them into various substances such as
another. nutrients, organic and inorganic salts essential for soil
fertility.
307
Abiotic Components — Tropical Deciduous Forests These are normally

These are the non-living components, e.g., air, water, found in the regions of monsoon climate. The
soil, suspended particulate matter, etc. diversity of flora is far less in tropical deciduous
forest than the tropical evergreen rainforest. Sal and
Abiotic components of an ecosystem include :
teak are very common trees. These forests represent
— Inorganic substances Carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
the largest number of domesticated mammals.
oxygen, water and elements involved in material
— Temperate Deciduous Forest share close
cycles.
resemblance with Taiga forests and are found in
— Organic chemicals Protein, carbohydrates, lipid etc.
areas with a milder, shorter winter season. In
— Climate factors Light, temperature, pressure, addition to evergreens, trees in the temperate forest
humidity, etc. include maple, elm, oak, cedar and other trees,
which shed their leaves in the fall.
Types of Ecosystem
Grassland Ecosystem
Ecosystems are of two major types i.e., Terrestrial and
Aquatic. Grasslands are unaltered areas of land, where grass is
Ecosystem the dominant plant life, as opposed to other
terrestrial ecosystems, where trees are predominant
vegetation.
Terrestrial Ecosystem Aquatic Ecosystem Grasslands are located in both tropical and temperate
regions of the world. Grasslands are classified into
two main categories:
— Temperate Grassland Major temperate grasslands
include velds of Africa, Pampas of South America,
steppes of Eurasia and Prairies of North America.
Prairies are generally humid and are densely
Terrestrial Ecosystem covered with tall grasses. Steppe grasses are
generally shorter than prairie grassland.
Terrestrial ecosystem can be found anywhere apart
— Tropical Grassland These grasslands are located
from heavily saturated places.
near the equator, between the tropics. They cover
These are broadly classified into forest ecosystem, much of Africa as well as large areas of Australia,
grassland ecosystem and desert ecosystem.
South America and India. Tropical grasslands are
Forest Ecosystem dominated by grasses, often 3 to 6 feet tall at
Forests represent the largest and most ecologically maturity. Tropical savanna are most ecologically
complex ecosystem. These are home to a large variety diverse grassland. Savanna plant life is highly
of trees, plants, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, adapted to the hot and dry climate.
invertebrates, insects and microorganisms which vary Desert Ecosystem
depending on the zone’s climate.
This ecosystem covers around one-fifth of the Earth’s
The density of living organism in forest ecosystem is surface and are found in areas of water deficit, Flora
very high. Forest ecosystems are further divided into and Fauna are scarce and poorly developed due to
the following categories: high temperature, low water availability and intense
— Tropical Rainforest They are one of the most sunlight.
ecologically rich of the world’s forests. These forests The vegetation is mainly shrubs, bushes, grasses and
are vertically layered with dense vegetation growth. rare trees. Plants have modified stems and leaves to
Each layer is shelter to different types of animals. conserve water. This ecosystem is divided into two
Broadleaf evergreen trees are dominant. Animal types:
diversity is also higher than in any other terrestrial — Hot Desert These are caused by dry air and low
biome. precipitation due to presence in sub-tropical high
— Boreal or Taiga Forests Cold regions with high pressure cell. A few of the sub-tropical deserts like
rainfall, strong seasonal climate with long winters Atacama, Arizona, Great Victoria are along the sea
and short summers are home to boreal coniferous coast and are influenced by desiccating effect of the
forest. These forests are dominated by cone-bearing cold offshore ocean currents.
trees such as pine, spruce, fir and hemlock.
308
— Cold Desert Cold deserts have hot summers but It ranges from sub-zero levels in polar areas and high
extremely cold winters. These deserts are found in altitudes to >50° C in tropical deserts in summer.
high, flat areas called plateaus, mountainous areas
Water
in temperate region of the world. The combined
effect of interior location and rain-shadow It is another the most important factor influencing the
positioning produces the cold deserts of the Great life of organisms.
Basin of Western-North America, Patagonia, Ladakh, The productivity and distribution of plants is also
Central Asia, Gobi and North-Western China. heavily dependent on water. For aquatic organisms
the quality (chemical composition, pH) of water
Aquatic Ecosystem becomes important.
Ecosystem consisting of water as the main habitat are The salt concentration is less than 5 in inland waters,
known as aquatic ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystem is 30-35 in the sea and > 100 in some hypersaline
broadly divided into following types: lagoons.
Marine Ecosystem Sunlight
Marine ecosystems are the biggest ecosystems Since, plants produce food through photosynthesis, a
covering around 71% of the Earth’s surface. process which is only possible when sunlight is
This ecosystem consists of oceanic, inter-tidal zones available as a source of energy.
and also estuaries, coral reefs and salt marshes. Many species of small plants (herbs and shrubs)
growing in forests are adapted to photosynthesise
Lakes Ecosystem
optimally under very low light conditions as they are
Lakes are bodies of non-marine standing water overshadowed by tall trees.
connected by water flow and aerial inputs to their
surrounding landscapes. While it can exist for Soil
centuries, other inland bodies of water such as ponds The nature and properties of soil in different places
tend to dry up fairly quicker. vary; it is dependent on the climate, the weathering
Lakes and ponds like the oceans, are divided into process, whether soil is transported or sedimentary
separate zones, which are defined by their distance and how soil development occurred.
from the shore. The lake sediment plays an important Various characteristics of the soil such as soil
role as habitat for rooted plants and animals. composition, grain size and aggregation determine the
percolation and water holding capacity of the soils.
Wetland Ecosystem
These characteristics along with parameters such as
Other areas of still waters or wetlands, such as glades
pH, Mineral composition and topography determine a
and marshes support a large variety of aquatic flora
large extent the vegetation in any area. This in turn
and fauna.
dictates the type of animals that can be supported.
Aside from plants such as sedges and pond lilies, the
wetlands also support a few types of trees, such as Functioning of Ecosystem
cypress, which are highly adapted to the high
The components of the ecosystem are seen to function as
humidity of these regions.
a unit when considering the following aspects:
The wetlands are rich in life forms, from reptiles to
mammals, to amphibians and birds, to hundreds of Productivity
insects. A constant input of solar energy is the basic
requirement for any ecosystem to function and
Factors Affecting Ecosystem sustain. Primary production is defined as the amount
The various factors affecting ecosystem are temperature, of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area
water, sunlight, soil etc. over a time period by plants during photosynthesis.
Temperature It is expressed in terms of weight (gm −2) or energy
(kcal m −2). The rate of biomass production is called
It is the most important ecologically relevant
productivity.
environmental factor.
Gross primary productivity of an ecosystem is the
The average temperature on land varies seasonally,
rate of production of organic matter during
decreases progressively from the equator towards the
photosynthesis.
poles and from plains to the mountain tops.
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Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses

(R), is the Net Primary Productivity (NPP).
Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of
formation of new organic matter by consumers.
Decomposition
Decomposers break down complex organic matter Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
into inorganic substances like carbon dioxide, water
and nutrients and the process is called
decomposition. Nutrient Cycle
Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and The nutrients are never lost from the ecosystems,
dead remain of animals, including faecal matter, rather they are recycled time and again indefinitely.
constitute detritus, which is the raw material for The movement of nutrient elements through the
decomposition. various components of an ecosystem is called nutrient
The important steps in the process of decomposition cycle.
are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, Another name of nutrient cycling is biogeochemical
humification and mineralisation. cycles (Bio: living organism, Geo: rocks, air, water).
Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring Nutrient cycles are of two types i.e., gaseous and
process. The rate of decomposition is controlled by sedimentary.
chemical composition of detritus and climatic The reservoir for gaseous type of nutrient cycle (e.g.,
factors. nitrogen, carbon cycle) exists in the atmosphere and for
the sedimentary cycle (e.g., sulphur and phosphorus
Energy Flow cycle), the reservoir is located in Earth’s crust.
The Sun is the source of all our energy. It is a Environmental factors, e.g., soil, moisture, pH,
continuously exploding hydrogen bomb, where temperature, etc. regulate the rate of release of
hydrogen is converted to helium with the release of nutrients into the atmosphere. The function of the
energy. reservoir is to meet with the deficit which occurs due to
There are laws of thermodynamics governing the imbalance in the rate of influx and efflux.
relationships between different forms of energy.
These are as follows: Ecological Pyramids
— First Law of Thermodynamics Energy can be Ecological Pyramid refers to relationship between
changed from one form to another, but it can't be organisms at different trophic levels. This, relationship
destroyed or created. The total amount of energy is expressed in terms of number, biomass or energy.
and matter in the universe remains constant, The base of each pyramid represents the producers or
energy is always conserved. The energy of an the first trophic level while the apex represents tertiary
isolated system (environment) is constant. This is or top level consumer. The three types of ecological
also known an the Law of Conservation of Energy. pyramids that are usually studied as follows :
— Second Law of Thermodynamics It states that "In
Pyramid of Biomass
all energy exchange, if no energy enters or leaves
the system, the potential energy of the state will Biomass is renewable organic (living) material.
A pyramid of biomass is a representation of the amount
always be less than that of the initial state.” It is
of energy contained in biomass, at different trophic
also referred to as entropy.
levels for a particular time.
Energy Flow in an Ecosystem It is measured in grams per square metre or calories per
The flow of energy from one trophic level to another square metre. This demonstrates that the amount of
within an ecosystem is called energy flow. It flows matter lost between trophic levels.
from producers to subsequent tropic level and is There are two types of biomass pyramids i.e., upright
unidirectional in nature. and inverted.
Energy decreases from the first trophic level — An upright pyramid is one where the combined
upwards due to loss of energy in the form of heat at weight of producers is larger than the combined
each trophic level. weight of consumers, e.g. forest ecosystem.
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— An inverted pyramid is one where the combined — An inverted pyramid of numbers is one where the
weight of producers is smaller than the combined number of organisms depending on the lower levels
weight of consumers, e.g., an aquatic ecosystem. grows going towards the apex, e.g., a parasitic food
chain.
ber
um
in N
ase
cre
De
Inverted Pyramid of Number Upright Pyramid of Number
Inverted Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Energy

The pyramid of energy represents the total amount of
energy consumed at each trophic level. An energy
pyramid is always upright as the energy available for
utilisation in the above levels is less than the energy
available in the lower levels.
This happens because during energy transfer from
lower to higher levels, some energy is always lost.
Energy is also lost at every level in the form of heat,
respiration, etc.
Upright Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of Numbers
The pyramid of numbers represents the number of
organisms at each trophic level. This pyramid deals
with the relationships between the number of primary
consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers Pyramid of Energy
and so forth.
Upright, partly upright and inverted are the three Limitations of Ecological Pyramids
types of pyramids of numbers.
It does not take into account the same species
— An aquatic ecosystem and grassland ecosystem are
belonging to two or more trophic levels. It assumes a
an example of upright pyramid where the number simple food chain, something that almost never exists
of organisms becomes fewer and fewer higher up in in nature.
the pyramid.
It does not accommodate a food web. Moreover,
— A forest ecosystem is an example of a partially
saprophytes are not given any place in ecological
upright pyramid, as fewer producers support more
pyramids even though they play a vital role in the
primary consumers, but there are less secondary and
tertiary consumers. ecosystem.
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Trophic Level Man Trophic Level 4

The trophic level of an organism is the position
it occupies in a food chain. It is a point where
food energy is transferred from one group of
organisms to the other group. The chain of Carnivores
transfer of food energy from one group of Trophic Level 3
So
organisms to other group is called food chain.
lar
En
Trophic Level 1 Herbivores
erg
The base of the food chain is formed by
y
autotrophic primary producer organisms Trophic Level 2
which include green plants. Autotroph
Carbon
Trophic
This base of the food chain is called dioxide
Level 1
Trophic level 1 when green plants produce
their food through the process of
photosynthesis with the help of sunlight, Groundwater Nutritional
Element Decomposer
water, CO 2 and inorganic salts.
Green-yellow bacteria, Blue-green algae Trophic Level
and phytoplankton are included under this.
Trophic Level 2 Food Chain
The organisms, who do not produce their Organisms of an ecosystem are linked together. The sequence of
food themselves but depend on primary eating and being eaten and the resultant transfer of energy from
producers for their food, are included in one level to another is known as the food chain.
Trophic level 2.
For example, a plant eating beetle feeding on a paddy stalk is
These organisms are animals and are called eaten by a frog, which is, in turn, eaten by a snake, which is then
primary consumers. They are basically consumed by a hawk.
grazers like sheep, cows, rabbits, goats,
Transfer of energy that occurs during the process of a food chain
deer, etc.
from one level to another is known as flow of energy.
Trophic Level 3
The animals, who depend on animals, Types of Food Chain
mainly herbivorous animals, for their food, There are two types of Food chain: Grazing food chain and Detritus
are included in this trophic level. food chain :
These animals are called carnivores and Grazing Food Chain
secondary consumers because they depend
In a grazing food chain, the first level starts with plants as
on the primary consumer animals of
producers and ends with carnivores as consumers at the
herbivorous group of Trophic level 2.
last level, with the herbivores being at the intermediate
Trophic Level 4 level.
Those animals are included in this trophic There is a loss of energy at each level which may be through
level which take their food either directly or respiration, excretion or decomposition. The levels involved in a
indirectly from all the three lower trophic food-chain range between three to five and energy is lost at each
levels. level.
Man is the most important member of this The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is
trophic level because he derives food and restricted as the transfer of energy follows 10% law – only 10%
fuel from the given plants, commodities of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower
from second and third trophic levels. Such trophic level.
animals are called omnivores.
Decomposers also derive their energy from (Producer) (Primary Consumer) (Secondary Consumer)
all the trophic levels.
Grasing Food Chain
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Detritus Food Chain compounds such as the amino acids, nucleic acids,
The Detritus Food Chain (DFC) begins with dead proteins, vitamins and pigments.
organic matter. It is made up of decomposers which Generally, nitrogen is usable only after it is fixed.
are heterotrophic organisms, mainly fungi and 90% of fixed nitrogen is biological. Nitrogen can also be
bacteria. fixed in the atmosphere by lightning and cosmic
They meet their energy and nutrient requirements by radiation. In the oceans, some marine animals can
degrading dead organic matter or detritus. These are fix it.
also known as saprotrophs (sapro means: to After atmospheric nitrogen has been fixed into an
decompose). available form, green plants can assimilate it.
Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes that Herbivorous animals feeding on plants, in turn,
breakdown dead and waste materials into simple, consume some of it. Dead plants and animals,
inorganic materials, which are subsequently absorbed excretion of nitrogenous wastes is converted into
by them. nitrites by the action of bacteria present in the soil.
Some bacteria can even convert nitrites into nitrates
Food Web that can be used again by green plants. There are still
other types of bacteria capable of converting nitrates
Food chains are not isolated from one another, into free nitrogen, a process known as
rather they get interlocked with one another. This denitrification.
interconnecting network of species is known as
Food web. Carbon Cycle
Food web provides more chances of survival to species Carbon is one of the basic elements of all living
as compared to food chain because more food organisms. It forms the basic constituent of all the
alternatives are available. A food web represents a organic compounds.
more holistic view of energy transfer in the ecosystem The carbon cycle is mainly the conversion of carbon
compared to food chain. dioxide. This conversion is initiated by the fixation of
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through
Ecological Niche photosynthesis.
The term ‘niche’ is used in ecology to define the role Such conversion results in the production of
that an organism plays in a group. The physical and carbohydrate, glucose that may be converted to other
environmental characteristics of a species and its organic compounds such as sucrose, starch, cellulose,
interactions (like predation or competition) with other etc.
species make up a species’ niche. During this process, more carbon dioxide is generated
Ecological niche is a very basic and fundamental and is released through its leaves or roots during
ecological term that encompasses all interactions the day. The remaining carbohydrates not being
between a species and its biotic and abiotic utilised by the plant become part of the plant tissue.
environment. Plant tissues are either being eaten by the
herbivorous animals or get decomposed by the micro
Biogeochemical Cycles organisms. The herbivores convert some of the
consumed carbohydrates into carbon dioxide for
The transfer of nutrients and other elements between release into the air through respiration.
biotic and abiotic forces is referred to as
The microorganisms decompose the remaining
biogeochemical cycles. Bio refers to living organisms
carbohydrates after the animal dies. The carbohydrates
and geo to rocks, soil, air and water of the Earth.
that are decomposed by the microorganisms then get
There are two types of biogeochemical cycles : oxidised into carbon dioxide and are returned to the
the gaseous and the sedimentary cycle. atmosphere.
Gaseous Cycles Oxygen Cycle

It is classified into four types. These are as follows: Oxygen is the main by-product of photosynthesis. It is
involved in the oxidation of carbohydrates with the
Nitrogen Cycle release of energy, carbon dioxide and water.
Nitrogen is a major constituent of the atmosphere The cycling of oxygen is a highly complex process.
comprising about 78% of the atmospheric gases. Oxygen occurs in a number of chemical forms and
It is also an essential constituent of different organic combinations.
313
It combines with nitrogen to form nitrates and with many Except for two of its constituents, hydrogen sulphide
other minerals and elements to form various oxides (H 2S) and sulphur dioxide (SO 2), which add a gaseous
such as the iron oxide, aluminium oxide and others. component to the sulphur cycle’s usual sedimentary
Much of oxygen is produced from the decomposition cycle, the sulphur cycle is primarily sedimentary.
of water molecules by sunlight during photosynthesis
and is released in the atmosphere through Bioindicators
transpiration and respiration processes of plants.
Bioindicators are biological processes, species or
Water Cycle groups that are used to monitor environmental quality
All living organisms, the atmosphere and the and how it changes over time.
lithosphere maintain between them circulation of Because of their moderate tolerance to environmental
water in solid, liquid or gaseous form referred to as variability, bioindicator species effectively indicate
the water or hydrologic cycle. the state of the ecosystem.
It also refers to the continuous exchange of water
between the oceans, atmosphere, land surface and Ecological Succession
subsurface and the organisms. All communities have one thing in common: their
makeup and structure are always changing in
Sedimentary Cycles response to changing environmental conditions.
Sedimentary cycle refers to circulation of minerals This change is orderly and sequential, parallel with
like phosphorus, calcium and magnesium. the changes in the physical environment.
These elements normally do not cycle through the These changes lead finally to a community that is in
atmosphere, but follow a basic pattern of flow through near equilibrium with the environment and that is
erosion, sedimentation, mountain building, volcanic called a climax community.
activity and biological transport through the excreta of The gradual and fairly predictable change in the
marine birds. species composition of a given area is called
Phosphorus and sulphur cycles are discussed below : ecological succession.
Phosphorus Cycle The entire sequence of communities that successively
Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological change in a given area are called sere(s). The
individual transitional communities are termed seral
membranes, nucleic acids and cellular energy transfer
stages or seral communities.
systems. Many animals also need large quantities of
this element to make shells, bones and teeth. In the successive seral stages, there is a change in the
diversity of species of organisms, increase in the
The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock, which
number of species and organisms as well as an
contains phosphorus in the form of phosphates. When
increase in the total biomass.
rocks are weathered, minute amounts of these
phosphates dissolve in soil solution and are absorbed
Types of Ecological Succession
by the roots of the plants.
Succession is a process that starts in an area where no
Herbivores and other animals obtain this element from
living organisms are there – these could be areas
plants. The waste products and the dead organisms
where no living organisms ever existed or in areas
are decomposed by phosphate-soluble bacteria that
that somehow, lost all the living organisms that
release phosphorus.
existed there.
Sulphur Cycle The former is called primary succession, while the
Sulphur is locked in organic (coal, oil and peat) and latter is termed secondary succession.
inorganic (pyrite rock and sulphur rock) deposits in
Primary Succession
the form of sulphates, sulphides and organic sulphur
in the soil and sediments. Primary succession occurs on newly cooled lava, bare
rock, newly created pond or reservoir. The
It is delivered to terrestrial and aquatic habitats in salt
establishment of a new biotic community is generally
solution by weathering of rocks, erosional runoff and
slow.
decomposition of organic materials.
Before a biotic community of diverse organisms can
Sulphur enters the atmosphere from a variety of
become established, there must be soil.
sources, including volcanic eruptions, fossil fuel
combustion, ocean surface emissions and In primary succession in water, the pioneers are the
decomposition gases. small phytoplankton’s, which are replaced with time
314
by rooted-submerged plants, rooted-floating Stages of Succession

angiosperms followed by free-floating plants, then
reed-swamp, marsh-meadow, scrub and finally the Nudation This is the development of a bare area
trees. without any form of life. The cause of nudation may be:
— Topographic (gravity, water, mine)
Secondary Succession — Climatic (glaciers, hailstorm, frost, fire)
Secondary succession begins in areas where natural — Biotic (man, fungi, viruses).
biotic communities have been destroyed such as in
Invasion This is the successful establishment of a
abandoned farm lands, burned or cut forests, lands
species in a bare area. This whole process is completed
that have been flooded.
in following stages:
In secondary succession, the species that invade
— Migration dispersal Seeds, spores, propagules of a
depend on the condition of the soil, availability of
species reach the bar area due to migration.
water, the environment etc. Since, soil is already there,
the rate of succession is much faster and hence, — Ecesis Ecesis is the process of successful
climax is also reached more quickly. establishment of a speices in the bare area.
— Aggregation After ecesis the individuals of a species
Succession of Plants increase their number and they stay close to each
Based on the nature of the habitat – whether it is water other. this process is called aggregation.
(or very wet areas) or it is on very dry areas- Competition and Coactions Different species in a
succession of plants is called hydrarch or xerarch, limited area compete for space, light, nutrition, etc.
respectively. Individuals of a species affect each other’s life in
— Hydrarch succession takes place in wet areas and various ways which is termed as coactions.
the successional series progress from hydric to the Reaction It is the modification of the environment
mesic conditions. through the influences of living organisms. It creates
— As against this, xerarch succession takes place in the favourable environment for a new species.
dry areas and the series progress from xeric to Stabilisation (Climax) Finally, there occurs a stage in
mesic conditions. process, when the final terminal community becomes
Both hydrarch and xerarch successions lead to more or less stabilised for a longer period of time.
medium water conditions (mesic) – neither too dry It can maintain itself in equilibrium with the climate of
(xeric) nor too wet (hydric). the area and is known as climax community. This
community can maintain its equlibrium with the
The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer
climate of the area.
species. In primary succession on rocks these are
usually lichens which are able to secrete acids to
dissolve rock, helping in weathering and soil Ecological Adaptation
formation. n Charles Darwin first used adaptation in 1859 to
describe how an organism adapts and changes to
Factors of Ecological Succession become better suited to living in its habitat and
The factors responsible for ecological succession are as environment. An adaptation is a mutation or genetic
change that helps an organism, such as a plant or
follows :
animal to survive in its environment.
Climatic Factors Both macro and micro climate are n Due to the helpful nature of the mutation, it is passed
responsible for ecological succession. down from one generation to the next. As more and
Biotic Factors Plants and animals are included in this more organisms inherit the mutation, the mutation
factor. becomes a typical part of the species.
Physical Factors Factors like slope and stucture are
n The mutation has become an adaptation in
environment. Mutation is the ability of a species to
also important determinants of succession.
survive in a particular ecological niche, especially
Soil Factor It includes soil composition and soil because of alterations of form or behaviour brought
structure. about through natural selection.
315
Biomes
A biome can be defined as the total assemblage of plant and animal species interacting within specific conditions.
These include rainfall, temperature, humidity and soil conditions. A biome is a plant and animal community that
covers a large geographical area. The boundaries of different biomes on land are determined mainly by climate.
Some of the major biomes of the world are: forest, grassland, desert and tundra biomes.
Types of Biomes
Biomes Subtypes Regions Climatic Characteristics Soil Flora and Fauna
Forest A Tropical
1. Equatorial A1 10° N.S A1. Temp. 20-25°C, A1. Acidic, A1. Multi-layered canopy tall and large
evenly distributed poor in nutrients trees
2. Deciduous A2 10°-25° N-S A2. Temp. 25-30°C, A2. Rich in A2. Less dense, trees of medium height;
Rainfall, ave. ann. nutrients many varieties coexist. Insects, bats,
1,000mm, seasonal birds and mammals are common
species in both.
B. Temperate B. Eastern-North B. Temp. 20-30° C, B. Fertile, B. Moderately dense broad leaved trees
America. North- Rainfall evenly enriched With less diversity of plant species.
East Asia. Western distributed 750- 1,500mm, with Oak, Beach, Maple etc. are some
and Central Europe Well-defined seasons and decaying common species. Squirrels, rabbits,
distinct winter. litter skunks, birds, black bears,
mountain lions etc.
C. Boreal C. Broad belt of C. Short moist moderately C. Acidic and C. Evergreen conifers like pine, fur and
Eurasia and North warm summers and long poor in spruce etc. Wood peckers, hawks,
America (parts of cold dry winter; very low nutrients, bears, wolves, deer, hares and bats are
Siberia, Alaska, temperatures. thin soil common animals
Canada and Precipitation mostly cover
Scandinavia) snowfall 400 -1,000mm
Desert A. Hot and A. Sahara, Kalahari, A. Temp. 20 - 45°C. Rich in nutrients A-C. Scanty vegetation; few large
Dry desert Marusthali, with little or no mammals, insects, reptiles and birds.
Rub-el-Khali organic matter
B. Semi arid B. Marginal areas of B. 21 - 38°C. – –
desert hot deserts
C. Coastal C. Atacama C. 15 - 35°C. – –
desert
D. Cold desert D. Tundra climatic D. 2 - 25°C, A-D Rainfall is – D. Rabbits, rats, antelopes and ground
regions less than 50 mm squirrels.
Grassland A. Tropical A. Large areas of A. Warm hot climates, A. Porous with A. Grasses; trees and large shrubs
Savannah Africa, Australia, Rainfall 500-1,250mm thin layer of absent; giraffes zebras, buffalos,
South America and humus leopards, hyenas, elephants, mice,
India moles, snakes and worms etc.
are common animals.
B. Temperate B. Parts of Eurasia B. Hot summers and cold B. Thin B. Grasses; occasional trees such as
Steppe and North America winter flocculated soil, cottonwoods, oaks and willows;
Rainfall 500-900 mm rich in bases gazelles, zebras, rhinoceros, wild
horses, lions, varieties of birds, worms,
snakes etc are common animals.
Aquatic A. Freshwater A. Lakes, streams, A-B Temperatures vary A. Water, Algae and other aquatic and marine
rivers and wetlands widely with cooler air swamps and plant communities with varieties of
temperatures and high marshes water dwelling animals.
humidity
B. Marine B. Oceans, coral – B.Water, tidal –
reefs, lagoons and swamps and
estuaries marshes
Altitudinal — Slopes of high Temperature and Regolith over Deciduous to tundra

mountain ranges precipitation vary slopes vegetation varying
like the Himalayas, depending upon according to altitude.
the Andes and the latitudinal zone
Rockies
316
Inter-Species Interactions
Interspecific interactions arise from the interaction of populations of two different species. They could be
beneficial, detrimental or neutral (neither harm nor benefit) to one of the species or both.
‘+’ sign for beneficial interaction, ‘-’ sign for detrimental and 0 for neutral interaction.
Species A Species B Name of Interaction Explanation
+ + Mutualism This interaction confers benefits on both the interacting species.
For example, Lichens represent an intimate mutualistic relationship between a fungus
and photosynthesising algae or cyanobacteria.
− − Competition Competition occurs when closely related species as well as totally unrelated species
compete for the same resources that are limiting.
For example, Plants which are in compete for nitrogen in roots.
+ − Predation It occurs when an individual from one species kills another individual of another species
at once to feed on it.
For example, carnivores’ interaction.
+ − Parasitism It takes place when a species obtains the benefit from another species provoking a
gradual damage that does not cause the immediate cause of the victim.
For example, Pig around worm.
+ 0 Commensalism This is the interaction in which one species benefits and the other is neither harmed nor
benefited.
For example, an orchid growing as an epiphyte on a mango branch and barnacles
growing on the back of a whale benefit while neither the mango tree nor the whale
derives any apparent benefit.
− 0 Amensalism In Amensalism one species is harmed whereas the other is unaffected.
For example, Grazing cattle and insects. When cattle graze in grass, the insects are
consumed by birds while cattle remain unaffected.
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 29 317
Biodiversity
Sources Class-VIII New NCERT Chap 1 (Resources), Class-VIII New NCERT Chap 2 (Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and
Wildlife Resources), Class-X New NCERT Chap 1 (New Resources and Development), Class-XI New NCERT
Chap 5 (Forest and Wildlife Resources), Class-XI New NCERT Chap 5 (Biodiverisity and Conservation),
Class-XI New NCERT Chap 5 (Natural Vegetation), Class-XI New NCERT Chap 16 (Biodiversity and
Conservation (Biology)), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 16 (Planning and Sustainable Development in India)
Human beings genetically belong to the Homo sapiens

Meaning of Biodiversity group and also differ in their characteristics such as
Biodiversity is a combination of two words, ‘Bio’ height, colour, physical appearance. This is due to
(life) and ‘diversity’ (variety). Biodiversity is the genetic diversity. This genetic diversity is essential for a
number and variety of organisms found within a healthy breeding of population of species.
specified geographic region.
Species Biodiversity
It refers to the varieties of plants, animals and
microorganisms, the genes they contain and the Species biodiversity refers to the variety of species.
ecosystems they form. It relates to the number of species in a defined area.
It relates to the variability among living organisms The diversity of species can be measured through its
on the Earth, including the variability within and richness, abundance and types. Some areas are richer in
between the species and that within and between species than others. Areas rich in species diversity are
the ecosystems. called hotspots of diversity. For example, the Western
Ghats have a greater amphibian species diversity than
The term biodiversity was first used by Edward O
the Eastern Ghats.
Wilson in 1985.
The age of the Earth is estimated 10-40 lakh years. Ecosystem Biodiversity
It is also hypothesised that 99% of the species on the The biodiversity of ecosystem refers to the variety of
Earth have become extinct. ecosystems, both in terms of nature and number, in
Biodiversity on the Earth is not same everywhere. which living organisms interact with their environment
In tropical regions, a large number of species and with one another.
biodiversity is found. At the ecosystem level, India, with its deserts, rain
forests, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries and
Types of Biodiversity alpine meadows has a greater ecosystem diversity than a
Biodiversity can be classified at three levels : Scandinavian country like Norway.
Genetic Biodiversity Measurement of Biodiversity

Genetic biodiversity refers to the variation of genes Biodiversity can be measured by alpha, beta and gamma
within species. Genes are the basic building blocks biodiversity.
of various life forms. Groups of individual
Alpha Diversity (α-diversity) It is defined as the mean
organisms having certain similarities in their
diversity of species in different sites or habitats within a
physical characteristics are called species.
local scale.
318
Beta Diversity (β-diversity) It is a comparison of It is immorally to cause the extinction of any species.
diversity ecosystems, usually measured as the The level of biodiversity is a good indicator of the state
change in number of species in the ecosystem. of our relationships with other living species.
Gamma Diversity (γ-diversity) It is a measure of
total species diversity in a landscape. Attributes of Biodiversity
There are three attributes of Biodiversity for assessing the
Importance of Biodiversity characteristics of any region:
Biodiversity has aided the development of human Composition It is the diversity and uniqueness of an
culture in numerous ways and human communities. ecological system. Composition descriptors are often
Biodiversity plays the following roles: lists of species residents in an area or ecosystem and
ecological, economic and scientific. composition metrics include species richness and
Ecological Role of Biodiversity diversity.
Many different species contribute to the Structure Ecosystem structure is a network of
functioning of an ecosystem in one way or another. interactions between biotic and abiotic components of
Nothing in an ecosystem evolves or persists for no the system. It is a physical pattern of system, from
reason. In addition to extracting its own needs, habitat complexity as measured within communities to
each organism gives something beneficial to other the pattern of habitats and other elements at a
organisms. landscape level.
Species capture and store energy, produce and Functions The quantity of various organisms and their
decompose organic materials, aid in the circulation relative frequencies in an ecosystem are all part of
of water and nutrients throughout the ecosystem, biodiversity. It also reflects the organisational structure
fix atmospheric gases and help to regulate the of organisms at various levels.
climate. Biodiversity is important for both ecological and economic
The more diverse an ecosystem, better are the reasons. It provides us food, shelter, fuel, clothing, etc.
chances for the species to survive through
adversities and attacks and consequently, is more
Depletion of Biodiversity
productive. The current rate of loss of biodiversity is said to be 10,000
Just like a species with a high genetic diversity, an to 25,000 times faster than the natural rate of extinction.
ecosystem with high biodiversity may have a greater The reasons of biodiversity depletion are as follows :
chance of adapting to environmental change.
Habitat Fragmentation
Economic Role of Biodiversity It is the process whereby a large continuous area of
Crop diversity Agro-biodiversity, is an important habitat is both reduced in area and divided into two or
component of biodiversity. Biodiversity is viewed as more fragments. They are divided into smaller pieces by
a resource reservoir from which food, roads, fields, towns and a wide range of other human
pharmaceutical and cosmetic products can be activities.
derived. It leaves a patchwork of habitat fragments, which are
The concept of biological resources is to blame for isolated from one another by a degraded landscape.
the decline in biodiversity. At the same time, it is the Fragmentation need not always involve a reduction in
source of new conflicts concerning natural resource the overall area, but the setting up of barriers.
division and appropriation rules.
Overexploitation and Hunting
Food crops, animals, woods, fish, medicinal
resources and so on are some of the essential Increased human population, increased demand and the
economic commodities that biodiversity provides to methods of harvesting also became more efficient.
humanity. More rapid harvesting over a wider area became
possible with new technology, such as the introduction
Scientific Role of Biodiversity of motorboats and trawlers for fishing.
Biodiversity is important because each species can The development of a commercial market for a
give us some clue as to how life evolved and will particular product or item can also cause
continue to evolve. overexploitation and poaching. e.g. the demand for
Biodiversity also helps in understanding how life fur and fur-products led to the reduction of many
functions and the role of each species in sustaining species.
ecosystems of which we are also a species.
319
Elephants, rhinos, tigers, leopards, Asiatic bear and — Endangered Species It includes those species which
pandas are all facing threats to their survival due to a are in danger of extinction. The IUCN publishes
flourishing trade in wildlife and wildlife products information about endangered species world-wide as
around the world. the Red List of threatened species.
Hunting for pleasure used to be a major historical — Vulnerable Species This includes the species which
cause for the reduction of many species of game are likely to be in danger of extinction in near future if
animals. However, game hunting is now an illegal the factors threatening to their extinction continue.
activity in most of the countries and its actual Survival of these species is not assured as their
contribution to biodiversity loss is on the decline. population has reduced greatly.
Disaster and Pollution — Rare Species Population of these species is very small
in the world; they are confined to limited areas or
Even without destroying or fragmenting the habitats,
thinly scattered over a wider area.
human activities can make them unsuitable for other
species. This can accelerate their rate of extinction.
External factors like pollution and climate change Geographical Biodiversity
can affect the quality of air, water and soil. The biological variety and variability of life on Earth is
Pesticide pollution, water and soil pollution, air referred to as biodiversity. Biodiversity is a measure of
pollution such as acid rain and contamination by genetic, species and ecosystem variation.
hundreds of chemicals can force intolerant and There are some countries which are situated in the
poorly adaptable species to disappear. tropical region; they possess a large number of the
Shifting Cultivation world’s species diversity. They are called mega
In shifting cultivation, a plot of land is cleared and diversity centres.
cultivated for a short period of time. There are 12 such countries, namely Mexico, Columbia,
Once the land becomes inadequate for crop Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Democratic Republic of Congo,
production, it is left to be reclaimed by natural Madagascar, China, India, Malaysia, Indonesia and
vegetation or sometimes converted to different long Australia in which these centres are located.
term cyclical farming practice. Regions of Excess Biodiversity
Invasion of Exotic Species The growth of plants and animals in this region is
Environmental and climatic barriers such as greater than other parts of the world due to favourable
mountains, rivers, temperature zones and oceans climatic conditions.
have restricted the geographical ranges of species Tropical Rainforest
and have allowed the development of endemic
These forests are found in the Western slope of the
species. Endemicity depends on the level of isolation.
Western Ghats, hills of the North-Eastern region and
However, as the human population grew, people the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. They are found in
spread out to the every corner of the world. In the warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation of
process, they have introduced many new species into over 200 cm and mean annual temperature above
new areas they settled. 22°C.
Climate Change Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified, with
Climate change is the recent potent factor of depletion layers closer to the ground and are covered with shrubs
of biodiversity in different biomes. The impacts of and creepers, with short structured trees followed by
rising temperature on vegetation communities mainly tall variety of trees.
forests are now perceptible in Taiga forests which In these forests, trees reach great heights up to 60 m or
have shown shrinking in their areas whereas above. There is no definite time for trees to shed their
increased rainfall due to temperature rise in the leaves, flowering and fruition.
tropical regions has positive impact on forest growth.
Coral Reef
Classification of Species Coral reefs are large underwater structures composed
According to their Extinction of the skeletons of colonial marine invertebrates called
The International Union of Conservation of Nature coral. Corals are formed mostly of the calcium
and Natural Resources (IUCN) has classified the carbonate skeletons of corals.
threatened species of plants and animals into three The Great Barrier Reef of Australia is blessed with the
categories for the purpose of their conservation : beauty of the world’s largest coral reef.
320
The four major coral reef areas identified for Regions of Normal Biodiversity
intensive conservation and management in India are
A large area of the world is very low in biodiversity
— Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu) because of the lack of favourable condition for the
— Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat) growth of plants and animals. Examples of these
— Lakshadweep regions are desert and sub-polar regions.
— Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Regions of Least Biodiversity
Tropical Oceanic Region Polar ice and arctic Tundra have least diversity.
The high temperature and high precipitation in Tundra is a region where is permanently frozen.
tropical region is boon for excess biodiversity in this So, roots of plants cannot penetrate those areas.
region. Without large vegetation, a whole segment that’s
But the biodiversity of this region is lower than that present in other biomes is missing from the polar
of the temperate region. regions.
Wetland Indian Biodiversity
A wetland is a place where the land is covered by India is a megadiverse country which is rich in
water, either salty or fresh water. Marshes and biodiversity. With just 2.4% of the world’s land area,
ponds, the edge of a lake or ocean, the delta at the India holds about 7-8% of the global biodiversity.
mouth of a river, low lying areas that frequently flood
The wide diversity in physical features and climatic
are the examples of wetlands.
situations have resulted in a variety of ecosystems such
Wetlands often support high concentrations of as forests, grasslands, wetlands, coastal and marine
animals including mammals, birds, fish and desert.
invertebrates and serve as nurseries for many of
Forests ecosystems in particular exhibit tremendous
these species.
variability ranging from temperate alpine to tropical
There are two types of wetlands : wet evergreen forests.
Coastal There is dense forest in Malabar coast and Andaman
Marine and coastal wetlands encompass the and Nicobar region of India. It includes trees like Saal,
enormous variety of marine and coastal species. Sheesham, Mango tree, Palash, Peepal, etc.
They provide open sea habitats and ecosystems for There are 16 major forest types in India. India is also
species and the wealth of ecological province that one of the eight primary centres of the origin of
support all of these species. cultivated plants and is rich agricultural biodiversity.
Over 4,5000 species of plants and 91,000 species of
Inland
animals have been recorded so far.
Inland wetlands account for 69.22% of the total
India maintains this biodiversity while supporting 20%
wetlands. The majority of the inland wetlands are
of the world’s human and cattle population. India also
directly or indirectly dependent on the major rivers
has two of the 34 identified hotspots of the world,
like Ganga, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Godavari,
which are characterised by high degree of endemism
Krishna, Kaveri and Tapti.
and are therefore areas of global conservation concern.
They occur in the hot and arid regions of Gujarat and
Eastern Himalayas is recognised as the Cradle of
Rajasthan, the deltaic regions of the East and West
Speciation due to rich diversity of primitive flowering
coasts, highlands of Central India, wet humid zones
plants.
of South peninsular India and Andaman and Nicobar
and Lakshadweep islands.
Biodiversity Hotspots
Regions of High Biodiversity
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a
Some regions of the world have high biodiversity significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat
because of the Geomorphological structure and from humans.
climate of that region. It includes Western Europe,
The concept of biodiversity hotspots was originated by
monsoonic regions, grasslands, etc.
Norman Myers in two articles in ‘The
Western Europe has temperate type of climate, Environmentalist’ (1988 and 1990), revised after
which signifies high rainfall. Due to high moisture thorough analysis by Myers and others in ‘Hotspots:
content in the soil, there is favourable condition for Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered
the growth of vegetation in these regions. Terrestrial Eco-regions’.
321
To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000 World Biodiversity Hotspots

edition of the hotspot-map, a region must meet
At present, there are 36 Biodiversity hotspots on our planet.
two strict criteria
(i) It must contain atleast 0.5% or 1500 species of Major Hotspots of World
vascular plants as endemics. Africa l
Eastern Afro-Montane
(ii) It must have 30% or less of its original natural l
The Guinean Forests of Western Africa
vegetation. In other words, it must be l
Horn of Africa
threatened. l
Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands
Around the world, atleast 25% areas qualify under l
Maputaland, Pondoland, Albany Hotspot
this definition. These sites support nearly 60% of l
Succulent Karoo
the world’s plant, bird, mammal, reptile and l
South Africa’s Cape Floristic Hotspot
amphibian species, with a very high share of l
Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa
endemic species. Currently, there are 35 Asia and l
Himalayan Hotspot
biodiversity hotspots according to Conservation Asia-Pacific l
The Eastern Himalayas (Nepal/India)
International, most of which occur in tropical l
Mountains of South-West China New Caledonia
forests. l
New Zealand Biodiversity Hotspot
Each of them holds atleast 1500 endemic plant l
Philippine Biodiversity Hotspot
species and have lost atleast 70% of its original l
Polynesia and Micronesian Islands Complex
habitat extent. including Hawaii
India has two biodiversity hotspots : l
East Melanesian Islands
South-Western l
Western Sunda
Eastern Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot Australia l
Wallacea (Eastern Indonesia)
Eastern Himalaya forms a distinct floral region l
The Western Ghats of India and Islands of Sri
and comprises Nepal, Bhutan, states of East and Lanka
North-East India and a contiguous sector of l
Indo-Burma
Yunnan Province in South-Western China. l
Japan Biodiversity Hotspot
In the whole of Eastern Himalaya, there are an North Central l
California Floristic Province
estimated 9000 plant species, out of which 3500 America l
Caribbean Islands Hotspot
(i.e. 39%) are endemic. l
North American Coastal Plain
In the Indian portion, there occurs some 5800 South America l
Brazil’s Cerrado
plant species, roughly 2000 (i.e. 36%) of which are l
Chilean Winter Rainfall (Valdivian) Forests
endemic. l
Tumbes Choco Magdalena
At least 55 flowering plants endemic to this area l
Tropical Andes
are recognised as rare, e.g. the pitcher plant l
Atlantic Forest
(Nepenthes khasiana).
Europe and l
Caucasus Region
Western Ghats Biodiversity Hotspot Central Asia l
Iran-Anatolia Region
The Western Ghats region, which is spread into 6
l
The Mediterranean Basin and its Eastern Coastal
Region
states of India, is considered to be one of the most
l
Mountains of Central Asia
important biodiversity hotspots of India, as it is
one of the richest centres of endemism.
Due to varied topography and micro-climatic Biodiversity Conservation
regimes, some areas within the region are
considered to be active zones of speciation. The method of conservation of biodiversity can be classified
into two groups :
This hotspot account for around 25% of India’s
biodiversity. In-Situ
The Western Ghats are home to more than 5000 In-situ conservation means the conservation of
species of plants and about 35% of these are ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and
endemic to this area. recovery of viable populations of species in their natural
The ghats are home to special kind of fresh water surroundings.
swamps known as Myristica swamps. Examples; National parks, Sanctuaries, Natural Reserves,
Reserves of the biosphere, Sacred grooves, etc.
322
In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich The Act empowers the central government to
regions are legally protected as biosphere reserves, safeguard and improve environmental quality, control
national parks and sanctuaries. and decrease pollution from all sources. It also
In many cultures, tracts of forest were set aside and all prohibits or restricts the establishment and/or
the trees and wildlife inside it were given total operation of any industrial facility based on
protection. environmental considerations.
Sacred groves are found in Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Biological Diversity Act, 2002
Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, Western Ghat Biological Diversity Act cause into force on 5th
regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra and the Sarguja, February, 2003. It was designed to provide the
Chanda and Bastar areas of Madhya Pradesh. protection of biological diversity and the
Ex-Situ sustainable use of its components. It also aims the
fair and equal sharing of the advantages emerging
In this approach, threatened animals and plants are
from the use of biological resources, knowledge and
taken out from their natural habitat and placed in
matters related to or incidental to these.
special setting where they can be protected and given
special care. For example, zoological parks, botanical
gardens and wildlife safari parks.
Biodiversity Loss
Many animals have become extinct in the wild but they Since the last few decades, growth in human
are kept alive in zoological parks. Ex-situ conservation population has increased the rate of consumption
has gone beyond the confinement of threatened species of natural resources. It has accelerated the loss of
in cages in recent years. species and habitation in different parts of the
world.
Action Plan associated with Biodiversity loss occurs when a specific species is
Biodiversity Conservation extinct or the habitat necessary for its life is
Some important action plan associated with biodiversity degraded.
conservation are as follows : The latter is more common because habitat
destruction is unavoidable by-product of
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 development.
Wildlife Protection Act was enacted on 9th Species which are not the natural inhabitants of the
September,1972. India is the first country in the world to local habitat but are introduced into the system, are
have made provisions for the protection and called exotic species.
conservation of environment in its Constitution.
Some animals like tigers, elephants, rhinoceros,
It was enacted to provide the main legal framework for crocodiles, minks and birds were hunted
conservation and protection of wildlife in India mercilessly by poachers for their horn, tusks,
The two main objectives of the Act are, to provide hides, etc.
protection to the endangered species listed in the
schedule of the Act and to provide legal support to the International Efforts towards
conservation areas of the country classified as National Bodiversity Conservation
parks, sanctuaries and closed areas. Some international efforts towards bodiversity
The Act was amended subsequently in 1982, 1986, 1991 conservation are as follows :
and 1993 to accommodate provision for its effective
implementation.
Rio Summit
The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 established Wildlife It was held in Rio De Janeiro (Brazil) in 1992. In this
Sanctuaries and National Parks. historical Biodiversity Summit, the nations (155,
including India) were asked to adopt correct and
It also prohibits hunting of endangered animals and long term measures to conserve Biodiversity.
grants licences for the sale, transfer and possession of
wildlife. Ramsar Convention
Environment Protection Act, 1986 It was signed in Ramsar city of Iran for conservation
and wire use of weltands.
It was enacted on 9th January, 1986 in the wake of the
Bhopal gas Tragedy by the Government of India under About 1831 weltands of international importance
Article-253 of the Constitution. have been listed as Ramsar sites.
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 30 323
Biosphere Reserves,
National Parks and
Wildlife Sanctuaries
Sources Class-XI New NCERT Chap 5 (Natural Vegetation), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 16 (Biodiversity and Conservation),
Class-XII New NCERT Chap 15 (Biology) (Biodiversity and Conservation)
National Park Biosphere Reserves

A national park is an area designated by a national
A biosphere reserve is a unique and representative
government to preserve the natural environment.
ecosystem of terrestrial and coastal areas which
A National Park may be established for the goal of
are internationally recognised within the framework
public recreation and enjoyment, or for historical or
of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB)
scientific relevance.
Programme.
National Parks are declared in areas that are considered
The Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme is an
to be of adequate ecological, geomorphological and
Intergovernmental Scientific Programme aiming to
natural significance.
set a scientific basis for the improvement of the
According to National Wildlife Database, December, relationships between people and their environment
2021 there are 106 existing National Parks in India, that globally.
covers an area of 43716 km 2, which is 1.33% of the
There are 18 Biosphere Reserves in India. 12
geographical area of the country.
Biosphere Reserves have been recognised by the
The first national park in India was established in 1936 UNESCO on World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
by the name of Hailey National Park. In 1956, it was
renamed as Corbett National Park. Objectives of Biosphere Reserves
The Biosphere Reserve aims at achieving the three
Wildlife Sanctuary objectives.
A wildlife sanctuary is a place where animals and their Conservation Conservation of biodiversity and
habitats are protected. Animal capture, slaughter and ecosystem.
poaching are all severely prohibited in certain areas. Development Association of environment with
According to National Wildlife Database, December, development.
2020 there are 566 existing wildlife sanctuaries in India. Objectives International network for research and
It covers an area of 122420 km 2, which is 3.72% of the monitoring.
geographical area of the country.
324
Important National Parks/Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Location National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary
Location National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary Sikkim Kanchenjunga National Park
Arunachal Namdapha National Park, Dihang Wildlife Tamil Nadu Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary,
Pradesh Sanctuary, Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary, Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary
Itanagar Wildlife Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh Dudhwa National Park, Kishanpur Wildlife
Assam Kaziranga National Park, Sonai Rupai Sanctuary, Chandraprabha Sanctuary
Sanctuary, Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttarakhand Jim Corbett National Park (named in the
Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary memory of Jim Corbett), Askot Wildlife
Andhra Pradesh Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Sanctuary, Sanctuary (Musk Deer), Rajaji NP, Nanda Devi
Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, Papikonda NP
Bihar Gautam Buddha Sanctuary, Valmiki National Haryana Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary (WS),
Park, Bhimbandh Wildlife Sanctuary, Kaimur Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary
Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagi Dam Wildlife Tripura GUMIT Sanctuary, Trisna Sanctuary
Sanctuary
Punjab Abhor NP, Bir Moti (WS), Bir Bhadson WS,
Chhattisgarh Achanakmar Sanctuary, Indravati National Harike WS
Park
West Bengal Sundarban NP, Neora Valley NP, Buxa tiger
Gujarat Valvadore National Park, Wild Ass Sanctuary, reserve
Gir Forest, Shoolpaneshwar Wildlife
Sanctuary
Biosphere Reserves in India
Goa Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary, Balaram Ambaji
Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhagwan Mahavir NP Biosphere Reserve Year Location in the States/UT
and Area (km 2 )
Himachal Pradesh Manali Sanctuary, Rupi Bhabha Sanctuary,
Tundah Wildlife Sanctuary, Pong Dam Nilgiri (5520) 1986 Part of Wayanad, Nagarhole,
Sanctuary, Great Himalayan NP Bandipur and Mudumalai,
Nilambur, Silent Valley and
Karnataka Nagarhole National Park, (lies in Cauvery Siuvani Hills Tamil Nadu, Kerala
Basin) Dandeli Sanctuary, Bhadra Sanctuary, and Karnataka
Bannerghatta National Park, Bandipur
Sanctuary Nanda Devi 1988 Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh and
(5860.691) Almora districts in Uttarakhand
Kashmir Salim Ali National Park, Kishtwar National
Park, , Dachigam Sanctuary Nokrek (820) 1988 Part of East, West and South Garo
Hill districts in Meghalaya.
Kerala Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyar National
Park, Silent Valley NP Manas (2837) 1989 Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon,
Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamrup and
Jharkhand Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary, Dalma Darang districts in Assam
Wildlife Sanctuary, Koderma Wildlife Sunderban (9630) 1989 Part of delta of Ganges and
Sanctuary, Lawalong Wildlife Sanctuary Brahmaputra river system in West
Madhya Pradesh Pachmarhi Sanctuary, Gandhi Sagar Bengal
Sanctuary, Bandhavgarh National Park, Gulf of Mannar 1989 Indian part of Gulf of Mannar
Madhav National Park, Bori Wildlife (10500) extending from Rameswaram
Sanctuary, Bagdara Wildlife Sanctuary, Pench Island in the North to
Sanctuary, Karera Wildlife Sanctuary, Kamla Kanyakumari in the South of
NP, Panna NP Tamil Nadu
Maharashtra Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary, Chandoli Great Nicobar (8851 1989 Southernmost island of Andaman
National Park, Gautala Autramghat Sanctuary, and Nicobar Islands
Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary, Painganga, Aner
Dam Similipal (4374) 1994 Part of Mayurbhanj district in
Odisha
Manipur Yangoupokpi Lok Chao, Keibul Lamjao
National Park Dibru-Saikhowa 1997 Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsuika
(765) districts in Assam
Meghalaya Nokrek National Park, Balpakram National
Park, Bhagmara Wildlife Sanctuary Dehang Dibang 1998 Part of Upper Siang, West Siang
(5111) and Diang Valley districts in
Odisha Simlipal Sanctuary, Chilika Bird Sanctuary Arunachal Pradesh
West Bengal Sundarban Tiger Reserve, Jaldapara Pachmarhi (4926) 1999 Part of Betul, Hoshangabad and
Sanctuary Chhindwara districts in Madhya
Pradesh
Rajasthan Keoladeo Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Sariska
Wildlife Sanctuary, Ranthambore Wildlife Khangchendzonga 2000 Part of North and West districts in
Sanctuary (2619.92) Sikkim
325
Biosphere Reserve Year Location in the States/UT State Tiger Reserve Year
and Area (km 2 )
Bihar l
Valmiki Tiger Reserve 1989-90
Agasthyamalai 2001 Part of Tirunelveli and
(1828) Kanyakumari districts in Tamil Chhattisgarh l
Indravati Tiger Reserve 1982-83
Nadu and Thiruvananthapuram, l
Udanti and Sitanadi Tiger 2008-09
Kollam and Pathanamthitta Reserve
districts in Kerala l
Achanakmar Tiger Reserve 2008-09
Achanakmar-Amark 2005 Part of Anuppur and Dindori
Jharkhand l
Palamau Tiger Reserve 1973-74
antak (3835.51) Districts of Madhya Pradesh and
Bilaspur district of Chhattisgarh Karnataka l
Bandipur Tiger Reserve 1973-74
Kachchh (12454) 2008 Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, l
Nagarhole Tiger Reserve 2008-09
Surendranagar and Patan districts l
Dandeli-Anshi Tiger 2008-09
in Gujarat Reserve
Cold Desert (7770) 2009 Pin Valley National Park and l
Bhadra Tiger Reserve 1998-99
surroundings: Chandratal and
Sarchu and Kibber Wildlife Kerala l
Periyar Tiger Reserve 1978-79
Sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh l
Parambikulam Tiger 2008-09
Reserve
Seshachalam 2010 Seshachalam hill ranges in
(4755.997) Eastern Ghats encompassing part Madhya Pradesh l
Bandhavgarh Tiger 1993-94
of Chittoor and Kadapa Districts in Reserve
Andhra Pradesh l
Bori-Satpura Tiger Reserve 1999-2000
Panna (2998.98) 2011 Parts of Panna and Chhatarpur l
Kanha Tiger Reserve 1973-74
districts in Madhya Pradesh l
Panna Tiger Reserve 1994-95
l
Pench Tiger Reserve 1992-93
Wildlife Conservation Schemes l
Sanjay Dubri Tiger Reserve 2008-09
Various conservation schemes have been proposed by l

Ratapani Tiger Reserve
government to conserve wildlife. Maharashtra l
Melghat Tiger Reserve 1973-74
Some of these are as follows : l
Pench Tiger Reserve 1998-99
l
Tadoba-Andhari Tiger 1993-94
Project Tiger Reserve
It was launched in 1973. Tigers are globally listed as l
Sahyadri Tiger Reserve 2009-10
‘Endangered’ on the International Union for the l
Bor Tiger Reserve 2014
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened
Species. The main objective of the scheme is to ensure Mizoram l
Dampa Tiger Reserve 1994-95
maintenance of viable population of tigers in India for Odisha l
Simlipal Tiger Reserve 1973-74
scientific, aesthetic, cultural and ecological values. l
Satkosia Tiger Reserve 2008-09
It also aimed to preserve areas of biological West Bengal l
Buxa Tiger Reserve 1982-83
importance as natural heritage for the benefit, l
Sunderbans Tiger Reserve 1973-74
education and enjoyment of the people. India has 2967
tigers, according to the population estimation which Rajasthan l
Ranthambore Tiger 1973-74
Reserve
was carried out in 2018.
l
Sariska Tiger Reserve 1978-79
List of Tiger Reserves in India l
Mukundara Hills Tiger 2013
State Tiger Reserve Year Reserve
Andhra Pradesh l
Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam 1982-83 Tamil Nadu l
Kalakad-Mundathurai Tig 1988-89
Tiger Reserve (Largest er Reserve
Critical Tiger Habitat) l
Mudumalai National Park 2008-09
l
Kawal Tiger Reserve 2011 l
Sathyamangalam Tiger 2013
Arunachal l
Pakhui Tiger Reserve 1999-2000 Reserve (Pro)
Pradesh l
Namdapha Tiger Reserve 1982-83 Uttar Pradesh l
Dudhwa Tiger Reserve 1987-88
Assam l
Nameri Tiger Reserve 1999-2000 l
Pilibhit Tiger Reserve 2010
l
Manas Tiger Reserve 1973-74 Uttarakhand l
Corbett Tiger Reserve 1973-74
l
Kaziranga Tiger Reserve 2008-09
326
Project Snow Leopard Project Olive Ridley Turtles

The project was started on the lines of Project The dwindling population of Olive Ridley Turtles made
Elephant, Project Tiger and Project Rhino by the the Government of Odisha start the project in 1975.
Ministry of Environment and Forests in 2006. The project was launched at Bhitarkanika in Cuttack
India is believed to have between 200 and 600 snow district. Bhitarkanika is the second largest mangrove
leopards in the five Himalayan states i.e. Jammu and forest. The project even extends to the Rushikulya and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim mouth of river Devi.
and Arunachal Pradesh.
Crocodile Breeding Project
The project aims to conserve and protect the
Crocodile Breeding Project was launched in 1975.
highly endangered species in its natural habitat.
Crocodile is listed as a Critically Endangered by IUCN.
Project Elephant The Gharial and Saltwater Crocodile Conservation
Project Elephant was launched in 7th December, Programme was launched in Odisha in early 1975,
1992 to assist states having free ranging population of followed by the Mugger Conservation Programme.
wild elephants. The African Forest Elephant is
Critically Endangered and the African Savannah Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project
Elephant is Endangered on the IUCN Red List of The Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project is an
Threatened Species. initiative of the Indian Government to provide
It was aimed at ensuring long-term survival of safeguards to the Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica)
identified viable population of elephants in their from extinction in the wild by means of reintroduction.
natural habitat. The single population faces the threats of epidemics,
The Project is being mainly implemented in 16 States natural disasters and other anthropogenic factors.
/ UTs , viz. Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, The project aims to establish a second independent
Assam, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, population of Asiatic lions at the Kuno Wildlife
Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Odisha, Tamil Sanctuary in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh.
Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Project Hangul
Bengal.
Hangul is known as Kashmiri stag, the only surviving
Project Rhino species of red deer family in Kashmir.
The greater one-horned rhinoceros (or Indian The Project Hangul had started in 1970 by the
Rhinoceros) is the largest of the rhino species. Kashmir government with the help of WWF. Hangul is
It is native to Indian subcontinent. listed as a Critically Endangered specie by IUCN.
The population of rhinos is highly threatened by Project Red Panda
illegal poaching for its horn, which is highly valued
Red panda is found in the Eastern Himalayan region
as an aphrodisiac in grey markets. The Project Rhino
of India at a height between 1500 m and 4000 m.
was initiated in 1987. Kaziranga and Manas in Assam
In Arunachal Pradesh, it is known as Cat Bear.
and Jaldapara, West Bengal are the main habitats of
Rhinos. The project was started in 1966 at Padmaja Naidu
Himalayan Wildlife Park with the help of WWF.
Project Manipur Thamin Red Panda is found in Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim and
South-East part of lake Loktak in Manipur is home to Darjeeling region in Paschim Banga.
Thamin deer. It is enlisted among the rarest species of
mammals. Its population slipped to mere 18 in 1977. Institutes Associated with
To conserve and increase the population, Project Biodiversity Conservation in India
Thamin was launched in 1977 in Manipur. Important institutes associated with biodiversity
In order to fulfil the above objectives, the biosphere conservation in India are :
reserves are classified into zones like the core area, Botanical Survey of India
buffer area and transition area or area of cooperation.
It was established on 13th February, 1890 it is an apex
The Indian Government has established 18 biosphere research organisation under the ministry of
reserves of India among which 9 are included in the environment and forest. The headquarters of Botanical
list of the world network of biosphere reserves. Survey of India is located in Kolkata, West Bengal.
327
The basic objective of this survey is to explore the Name of Site State Year of
Declaration
plant resources of the country and to identify the
plant species with economic virtues. Bhitarkanika Mangroves Odisha 2002
Bhoj Wetlands Madhya Pradesh 2002
Zoological Survey of India
East Calcutta Wetlands West Bengal 2002
Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) was established
Kanjli Lake Punjab 2002
on 1st July, 1916. The headquarters of Zoological
Survey of India is located in Kolkata, West Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh 2002
Bengal. Point Calimere Tamil Nadu 2002
It aims to promote the survey, exploration, Pong Dam Lake Himachal Pradesh 2002
research and documentation leading to the Tsomoriri Lake Jammu and Kashmir 2002
advancement in our knowledge on various aspects
Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala 2002
of animal taxonomy of the Indian subcontinent.
Ropar Lake Punjab 2002
Forest Survey of India Hokera Wetland Jammu and Kashmir 2005
Forest Survey of India was established on 1st June, Chandertal Wetland Himachal Pradesh 2005
1981. The headquarters of Forest Survey of India is
Renuka Wetland Himachal Pradesh 2005
located in Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
Rudrasagar Lake Tripura 2005
Its goal is to conduct forest surveys, studies and
Upper Ganga River Uttar Pradesh 2005
research on a regular basis to monitor the
(Brijghat to Narora
changing situation of land and forest resources. Stretch)
It presents the data for national planning,
Surinsar-Mansar Lakes Jammu and Kashmir 2005
conservation and sustainable environmental
management, as well as the implementation of Nalsarovar Bird Gujarat 2012
Sanctuary
social forestry projects.
Sunderbans Wetland West Bengal 2019
Ramsar Convention for Wetland Keshopur - Miani Punjab 2019
Community Reserve
Conservation Beas Conservation Punjab 2019
The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty Reserve
for the conservation and wise use of wetlands. It is Nangal Wildlife Punjab 2019
named after the Iranian city of Ramsar, on the Sanctuary
Caspian Sea, where the treaty was signed on 2nd Nawabganj Bird Uttar Pradesh 2019
February, 1971. Sanctuary
Two sites—Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo Parvati Arga Bird Uttar Pradesh 2019
National Park (Bharatpur) are protected as Sanctuary
waterfowl habitats under the Convention of Saman Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 2019
Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar
Samaspur Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 2019
Convention).
Sandi Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 2019
Ramsar Sites (Wetlands) in India Sarsai Nawarjheel Uttar Pradesh 2019
Name of Site State Year of Nandur Madhmeshwar Maharashtra 2019
Declaration
Sur Sarovar Uttar Pradesh 2020
Chilika Lake Odisha 1981
Tso Kar Wetland Ladakh 2020
Keoladeo Ghana Rajasthan 1981 Complex
National Park
Asan Conservation Uttarakhand 2020
Harike Lake Punjab 1990 Reserve
Wular Lake Jammu and Kashmir 1990 Kabartal Wetland Bihar 2020
Loktak Lake Manipur 1990 Maharashtra 2020
Lonar Lake
Sambhar Lake Rajasthan 1990
Sultanpur National Park Haryana 2021
Asthamudi Wetland Kerala 2002
Thol Lake Wildlife Gujarat 2021
Vembanad Kol Wetland Kerala 2002 Sanctuary
Deepor Beel Assam 2002 Wadhvana Wetland Gujarat 2021
CHAPTER
328 31
Climate Change, Greenhouse

Effect and Ozone Depletion
Sources Class-XI New NCERT Chap 12 (Geography) (World Climate and Climate Change), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 16 (Biology)
(Environmental Issues), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 14 (Chemistry) (Environmental Chemistry)
Climate Change Historical Records of Climate Change

The planet Earth has witnessed many variations in n The nineties decade of the last century witnessed
climate since, the beginning. Geological records show extreme weather events. The 1990s recorded the
alteration of glacial and inter-glacial periods. warmest temperature of the century and some of the
worst floods around the world.
The geomorphological characteristics, particularly at n One example is the worst destructive drought in the
high altitudes and latitudes, show evidence of glacier Sahel region, South of the Sahara Desert, from 1967 to
advances and retreats. Warm and cold eras are also 1977. The dust bowl was a catastrophic drought that
revealed by sediment deposits in glacial lakes. occurred in the Southern Great Plains of the United
India has also experienced wet and dry spells. States during the 1930s.
According to archaeological evidence, the Rajasthan
desert experienced a moist and cool environment
approximately 8,000 BC. Causes of Climate Change
Higher rainfall occurred between 3,000 and 1,700 BC. The causes of climate change can be grouped into
This region was the centre of the Harappan civilisation astronomical and terrestrial causes.
from around 2,000 to 1,700 BC. Natural Causes of Climate Change
Since then, dry conditions have become more The natural causes of climate change are as follows :
pronounced.
Sunspot Activity Sunspots are dark spots on surface
Around 500-300 million years ago, during the of the Sun which have reduced surface temperature
Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian periods, the compared to the surrounding photosphere.
world was heated.
Decrease in number of sunspots causes global
Glacial and inter-glacial periods occurred during the temperature increase.
Pleistocene epoch, with the last significant peak
Continental Drift The continents of the world are
glacial period occurring around 18,000 years ago.
constantly drifting. This drift in past had an impact
The current interglacial epoch began 10,000 years ago.
on climate due to change in physical features of the
From roughly 1550 to 1850, Europe experienced a landmass, their position and position of water bodies.
Little Ice Age. From around 1885 until 1940, the global
Milankovitch Cycles : Earth’s eccentricity, changes
temperature increased. After 1940, the rate of
in axial tilt and precession of equinoxes taken
temperature rise slowed.
together constitute Milankovitch cycles. This has
329
large impact on climate change and are notable for It caused the planet to warm by 1. 4° Fahrenheit since
their correlation with glacial and interglacial periods. 1880. Rising temperatures are warming ocean waters,
Volcanic Activity Eruption of volcanoes causes which expand as the temperature increases.
outburst of gases and dust particles. These partially Change in Ocean Current’ Far beneath the surface
block the incoming rays of the Sun which lead to of the ocean, deep currents act as conveyer belts,
cooling of the weather. channeling heat, carbon, oxygen and nutrients
around the globe.
Anthropogenic or Man-made
A new study has found the recent climate change
Causes of Climate Change may be acting to slow down one of these conveyer
The anthropogenic or man-made causes of climate change belts, with potentially serious consequences for the
are as follows : future of the planet.
Deforestation Forests act as carbon sink and play an Impact on Biodiversity Global warming does not
important role in fight against global warming. only make vegetation ‘gasp for air’ but also leads to
When forest is disturbed or cleared, carbon stored is animal habitat loss. This is an especially big problem
released as carbon dioxide causing global warming. for sensitive species.
Burning of Fossil Fuel Burning of carbon-based fossil The loss of these habitats leads to extinction of the
fuels causes release of carbon dioxide in the amphibians dependent on these forests for their
atmosphere. This has led to increase in concentration survival.
of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. Many species may be seriously affected by the spread
Modern Agricultural Practices Agricultural practices of viruses and bacteria which normally thrive in
adopted in recent years contribute to a large extent warmer conditions. This, among many other things,
towards global warming. Flooded field used for rice may push these animals even closer to the brink of
cultivation is a major contributor of methane gas, a extinction.
potent greenhouse gas. Impact on Human Health Warming oceans and a
Industrialisation and Urbanisation The excessive changing change climate are resulting in extreme
exploitation of resources for industrial activities has weather patterns which have brought about an
large impact on climate change. increase of infectious diseases both new and
Cutting down forests to create industrial complexes re-emerging. An increase in temperature signifies an
and settlements had led to changes in the amount of increase in mosquito populations, escalating the risk
sunlight reflected from the ground back into space. of malaria, dengue and other insect borne infections.
These extreme weather patterns are creating extended
Global Warming rainy seasons in some areas and extended periods of
drought in others as well as introducing new climates
The increased amount of CO2 in the air is mainly to different regions.
responsible for global warming. About 75 % of the solar
Impact on Climate There is clear evidence of
energy reaching the Earth is absorbed by the Earth’s
changes in the composition of the greenhouse gases
surface, which increases its temperature. The rest of
in the lower atmosphere, with CO2 in particular
the heat radiates back to the atmosphere.
steadily increasing to its present level of about 400
Some of the heat is trapped by gases such as carbon ppm. It has increased by one-third in the last 200
dioxide, methane, ozone, Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) years, and half of that in the last 30 years.
compounds and water vapour in the atmosphere. Thus,
Impact on Food Production Moderate warming and
they add to the heating of the atmosphere. This causes
more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere may help
Global warming.
plants to grow faster. More severe warming, however
Impacts of Global Warming may reduce yield due to drought and floods.
The impacts of Global warming are as follows :
Melting of Ice Since 1995, the ice shelf’s area has Global Warming Potential
shrunk by 40%. According to NASA, the polar ice cap is
n The Global Warming Potential (GWP) for a gas is a
now melting at the alarming rate of 9% per decade. measure of the total energy that a gas absorbs over a
particular period of time (usually 100 years),
Arctic ice thickness has decreased 40% since the 1960s.
compared to carbon dioxide.
Rise in Sea Level Human activities, such as burning n Gases with a higher GWP absorb more energy, than
coal and oil, cutting down tropical forests, have gases with a lower GWP, and thus contribute more to
increased atmospheric concentration of heat-trapping warming Earth.
gases.
330
Climate Change Mitigation Methods The concept of carbon trade was the outcome of Kyoto
Protocol, signed in Kyoto, Japan by 180 countries in 1997.
Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit
The Kyoto Protocol calls for 38 industrialised countries to
the magnitude and/or rate of long-term climate change.
reduce their greenhouse gas emission between 2008 to
Climate change mitigation generally involves reduction
2012 levels that are 5.2% lower than those of 1990.
in anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases.
Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the Mission/Schemes Related to
capacity of carbon sinks, through reforestation.
Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks
Climate Change
associated with human induced global warming. Important mission/schemes related to climate change are
as follows :
Few of the climate change mitigation methods are as
follows: National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
Carbon Dioxide Capture and Sequestration Carbon Government of India has launched eight missions as
Sequestration is the process of capturing and string part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change
atmospheric carbon dioxide. It is a set of (NAPCC) in specific areas.
technologies that can greatly reduce CO2 emission These areas are solar energy, enhanced energy
from new as well as existing coal and gas fired efficiency, sustainable habitat, water, sustaining the
power plants, and large industrial sources. Himalayan eco-system, green India, sustainable
Carbon Offsetting Mitigation of carbon footprints agriculture etc.
through the development of alternative projects is It also includes strategic knowledge for climate change,
known as carbon offsetting. The alternative projects which include assessment of the impact of climate
may be the solar, wind, tidal energy or reforestation. change and actions needed to address climate change.
Carbon Tax It is a tax levied on the carbon content — National Solar Mission The NAPCC aims to promote
of fuels. It is a form of carbon pricing. Carbon is the development and use of solar energy for power
present in every hydrocarbon fuel (coal, petroleum generation and other uses through this mission. Its
and natural gas) and is released as carbon dioxide ultimate objective is to make solar competitive with
when they are burnt. In contrast, non-combustion fossil-based energy options.
energy sources— wind, sunlight, hydropower and — National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency It
nuclear do not convert hydrocarbons to CO2. includes initiatives based on increasing the energy use
Carbon Footprint It is the mark that we have on our efficiency were expected to yield savings of 10000 MW
planet as a result of our daily activities and usage or by 2012.
emission of carbon dioxide. In other words, it is the — National Mission on Sustainable Habitat It aims to
measures of impact that human activities have on promote energy efficiency as a core component of
the environment. This is calculated in proportion to urban planning.
the greenhouse gases produced and measured in — National Water Mission With water scarcity projected
units of carbon dioxide. to worsen as a result of climate change, the plan sets a
Carbon Credit It is a permit that allows the holder to goal of a 20% improvement in water use efficiency
emit one tonne of carbon dioxide. Credits are through pricing and other measures.
credited to countries or groups that have reduced — National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan
their greenhouse gases below their emission quota. Ecosystem The plan aims to conserve biodiversity,
Carbon credits can be traded in the international forest cover and other ecological values in the
market at their current market price. Himalayan region.
The carbon credit system was ratified in conjunction — National Mission for a ‘Green India’ Its goals include
with the Kyoto Protocol. Its goal is to stop the the afforestation of 6 million hectares of degraded
increase of carbon dioxide emissions. forest lands, expanding forest cover from 23% to 33%
Carbon Trading Carbon trading is an exchange of and enhance annual CO2 sequestration by 50-60
credits between nations designed to reduce million tonnes in the year 2020.
emissions of carbon dioxide. The carbon trade — National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture The
allows countries that have higher carbon emission to plan aims to support climate adaptation in agriculture
purchase the right to release more carbon dioxide through the development of climate-resilient crops,
into the atmosphere from countries that have lower expansion of weather insurance mechanisms and
carbon emissions. agricultural practices.
331
— National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Montreal Protocol, 1987 To stop depletion of ozone
Climate Change It aims to gain a better understanding layer, this conference was organised in Canada on
of climate science, impacts and challenges. The plan 16th September, 1987. In the conference, an
envisions a new Climate Science Research Fund, agreement was signed about the production of
improved climate modelling and increased Chlorofluoro carbon gases in next ten years.
international collaboration. Helsinki Conference, 1989 This conference was
— It also encourages private sector initiatives to develop organised to stop a mission of Chlorofluoro carbon
adaptation and mitigation technologies through (CFCs) gases in order to reduce ozone depletion.
venture capital funds. First Earth Summit, 1992 (Rio Summit) It is also
known as The United Nations Conference on
National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) Environment and Development (UNCED) or Rio
n The Finance Bill 2010-11 provided for creation of a Summit. It was held in Rio de Janeiro from 3rd June
corpus called National Clean Energy Fund to invest in to 14th June, 1992.
entrepreneurial ventures and research in the field of It was attended by 172 countries. The theme of this
clean energy technologies. conference was the state of the global environment
n An Inter-Ministerial Group (IMG) has been constituted and the political relationship between economics,
to approve the projects/schemes eligible for financing science and the environment. The Rio Summit
under the National Clean Energy Fund. The National produced conventions dealing with climate change,
Clean Energy Fund will be used for funding research and biodiversity, forestry and recommended a list of
innovative projects in clean energy technologies.
development practices called ‘Agenda 21’.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Conferences Related to Climate Change Change (UNFCCC) The UNFCCC was signed in
Important conferences related to climate change are as 1992, at the United Nations Conference on
follows : Environment and Development. The UNFCCC
entered into force on 21st March, 1994, and has been
Stockholm Conference, 1972 Stockholm was the first
ratified by 197 countries.
world conference to make the environment a major
issue. It was adopted on 22, May, 2001 in Stockholm, The goal of UNFCCC is to stabilise greenhouse gas
Sweden and entered into force on 17th May, 2004. concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that
prevents hazardous human involvement with the
The objective of the Stockholm Convention is to protect
climate system while allowing ecosystems to adapt
human health and the environment from persistent
naturally and allowing for sustainable development.
organic pollutants.
Conference of Parties (CoP) Summit

Place Year Important Facts
Berlin (Germany) 1995 The first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties took place from 28th March to 7th April, 1995 in Berlin,
(CoP 1) Germany. It voiced concerns about the adequacy of countries’ abilities to meet commitments under the Body
for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI). CoP I
agreed on “Activities Implemented Jointly”, first joint measures in international climate action.
Geneva 1996 Its ministerial declaration was noted (but not adopted) on 18th July, 1996, and reflected a United States
(Switzerland) position statement presented by Timothy Wirth, former Under Secretary for Global Affairs for the United
(CoP 2) States Department of States. It accepted the scientific findings on climate change proffered by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its second assessment (1995).
Kyoto (Japan) 1997 CoP 3 took place in December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. The outcome was the famous Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto
(CoP 3) Protocol was the legally binding protocol, which outlined the greenhouse gas emissions reduction obligation
for Annex I countries.
It also came out with some mechanisms collectively known as Kyoto mechanisms. These mechanisms include
the emissions trading, Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and joint implementation. The Government of
India had decided to ratify the Kyoto Protocol in 2002 after various countries had ratified the protocol.
Buenos Aires 1998 In this conference, Plan of Action was incorporated to implement Kyoto Protocol.
(Argentina) (CoP 4)
Bonn (Germany) 1999 This conference was organised to discuss on technical subject of climate change.
(CoP 5)
The Hague 2000 A major issue was discussed in this CoP was the proposal of the United States, in which it said that credit for
(Netherlands) carbon ‘sinks’ should be allowed in forests and agricultural lands.
(CoP 6)
332
Place Year Important Facts

Marrakesh 2001 The outcome of the session was a Bundle of decision known as Marrakesh Accords. In this session, US took
(Morocco) (CoP 7) part as an observer. By this time, the Kyoto Protocol was not put in force, as 55 countries had not ratified it.
An Adaptation Fund was established, primarily in supporting developing countries better adapt to climate
change.
New Delhi (India) 2002 Outcome of this session of UNFCCC was the Delhi Ministerial Declaration, which called the developed
(CoP 8) countries to transfer technology and minimise the impact of climate change on developing countries.
Milan (Itlay) (CoP 9) 2003 In this conference, a fund was created for developing nations to control climate change.
Buenos Aires 2004 In this conference, Buenos Aires Action Plan was incorporated which aimed to promote issues of climate
(Argentina) change.
(CoP 10)
Montreal (Canada) 2005 Important outcome of CoP 11 was the Montreal Action Plan (MAP). The MAP called for an extension to the
(CoP 11) life of the Kyoto Protocol beyond its 2012 expiration date and negotiate deeper cuts in greenhouse gas
emissions. Thus, it became the basis of the negotiations for extending the Kyoto Protocol beyond 2012.
Nairobi (Kenya) 2006 A Five Year Plan of work to support climate change adaptation by developing countries was adopted and
(CoP 12) agreed on the procedures and modalities for the Adaptation Fund.
Bali (Indonesia) 2007 In this meeting, an Adhoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action (AWGLCA) under the
(CoP 13) convention was established as a new subsidiary body to conduct the negotiations aimed at urgently
enhancing the implementation of the convention upto and beyond 2012.
Poznan (Poland) 2008 —
(Cop 14)
Copenhagen 2009 In this conference, Green Climate Fund was established.
(Denmark) (Cop 15)
Cancun (Mexico) 2010 The agenda for Cancun was an agreement on a Green Fund to disburse the aid that the developed countries
(CoP 16) promised at Copenhagen i.e. $ 100 billion a year by 2020 for the developing countries to adapt the climate
change by building the seawalls and shifting farming patterns and also to install clean energy sources.
Durban (South 2011 More than 190 countries met in Durban, South Africa, to agree on a global deal to succeed the Kyoto
Africa) (CoP 17) Protocol, which was to expire in 2012 and cut emissions of planet-warming greenhouse gases.
Doha (Qatar) 2012 The conference produced a package of documents collectively titled the Doha Climate Gateway. The
(CoP 18) documents collectively contained an amendment of the Kyoto Protocol featuring second commitment period
running from 2012 until 2020, limited in scope to 15% of the global carbon dioxide emissions due to the lack
of commitments of Japan.
Warsaw (Poland) 2013 In the conference, the rule book for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
(CoP 19) (REDD) was agreed, together with measures to bolster forest preservation and a results based payment
system to promote forest protection. The Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) was established
with an aim to stimulating technology cooperation and transfer to developing countries.
Lima (Peru) 2014 In the conference, 194 nations pledged to reduce world carbon emission.
(CoP 20)
Paris (France) 2015 The 21st Conference of Parties under the UNFCCC agreed on adoption of the Paris Agreement on post-2020
(CoP 21) actions on climate change. This universal agreement is to succeed the Kyoto Protocol. This agreement is
different from the Kyoto Protocol in that, it provides a framework for all countries to take steps to curb
climate change.
Marrakesh 2016 The Marrakesh Partnership for Global Climate Action was adopted at this conference.
(Morocco) (CoP 22)
Bonn (Germany) 2017 The purpose of this summit was to make plan for reaching the targets set under the Paris Agreement of 2015.
(CoP 23) Its key agenda was to bring out a so called ‘Rule Book’ or ‘Paris Work Programme’ which countries need to
abide by in post 2020 world.
Katowice (Poland) 2018 It set up Overall Mitigation in Global Emissions (OMGE) under the Paris Agreement.
(CoP 24)
Madrid (Spain) 2019 The prime objective of the conference was to complete the rule-book to the 2015 Paris Agreement that will
(CoP 25) become effective in 2020 to replace the 1997 Kyoto Protocol (comes to an end in 2020).
Scotland (United 2021 Delayed for a year due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was the 26th Conference of the Parties (CoP) to
Kingdom) (CoP 26) the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the third meeting of the parties
to the 2015 Paris Agreement and the 16th meeting of the parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
Sharm El-Sheikh 2022 —
(Egypt) (CoP 27)
United Arab 2023 —
Emirates (CoP 28)
333
Greenhouse Effect
A greenhouse/glasshouse is a building made of glass chambers in which plants are grown in cold countries or in
cold climate areas. There is a continued increase in temperature in greenhouse when outside temperature
remained low. It protects plants from frost.
The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon that blankets the Earth lower atmosphere and warm
it, maintaining the temperature suitable for living things to survive. Just as greenhouses, that keep the air warm
inside their chamber, water vapour and greenhouse gases warm the Earth.
Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse gases play an important role in the balance of Earth’s cooling and warming. The effect was first
recognised by French scientist, Jean-Baptiste Fourier.
Due to the presence of greenhouse gases, the atmosphere is behaving like a greenhouse. The atmosphere also
transmits the incoming solar radiation but absorbs the vast majority of long-wave radiation emitted upwards by
the Earth’s surface.
The primary GHGs of concern today are carbon dioxide (CO 2), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane (CH 4),
nitrous oxide (N 2O) and ozone (O 3). Some other gases such as nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO)
easily react with GHGs and affect their concentration in the atmosphere.
The effectiveness of any given GHG molecule will depend on the magnitude of the increase in its concentration,
its life time in the atmosphere and the wavelength of radiation that it absorbs.
The largest concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere is carbon dioxide. The emission of CO 2 comes mainly from
fossil fuel combustion (oil, gas and coal). Forests and oceans are the sinks for the carbon dioxide. Forests use CO 2
in their growth.
Major Greenhouse Gases

Greenhouse Gas Sources Sinks Importance for Climate
Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) l
Burning of fossil fuel l
Ocean uptake l
Absorbs infrared radiation; affects
l
Land-use change (deforestation) l
Plants photosynthesis stratospheric O 3
Methane (CH 4 ) l
Biomass burning l
Reactions with OH l
l
Enteric fermentation l
Microorganisms uptake by soils tropospheric O 3 , affects
stratospheric O 3 and H 2O; produces
l
Rice paddy CO 2
Nitrous Oxide (N 2O) l
Biomass burning l
Removal by soils l
l
Fossil-fuel combustion l
Stratospheric photolysis and stratospheric O 3
l
Fertilisers reaction with O
Ozone (O 3 ) l
Photochemical reactions l
Catalytic chemical reactions l
Absorbs ultraviolet and infrared
(ground layer) involving O 2 involving NO x , ClO x and HO x radiations
species
Carbon Monoxide (CO) l

Plant emissions l
Soil uptake l
Affects stratospheric O 3 and OH
l
Man-made release (transport, l
Reactions with OH cycles; produces CO 2
industrial)
Chlorofluorocarbons l
Industrial production l
Insignificant in troposphere, l
Absorbs ultraviolet and infrared
(CFCs) dissociated in stratosphere radiation
(photolysis and reaction with O)
Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2 ) l
Volcanoes l
Dry and wet deposition l
Forms aerosols, which scatter solar
l
Coal and biomass burning l
Reactions with OH radiation
Water Vapour (H 2O) l

Evaporation of ocean l
Rain, snowfall l
Forms hydrological cycle
334
It causes aging of skin, damage to skin cells and

Ozone Layer Depletion various types of skin cancers. In human eye, cornea
Ozone (O 3) is a highly reactive gas that is made up of absorbs UV-B radiation and a high dose of UV-B
three oxygen atoms. It is both a natural and man-made causes inflammation of cornea, called
product that occurs in the stratosphere and snow-blindness, cataract, etc. Such exposure may
troposphere. permanently damage the cornea.
Ozone influences life on Earth in either a positive or Plant proteins get easily affected by UV radiations
negative way depending on where it resides in the which leads to the harmful mutation of cells.
atmosphere. It also increases evaporation of surface water through
Ozone which absorbs ultra violet radiation in the the stomata of the leaves and decreases the moisture
stratosphere is very effective in absorbing terrestrial content of the soil. Increase in UV radiations damage
radiation when it is present in the lower troposphere. paints and fibres, causing them to fade faster.
Ozone occurs in the stratosphere where ultra-violet
rays convert oxygen into ozone. Thus, ultra violet rays Acid Rain
do not reach the Earth’s surface. The CFCs which drift Acid rain refers to the ways in which acid from the
into the stratosphere destroy the ozone. Large atmosphere is deposited on the Earth’s surface.
depletion of ozone occurs over Antarctica.
Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur which are acidic in
The depletion of ozone concentration in the nature can be blown by wind along with solid
stratosphere is called the ozone hole. The ozone hole particles in the atmosphere. Finally, they settle down
over Antarctica develops every year between late either on the ground as dry deposition or in water,
August and early October. This allows the ultra violet fog and snow as wet deposition.
rays to pass through the troposphere.
The thickness of the ozone in a column of air from the Causes of Acid Rain
ground to the top of the atmosphere is measured in Acid rain is a by-product of a variety of human
terms of Dobson Units (DU). activities that emit the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen
in the atmosphere.
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion
Burning of fossil fuels (which contain sulphur and
CFCs are used in refrigerants. Ozone gas is nitrogenous matter) such as coal and oil in power
continuously generated in the stratosphere by the stations and furnaces or petrol and diesel in motor
action of UV radiation on molecular oxygen and it is engines produce sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
also degraded into molecular oxygen.
SO2 and NO2 after oxidation and reaction with water
Halogens are also responsible for depletion of ozone are major contributors to acid rain, because polluted
layer. Halogens are components of Fire Extinguisher. air usually contains particulate matter that catalyse
the oxidation.
Ozone Hole Aerosol particles of oxides or ammonium salts in rain
n The ozone layer above the Antarctic has been drops result in wet deposition. SO 2 is also absorbed
particularly impacted by pollution since the mid of directly on both solid and liquid ground surfaces and
1980s. This region’s low temperature speeds up the is thus deposited as dry-deposition.
conversion of CFCs to chlorine.
n The vast hole in the ozone layer above Antarctica Impacts of Acid Rain
appears to be healing. The study was published by
Acid rain is harmful for agriculture, trees and plants
researchers from the World Meteorological Organisation
as it dissolves and washes away nutrients needed for
(WMO) and the UN Environment Programme (UNEP)
states that, the size of the ozone hole has strunk on their growth.
average by around 4 sq km since 2000. It causes respiratory ailments in human beings and
n The Montreal Protocol, a 1987 international treaty animals. When acid rain falls and flows as ground
ratified by all UN members, successfully spurred water to reach rivers, lakes etc it affects plants and
nations to eradicate the use of CFCs in products. animals life in aquatic ecosystem.
It corrodes water pipes resulting in the leaching of
Consequences of Ozone Layer Depletion heavy metals such as iron, lead and copper into the
drinking water.
With the depletion of ozone layer, more UV radiation
filters into troposphere. UV-B damages DNA and Acid rain damages buildings and other structures
mutation may occur. made of stone or metal. The Taj Mahal in India has
been affected by acid rain.
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 32 335
Environmental Issues
Sources Class-IX Old NCERT Chap 11 (Geography) (Human Impact on Environment), Class-XII New NCERT
Chap 16 (Biology) (Environmental Issues), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 12 (Geography) (Geographical
Perspective on Selected Issues and Problems)
Environmental Pollution Air pollution is taken as addition of contaminants,

like dust, fumes, gas, fog, odour, smoke or vapour to
Environmental pollution is the effect of undesirable the air in substantial proportion and duration that
changes in our surroundings that have harmful effects may be harmful to flora and fauna and property.
on plants, animals and human beings. A substance,
With increasing use of varieties of fuels as the source
which causes pollution, is known as pollutant.
of energy, there is a marked increase in emission of
Pollutants are solid, liquid, or gaseous chemicals that toxic gases into the atmosphere resulting in the
are present in greater concentration than in natural pollution of air.
abundance and are formed as a result of human actions
Combustion of fossil fuels, mining and industries are
or natural occurrences.
the main sources of air pollution.
Pollutants can be biodegradable, such as discarded
These processes release oxides of sulphur and
vegetables, which degrade quickly through natural
nitrogen, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, carbon
processes. Pollutants that degrade slowly, on the other
monoxide, lead and asbestos.
hand, can persist in the environment for many
decades. Air Pollutants
Substances such as dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane The following are the major gaseous and particulate
(DDT), plastic polymers, heavy metals, numerous pollutants present in the troposphere:
chemicals, nuclear wastes and others are difficult to Gaseous air pollutants These are oxides of sulphur,
remove once discharged into the environment. nitrogen and carbon, hydrogen sulphide,
In the process of environmental pollution, pollutants hydrocarbons, ozone and other oxidants.
originate from a source and get transported by air or Particulate pollutants These are dust, mist, fumes,
water or are dumped into the soil by human beings. smoke, smog etc.
Types of Pollution Effects of Air Pollution
Mainly, there are following types of pollution : Effects of air pollution on human health are as follows:
— Air Pollution — Water Pollution Sulphur (S) It causes irritation of eyes, nose, throat,
— Land Pollution — Noise Pollution damage to lungs when inhaled. It also causes
diseases acute and chronic asthma, bronchitis,
Air Pollution emphysema and lung cancer.
Air pollution occurs due to undesirable solid or Ammonia (NH3) It plays a critical role in the
gaseous particles, particulate matter in the air, in transportation and enhanced deposition of acidic
quantities that are harmful to human health and the pollutant. Its high concentration also harms
environment. vegetation, animals and humans.
336
Main source of ammonia in the environment are Government Initiatives to Prevent Air Pollution
cattle. Dairy production systems are hot-spots of The initiatives taken by government to prevent air
ammonia emission. pollution are as follows:
Suspended Particulate Matter Airborne particles The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act.
are tiny fragments of solid or liquid nature It was a law passed by India’s Parliament to prevent and
suspended in the air (which are called aerosols). manage the detrimental impacts of air pollution in the
Acid Deposition The process by which acidic air country. This act is regarded as the government of
pollutants, generally sulfur dioxide and nitrogen India’s first concrete effort toward combating air
oxides, are deposited on the Earth. Much of this pollution.
deposition occurs when the pollutants condense in The Government of India Through a new auto fuel
water and fall to the Earth as precipitation, generally policy has laid out a roadmap to cut down vehicular
known as acid rain. pollution in Indian cities. More stringent norms for fuels
Acid deposition causes changes in the pH of water means steadily reducing the sulphur and aromatic
and soil, leading to a host of environmental problems. content in petrol and diesel fuels.
Acid deposition may be reduced by switching to National Air Quality Monitoring Programme The
low-sulfur coal or by removing the sulfur either Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has been
before or after combustion, often by adding scrubbers executing a nationwide programme of ambient air
to smokestacks. quality monitoring known as National Air Quality
Wet Deposition It refers to acid rain, fog and snow. Monitoring Programme (NAMP).
If the acid chemicals in the air are blown into areas National Ambient Air Quality Standards National
where the weather is wet, the acids can fall to the Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were notified
ground in the form of rain, snow, fog or mist. in the year 1982. It is based on health criteria and land
Dry Deposition In areas where the weather is dry, uses.
the acid chemicals may become incorporated into Air Quality Index (AQI) It was launched in 2015.
dust or smoke and fall to the ground through dry The AQI has six categories of air quality viz, good,
deposition, sticking to the ground, buildings, homes, satisfactory, moderately polluted, poor, very poor and
cars and trees. severe with distinct colour scheme. AQI considers eight
Dry deposited gases and particles can be washed pollutants i.e. PM10, PM 2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3
from these surfaces by rainstorms, leading to and Pb.
increased runoff. This runoff water makes the
resulting mixture more acidic. About half of the SAFAR
acidity in the atmosphere falls back to the Earth n SAFAR-Air (System of Air Quality and Weather
through dry deposition. Forecasting and Research) is the first mobile application
Measures to Control Air Pollution service in India to provide a current and advanced
forecast for air quality. The application was developed by
Electrostatic precipitator, which can remove over scientists at Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology
99% particulate matter present in the exhaust from (IITM), Pune.
a thermal power plant. n It will enable citizens to check their city’s air quality in
A scrubber can remove gases like sulphur dioxide. real time. The app will provide current data and a
In a scrubber, the exhaust is passed through a spray forecast for air quality in the user’s current location
of water or lime. through a colour-coded system- green is good, yellow is
moderately polluted, orange is poor, red is very poor and
Proper maintenance of automobiles along with use maroon is critical.
of lead-free petrol or diesel can reduce the
pollutants they emit.
Catalytic converters, having expensive metals Water Pollution
namely platinum-palladium and rhodium as the Pollution of water originates from human activities.
catalysts, are fitted into automobiles for reducing Through different paths, pollution reaches surface or
emission of poisonous gases. ground water.
As the exhaust passes through the catalytic Point sources of pollution are easily identified source or
converter, unburnt hydrocarbons are converted into place of pollution. e.g., municipal and industrial
carbon dioxide and water and carbon monoxide and discharge pipes where pollutants enter the
nitric oxide are changed to carbon dioxide and water-source.
nitrogen gas, respectively.
337
Non point sources of pollution are those where a The method of Bioremediation is used to treat
source of pollution cannot be easily identified, contaminated water. Under this method,
e.g., agricultural runoff (from farm, animals and microorganisms (like Bacteria and Fungi) are used to
crop-lands), acid rain, storm-water drainage (from degrade the environmental contaminants into less toxic
streets, parking lots and lawns), etc. forms.
Water Pollutants and their Sources The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
Pollutant Source
1974 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act was enacted in 1974 to provide for the prevention
Micro-organisms Domestic sewage
and control of water pollution and for the maintaining or
Organic wastes Domestic sewage, animal excreta and restoring of wholesomeness of water in the country. The
waste, decaying animals and plants,
discharge from food processing factories.
Act was amended in 1988.
Plant nutrients Chemical fertilisers
Toxic heavy metals Industries and chemical factories Namami Gange Mission
Sediments Erosion of soil by agriculture and strip An Integrated Ganga Conservation Mission called Namami
mining Gange was setup in 2014 with as a budget as ` 20,000 crore.
The amount has been allocated for developments of ghats and
Pesticides Chemicals used for killing insects, fungi
beautification of river fronts at Kedarnath, Haridwar, Kanpur,
and weeds
Varanasi, Allahabad, Patna and Delhi. Following are
Radioactive Mining of uranium containing minerals objectives of this projects :
substances
n Nirmal Dhara
Heat Water used for cooling in industries — ensuring sustainable municipal sewage management.
— managing sewage from rural areas.
Causes of Water Pollution
— managing industrial discharge.
Pathogens The most serious water pollutants are n Aviral Dhara
the disease-causing agents called pathogens. — Promotion of tourism and shipping in a rational and
Pathogens include bacteria and other organisms sustainable manner.
that enter water from domestic sewage and animal — Knowledge management on Ganga through Ganga
excreta. Knowledge Centre.
Organic wastes The other major water pollutant is
organic matter such as leaves, grass, trash etc. They Methods of Measuring Water Quality
pollute water as a consequence of run off. Excessive
phytoplanktons growth within water is also a cause The various methods to measure water quality are as
of water pollution. These wastes are biodegradable. follows :
Chemical Pollutants Water soluble inorganic Biological Oxygen Demand The amount of oxygen
chemicals that include heavy metals such as required by bacteria to break down the organic matter
cadmium, mercury, nickel etc constitute an present in a certain volume of a sample of water, is
important class of pollutants. called Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
The amount of BOD in the water is a measure of the
Measures to Control Water Pollution amount of organic material in the water, in terms of how
The controlling measures of water pollution are as much oxygen will be required to break it down
follows : biologically. Clean water would have BOD value of less
Clean Water Act or other such acts are to regulate than 5 (ppm) whereas highly polluted water could have a
how industries and water treatment plants BOD value of 17 (ppm) or more.
processed their water before releasing it. Eutrophication The process in which nutrient enriched
Communities and industries have come up with water bodies support a dense plant population, which
solutions for reducing the amount of sediment in kills animal life by depriving it of oxygen and results in
water by preventing soil erosion through building subsequent loss of biodiversity is known as
dams and planting trees.Utility companies have Eutrophication.
improved the controls in their treatment plants and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) It is a test that
fixed broken pipes to reduce the amount of sewage determines the quantity of oxygen necessary to
and chemical detergents released into water chemically oxidise organic and inorganic substances
supplies. found in water, such as Ammonia and Nitrate.
338
Noise Pollution Other Types of Pollution

Noise pollution refers to the state of unbearable and Other important types of pollution are discussed as
uncomfortable to human beings which is caused by noise follows :
from different sources.
The main sources of noise pollution are various factories, Radioactive Pollution
mechanised construction and demolition works, Radioactive (or nuclear) waste is generated as a
automobiles and aircraft, etc by-product of nuclear reactors, fuel processing
There may be added periodical but polluting noise from plants, hospitals and research institutes.
sirens, loudspeakers used in various festivals, programmes Decommissioning and dismantling nuclear
associated with community activities. reactors and other nuclear facilities also
The level of steady noise is measured by sound level generates radioactive waste.
expressed in terms of decibels (dB). Sound upto 50 dB is Radiation, given off by nuclear waste is
considered as normal. Sound more than 80 dB is called as extremely damaging to organisms, because it
noise. causes mutations at a very high rate.
Noise pollution is location-specific and its intensity At high doses, nuclear radiation is lethal but at
decreases with increasing distance from the source of lower doses, it creates various disorders, the
pollution, such as industrial districts, transportation most frequent of all being cancer. Therefore,
corridors, airports and so on. nuclear waste is an extremely potent pollutant and
has to be dealt with utmost caution.
Measures to Prevent Noise Pollution
Turn off appliances at home and offices. Measures to Prevent Radioactive Pollution
When not in use, we can turn off home and office — Safe disposal of radioactive waste.
appliances such as TVs, games, computers and so on, — Regular monitoring through frequent sampling
which can cause unnecessary stress on the ears. and quantitative analysis.
We can also save electricity by turning them off. — Safety measures against nuclear accidents.
Close the door when using noisy machines. For rooms — Nuclear explosions and use of nuclear weapons
where dishwashers or washing machines are housed, we should be completely banned.
can close the door after turning them on.
Solid Waste Pollution
Obey the noise level limits.
Solid wastes refer to everything that goes out in
Community law should prohibit the use of loudspeakers, trash. Municipal solid wastes are wastes from
outdoor parties and political public announcements. homes, offices, stores, schools, hospitals, etc.,
Control noise levels near sensitive areas. that are collected and disposed by the
municipality.
Soil Pollution
All waste that we generate can be categorised
Soil is a thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that into the following three types :
covers the Earth’s rocky surface. Soil pollution is defined as
— Bio-degradable waste It is any product that
the ‘‘addition of substances to the soil, which adversely
affect physical, chemical and biological properties of soil can be easily broken down naturally by water,
and reduces its productivity.’’ oxygen, the Sun’s rays, radiation, or
micro-organisms. e.g., Food waste, Human
Soil pollution primarily results from agricultural chemicals
Waste, Manure, Sewage etc.
(e.g., pesticides) and leachates from solid wastes deposited
— Recyclable waste Recycling is the process of
over it.
converting waste materials into new materials
Measures to prevent soil pollution are : and objects and those materials which can be
— Reducing chemical fertiliser and pesticide use recycled are called recyclable waste. e.g., Glass,
— Use of bio pesticides, bio fertilisers Paper, Metal, Plastic etc.
— Organic farming — Non-Bio-degradable waste Those which
— Four R’s: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse and Recycle cannot be decomposed or dissolved by natural
— Afforestation and reforestation agents are called Non-Bio-degradable waste.
— Solid waste treatment e.g., Plastic Bottle, Medical waste, Carbon
— Reduction of waste from construction areas paper etc.
339
Measures to Prevent Solid Waste Pollution Cadmium It is used in the battery of a cell phone.
Open Dumps They dumps refer to uncovered areas It is associated with deficits in cognition, learning,
that are used to dump solid waste of all kinds. The behaviour and neuromotor skills in children. It has
rainwater run-off from these dumps contaminates also been linked to kidney damage.
nearby land and water thereby spreading disease. Mercury It is used in the cell phone’s battery, crystal
Treatment by open dumps is to be phased out. displays and circuit boards. A single cell phone
Landfills They are generally located in urban areas. It contains upto 2 grams of mercury. Mercury exposure
is a pit that is dug in the ground. Sanitary landfills contributes to brain and kidney damage.
were adopted as the substitute for open-burning Barium It is used in computers in the front panel of a
dumps. In a sanitary landfill, wastes are dumped in a CRT to protect users from radiation. Short term
depression or trench after compaction and covered exposure to barium causes brain swelling, muscles
with dirt every day. weakness, damage to heart, etc.
Incineration plants The process of burning waste in Cobalt Hazardous in case of inhalation and ingestion
large furnaces at high temperature is known as and is an irritant of the skin.
incineration. In these plants the recyclable material is
segregated and the rest of the material is burnt and ash
E-Waste Management Rules, 2016
is produced.
The E-Waste Management Rules, 2016 has replaced the
Pyrolysis It is a process of combustion in absence of E-waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 which
oxygen or the material burnt under controlled introduced concept of ‘extended producer responsibility’.
atmosphere of oxygen. It can be seen an alternative to Main provisions of E-Waste Management Rules 2016 are:
incineration. n State Government to prepare integrated plan.
Composting It is a biological process in which n The transportation of E-Waste shall be carried out as
microorganisms, mainly fungi and bacteria, per the manifest emphasis.

n Dealer or retailer or E-retailer shall refund the amount
decompose degradable organic waste into humus like
substance in the presence of oxygen. as per take back system. The manufacturer is also now
responsible to collect E-waste.
Vermiculture It is also known as earthworm farming.
In this method, Earth worms are added to the compost.
These worms break the waste and the added excreta of Measures to Prevent E-Waste Pollution
the worms makes the compost very rich in nutrients. Proper education, awareness and alternative
cost-effective technology must be supplied so that
E-Waste Pollution
those who rely on this for a living can be provided
Irreparable computers and other electronic goods are with a better standard of living.
known as electronic wastes (e-wastes). E-wastes are
To address India’s E-waste management concerns, a
buried in landfills or incinerated.
comprehensive solution is required.
More than half of the e-waste generated in the
A suitable system must be developed to incorporate
developed world is exported to developing countries,
small units from the unorganised sector and large
primarily China, India and Pakistan, where metals
units from the organised sector into a single value
such as copper, iron, silicon, nickel and gold are
chain.
recovered during the recycling process.
In contrast to developed countries, which have Soil Erosion and Desertification
specifically built facilities for E-waste recycling,
The degradation of natural resources can occur, not
recycling in developing countries frequently involves
just by the action of pollutants but also by improper
manual participation, exposing workers to toxic
resource utilisation practices.
substances present in E-waste.
The development of the fertile top-soil takes
Recycling is the sole method for the treatment of
centuries. But it can be removed very easily due to
E-waste, provided it is done at an E-waste facility.
human activities like over-cultivation, unrestricted
Impacts of E-Waste on Human Health grazing, deforestation and poor irrigation practices,
Lead It is found in a wide variety of cell phone resulting in arid patches of land.
components including the circuit boards, batteries and When large barren patches extend and meet over
as a stabiliser in PVC products. Lead exposure can time, a desert is created. Desertification has become a
cause damage to blood and nervous systems. major problem because of urbanisation.
340
The pressure on agricultural land increases not only These are Swachh Bharat Mission–Urban (SBM–U)
due to the limited availability but also by deterioration and Swachh Bharat Mission-Gramin (SBM–G).
of quality of agricultural land. Soil erosion, The SBM–U primarily aims at making Urban India
waterlogging, salinisation and alkalinisation of land free from open defecation and achieving
lead to land degradation. 100% scientific management of solid waste in the
country.
Deforestation The SBM–G targets to bring about an improvement in
Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to the general quality of life in rural areas by promoting
Non-forested ones. cleanliness and hygiene and eliminating open
Factors which led to deforestation are : defecation.
— A number of human activities altogether have
Green Chemistry
contributed to deforestation.
Green chemistry is a production process that would
— One of the major reasons is the conversion of forest
bring about minimum pollution or deterioration to the
to agricultural land so as to feed the growing human environment.
population.
Utilisation of existing knowledge base for reducing
— Trees are axed for timber, firewood, cattle ranching
the chemical hazards along with the developmental
and for several other purposes.
activities is the foundation of green chemistry.
— Slash and burn agriculture, commonly called as
Green chemistry, is a cost-effective approach which
Jhum cultivation in the North-Eastern states of
involves reduction in material, energy consumption
India, has also contributed to deforestation.
and waste generation.
Causes of Deforestation
One of the major effects of deforestation is enhanced International Efforts to
carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere Control Environment Pollution
because trees that could hold a lot of carbon in their Basel Convention Basel convention was established
biomass are lost with deforestation. on 5th May, 1992. It is an international convention
Deforestation also causes loss of biodiversity due to aimed at reducing the flow of hazardous waste
habitat destruction, disturbs hydrologic cycle, causes between Nations and in particular, preventing the
soil erosion and may lead to desertification in extreme transfer of hazardous waste from developed to Less
cases. Developed Countries (LDCs).
Reforestation is the process of restoring a forest that The Rotterdam Convention The Rotterdam
once existed but was removed at some point of time in convention was established on 10th September, 1998.
the past. Reforestation may occur naturally in a It aims to promote shared responsibility and
deforested area. cooperative efforts among Parties in the international
trade of certain hazardous chemicals in order to
Strategies to Control protect human health and the environment from
Environmental Pollution potential harm.
The strategies adopted to control environmental Stockholm Convention Stockholm was the first world
pollution are as follows: conference to make the environment a major issue.
It was adopted on 22nd May, 2001 in Stockholm,
‘Swachh Bharat Abhiyan’ or ‘Clean India Mission’ Sweden and entered into force on 17th May, 2004.
It was launched by Union Government in 2014. Two The objective of the Stockholm Convention is to
programmes are being implemented under the broad protect human health and the environment from
umbrella of the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan. persistent organic pollutants.
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 33 341
Sustainable Development
Sources Class-XI New NCERT Chap 9 (Economics) (Environment and Sustainable Development)
Class-XII New NCERT Chap 9 (Geography) (Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context),
Meaning of Sustainable Development The publication of ‘The Population Bomb’ by

Ehrlich in 1968 and ‘The Limits to Growth’ by
The term development is generally used to describe the Meadows in 1972 further raised the level of fear
state of particular societies and the process of changes among environmentalists and people.
experienced by them.
The concept of sustainable development was Objectives of Sustainable
emphasised by the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED).
Development
Sustainable development aims at decreasing the
It defined sustainable development as ‘Development
absolute poverty of the poor by providing lasting and
that meets the need of the present generation without
secure livelihoods that minimise resource depletion,
compromising the ability of the future generation to
environmental degradation, cultural disruption and
meet their own needs’.
social instability.
The use of the concept ‘needs’ in the definition is
The United Nations established a World
linked to distribution of resources.
Commission on Environment and Development
Edward Barbier defined sustainable development as (WCED) headed by the Norwegian Prime Minister
“one which is directly concerned with increasing the Gro Harlem Brundtland. The commission was
material standard of living of the poor at the grass root named as Brundtland Report.
level — this can be quantitatively measured in terms of
increased income, real income, educational services, Brundtland Commission gave a report entitled as
health care, sanitation, water supply etc.” ‘Our Common Future’ in 1987.
The report defines sustainable development as a
Concept of Sustainable Development ‘development that meets the needs of the present
Sustainable development is a multi-dimensional without compromising the ability of future
concept and signifies the positive, irreversible generations to meet their own needs.’
transformation of the economy, society and Sustainable development takes care of ecological,
environment. social and economic aspects of development during
The notion of sustainable development emerged in the the present times.
wake of general rise in the awareness of environmental It urges for conservation of resources to enable the
issues in the late 1960s in Western world. future generations to use these resources.
It reflected the concern of people about undesirable It also takes into account the development of whole
effects of industrial development on the environment. human kind which have common future.
342
Fundamental Ideas of Gender Inequality

Sustainable Development Due to the gender division of labour in society, women
Renewability The rate of utilisation of renewable and men have different needs and uses of natural
resource should be lower than or equal to the rate of resources.
regeneration of the resource. The resources that have The different responsibilities imposed by societies on
already depleted due to ‘over use’ should be given females and males have implications for how they
complete protection. interact with their local environment.
Adaptability A sustainable developing society has Process of Sustainable Development
ability to adapt in changing environment. It is also
capable of creating opportunities for survival and Sustainable development should be the basis for the
recreation through innovation, manifested in employment. For this, it is required to collect informations
Research and Development (R&D) activities. which may be of two types :
Interdependence A sustainable society neither Environment related Information It includes
imports resources from outside through deprivation information related to biodiversity, physical visual and
of other communities, nor it exports its own wastes to changed visual land.
create pollution in other societies. Human related Information It includes information
Substitution Sustainable development ensures related to the population increase rate, population size,
substitution of use of non-renewable natural food productivity, etc.
resources by the use of renewable natural resources. These informations are collected, evaluated and lastly
Institutional Commitment It includes political implemented. Social forestry in India is an important
support, constitutional provisions, legal framework, example of human related information.
coordination between legal institutions and above all Strategies for Achieving
the ability to understand the need of sustainable
development in a society.
Sustainable Development
Following efforts are being made to achieve sustainable
Parameters of Sustainable Development development :
Parameters of sustainable development refer to the Lifestyle It includes everything in our life; from the
guiding principles that help in understanding the food we eat and how we interact with others to the way
concept of sustainable development. we get around.
The parameters include inter and intra-generational Population It is very closely related with sustainable
equity, carrying capacity and gender inequality. development, population growth, population ageing
and decline, as well as migration and urbanisation affect
Inter-generational Equity virtually all development objectives that are on the top
It refers to the use of Earth’s resources between of national and global development agendas.
generations in a manner that the present generation does Conservation It concern for maintenance and
not consume it completely to its exhaustion. sustainability is a rational response to the nature of
Three principles form the basis of inter-generational living resources and also an ethical imperative,
equity are as follows : expressed in the belief that ‘we have not inherited the
Conservation of Option Conservation of Quality Earth from our parents, we have borrowed it from our
Conservation of Access children’.
Intra-generational Equity Measures for Promotion of

It refers to fair in utilisation of resources among Sustainable Development
human members of present generations, both Attaining sustainable development in the command area
domestically and globally. requires major thrust upon the measures to achieve
Carrying Capacity ecological sustainability. The measures for promotion of
Sustainable development are as follows:
It refers to the number of individuals who can be
supported in a given area within natural resource Revamped Cropping Patterns In general, the cropping
limits, without degrading the natural social, cultural pattern shall not include water intensive crops. It shall
and economic environment for present and future be adhered to and people shall be encouraged to grow
generations. plantation crops such as citrus fruits.
343
Measures to reduce water loss The CAD Sustainable Development Goals

programmes such as lining of water courses, land
development and levelling and warabandi system The United Nations approved the Sustainable
(equal distribution of canal water in the command Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global
area of outlet) shall be effectively implemented to Goals, in 2015 as a universal call to action to end
reduce the conveyance loss of water. poverty, safeguard the environment and ensure that by
2030, all people enjoy peace and prosperity.
Achieving Social Sustainability The social sustainability
in the region can be achieved only if the land According to the latest SDG India Index from NITI
allottees having poor economic background are Aayog, India has achieved steady progress toward
provided adequate financial and institutional meeting the United Nations’ Sustainable Development
support for cultivation of land. Goals (SDGs) in the areas of health, energy and
infrastructure. India’s overall SDG score increased by 6
Achieving Economic Sustainability The
points, from 60 in 2019 to 66 in 2020-21.
agricultural and allied activities have to develop
along with other sectors of economy. The 17 proposed SDGs are as follows :
This shall lead to diversification of economic base 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
and establishment of functional linkages between 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved
basic villages, agro-service centres and market nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.
centres. 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for
Solar Power through Photovoltaic Cells India is all at all ages.
naturally endowed with a large quantity of solar 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education
energy in the form of sunlight. With the help of and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.
photovoltaic cells, solar energy can be converted 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women
into electricity. and girls.
CNG in Urban Areas In Delhi, the use of Compressed 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of
Natural Gas (CNG) as fuel in public transport water and sanitation for all.
system has significantly lowered air pollution and
7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable
the air has become cleaner in the last few years.
and modern energy for all.
Wind Power In areas where speed of wind is
8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable
usually high, wind mills can provide electricity
economic growth, full and productive employment
without any adverse impact on the environment.
and decent work for all.
Traditional Knowledge and Practices
9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and
Traditionally, Indian people have been close to
sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation.
their environment. Use of more Organic and
environmental friendly products will be essential 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries.
for environment. 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe,
resilient and sustainable.
12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production
New Sustainable Development Agenda patterns.
n On 25th September, 2015, United Nations adopted an
agreement on the outcome document ‘New
13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and
Sustainable Development Agenda’ for the next its impacts.
15 years (till 2030). The document was adopted in 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and
70th session of UN General Assembly at UN marine resources for sustainable development.
Headquarters, New York. 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of
n The agreement has 169 target issues that comprise terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests,
different socio-economic issues. The title of the combat desertification and halt and reverse land
agenda document is ‘Transforming Our World, the
degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’.
n Sustainable development goals outline broader 16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for
sustainability agenda dealing with five Ps-People, sustainable development, provide access to justice
Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. It seeks for all and build effective, accountable and
to address the universal need for development that inclusive institutions at all levels.
works for all people and root causes of poverty. It 17. Strengthen the means of implementation and
also includes specific goals on economic indicators revitalise the global partnership for sustainable
for first time.
development.
CHAPTER
344 34
Disaster Management
Sources Class-XI New NCERT Chap 7 (India and the World, Natural Hazards and Disasters)
As a result of this, both the plates are said to be locked

Disaster with each other resulting in accumulation of energy at
A disaster is a result of natural or man-made causes different points of time.
that leads to sudden disruption of normal life, causing Excessive accumulation of energy results in building
severe damage to life and property to an extent that up of stress, which ultimately leads to the breaking up
available social and economic protection mechanisms of the lock and the sudden release of energy causes
are inadequate to cope. earthquakes along the Himalayan arch.
As per origin, disasters can be classified as follows : Some of the most vulnerable states are Jammu and
— Natural disasters Earthquake, flood, drought, Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and
Tsunami, landslide, etc. the Darjeeling and subdivision of West Bengal and all
— Man-made disasters Bhopal Gas Tragedy, the seven states of the North-East.
Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster and Fukushima Nuclear
Earthquake Zones
Disaster, etc.
National Geophysical Laboratory, Geological Survey
of India, Department of Meteorology, Government of
Natural Disasters in India India, along with the National Institute of Disaster
Some of the major natural disasters in India are as follows : Management divided India into the following five
earthquake zones :
Earthquakes — Zone I Very high damage risk zone
Earthquakes are by far the most unpredictable and — Zone II High damage risk zone
highly destructive of all the natural disasters. — Zone III Moderate damage risk zone
Tectonic earthquakes result from a series of Earth — Zone IV Low damage risk zone
movements brought about by a sudden release of
— Zone V Very low damage risk zone
energy during the tectonic activities in the Earth’s
crust and they are most devastating. Zone I and Zone II had experienced some of the most
devastating earthquakes in India. Areas vulnerable to
Volcanic earthquakes associated with rock fall,
these earthquakes are the North-East states, areas
landslides, subsidence, particularly in the mining
along the Indo-Nepal border in Bihar, Uttarakhand,
areas, impounding of dams and reservoirs, etc., have
Western Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir valley and
limited area of influence and the scale of damage.
the Kachchh (Gujarat).
It is due to movement of the Indian plate at a speed of
Zone III covers Southern and South-Eastern parts of
one centimeter per year towards the North and
Rajasthan, larger parts of Madhya Pradesh,
North-Eastern direction. This movement of plates is
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Jharkhand and Northern and
being constantly obstructed by the Eurasian plate
North-Western part of Odisha.
from the North.
345
Zone IV is least seismic activity zone. Most of the Tsunami

areas that can be considered safe are from the stable
Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that cause the
landmass covered under the Deccan Plateau.
sea-floor to move abruptly resulting in sudden
Effects of Earthquakes displacement of ocean water in the form of high
Earthquakes have all encompassing disastres effects vertical waves are called ‘tsunamis’.
on the area of their occurrence. Tsunamis are also known as harbour waves or seismic
Surface seismic waves produce fissures on the upper sea waves.
layers of the Earth’s crust through which water and The seismic waves cause only one instantaneous
other volatile materials gush out, inundating the vertical wave. After the initial disturbance, a series of
neighbouring areas. after waves are created in the water that oscilliate
Earthquakes are also responsible for landslides and between high crest and low trough in order to restore
often these cause obstructions in the flow of rivers the water level.
and channels resulting in the formation of reservoirs. The speed of wave in the ocean depends upon the
depth of water. It is more in the shallow water than in
Effects of Earthquakes the ocean deep.
On Ground On Man-made On Water As a result of this, the impact of tsunami is less over the
Structures ocean and more near the coast where they cause
Fissures Cracking Waves large-scale devastations.
Settlements Slidings Hydro-Dynamic A ship at sea is not much affected by tsunami. It is
Pressure difficult to detect a tsunami in the deeper parts of sea
Landslides Overturning Tsunami because over deep water the tsunami has very long
Liquefaction Buckling wave-length and limited wave-height.
Earth Pressure Collapse Wave length of Tsunami gets reduced and wave height
Possible increases when it enters a shallow water.
Chain-effects Possible Possible Tsunamis are frequently observed along the Pacific
Chain-effects Chain-effects Ring of Fire, particularly along the coast of Alaska,
Japan, Philippines and other Islands of South-East Asia,
Earthquake Hazard Mitigation Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and
India etc.
Some of the measures on disaster preparedness and
mitigation are as follows: Causes of Tsunami
Establishing earthquake monitoring centres Most tsunamis are caused by earthquakes generated in
(seismological centres) for regular monitoring and subduction zone, an area where an oceanic plate is
fast dissemination of information among the people forced down into the mantle.
in the vulnerable areas. In general, tsunami is caused by sudden motion on the
Use of Geographical Positioning System (GPS) can ocean floor. This sudden motion could be an
be of great help in monitoring the movement of earthquake, volcanic eruption, or an underwater
tectonic plates. landslide. The impact of a large meteorite could also
Preparing a vulnerability map of the country cause a tsunami.
and dissemination of vulnerability risk information Impacts of Tsunami
among the people and educating them about the
After reaching the coast, the tsunami waves release
ways and means minimising the adverse impacts of
enormous energy stored in them and water flows
disasters.
turbulently onto the land destroying port-cities and
Modifying the house types and building designs in towns, structures, buildings and other settlements.
the vulnerable areas and discouraging construction The loss of life and property is likely to be much higher
of high-rise buildings, large industrial by a Tsunami as compared to other natural hazards in
establishments and big urban centres in such areas. the coastal areas due to high population density and
Finally, making it mandatory to adopt centre of economic activities.
earthquake-resistant designs and use light materials The whole coastline of mainland India alongwith
in major construction activities in the vulnerable islands in both oceans are prone to Tsunami
areas. disaster.
346
Tsunami Warning System in India Conditions for Emergence of Tropical Cyclone

The 26th December, 2004 earthquake and the Large and continuous supply of warm and moist air
subsequent tsunami exposed the vulnerability of the that can release enormous latent heat.
Indian coastline to Oceanic hazards. Strong Coriolis force that can prevent filling of low
Following the event, India started its own interim pressure at the centre (absence of Coriolis force near
tsunami warning centre in the first quarter of 2005 to the equator prohibits the formation of tropical cyclone
issue tsunami bulletins generated from seismic between 0° -5° latitude).
information. Unstable condition through the troposphere that creates
The interim services were succeeded by setting up of local disturbances around which a cyclone develops.
a state-of-the-art Indian Tsunami Early Warning Absence of strong vertical wind wedge, which disturbs
System (ITEWS) at the Indian National Centre for the vertical transport of latent heat.
Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad,
under the Earth System Sciences Organisation Structure of Tropical Cyclone
(ESSO). Tropical cyclones are characterised by large pressure
The system implemented in phases became gradients. The centre of the cyclone is mostly a warm
full-fledged 24 × 7 operational early warning system and low-pressure, cloudless core known as eye of the
in October 2007. storm.
The Indian Tsunami Early Warning System has the The isobars are closely placed to each other showing
responsibility to provide tsunami advisories to Indian high-pressure gradients, which varies between
mainland and the Island regions. Acting as one of the 14-17mb/100 km, but sometimes it can be as high as
Regional Tsunami Advisory Service Providers 60 mb/100 km.
(RTSPs) for the Indian Ocean Region, ITEWS also Consequences of Tropical Cyclones
provides tsunami advisories to the Indian Ocean rim
With the increase in distance from the sea, the force of
countries alongwith Australia and Indonesia.
the cyclone decreases.
In India, the force of the cyclone decreases with
Tsunami Warning System (TWS) increase in distance from the Bay of Bengal and the
n A Tsunami Warning System (TWS) is used to detect Arabian Sea.
tsunamis in advance and issue warnings to prevent
loss of life and damage.
The coastal areas are often struck by severe cyclonic
storms with an average velocity of 180 km/h. Often,
n The Tsunami Warning System (TWS) in the Pacific,
comprised of 26 participating international member this results in abnormal rise in the sea level known as
states, has the functions of monitoring seismological Storm Surge.
and tidal stations throughout the Pacific Basin to Tropical Cyclones results in inundation of human
evaluated potentially tsunamigenic earthquakes and settlements, agricultural fields, damaging crops and
disseminating tsunami warning information. destruction of structures created by human beings.
n The Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre (PTWC) is the
operational centre of the Pacific TWS. Located near Tropical Cyclones in India
Honolulu, Hawaii, PTWC provides tsunami warning Indian subcontinent is one of the worst cyclone affected
information to national authorities in the Pacific areas of the world. Around 8% of the total geographical
Basin. area, particularly along the Eastern coast and coast of
Gujarat is vulnerable to tropical cyclones. Some
Tropical Cyclone divastating cyclones that occurred in India are :
Tropical cyclones are intense low-pressure areas Cyclone Thane This cyclone hit the Southern state of
confined to the area lying between 30° N and 30° S Tamil Nadu, killing dozens of people in 2001.
latitudes, in the atmosphere around which high Odisha Super Cyclone This super cyclone that hit
velocity winds blow. Odisha coast in 1999 killed more than 10,000 people.
Horizontally, it extends up to 500-1000 km and Phailin It was the most intense tropical cyclone to hit
vertically from surface to 12-14 km. Eastern coast of India since Odisha super cyclone.
A tropical cyclone also known as hurricane is like a It swept through Odisha and Andhra coast in 2013.
heat engine that is energised by the release of latent Hudhud Cyclone Hudhud (2014) pounded India’s
heat on account of the condensation of moisture Eastern coast, killing more than 40 people.
that the wind gathers after moving over the oceans Nilofar This cyclone hit the Gujarat coast in 2014.
and seas. It was categorised as severe storm.
347
Flood Flood Prone Zones in India

Flooding is defined as the inundation of land and In India, around 40 million hectare area is flood-prone,
human settlements caused by the rise of water in which is one-eighth of the total area. The most flood
the channels and its spill-over. prone areas are the Brahmaputra, Ganga and Indus
Floods occur commonly when water in the form of basins.
surface run-off exceeds the carrying capacity of the Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Odisha are the
river channels and streams and flows into the most flood affected states followed by Haryana, Punjab
neighbouring low-lying flood plains. and Andhra Pradesh. Now-a-days, Rajasthan and Gujarat
Floods are also caused due to a storm surge in the also feel the fury of floods. Karnataka and Maharashtra
coastal areas, high intensity rainfall for a are no longer immune to floods.
considerably longer time period, melting of ice and In September 2014, the Kashmir region witnessed
snow, etc. disastrous floods across majority of its districts caused by
Assam, West Bengal and Bihar are among the high torrential rainfall.
flood-prone states of India. Tamil Nadu Impact of Floods
experiences flooding during November and
Frequent inundation of agricultural land and human
January due to the retreating monsoon.
settlement has serious consequences on the national
Causes of Flood economy and society.
Heavy Rainfall Heavy rain in the catchment area Floods do not only destroy valuable crops every year but
of a river causes water to overflow its banks, which also damage physical infrastructure such as roads, rails,
results in the flooding of nearby areas. bridges and human settlements.
Sediment Deposition River beds become shallow Millions of people are rendered homeless and are also
due to sedimentation. The water carrying capacity washed down alongwith their cattle in the floods.
of such river is reduced. As a result, the rainwater Spread of diseases like cholera, gastro-enteritis, hepatitis
overflows the river banks. and other water-borne diseases spread in the
Deforestation Vegetation hampers the flow of flood-affected areas.
water and forces it to percolate in the ground. As a Floods also make a few positive contributions. Every
result of deforestation, the land becomes year, floods deposit fertile silt over agricultural fields,
obstruction free and water flows with greater speed which is good for the crops.
into the rivers and causes flood.
Flood Mitigation and Control Measures
Cyclone Cyclone generated sea waves of abnormal
height spread the water in the adjoining coastal Warning With the advancement of technology such as
areas. satellite and remote-sensing equipments, flood can be
tracked as the water level rises. Evacuation is possible
In October 1999, Odisha cyclone generated severe
with suitable monitoring and warning.
floods and caused unprecedent loss of life and
property. Warning is issued by the Central Water Commission
(CWC), Irrigation and Flood Control Department and
Interference in Drainage System Drainage
Water Resources Department.
congestion caused by badly planned construction
of bridges, roads, railway tracks, canals, etc Mapping of the Flood Prone Areas Flood hazard
hampers the flow of water and the result is flood. mapping will give the proper indication of water flow
during floods.
Change in the Course of River Meanders and
change in the course of river cause floods. Land Use Control It will reduce danger of life and
property, when waters inundate the floodplains and the
Tsunami Large coastal areas are flooded by rising
coastal areas. No major development should be permitted
sea water, when a tsunami strikes the coast.
in the areas which are subjected to high flooding.
Consequence of Floods Flood Control It aims to reduce flood damage. This can
Floods destroy valuable crops every year as well as be done by decreasing the amount of run-off with the
also damage physical infrastructure such as roads, help of reforestation. Flood diversion includes levees,
rails, bridges and human settlements. embankments, dams and channel improvement. Dams can
Floods are also responsible for spread of diseases store water and can release water at a manageable rate.
like cholera, gastro-enteritis, hepatitis and other But failure of dams in earthquakes and operation of
water-borne diseases spread in the flood-affected releasing the water can cause floods in the lower areas.
areas.
348
Flood Proofing It reduces the risk of damage. Gujarat fall in this category. The districts like
Measures include use of sand bags to keep flood Jaisalmer and Barmer from the Indian desert receive
water away, blocking or sealing of doors and less than 90 mm average annual rainfall.
windows of houses, etc. Severe Drought Prone Areas Parts of Eastern
Restoration of Original Drainage System Drainage Rajasthan, most parts of Madhya Pradesh, Eastern parts
system is generally choked by the construction of of Maharashtra (including Marathawada), interior parts
roads, canals, railway tracks, etc. Floods could be of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka plateau, Northern
checked if the original form of drainage system is parts of interior Tamil Nadu and Southern parts of
restored. Jharkhand and interior Odisha.
Moderate Drought Affected Areas Northern parts of
Drought Rajasthan, Haryana, Southern districts of Uttar
The term ‘drought’ refers to a prolonged time in Pradesh, the remaining parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra,
which there is a scarcity of water due to insufficient (including Marathawada) except Konkan, Jharkhand
precipitation, an excessive rate of evaporation and and Coimbatore plateau of Tamil Nadu and interior
over-utilisation of water from reservoirs and other Karnataka.
storages, including ground water.
Drought Mitigation Measures
Types of Drought
Drought Monitoring It is continuous observation of
Meteorological Drought It is a situation when there the rainfall situation, availability of water in the
is a prolonged period of inadequate rainfall marked reservoirs, lakes, rivers, etc and comparing with the
with mal-distribution of the same over time and space. existing water needs in various sectors of the society.
Agricultural Drought It is also known as soil Sowing Drought Resistant Crops By sowing drought
moisture drought, characterised by low soil moisture resistant crops of cotton, split green gram, pearl millet,
that is necessary to support the crops, thereby wheat, etc, the impact of drought could be mitigated to
resulting in crop failures. a certain extent.
Hydrological Drought It results when the availability Rain Water Harvesting Collection of each and every
of water in different storages and reservoirs like drop of rain could help in coping with the drought.
aquifers, lakes, reservoirs, etc. falls below what the Small quantity of water can irrigate comparatively larger
precipitation can replenish. area by using drip irrigation and sprinkler methods.
Ecological Drought When the productivity of a Drought Planning The basic goal of drought planning is
natural ecosystem fails due to shortage of water and to improve the effectiveness of preparedness and
as a consequence of ecological distress, damages are response efforts by enhancing monitoring, mitigation
induced in the ecosystem. and response measures.
Consequences of Drought Planning for Drought
Droughts have cascading effects on various other Provision for the distribution of safe drinking water,
aspects of environment and society. medicines for the victims and availability of fodder and
Crop failure leading to scarcity of food grains (Akal), water for the cattle and shifting of the people and their
fodder (Trinkal), inadequate rainfall, resulting in livestock to safer places.
shortage of water (Jalkal) and often shortage in all Identification of ground water potential in the form of
the three (Trikal). aquifers, transfer of river water from the surplus to the
Large-scale death of cattle and other animals, deficit areas and particularly planning for inter-linking
migration of humans and livestock. of rivers and construction of reservoirs and dams, etc.
Scarcity of water compels people to consume Remote sensing and satellite imageries can be useful in
contaminated water resulting in spread of many identifying the possible river-basins that can be inter-
waterborne diseases like gastro-enteritis, cholera, linked and in identifying the ground water potential.
hepatitis, etc. Rainwater harvesting can also be an effective method
in minimising the effects of drought.
Drought Prone Areas in India
On the basis of severity of droughts, India can be divided Landslides
into three regions : Landslide is the rapid sliding of large mass of bedrocks.
Extreme Drought Affected Areas Most parts of Unlike other disasters that are sudden, unpredictable and
Rajasthan, particularly areas to the West of the are largely controlled by macro, regional and highly
Aravalli hills i.e., Marusthali and Kachchh region of localised factors.
349
Consequences of Landslides Other Areas The remaining parts of India, particularly

Landslides have relatively small and localised area states like Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
of direct influence, but roadblock, destruction of West Bengal (except district Darjeeling), Assam (except
railway lines and channel blocking due to rock-falls district Karbi Anglong) and Coastal regions of the
have far-reaching consequences. Southern states are safe as far as landslides are
concerned.
Diversion of river courses due to landslides can also
lead to flood and loss of life and property.
It also makes spatial interaction difficult, risky as Man-Made Disasters
well as a costly affair, which, in turn, adversely Man-made disasters refer to non-natural disastrous
affects the developmental activities in these areas. occurrences that can be sudden for longer term. Sudden
Mitigation man-made disasters include structural collapses, such as
building and mine collapse, when this occurs
Restriction on the construction and other independently without any outside force.
developmental activities such as roads and dams.
Man-made disaster includes communal riots, civil strife,
Limiting agriculture to valleys and areas with
international war, nuclear blast, fire, accidents, etc.
moderate slopes and control on the development of
large settlements in the high vulnerability zones, Important man-made disasters are as follows :
should be enforced. Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984), India
Construction of bunds to reduce the flow of water. Bhopal Gas Tragedy was a gas leak incident in India. It is
Terrace farming should be encouraged in the considered one of the world’s worst industrial disasters.
North-Eastern hill states where Jhumming (Slash
It occurred on the mid night 2nd-3rd December, 1984 at
and Burn/Shifting Cultivation) is still prevalent.
the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant
Landslide Vulnerability Zones in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. Over 5,00,000 people were
Very High Vulnerability Zone Highly unstable, exposed to Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) gas and other
relatively young mountainous areas in the chemicals.
Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar, high rainfall Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster (1986)
regions with steep slopes in the Western Ghats and
A dangerous large-scale release of nuclear radiation
Nilgiris, the North-Eastern regions, along with
occurred during the nuclear accident in nuclear power
areas that experience frequent ground shaking due
plant at Chernobyl in Ukraine on 25th April, 1986.
to earthquakes, etc. The areas of intense human
activities particularly those related to construction The radiation leaks and fallout of radioactivity was quite
of roads, dams, etc., are also included in this zone. widespread covering almost most of Belarus, large part
of Russia and Ukraine and even European territories.
High Vulnerability Zone Areas that have almost
similar conditions to these included in the very Fukushima Nuclear Disaster (2011), Japan
high vulnerability zone are also included in this Fukushima Daiichi incident was a nuclear disaster,
category. The only difference between these two is resulting in a meltdown of the plant’s six nuclear
the combination, intensity and frequency of the reactors. The failure occurred when the plant was hit by
controlling factors. a tsunami triggered by the magnitude 9.0 Tohoku
All the Himalayan states and the states from the earthquake.
North-Eastern regions except the plains of Assam are The plant began releasing substantial amounts of
included in the high vulnerability zones. radioactive material on 12th March, becoming the largest
Moderate to Law Vulnerability Zone Areas that nuclear incident since the Chernobyl disaster in April
receive less precipitation such as Trans-Himalayan 1986 and the second after Chernobyl to measure level 7
areas of Ladakh and Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), on the International Nuclear Event Scale (INES).
undulated yet stable relief and low precipitation
areas in the Aravali, rain shadow areas in the Disaster Management in India
Western and Eastern Ghats and Deccan plateau also
Disaster management is the process of planning for and
experience occasional landslides.
responding to natural disasters. It entails carefully
Landslides due to mining and subsidence are most coordinating resources to mitigate the damage caused by
common in states like Jharkhand, Odisha, calamities. It also entails a systematic strategy to
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, handling catastrophe prevention, readiness, response,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa and and recovery duties.
Kerala.
350
There are three stages involved in disaster mitigation National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009
and management: India’s National Policy on Disaster Management was
(i) Pre-disaster management involves generating data approved by the Union Cabinet on 22nd October, 2009.
and information about the disasters, preparing It aims to minimise the losses to lives, livelihoods and
vulnerability zoning maps and spreading property, caused by natural or man-made disasters with
awareness among the people about these. Apart a vision to build a safe and disaster resilient India by
from these, disaster planning, preparedness and developing a holistic, proactive, integrated and
preventive measures are other steps that need to be technology driven strategy.
taken in the vulnerable areas.
The themes underpinning the policy include
(ii) During disasters, rescue and relief operations such community based disaster management, capacity
as evacuation, construction of shelters and relief development in all spheres, consolidation of past
camps, supplying of water, food, clothing and initiatives and best practices. The policy aims
medical aids etc. should be done on an emergency
cooperation with agencies at National and
basis.
International levels with multi-sectoral synergy.
(iii) Post-disaster operations should involve
rehabilitation and recovery of victims. It should Objectives of National Policy of
also concentrate on capacity building in order to Disaster Management
cope up with future disasters. The objectives of the National Policy of Disaster
Management are :
Government Initiatives for Disaster Promoting a culture of prevention, preparedness and
Management resilience at all levels through knowledge innovation
and education.
Important initiatives of Government of India regarding
disaster management are as follows : Encouraging mitigation measures based on technology,
traditional wisdom and environmental sustainability.
National Disaster Management Act
Mainstreaming disaster management into the
(NDMA), 2005 development planning process.
The NDM Act provides for disaster management Establishing institutional and techno-legal frameworks
institutions at the national, state and district levels, to create an enabling regulatory environment and a
and represents a shift in emphasis from relief to compliance regime.
preparedness, prevention and mitigation.
The NDM Act provides for the establishment of a National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP), 2016
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) It covers all phases of disaster management–
headed by the Prime Minister, State Disaster prevention, mitigation, response and recovery. It
Management Authorities (SDMAs) headed by Chief provides for horizontal and vertical integration among
Ministers and District Disaster Management all the agencies and departments of the government.
Authorities (DDMAs) headed by District Collectors/ The plan also spells out the roles and responsibilities of
Magistrates. all levels of government right up to Panchayat and
The NDM Act has constituted funds related to Urban Local Body level in a matrix format. The plan
disaster management such as National Disaster has a regional approach, which will be beneficial not
Response Fund (NDRF), State Disaster Response only for disaster management but also for development
Fund (SDRF) and National Disaster Mitigation Fund planning.
(NDMF). It identifies major activities such as early warning,
information dissemination, medical care, fuel,
transportation, search and rescue, evacuation, etc to
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) serve as a checklist for agencies responding to a
n The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is the disaster.
specialised force for disaster response which works
under the overall supervision and control of the The vision of NDMP is to make India disaster resilient,
NDMA. achieve substantial disaster risk reduction, and
n Vision of NDRF is to emerge as the most visible and significantly decrease the losses of life, livelihoods, and
vibrant multi-disciplinary, multi-skilled, high-tech assets– economic, physical, social, cultural and
force capable to deal with all types of natural as well environmental– by maximising the ability to cope with
as man-made disasters and to mitigate the effects of disasters at all levels of administration as well as
disasters. among communities.
351
Appendix
Imaginary Lines on the Surface of the Earth Difference Between Latitude and Longitude
Equator It is an imaginary line on globe between the North Latitude Longitude
and South Pole at 0° latitude.
The Latitude of place is the Longitude alludes to the
Tropic of It is a line of Latitude circling the Earth at angular distance of a place Geographic coordinate, which
Cancer approximately 23.5° North of the Equator. It is the North or South of the Equator, identifies the distance of a point,
Northernmost point on Earth where the Sun’s rays as measured in degrees from the East-West of the prime
can appear directly overhead at local noon. Center of the Earth. Meridian.
Tropic of It occurs at the Latitude approximately 23°27’ N of The line of Latitude is drawn It is measured from 0 Degree to
Capricorn the Terrestrial Equator, corresponds to the parallel to the Equator in 180 degree East or West of
Northernmost declination of the Sun’s ecliptic to circles, so called parallels and Greenwich. All lines of
the celestial Equator. grow smaller towards the poles. Longitude parallel to the Earth
Thus, Latitude of the great circle are perpendicular to the
Tropic of The Arctic circle is a circle of Latitude or Equator is the largest and Equator.
Arctic encompassing the Northernmost pole of the Earth nearly a point at the Poles.
and is located at approximately 66°33’45.6 North of
the Equator. The Arctic circle is about 7,700,000 The average Latitudinal All the Longitudes of a parallel
square miles. This line of Latitude separates the Distance of 1° is about 69 miles circle appear like a circle,
Arctic Zone in the North from the Northern or 111 km. As the Earth is passing through the poles.
Temperate Zone in the South. slightly flattened at the poles, Approximately the distance
the linear distance of a degree of between Longitude is maximum
Tropic of The Antarctic circle is an imaginary line located at
Latitude at the pole is little (0° km) at the Poles, it is 79 km
Antarctica 66.5 degrees South Latitude or 23.5 degrees
longer than that at the Equator. at 45° latitude in the middle.
Northward of the South Pole.
There are 180 latitude lines. There are 360 Longitude lines.
Countries on Equator The length of the Latitudes are The length of the Longitudes are
different. the same.
Sao Tome and Principe Maldives
Gabon Indonesia
Important Land Borders
Republic of the Congo Kiribati
Boundary Line Related Countries
Uganda Ecuador
Radcliffe Line India-Pakistan(Imposed Border)
Kenya Colombia
India-Bangladesh
Somalia Brazil
McMahon Line India-China
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Durand Line India-Afghanistan (This line is currently
located in Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (POK)
Countries on Tropic of Cancer (18)
Hawaii-Island Chad Mexico Oman Important Channels and Straits
Bahamas Saudi Arabia Mali United Arab Emirates Major Channel/Strait Divided Area
Mauritania Egypt Niger Bangladesh 8° Channel Maldives-Minicoy (India)
Algeria India China Taiwan 9° Channel Minicoy-Lakshadweep Island
Libya Myanmar 6° Channel Great Nicobar And Sumatra (Indonesia)
10° Channel Andaman (Little Andaman) and Nicobar
Countries on Tropic of Capricorn (12)
Great Channel Indira Point-Indonesia
Brazil Artelia Chile South Africa
Palk Strait India-Sri Lanka
Paraguay Madagascar French Polynesia Tonga
Argentina Mozambique Botswana Namibia Coco Strait Andaman-Cocoa Island (Myanmar)
352
Indian States and Uniton Territories

Arunachal Pradesh Bihar
Latitude 26°30′ N to 29°30′ N Latitude 24° 20′ N to 27 °13′ N
Longitude 91°30′ E to 97°30′ E Longitude 83°19′ E to 88°17 ′ E
Area 83,743 sq km Area 94,163 sq km
Population 13,83,727 Population 10,40,99,452
Density 17 Density 1,106
Sex Ratio 938 Sex Ratio 918
Literacy Rate 65.38% Literacy Rate 61.80%
Capital Itanagar Capital Patna

Districts 38
Districts 25
Language Hindi
Major Tribes Monpa, Miji, Aka, Sherdukpen, Apatani, Adi,
Hill Miri, Tangsa, Wancho, etc State Bird Sparrow
Languages English, Nyishi, Bengali State Animal Gaur/Ox
Establishment Arunachal Pradesh became a full-fledged state State Tree Peepal
on 20th February, 1987. Till 1972, it was State Flower Marigold
known as the North-East Frontier Agency
(NEFA). It gained the Union Territory status Establishment Bihar remained a part of the Bengal Presidency of
on 20th January, 1972 and renamed as British India until 1912, when the province of Bihar
Arunachal Pradesh. and Odisha was carved out as a separate province.
Since 2010, Bihar has been celebrating its
Geography The topography here is characterised by an foundation day as Bihar Diwas on 22nd March.
undulating hilly terrain nestled amid the
foothills of the Shiwalik ranges. It makes Geography Bihar is rich alluvial plain lying on the North
boundary with Bhutan, China and Myanmar. consisting chiefly of the Gangetic valley. The three
major types of soil in Bihar are Piedmont Swamp
soil, Terai soil and the Gangetic Alluvium soil. The
Assam soil covering most of the state is thick alluvium
which shrouds the Shiwalik and older tertiary rocks.
Latitude 24°3′ N to 27°58′ N
Longitude 89°42′ E to 96°30′ E
Chhattisgarh
Area 78,438 sq km
Latitude 17 ° 46′ N to 24° N
Population 3,12,05,576
Longitude 80° 60′ E to 84° 25′ E
District 33
Area 1,37,898 sq km
Density 398
Sex Ratio 958
Density 189
Literacy Rate 72.2%
Sex Ratio 991
Capital Dispur Literacy Rate 70.3%
Languages Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Nepali, Mising, Karbi Capital Raipur
and Dimasa
Districts 28
Establishment Assam became a British protectorate in 1825
when the Burmese ceded Assam to the British Language Hindi
under the provision of the Treaty of Yandabo. It Establishment Chhattisgarh has been carved out of the state of
became an independent state on 15th August, Madhya Pradesh and came into being on
1947. Assam is the sentinels of North-East India 1st November, 2000 as the 26th state of the Union.
and gateway to the North-Eastern states. The Chhattisgarh takes its name from the 36 pillars of
state is close to India’s international borders Chhattisgarhi Devi Temple (Chhattis means 36 and
with Bangladesh and Bhutan. Garh means pillar).
Geography Assam is geographically almost separated from Geography The Northern and Southern parts are hilly while
Central India by Bangladesh. From the central part is the fertile plain. The highest
North-Eastern corners to West and further point in the state is the Bailadila range. Amrit
towards South, the Brahmaputra river spreads Dhara waterfall in Koriya is among the most
its rich Alluvial Plain. famous waterfalls in Koriya.
353
Goa Literacy Rate 75.60%
Latitude 15° 29′ N to 15° 40′ N Capital Chandigarh
Longitude 73° 40′ E to 74° 20′ E Districts 22
Area 3,702 sq km Language Hindi
Population 14,58,545 Establishment The present day Haryana was established as a

state on 1st November, 1966.
Density 394
Geography It just covers 1.37% of the total geographical
Sex Ratio 973 area of the country. The geographical area of
Literacy Rate 88.7% Haryana can be divided into three parts : Hilly
area, Plain area and Sandy area. Red soil is
Capital Panaji found in Sirsa district.
Districts 2
Languages Konkani, Marathi, English and Hindi Himachal Pradesh
Establishment On 19th December, 1961, Goa was liberated and Latitude 30° 22′ N to 33°12′ N
made a composite Union Territory with Daman and Longitude 75° 45′ E to 79° 42′ E
Diu. On 30th May, 1987, the Union Territory was
split and Goa was made India’s 25th state with Area 55,673 sq km
Daman and Diu remaining a Union Territory. Population 68,64,602
Geography Located on the Konkan coastal belt, Goa has a Density 123
natural border made of the Terekhol river that
separates from Maharashtra in the North. The Sex Ratio 972
Western Ghats stand to the East of the state and Literacy Rate 82.80%
Arabian sea lies to the West.
Capital Shimla
Gujarat Districts 12
Latitude 20°10′ to 23° 21′ N Languages Hindi and Pahari
Longitude 73° 40′ to 74° 20′ E Establishment It came into being as a Union Territory in April
1948 and on 26th January, 1950, it became a
Area 1,96,024 sq km part of state. On 25th January, 1971, Himachal
Population 6,04,39,692 Pradesh became the 18th state of Indian
Union. Himachal means Abode of Snow,
Density 308 situated in the heart of the Western Himalaya,
Sex Ratio 919 identified as ‘Dev Bhoomi’ and is believed to
be the abode of Gods and Goddesses.
Literacy Rate 78.03%
Geography The entire region of Himachal Pradesh is hilly
Capital Gandhinagar with altitude ranging from 350 metres to 7000
metres above sea level. Some important peaks
Districts 33
here are Shilla, Shipki, Kinner, Kailash,
Language Gujarati Shigrila, Pir Panjal, Bara Kanda, etc. Some
important hot springs are Manikaran,
Establishment Gujarat is derived from Gujjar-ratra. The state of Kheerganga, Kasol, Vashist (district Kullu),
Gujarat came into being on 1st May, 1960. The first Tattapani (district Mandi).
capital of Gujarat was Ahmedabad, the capital was
moved to Gandhinagar in 1970.
Jharkhand
Geography The state comprises of three geographical regions,
viz. the peninsula (traditionally known as Latitude 21° 28′ N to 25°18′ N
Saurashtra), hilly tract sprinkled with two
Longitude 83° 26′ E to 87 ° 51′ E
mountains and the famous Rann of Kutch (desert).
Area 79,714 sq km
Haryana Population 3,29,88,134
Growth Rate 22.4%
Latitude 27 ° 37 ′ to 30° 35′ N
Density 414
Longitude 74° 60′ to 77 ° 36′ E
Sex Ratio 949
Area 44,212 sq km
Literacy Rate 66.4%
Population 27,761,063
Capital Ranchi
Density 573 Districts 24
Sex Ratio 879 Language Hindi
354
Establishment It became a full-fledged state on 15th November, Madhya Pradesh

2000.
Latitude 21° 2′ N to 26° 87 ′ N
Geography Most of the Jharkhand region is part of
Chotanagpur plateau. Parasnath is the highest Longitude 74°E to 82° 49′ E
peak here. Different kinds of soil are found here,
viz red soil (Rajmahal area, Damodar valley), Area 3,08,000 sq km
Sandy soil (Hazaribagh, Dhanbad), Black soil Population 7,26,26,809
(Rajmahal) and Laterite soil (Western Ranchi,
Singhbhum, Santhal Parganas). Density 236
Sex Ratio 931
Karnataka Literacy Rate 69.3%
Latitude 11° 31′ to 18°14′ N Capital Bhopal
Longitude 74°12′ to 78°10′ E
Districts 52
Area 1,91,791 sq km
Language Hindi
Establishment Madhya Pradesh was given the status of
Density 320 full-fledged state w.e.f. 1st November, 1956.
Sex Ratio 973 The area covered by the present day Madhya
Pradesh includes the area of the ancient Avanh
Literacy Rate 75.4% Mahajanapada, whole capital was Ujjain (also
Capital Bengaluru known as Avanti).
Districts 30 Geography The Madhya Pradesh, centrally located in

India and frequently called as the Heart of
Language Kannada India, comprises of big plateau (Malwa
Establishment Karnataka has a recorded history of more than plateau), amazing range, round about rivers.
2000 years. After Independence, the Mysore state
was created in 1953. In 1956, all the Kannada Maharashtra
dominated areas were unified after which the
enlarged Mysore state was carved in 1956 Latitude 15° 5′ N to 22° N
and was renamed as Karnataka in 1973.
Longitude 72° 5′ E to 80° 09′ E
Geography The state can be divided into four regions i.e.,
Northern Region, Coastal Region, Central Region Area 3,07,713 sq km
and Southern Region. The Red soil constitutes 11,23,74,333
Population
major soil type, followed by Black soil.
Density 365
Kerala Sex Ratio 929
Latitude 8°17 ′ N to 12° 47 ′ N Literacy Rate 69.3%
Longitude 74° 27 ′ E to 77 ° 37 ′ E
Capital Mumbai
Area 38,863 sq km
Districts 36
Density 860 Language Marathi
Sex Ratio 1,084 Establishment The administrative evolution of the state of
Maharashtra is the outcome of the linguistic
reorganisation of the states of India, which
Capital Thiruvananthapuram came into effect on 1st May, 1960.
Districts 14 Geography The most important physical feature of
Language Malayalam Maharashtra is the Deccan plateau, which is
separated from the Konkan coastline by
Establishment Under the State’s Re-organisation Act, 1956, Ghats. The Satpura hills alongwith
Travancore- Cochin state and Malabar were Bhamragad-Chiroli-Gaikhuri from North to
united to form Kerala state on 1st November, East serve as its natural borders. The soils of
1956. the state are residual, derived from
Geography Kerala can be divided into three geographical underlying basalts. In the semi dry plateau
regions—1. High lands, 2. Mid lands 3. Low (Deccan plateau), the regur (black-cotton
lands. Anaimudi is the highest peak (2695 m). soil) is predominant.
355
Manipur Districts 11
Latitude 23° 80′ N to 25° 68′ N Languages Mizo and English
Longitude 93° 03′ E to 94°78′ E Establishment Mizoram became full-fledged 23rd state on
20th February, 1987.
Area 22,327 sq km
Geography The terrain of Mizoram is hilly with a
Population 28,55,794 number of valleys, rivers and lakes. There
Density 128 are 21 hill ranges in the state which run as
ridges from North to South. The Palak lake
Sex Ratio 985 is the biggest lake here, formed as a result
Literacy Rate 79.21% of an earthquake. Phawngpui is the highest
peak of the state.
Capital Imphal
Districts 16
Nagaland
Languages Manipuri, Meitei
Latitude 25° 6′ N to 27 ° 4′ N
Establishment The state of Manipur was established on
21st January, 1972. Longitude 93° 20′ to 95°15′ E
Geography This state is virtually the meeting point between Area 16,579 sq km
India and South-East Asia. The blue hill ranges Population 19,78,502
surrounding the valley are higher on the North and
gradually diminish in height towards the South. Density 119
Sex Ratio 931
Meghalaya Literacy Rate 79.6%
Latitude 23° 83′ N to 25° 68′ N Capital Kohima
Longitude 93° 03′ E to 94°78′ E Districts 12
Area 22,429 sq km Languages Angami, Ao, Chang Konyak, Lotha, English
Population 3,211,000 Establishment Nagaland became 16th state of India on
Density 140 1st December, 1963.
Sex Ratio 989 Geography The state is mostly mountainous except
Literacy Rate 74.43% areas bordering Assam valley. Mount
Saramati (highest peak in Nagaland) and its
Capital Shillong ranges form a natural barrier between
Districts 11 Nagaland and Myanmar.
Languages Khasi, Garo and English

Odisha
Establishment Meghalaya was inaugurated as an autonomous
state on 2nd April, 1970. It was declared a state of Latitude 17 ° 4′ N to 22° 3′ N
Indian Union on 21st January, 1972.
Longitude 81° 2′ E to 87 ° 2′ E
Geography The Khasi hills and Jaintia hills, which form the
Central and Eastern part of Meghalaya form an Area 1,55,707 sq km
imposing plateau with rolling grassland, hills and Population 4,19,74,218
river valleys. A narrow strip of plain runs along
the international border with Bangladesh. Density 270
Sex Ratio 979
Mizoram
Latitude 21° 58′ N to 24° 35′ N
Capital Bhubaneshwar
Longitude 92°15′ E to 93° 29′ E
Districts 30
Area 21,081 sq km
Language Odia
Establishment It became Indian state on 15th August, 1947.
Density 52
Geography Its diverse landscape comprises coastal
Sex Ratio 976
plains, mountainous terrain, plateaus,
Literacy Rate 91.33% Verdant river valleys and spots dotted with
watersheds, springs and lakes.
Capital Aizawl
356
Punjab Languages Lepcha, Bhutia, Nepali and English
Latitude 29° 30′ N to 32° 32′ N Establishment It became Indian state on 16th May, 1975.
Longitude 73° 55′ E to 76° 50′ E Geography Sikkim is well-known for its scenic beauty and
has wide altitudinal variation from about 300m
Area 50,362 sq km to 8500m (above mean sea level). Mt
Population 2,77,43,338 Khangchendzonga, the third highest peak in
the world and adjacent Singalila range strongly
Density 551 govern the relief features on the Western part
Sex Ratio 895 of the state.

Tamil Nadu
Capital Chandigarh
Latitude 20° 25′ and 20° 45′
Districts 22
Longitude 85° 35′ - 86° 5′ E
Language Punjabi
Area 1,30,058 sq km
Establishment It became full-fledged state on 1st November,
1966. Population 7,21,47,030
Geography Due to the presence of a large number of rivers, Density 555

most of the state is a fertile plain. The Sex Ratio 996
South-East region of the state is semi-arid and
gradually presents a desert landscape.
Capital Chennai
Rajasthan Districts 38
Latitude 23° 3′ N to 30°12′ N Language Tamil

Establishment Tamil Nadu was one of the first of British
Longitude 69° 3′ E to 78°17 ′ E
settlements in India. The state is the successor
Area 3,42,239 sq km to the old Madras Presidency. It became
full-fledged state on 26th January, 1950.
Geography It has a long coastline and the Eastern Ghats
Density 200
(mountain range) run parallel to the same. The
Growth Rate 21.31% coastal plains run North to South. There are
only two major gaps (Palakkad gap and
Sex Ratio 928
Shencottah gap) into the long chain of hills that
Literacy Rate 66.11% border Western Tamil Nadu. Doddabetta Peak
is the highest peak in the state (2,639 m).
Capital Jaipur
Districts 33
Tripura
Languages Hindi and Rajasthani
Latitude 22°56′ N to 24°32′ N
Establishment It became full-fledged state on 1st November,
1956. Longitude 90°09′ E to 90°10′ E
Geography The oldest chain of fold mountain, the Aravalli Area 10,491.69 sq km
range, splits the state into two geographical Population 36,73,917
zones– desert in leeward side and forest belt
in the other. Guru Shikhar Peak is the highest Density 350
peak of the Aravalli. Sex Ratio 960
Sikkim
Capital Agartala
Latitude 27 ° 05′ N to 28° 07 ′ N Districts 8
Longitude 87 ° 59′ E to 88° 56′ E Languages Bengali, Kokborok and Manipuri
Area 7,096 sq km Establishment Tripuri dynasty ruled Tripura for several
Population 6,10,577 centuries till 15th October, 1949 and merged
with the Indian Union as Part ‘C’ state. On 21st
Density 86 January, 1972, Tripura attained the full-fledged
Sex Ratio 890 status of a state.
Literacy Rate 81.42% Geography The state has three distinct physiographic
zones (1) Hill range (2) Undulating plateau land
Capital Gangtok (3) Low-lying alluvial land. The highest peak
Districts 4 lies at Betalongchhip.
357
Andhra Pradesh Population 19,98,12,341
Latitude 12° 41′ N to 22° N Density 829
Longitude 77° E to 84° 40′ E Sex Ratio 912
Area 1,60,205 sq km Literacy Rate 67.7%

Population 4,93,78,776 Capital Lucknow
Density 308 Districts 75
Sex Ratio 993 Languages Hindi and Urdu
Literacy Rate 67.66% Establishment The British combined Agra and Oudh into one
Capital Amaravati province and called it United Provinces of Agra
and Oudh. The name was shortened to the
Districts 13 United Provinces in 1935. In January 1950, the
Languages Telugu, Urdu and English United Provinces was renamed as Uttar Pradesh.
Establishment Andhra Pradesh came into being on 1st Geography This state can be divided into 3 distinct
November, 1956. On 1st March, 2014 , Andhra geographical regions i.e., the Himalayan region
Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 got President’s in the North, the Gangetic plain in the centre
assent, which bifurcated the erstwhile Andhra and the Vindhya hills and plateau in the South.
Pradesh into Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
Geography Eastern Andhra includes Eastern part of Deccan Uttarakhand
Plateau and considerable part of the Eastern
Ghats. Northern part of Andhra Pradesh is Latitude 28° 43′ N to 31° 27 ′ N
marked as the Telangana region and the Longitude 77 ° 34′ E to 81° 02′ E
Southern part is known as the Rayalaseema
region. Lambasingi in Andhra Pradesh is the only Area 53,483 sq km
place in South India, which has snowfall and is Population 1,00,86,292
also nicknamed as Kashmir of Andhra Pradesh.
Density 189
Telangana Sex Ratio 963

Latitude 15° 8′ N to 19° 8′ N
Capital Dehradun
Longitude 77 °7 ′ E to 81° 8′ E
Districts 13
Area 1,14,840 sq km
Languages Hindi, English, Garhwali, Kumaoni
Establishment In January 1950, the United Province was
Density 310
renamed as Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal
Sex Ratio 988 remained a part of Uttar Pradesh, before it was
carved out of Uttar Pradesh on 9th November,
2000. It is incepted as the 27th state of India and
Capital Hyderabad the Uttaranchal was renamed as Uttarakhand on
1st January, 2007.
Districts 33
Geography Physiographically, the state can be divided into
Languages Telugu, Urdu
three zones, viz the Kumaon, the Garhwal and
Establishment After prolonged movement for separate the Tarai region.
Telangana state in February 2014, Andhra
Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 Bill was passed
by the Parliament of India for the formation of
West Bengal
Telangana state. The Bill received the assent of Latitude 22°56′ N and 27 ° 3′ N
the President and published in the Gazette on 1st
March, 2014. The state of Telangana was Longitude 85° 8′ and 89° 9′ E
officially formed on 2nd June, 2014. Area 88,752 sq km
Geography Telangana is situated on the Deccan plateau, in Population 9,12,76,115
the central stretch of the Eastern seaboard of the
Indian Peninsula and most of the land is arid. Density 1028
Sex Ratio 950
Uttar Pradesh Literacy Rate 76.3%
Latitude 23°5′ N to 31°2′ N Capital Kolkata
Longitude 77°3′ E to 84°3′ E Districts 23
Area 2,40,928 sq km Language Bengali
358
Establishment In 1947, when India became independent, Establishment Chandigarh and the area surrounding it, were
Bengal was partitioned between India and constituted as a Union Territory on 1st
Pakistan. Later, the state of Cooch Behar, French November, 1966. It serves as the joint capital of
enclave of Chandannagar and some parts of both Punjab and Haryana states.
Bihar added to West Bengal and the state got its
Geography The subsurface formation comprises of beds of
present political boundary according to the State
boulders, pebbles, gravel, sand, silt, clays and
Reorganisation Act, 1956.
some kankar. The area is drained by two seasonal
Geography The land forms have features like Darjeeling rivulets viz Sukhna Choe in the East and
Himalayan hill region, Terai region, North Patiala-Ki-Rao Choe in the West. 15.14% of area is
Bengal plains, Rarh region, coastal plain, recorded as forest coverage.
Sunderban, Western plateau and high lands and
Ganges delta.
Dadar and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu
Latitude 20° 42′ N
Union Territories Longitude 73° 83° E
Andaman and Nicobar Islands Area 603
Latitude 6° to 14° N Population 585,674
Longitude 92° to 94° E Density 970 sq. km
Area 8,249 sq km Sex Ratio Dadar and Nagar Haveli (774)

and Daman and Diu (618)
Population 3,80,581
Literacy Rate Dadar and Nagar Haveli (76.2%)
Density 46 and Daman and Diu (87.1%)
Sex Ratio 876 Capital Daman
Literacy Rate 86.63% Districts 3
Capital Port Blair Languages Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi, English.
Districts 3 Establishment The Portuguese ruled over Dadra and Nagar
Languages Hindi, Nicobarese, Bengali, Tamil, Malayalam, Haveli and Daman and Diu until 1954 and 1961,
Telugu respectively. Both were merged with Indian
Union in 1961. Until 2019 both were governed as
Establishment It became Indian Union Territory on different Union Territories. In December 2019,
1st November, 1956. Parliament passed an Act which merged both the
Union Territories. The merger Act came into
Geography The islands located North of 10° North latitude
effect on 26th January, 2020.
are known as Andaman Group of Islands, while
islands located South of 10° North latitude are Geography While ‘Nagar Haveli’ is located between
called Nicobar Group of Islands. The climate of Maharashtra and Gujarat, ‘Dadra’ is an enclave
the islands can be defined as humid, tropical, which is a few kilometres North of ‘Nagar
coastal climate. The islands receive rainfall from Haveli’ in Gujarat. Daman is bound on the East
both the South-West and North-East monsoons by Gujarat, on the West by the Arabian sea, on
and maximum precipitation is between May and the North by the Kolak river and on the South by
December. Kalai river. Diu is an island connected by two
bridges. The neighbouring district of Diu is
Junagadh in Gujarat.
Chandigarh
Latitude 30°75′ N Lakshadweep
Longitude 76°78′ E
Latitude 8° to 12° 3′ N
Area 114 sq km
Longitude 71° to 74′ E
Area 32 sq km
Density 9258
Population 64,473
Sex Ratio 818
Density 2013
Literacy Rate 86%
Sex Ratio 946
Capital Chandigarh
Literacy Rate 91.8%
District 1 Capital Kavaratti
Languages Hindi, Punjabi, English Districts 1
359
Language Jeseri, Mahal Geography Puducherry more or less is a flat land with no
hills and forests. The soil of Puducherry is
Establishment In 1956, the islands were constituted into a
mainly red fertile, black clay and alluvial with
single territory and since then, have been
sandy elements.
directly administered by the Union
Government through an administrator. The
Laccadives, Minicoy and Aminidivi group Jammu and Kashmir
of islands were renamed as Lakshadweep
in 1973. Latitude 32° 44′ N to 35° 20′ N
Geography Lakshadweep, a group of coral islands, Longitude 73° 30′ to 76°80′ E

consists of 12 atolls, three reefs and submerged
sand banks. Of the 27 islands, only 11 are Area 53,258
inhabited. These lie scattered in the Arabian Population 12,267,013 (Including Ladakh)
Sea about 280 km to 480 km off Kerala coast.
Density 889 (Including Ladakh)
Delhi (National Capital Territory) Literacy Rate 67.16% (Including Ladakh)
Latitude 28° 38′ N Capital Srinagar (Summer) and Jammu (Winter)
Longitude 77 °13′ E Districts 20
Area 1,483 sq km Languages Kashmiri, Dogri, Urdu
Establishment On 26th October, 1947, Jammu and Kashmir
Density 11,297 became state of India by signing Instrument of
Sex Ratio 868 Accession by Raja Hari Singh. On 31st October,
2019, it was made Union Teritory by Jammu
Literacy Rate 86.2% and Kashmir Reorganisation Bill, 2019.
Capital Delhi Geography There are many valleys such as the Kashmir
Districts 11 valley, Tawi valley, Chenab valley, Poonch
valley, Sind valley and Lidder valley.
Languages Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu and English
Establishment In 1911, Delhi became the centre of all Ladakh
activities after the capital was shifted from
Kolkata. It was made a Union Territory in 1956. Latitude 32° 44′ N
It got a Legislative Assembly with the
enactment of the National Capital Territory Longitude 80° 05′′ E
Act, 1991. Area 1,69,421
Geography There are three major geographical
Population 2,74,289
regions—the Yamuna flood plain, the ridge and
the Gangetic plains. Density 4.6
Sex Ratio 889 (Census 2011)
Puducherry
Literacy Rate 67.16% (Census 2011)
Latitude 11° 93′ N
Capital Leh/Kargil
Longitude 79° 83′ E
Area 490 sq km Districts 2
Population 12,47,953 Languages Ladakhi, Urdu
Density 2,598 Establishment Until 2019, Ladakh was a part of state of

Jammu and Kashmir. In August 2019, the
Sex Ratio 1,037
Parliament of India enacted Reorganisation
Literacy Rate 85.8% Act, 2019 which created the Union Territory of
Ladakh on 31st October, 2019. It consist of 2
Capital Puducherry
district i.e. Leh and Kargil. It has huge
Districts 4 strategic importance due to its strategic
location.
Languages Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, English and
French Geography It is highest plateau in India with the height of
Establishment Puducherry, the capital of the territory, was 98,00 ft. It is divided into different valleys,
once the original headquarters of the French prominent one includes Baltistan, Indus and
in India. It was under the French rule for 138 Nubra valley. Most of the area of the Union
years and merged with the Indian Union on 1st territory is designated as cold desert as
November, 1954. Himalayas create a rain shadow.
360
Glossary
Abiotic It refers to a non-living thing. Usually they are Command Area It is the area served by a canal system
physical and chemical components of an organism’s through supply of water for irrigation and other purposes.
environment. Culturable Command Area It refers to the culturable land
Adiabatic Lapse Rate It is the rate of change of irrigated by a canal system. It is different from gross
temperature by an ascending or descending airmass. command area. The later includes all the area served by a
Aphelion It is the point in the Earth’s orbit when it is canal system including unculturable.
farthest from the Sun 152.5 million km). Aphelion Desert Pavement It is a veneer of coarse particles left on
occurs on the 3rd or 4th of July. the ground after the erosion of finer particles by wind.
Archipelago It is a group of islands that lie in fairly Depression In meteorology, it denotes an area of relatively
close proximity. low atmospheric pressure, which is found mainly in
Agro-climatic It is the climatic and land resource temperate regions. It is also used as synonym for temperate
conditions in totality which are crucial for the cyclones.
development of agriculture and allied economic Dependency Ratio It is the ratio of people of dependent age
conditions of a region. (below 15 and above 60 years) to people of economically
Aquifer It is a saturated geological unit (e.g. sands, active ages (15-59 years).
gravels, fractured rock) which can yield water to wells Ebb Tide It is the flow of tide during the tidal period when
at a sufficient rate to support a well. the water level in the sea is falling.
Batholith It is a large mass of subsurface intrusive El Nino It is the name given to the occasional development
igneous rock that has its origins from mantle magma. of warm ocean surface waters along the coast of Ecuador
Backwater It is a stretch of water that has become and Peru. The El Nino normally occurs around Christmas
bypassed by the main flow of a stream, although still and lasts usually for a few weeks to a few months.
joined to it. It has a very low rate of flow. Epicentre It is a place on the surface of the Earth located at
Bedrock It is the solid rock lying beneath soil and the shortest distance from the focus of the earthquake, the
weathered material. point at which the seismic energy gets released.
Bunding It is the practice of constructing Estuary It is the tidal mouth of a river where fresh and
embankments of Earth or stone for conserving water saline water get mixed.
and soil to increase crop production. Eco-development It is the process of development of a
Base population It is the total population of an area at region by means of conservation and regeneration of
the beginning of a given time period. degraded ecosystem and ecological sustainability.
Birth rate It is the number of live births for every 1000 Emigration It is movement of people from one place to
persons in a year. another usually from one country to another with a purpose
of earning, living, residing and settling.
Calcification It is a dry environment soil-forming
process that results in the accumulation of calcium Flow System or Channel It is a channel of canal where
carbonate in surface soil layers. water flows under the influence of gravity.
Cold Front It is a transition zone in the atmosphere Fault It is a linear break in rocks of the Earth’s crust along
where an advancing cold air mass displaces a warm air which there has been displacement in a horizontal, vertical
mass. or oblique direction.
Coriolis Force It is an apparent force due to the Earth’s Fold It is a bend in the rock strata resulting from
rotation. compression of an area of the Earth’s crust.
Calcareous It is composed of or containing a high Geomagnetism It is a property of magnetically susceptible
proportion of calcium carbonate. minerals to get aligned to the Earth’s magnetic field during
the period of rock formation.
Catchment Area It is the area drained by a major river
and its tributaries. Geostrophic Wind It is Horizontal wind in the upper
atmosphere that moves parallel to isobars. Results from a
Coastal Plain It is a flat low lying land between the
balance between pressure gradient force and Coriolis force.
coast and higher ground inland.
Geosyncline It is a narrow, shallow, elongated basin with a
Coral It is a small calcium secreting marine polyp that
sinking bottom in which a considerable thickness of
occurs in colonies, mainly in warm shallow sea water.
sediments was deposited by the rivers coming from Angara
It forms the coral reefs.
and Gondwanaland.
361
Gorge It is a deep valley with steep and rocky side walls. Lithospheric Plates It is a large segments of the Earth’s
Groundwater Table It is the top of the zone in which all crust composed of continental and oceanic lithospheric
pore spaces or fissures are totally filled with water. parts, floating above the asthenosphere.
Hail It is a type of precipitation received in the form of Life Expectancy It is the average number of years one is
ice pellets or hail stones. The size of hailstones can be expected to live.
between 5 and 190 mm in diameter. Local Time It is the time of a place determined by the
Halocline It is the distinct zone in the ocean below midday Sun is called the local time.
which the salinity increases sharply. Meander It is a pronounced curve or loop in the course
Hydration It is a form of chemical weathering that of a river channel.
involves the rigid attachment of H + and OH − ions to the Migration Stream It refers to a group of migrants with
atoms and molecules of a mineral. the common origin and destination.
Hydrolysis It is chemical weathering process that Million Plus Cities They are cities with a population of
involves the reaction between mineral ions and the ions more than one million or 10 lakh.
of water (OH − and H + ), and results in the decomposition Occluded Front It is a transition zone in the atmosphere
of the rock surface by forming new compounds. where an advancing cold air mass sandwiches a warm air
Infiltration It is a portion of the precipitation which mass between another cold air mass pushing the warm
reaches the Earth surface seeps into the ground in the air into the upper atmosphere.
permeable strata. This process is known as infiltration. Ozone Hole It is a sharp seasonal decrease in
Insolation It is an incoming solar radiation in short wave stratospheric ozone concentration that occurs over
form. Antarctica in the spring. First detected in the late 1970s,
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) It is a zone of the ozone hole continuous to appear as a result of
low atmospheric pressure and ascending air located at or complex chemical reaction in the atmosphere that
near the equator. Rising air currents are due to global involves CFCs.
wind convergence and convection from thermal heating. Palaeomagnetism It is the alignment in terms of
Immigration It is the movement of a person as a inclination from horizon acquired by magnetically
permanent resident into another area, usually into a susceptible minerals in the rock during the period of
foreign country. their formation.
Intrusive Irrigation It is a strategy of irrigation Plate Tectonics It is a theory suggesting that the Earth’s
development where per unit application of water is high. surface is composed of a number of oceanic and
continental plates. Driven by convection currents in the
Indian Standard Time It is the local time along the
mantle, these plates have the ability to slowly move
Standard Meridian of India (82°30′ E).
across the Earth’s plastic asthenosphere.
Inland drainage It is a drainage system in which the
Precipitation It is showering of the raindrops, snow or
waters of the rivers do not reach the oceans but fall into
hailstones from the clouds onto the surface of the Earth.
an Inland sea or lake.
Rainfall, snowfall, cloud burst and hailstones are forms
Jet Stream It is a very strong and steady westerly wind of precipitation.
blowing just below the tropopause.
Pass It is a route through a mountain range which
Katabatic Wind It is any wind blowing down the slope of follows the line of a col or a gap.
a mountain.
Peninsula It is a piece of land jutting out into the sea.
La Nina It is the condition opposite of an El Nino. In a La
Playa The low flat central area of a basin of inland
Nina, the tropical Pacific trade winds become very strong
drainage. Playas occur in areas of low rainfall.
and an abnormal accumulation of cold water occurs in
the central and eastern Pacific Ocean. Protected Forest It is an area notified under the
provisions of Indian Forest Act or the State Forest Acts
Latent Heat It is the energy required to change a
having limited degree of protection. In Protected Forests,
substance to a higher state of matter (solid > liquid >
all activities are permitted unless prohibited.
gas). This same energy is released from the substance
when the change of state is reversed (gas > liquid > Runoff It is the flow of water over land through different
solid). channels.
Lift System or Channel It is a channel of canal where Rapids It is a stretch of swift flowing water where a river
water is forced to flow against the slope of land by bed suddenly becomes steeper due to the presence of
upliftment. hard rocks.
Lagoon It is a Salt-water lake separated from the sea by Rainwater Harvesting It is the technique of collection
the sandbars and spits. and storage of rain water at surface or in sub-surface
aquifer.
362
Relief It is the differences in elevation or the physical outline Terai It is a belt of marshy ground and vegetation on
of the land surface or ocean floor. the lower parts of the alluvial fans.
Remittance It refers to the all cash or kinds sent by the Tectonic Forces They originate within the Earth
migrants to their place of origin. Money order is one form of and responsible for bringing widespread changes in
remittance. the landform features.
Solar Wind It is a mass of ionised gas emitted to space by the Transhumance It is the practice of seasonal
Sun. Plays a role in the formation of auroras. migration where the pastoral communities migrate
Subsurface flow It is the movement of water below the to the pastures along with their herds during
surface of the Earth. After infiltration, the subsurface water summer season. These communities return to their
returns to the surface through seepage into the streams or permanent residence in winter.
eventually goes into the ocean. Unclassed Forest It is an area recorded as forest but
Sanctuary It is an area, which is reserved for the conservation not included in reserved or protected forest
of animals only and operations such as harvesting of timber, category. Ownership status of such forests varies
collection of minor forest products are allowed so long as they from state to state.
do not affect the animals adversely. Warabandi System It is a system of equitable
Soil Profile It is the vertical section of soil from the ground distribution of water in the command area of a canal
surface to the parent rock. outlet.
Subcontinent It is a big geographical unit which stands out Watershed It is a natural geo-hydrological unit of
distinctly from the rest of the continent. land, which collects water and drains it through a
common point by a system of streams. Such a unit
Subsidence In meteorology, it is the downward movement of
can be a small area of a few hectares or it could be
the air. In geology, it refers to the sinking of a portion of the
an area of hundreds of square kilometres like the
Earth’s surface.
Ganga river basin.
Thermocline It is a boundary in a body of water where the
Young Mountains These are the fold mountains
greatest vertical change in temperature occurs. This boundary
formed during the most recent major phase of
is usually the transition zone between the layer of warm water
folding in the Earth’s crust.
near the surface that is mixed and the cold deep water layer.

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WORLD GEOGRAPHY l Evaporation 59

Chapter 3. The Earth 10-17 Chapter 6. Oceanography 67-86

Chapter 5. Climatology 44-66 Chapter 8. Agriculture and Animal

Chapter 11. Industries 114-125 Chapter 18. Climate in India 193-202

ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY Chapter 32. Environmental Issues 335-340

Geography Geography as an Integrating Discipline

Concept of Human Environment Physical Geography

Geography is an interdisciplinary subject of study. The study of every Human Geography

It is now generally accepted that the event of Big

Big Bang Theory Steady-State Theory

Stages in the Development of the Universe Pulsating Universe Theory

Celestial Bodies Andromeda Galaxy It is also known as Messier 31. It is a

The gravity of a passing star and the shockwave Pole Star

This phase lasts until the star exhausts its

The Sun Earth

Evolution of Earth’s Hydrosphere

Evolution of Life on the Earth

Geological Time Scale

second (”). Equator 0° 0° Equator

Therefore, these are called temperate zones. Prime Meridian

Longitude is an angular distance of a place from the 40º N

Longitude and Time

— But at 15° West of Greenwich’ the time will be behind

crossing this line.

India : Extent and Standard Meridian

It is our common experience that the rays of the Sun

152 million km 147 million km

Sun Earth Umbra

‘Integrated Ocean Drilling Project’ are the two major

Pressure Even though the density increases with Crust

5,100 km Core Asthenosphere

Core The point on the surface directly above or nearest to

The direction of vibrations of S-waves is

P-waves S-waves Surface

Earthquake Graph P-waves received here

S-wave shadow zone

They travel slower than body waves. Shadow Zone

Magnitude and Ground rupture It occurs when the earthquake

Volcanic Cone Volcanic Pipe Types of Volcano on the

towards the surface and gives rise to certain

Eurasian Plate North

Evidence of Continental Drift Theory

Criticism of Continental Drift Theory Sea Floor Spreading Theory

As these diastrophic forces operate very slowly

Excessive stresses and strains produce fracturing and

Exogenic Movements Weathering

Erosion Materials over the slopes have their own resistance to

Waterfalls The very coarse load carried by streams flowing

Point Bars The concave bank is known as cut-off bank which

Point mantle and appear as shallow water pools. The term

trenches called valley sinks or Uvalas form.

Tunnels Caves normally have an opening through Erosional Landforms of Glaciers

Horns and Serrated Ridges

Glaciers Depositional Landforms of Glaciers

Depositional Landforms of Wind