Block 4 Economic Geology

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• Evaporation
• Bacteriogenic Precipitation
• Syn-sedimentary Volcanogenic

12.5 ENDOGENOUS PROCESSES OF ORE

FORMATION
The endogenous processes extend downward from the lower levels of circulating
meteoric water to the deepest level at which rocks are formed. It is an environment of
high temperature and pressure, restricted circulation of fluids, and relatively low free
oxygen content.
Now let us discuss the endogenous processes.

12.5.1 Magmatic Concentration

Magma is the primary and ultimate source of all kinds of deposits. Magmatic deposits
result from simple crystallisation and concentration by differentiation of intrusive
igneous masses. The host rock for the formation of ore deposit ranges from ultramafic
to felsic igneous rocks. In order to understand the magmatic processes it is necessary
to understand at the physico-chemical environment which tells us about the conditions
of ore formation. The source of material (molten rock material-magma) for magmatic
concentration process is located at great depth. Temperature and pressure is
dependent on the depth:
• Pressure range: The stability field for diamond and pyrope is 150 km to 1 km depth.
• Temperature range: Formation of diamond takes place at 1500ºC and sulphide ore
at 300ºC.
Magmatic ore deposits are also called as magmatic segregation, magmatic
injection, or igneous syngenetic deposits. Magmatic ores deposited by magmatic
activity are also known as orthomagmatic ore deposits. These types of deposits
result in massive ores and in some cases they may be disseminated. Diamonds occur
as crystals in the rocks known as kimberlite (found in South Africa, Australia, India) fall
under the category of magmatic disseminated type of deposits. Diamonds are
crystallised deep within the magma chamber and are later transported upwards. There
are several modes of formation of magmatic deposits. Magmatic ore deposits originate
during different phases of magma crystallisation. Early magmatic deposits result
during early phase of crystallisation of magma. While during late phase of
crystallisation the immiscible liquids give rise to mineral deposits known as late
magmatic deposits. Let us discuss in detail about them.
A) Early Magmatic Processes: As discussed above the early magmatic deposits
result during early phase of crystallisation of magma and can be formed by:
• Dissemination or Magmatic crystallisation without concentration
• Segregation of early formed crystals during crystallisation, and
• Injection of magmatic material concentrated at some other place by
differentiation.
Dissemination: During the deep seated crystallisation granular rock is formed in which
the early formed crystals disseminate and give rise to ore body. Disseminated or

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scattered ore deposits are formed due in situ crystallisation of magma in plutonic
conditions. Example: Majhgawan (Panna, Madhya Pradesh) is famous for diamond
deposit in Kimberlite rock.
Segregation: As the magma start cooling, the ore minerals crystallise during early
stage and being denser they sink down to the magma chamber by the process of
gravity settling (Fig. 12.3a and b). In this process Early magmatic minerals crystallise
due to concentration are form important deposits due to concentration by gravitative
crystallisation and differentiation. Example: chromite deposit in India is formed in
Sukinda Complex, Singhbhum. Thus the ore and common minerals crystallise at
similar temperatures and accumulate as layers at the bottom, forming a rich deposit
called as early magmatic deposit. Bushveld intrusion in South Africa is the best
example, where a large volume of magma intruded into older sedimentary rocks
forming a saucer shaped body. Magmatic segregation is a general term which refers
to any process by which one or more minerals become locally concentrated
(segregated) during the cooling and crystallisation of magma. Mineral formed as a
result of magmatic segregation are called as magmatic cumulate (Fig. 12.3c).

(a)

(b) (c)

Fig. 12.3: a) Early formed crystals may sink and accumulate in the magma chamber as
the result of gravity settling; b) Formation of ore body by gravity settling
process; and c) Cumulate structure due to magmatic segregation, notice
parallel chromite (black) and anorthosite (white stippled).
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Injection: During crystallisation if the early formed crystals are segregated and
thereafter injected into parent rocks or country rocks, then these deposits are known as
injection deposits. The crystallisation and segregation of this category of deposits takes
place in the magma chamber, but they are found elsewhere. The relationship of this
type of deposits with the country rocks can be concordant or discordant. Example:
Kiruna magnetite deposit in Sweden.
Watch the following video to more about early magmatic processes.
• Early magmatic deposits
Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53456
B) Late Magmatic Process: Ore deposits formed towards the end stages of
crystallisation of magma are termed as late magmatic deposits. They are formed
from the remaining melt towards the later phase of magmatic crystallisation. The
ore minerals crystallise after the formation of host rock as a result ore bodies cut
across the rock formation. These deposits are associated with plutonic
hypabyssal rocks. During the late phase of magmatic crystallisation when the
residual liquid become enriched in iron, titanium and volatiles and settle to the
bottom of the magma chamber, or crystallises in the interstices of early formed
crystals. The late magmatic deposits result from mechanical processes like:
• Residual Liquid Segregation
• Residual Liquid Injection
• Immiscible Liquid Segregation
• Immiscible Liquid Injection
1) Residual Liquid Segregation: Commonly the residual magma after magmatic
differentiation is rich in silica and water. After the differentiation of ultramafic
magma iron and titanium remain in residual liquid. This residual liquid is separated
from rest of the magma and crystallises in the form of mineral ore deposit. The
prerequisite for the formation of ore deposit is that during crystallisation those parts
of the Earth should not undergo disturbances. Example: titanium rich magnetite
deposits of Bushveld Complex, South Africa.
2) Residual Liquid Injection: After the process of residual liquid segregation the
residual liquid is injected in host rock or country rocks and the formation of residual
liquid injection deposits takes place. Earth disturbances play an important role in
the formation of the mineral deposits. Residual liquid is injected into areas of low
pressure due to Earth disturbances. Commonly these deposits are irregular in
shape, in the form of a wall or sill. The formation of magnetite and ilmenite takes
place by the process of residual liquid injection. Example: Adrinodack magnetite
and ilmenite deposit, USA and big magnetite deposit in Kiruna.
3) Immiscible Liquid Separation: Metals like copper and nickel play significant role
in the formation of sulphides. The differentiated rocks of gabbro family have
sulphides of nickel and copper along with metals like gold, silver, platinum. In the
ultramafic magma the sulphides of iron, copper and nickel being immiscible and
heavy accumulate at the bottom of the magma chamber. The sulphide minerals
are crystallised after the crystallisation of rock-forming silicate minerals. Commonly
this category of deposits include pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, pentlandite in which apart

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from nickel and copper ore deposits platinum, silver and other metals are found in
low concentrations.
4) Immiscible liquid injection: Immiscible liquid after differentiation is accumulated
in the magma chamber can be injected elsewhere due to Earth disturbances.
These injected sulphides after cooling form immiscible liquid injection deposits. The
shape of the deposit can be irregular or wall like and in these deposits the
fragments of previously formed rock-forming minerals and rocks are found. They
are found as discordant structure. Commonly sulphide of metals are found in these
deposits.
• Watch the following video to more about late magmatic processes.
Late magmatic deposits
Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53457
The metals and minerals ores found as the result of magmatic concentration are as
follows:
• Native: Platinum, gold, silver and copper
• Oxide: Magnetite, titanium bearing magnetite, ilmenite, chromite and corundum
• Sulphide: Chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, pentlandite and bornite
• Gemstones: Diamond, garnet and peridot
These are some minerals which are found in specific rocks or group of rocks as the
result of magmatic concentration process. The intimate relation between mineral ores
and rocks is as follows:
• Diamond – Kimberlite
• Chromite – Peridotite, dunite
• Nickel – Copper deposit, norite
• Platinum – Norite, peridotite

12.5.2 Sublimation
After having learnt about processes of formation of ore deposits by magmatic
concentration let us learn about the process of sublimation.
Sublimation is a subordinate process of the formation of mineral deposits. It applies
only to compounds that are volatilised and subsequently re-deposited from vapour at
lower temperature or pressure. It involves direct transition from the solid to the
gaseous state, or vice versa, without passing through the liquid state. The process is
often associated with volcanism and fumaroles. There are many sublimates deposited
around volcanoes and fumaroles, but they are seldom in sufficient abundance to make
workable mineral deposits. Noticeable concentrations have been formed in area
around geothermal springs. Sulphur deposit originated by sublimation process has
been mined in many countries (Fig. 12.4a). Common sublimates are the sulphur,
mercury and chlorides of iron, copper, zinc, oxides of iron and copper, boric acid, and
various salts of the alkali metals and ammonium. Example-sulphur and borax deposits
cover an area of 4 km2 in the area exhibit sublimates deposited by vigorous geothermal
activity in Puga valley, Ladakh (Fig. 12.4b). Occurrence of native sulphur is also
reported from Barren Island in Andaman.
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