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Advanced Earthquake Resistant Design Techniques for Tall Structures in

Sulaymaniyah

Research · May 2022

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.23558.14404

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 Research Report:
Advanced Earthquake Resistant Design
Techniques for Tall Structures in Sulaymaniyah

Prepared by:
Asma Jutyar
Diyya Kamaran
Nishtiman Khalaf
Surean Abdalhameed

Supervised by: Dr. Ashty Qazzaz

Due Date: May 28, 2022
Spring 2022
 Table of Contents
1. Summary 2
2. Introduction. 3
3. Literature Review 4
4. Experiments 24
5. Result 29
6. Discussion 35
7. Conclusion 41
8. Plan for Design Ⅱ 42
9. References 43
Table of Figures
Figures:
Figure 1: Earthquake-resistant technique. 9
Figure 2: Earthquake-resistant horizontal movement. 15
Figure 3: Diagonal Bracing Technique 25
Figure 4: Cross - Bracing Technique 25
Figure 5: Angled Cross half-lap joint 26
Figure 6: Shear Wall Technique 26
Figure 7: All models with different Techniques 28
Figure 8: Frequency and time effect on 3 floor building 33
Figure 9: Frequency and time effect on 6 floor building 34
Figure 10: Earthquake and resisting time relationship 34
Figure 11: Ground Cracks du to earthquake 37
Figure 12: Dam Spillway Slope 38
Figure 13: Building Cracks 39
Figure 14: Earthquake Destruction 39
Figure 15: Road Cracks 40
Figure 16: Road Cracks 40
Tables:
Table 1: Resisting time and frequency of the three-floor building 33
Table 2: Resisting time and frequency of the Six-floor building 33

1
1. Summary

Earthquakes are known to be one of the most destructive natural disasters whose force can

cause significant damage to buildings, constructions, and human lives. Therefore, it is required

from civil engineers to take all the necessary precautions while designing a structure, so that they

can minimize the hazardous risk of earthquakes. This paper focuses on advanced earthquake-

resistant design techniques for apartment building structures in Sulaymaniyah. This is because

obeying earthquake-resistant guidelines is one of the most important jobs earthquake engineers

need to thoroughly and efficiently take into account. This paper introduces the various earthquake-

resistant techniques and guidelines along with comparing and evaluating each technique to choose

the most suitable and effective one for apartment buildings in Sulaymaniyah. Further, different

techniques, such as flexible foundations, counterforces with damping, reinforcing the building’s

structure, and using earthquake-resistant materials are considered for figuring out the most

effective technique of them all. Indeed, this paper evaluates these techniques by considering

several factors, such as the structure, the materials used, the vulnerability sources, and the

characteristics of the building.

2
2. Introduction

Earthquakes happen due to the release of energy absorbed in the plates existing in the crust

of the Earth. This release of energy causes seismic waves. Earthquakes apply lateral forces on

structures by releasing both kinetic and potential energies. These can cause serious damage to

buildings and constructions risking people’s lives and properties. Earthquakes are natural and

cannot be stopped; however, buildings can be constructed in a way that they will resist earthquakes.

Many techniques can be used to resist earthquakes. Some of these techniques include base isolation

using dampers, pendulums, constructing shear walls, vibration control devices, reinforcing

building structures, and using materials that reinforce earthquakes. Experiments done on each of

these techniques in different countries are studied and investigated in this paper to come up with a

model that would perfectly resist earthquakes here in Sulaymaniyah city. Some of these researches

are done in Japan and China, and this is because these countries are exposed to earthquakes the

most. Considering codes for seismic loadings is very important because the collapse of buildings

due to earthquakes is much costlier than the consideration of these codes. According to Yenidogan,

half of the financial loss due to the Northridge earthquake in 1994 was due to structural damage,

and while the structural system only adds up 18% of the cost of structures, during earthquakes the

financial loss can go up to 70% of the cost [32]. One of the effective methods for seismic load

resistance is base isolation. Base isolation has been applied ever since the 19th century. This method

works through isolation. During earthquakes, the part that is most prone to danger is isolated from

the rest of the structure, and the vibration is shifted towards these dampers [32]. Reinforced

concrete is a material that is widely used around the world; however, it cannot fully resist

earthquakes, and this is why innovative materials such as composite materials should be

considered. It has been researched that fiber reinforced cement can withstand earthquake loads [2].

3
3. Literature Review:

3.1) This research discusses the effect of earthquakes on multi-story buildings and

suggests rubber base isolation as a solution to lessen seismic loads on buildings. Lead rubber

bearing and high damping rubber bearing have been designed and incorporated in building bases.

Structural response behaviors have been evaluated through static and dynamic analyses. For the

probable severe earthquake, rubber bearing isolation can be a suitable alternative as it mitigates

seismic effects, reduces structural responses, and provides structural and economic benefits. The

enormous amount of energy that the earthquake releases causes partial and total building collapse,

the base isolators are used to enhance the structural design of buildings by preventing the energy

transfer of the earthquake to the building. They reduce most of the horizontal movement from

being transmitted to the building by experiencing large inelastic deformations during a severe

earthquake and shift the structural fundamental natural frequency lower and away from the range

of frequencies where the earthquake energy is strongest because it is composed of laminate rubber

bearing and lead core. The lead core can not only bear the heavy load and horizontal force but also

absorb energy through plastic deformation of hysteresis damping. The installation of the isolator

increases the period and damping characteristics of the building. Therefore, it reduces the

possibility of resonance of the structure. These isolators allow the building structural members to

be smaller while meeting the same demands which leads to lessening the building weight and

reducing structural needs. Therefore, there will be a considerate reduction in the cost of the

building, and changes the deflection pattern of the building, thereby reducing the structural

responses significantly. [2]

3.2) This journal article under the title of “Natural base isolation system for earthquake

protection” is written by Srijit Bandyopadhyay, Aniruddha Sengupta, and G. R. Reddy, and

4
published by Current Science Association. This paper focuses on natural base isolation as a

technique against earthquake forces. It explains in great detail how the performance of a well-

designed layer of sand, geotextiles, and composites, such as layers of sand mixed with the shredded

tires can be used as base isolators. Accordingly, this can be tested on a shake table in the lab.

Indeed, according to this research the test has been carried out for a building foundation that is

modeled by a (200 mm × 200 mm) as well as (40 mm thick) rigid plexiglass block. In this

experiment, the block is put in the middle of a (1 m × 1 m) tank that was filled with sand. Further,

the base isolator is placed between the sand foundation and the block. Also, it should be mentioned

that accelerometers are placed on top of the footing as well as the foundation sand, and the

transducer is used to measure the displacement of the footing. This whole design is put on a shake

table, and it was directed to a motion with different amplitude and frequencies. As a result of their

experiment, the sand was found to be most effective at high amplitude only. Out of all the different

materials that were tested, the composite consisting of sand and 50% shredded rubber tire that was

placed under the footing was found to be the most effective base isolator. It also had the lowest

cost. [4]

3.3) This journal article under the title, “Earthquake Resistant Construction Techniques”

focuses on the behavior of masonry buildings to ground motion, and based on that it suggests

various earthquake-resistant techniques. The earthquake-resistant techniques this article suggests

are advanced techniques that can be applied to constructions for the sole purpose of enhancing

their durability during earthquakes. Further, alongside explaining the roles and responsibilities of

civil engineers in the field of earthquakes, it gives a list of guidelines for earthquake-resistant

construction. For instance, it suggests that horizontal bands are required to be provided at lintel,

plinth, and roof levels. Further, providing vertical reinforcement around specific locations such as

5
corners as well as internal and external wall junctions is also extremely crucial and necessary.

From this, it can be understood that this article focuses more on the details that go into building

the construction rather than the overall earthquake-resistant technique that is used for the

construction. Moreover, the grade of mortar should be used as per codes for different earthquake

zones in masonry buildings. That said, it is important to mention that irregular shapes must be

avoided in plan and vertical configuration. Also, in RCC framed structures, the spacing of lateral

ties should be kept closer based on the codes while the hook in the ties should be at 135° and not

90°. This is because this way it is better encouragement. Lastly, quality and proper craftsmanship

must be guaranteed at all costs and times. Further, this paper also mentions how seriously and

strictly these guidelines are followed in developed countries and developing countries. It mentions

how bad the guidelines are disobeyed in developing countries, and how dangerous that can be [5].

3.4) This journal article under the title of “Building better can reduce catastrophic quake

deaths” is written by Roger Bilham. It focuses on the disastrous impact of earthquakes on our lives.

It explains how building better buildings that can withstand earthquake forces for longer can save

many more lives. This research paper also explains that depending on the country, each region has

its own set of rules and regulations that contribute to the earthquake-resistant code system. It is

important to mention that these building and earthquake codes are oftentimes used for civic

structures. That said, most countries, especially the developing countries tend to disobey these

codes which put many people’s lives at risk. Therefore, it can be noted that the issue with

developing countries is that the government does not put out enough regulations to make sure that

buildings are being constructed and built properly. This means that they are being built according

to the code system of the country. This paper can be extremely useful for us when we do our

research since this way, we can learn more about our country’s codes and regulations. Then, we

6
can see if our country follows the rules and regulations that our government has set for us. Later,

when we do our research, we can put more focus on this factor as we carry out our research

regarding how current buildings have obeyed the codes and regulations that have been set for them

by the government. Overall, this paper does a great job of explaining the impact those codes have

on our lives. [6]

3.5) Many different designs can be used in structures to resist earthquakes. One of them is

the addition of shear walls. There are many different systems for adding these shear walls. And

these systems are shear wall at end of the “L” section, “L” shear wall at the junction of two flange

portions, two parallel “L” shear wall at the junction of two flange portions, tube type shear wall at

the junction of two flange portion, and two parallel shear walls at end of the flange portion. By

analyzing these systems in a 10-story building in India, the researcher finds out that the shear walls

at the end of the “L” section gives the best protection. This is a good source because it provides

information on different designs for earthquake protection which we can later use in comparison

to the structural designs of buildings in Sulaymaniyah. This source has great figures explaining

what each kind of shear wall looks like. It gives data on the soil, the loads on the structure, the

type of the building, and on the grade of the concrete. Having considered these parameters, this

source is a good source. [8]

3.6) This journal article under the title, “From the Bottom Up” is written by Sam Kean and

published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. It puts its focus on high

buildings that can withstand disasters, such as earthquakes. It explains how most studies focus on

structural damage control when it comes to building earthquake-resistant buildings. Meanwhile,

this research talks about other ways to minimize earthquake disasters. For instance, it starts by

explaining the basic materials that engineers can consider in developing countries. Since the

7
developing countries are oftentimes not as well developed, wealthy, and resourceful as the

developed countries, they ought to look for different ways to minimize the damage of earthquake

force. According to this research, one of the most affordable and efficient ways to minimize the

damage of earthquake force is to use rubber pads. As the journal states, several buildings sit on

rubber pads which suck most of the seismic vibration (Kean, 2010). Furthermore, it also talks

about other isolators, such as using rubber tires as well as rubber stripes. With everything

mentioned, there is one unique technique that stands out in this research, and it is putting holes in

the concrete wall, and sticking bamboo buttresses into it. This helps the building to stand still

during earthquake attacks. Even though this research states that this technique has been tested and

has passed the test, it does not quite make it obvious or explain how this is efficient or how it

works. [14]

3.7) This article explains how the old seismic design philosophy that has been used in

buildings and infrastructure is not effective enough to save lives and buildings when a large

earthquake happens. Therefore, the modern seismic design tries to fill the gaps in the old version.

The new designs are made in a way that can undergo ductile plastic deformations when large

earthquakes happen. The new building design will contain the primary structure which supports

gravity load plus seismic members which will be responsible for absorbing earthquake energy.

This way when a large earthquake happens, the seismic members will absorb the energy while the

primary structure will remain safe. Figure 1 gives an illustration of how the new design may look

like and how it will work in real life. “The structure has 20 stories and is 91.35 m in height.

Columns of the superstructure consist of concrete-filled square tube (CFT) columns, and all beams

are made of steel wide flange sections” (Takagi, Wada). This new design was found after the

increase in the number of large earthquakes in the world. This can be helpful in Sulaimani too

8
because, in the last few years, the city has experienced few earthquakes that might get larger in the

future. However, the philosophy mentioned in the article might not be available everywhere

because it can be costly as well as very advanced that will need special equipment and materials.

[11]

Figure 1: Earthquake-resistant technique.

3.8) This paper starts by focusing on how much damage earthquakes can have on buildings.

It explains in detail how full resistance cannot be achieved. However, work should be done towards

designing a structure that can withstand earthquake waves during and after the earthquake. Then,

the article moves on to explain the different types of earthquake-resistant techniques, such as base

isolation, dampers, retrofitting, rollers, active and passive systems, bracing, reinforced structure

like shear walls, and the use of earthquake-resistant materials. Further, the paper also emphasizes

the fact that earthquake-resistant construction measures should be evaluated and finalized during

9
the construction process. For example, as the paper mentions, using lightweight materials and base

isolation techniques are two of the most effective ways to protect the structure from an earthquake.

This is because if the building is built on a roller, the rollers roll during an earthquake while the

building remains motionless. Moreover, lightweight aggregates can be used for making

lightweight concrete since they are considered to considerably resist earthquake forces.

Furthermore, foaming agents such as aluminum powder can also be used in concrete to make them

lightweight, so they can properly resist earthquake forces. To summarize, this paper gives a short

introduction to earthquakes, and in detail, it lays out the various earthquake-resistant techniques

that can successfully resist earthquake shocks. [13]

3.9) This paper focuses on designing an earthquake-resistant structure for a multi-story

RCC building. This is carried out with the help of computer applications as well as considering

the gravity load, dead load, live load, or wind load of beams, columns, slabs, and foundations.

Also, the seismic forces and drift forces are considered in the design. The paper also mentions how

the symmetrical shape of a building can take stronger earthquake intensity in comparison to an

asymmetrical geometric shape. As the paper states, the building is subjected to a variety of

different loads which are required to transfer safety to the soil below interconnected structural

systems. Therefore, the designer should ensure sufficient ductility, bars cut-offs, splicing, and joint

detailing. As a result, the designer can justify the desired possibility to achieve the desired strength.

In tall buildings, the biggest challenge comes from satisfying the serviceability limit states,

constructability, durability, as well as economy. To sum up, this paper introduces the guideline for

earthquake-resistant structures, such as avoiding ground floor soft story and making sure the

design shear force for the column is maximum. Therefore, this way the building can withstand

earthquake waves and forces without collapsing right away or soon after the earthquake. [15]

10
 3.10) This research talks about the shaking table model test for concrete structures of tall

buildings provided by numerical analysis, and the identification proves that buildings can meet the

seismic design requirements. This study identifies the damage of the building after being presented

to different waves to prove that this building is well designed, and can be safely put into use. This

is being applied to a "T" shaped building that is susceptible to earthquake excitation. The vertical

configuration of the building consists of a core tube accommodating staircase, lift well, and pipe

shaft and shear walls located at the outer walls and some inner walls. The floors and roof of the

building are reinforced concrete beam-slab structures. In addition, the upper (vertical) structure is

fixed on the reinforced concrete base. The total height of the building is 188.6 m (including the

roof truss) with 56 stories exceeding the limit height of 170 m specified by shear wall structures.

This research represents the shear wall building capacity under 4 different earthquake frequencies,

and it also shows the stiffness of the building in the X, Y, and torsional directions. Furthermore, it

shows the effect of torsion on each floor, especially the top floors which may be weaker than other

parts relatively. However, as for the same level of earthquake intensity, the maximum

displacement, displacement angle, story drift, and torsional angle of the model are the largest

among the three types of input waves. [16]

3.11) This paper under the title, “Technology options for earthquake resistant, eco-efficient

buildings in Europe: Research needs” which was published in 2014 focuses on the technology

options for earthquake resistance that are economically efficient for buildings. Nowadays,

technology plays an important role in advancing various engineering fields. That said, certain

fields require more advancement in comparison to others. For instance, advancement in technology

is necessary for building earthquake-resistant buildings. Furthermore, this paper also describes the

assessments that should be considered before choosing a specific method or technique. From this,

11
it can be understood that According to this paper, since the structure of a building depends on the

structural typology, its main characteristics, and vulnerability sources, the site seismic hazard, the

building exposition, and the building structural deficiencies should be carefully and thoroughly

evaluated. Moreover, what distinguishes this paper from the other papers that were reviewed is the

fact that this one focuses on suggesting different techniques for different structures. For instance,

it proposes the addition of shear walls, cross-bracing, the use of passive dampers, jacketing of

concrete frame elements, strengthening of floors, and seismic base isolation for RC structures. On

the other hand, it suggests the adoption of tie systems, floor and roof diaphragms, bar injection,

uniting of masonry walls, and the application of seismic isolation in several specific cases for

masonry structures. From this research, it can be understood that different structures require

different techniques, and to choose the most appropriate and efficient technique or method,

different factors, such as characteristics, vulnerability sources, and structures should be taken into

account. [17]

3.12) This search under the title " Design of Base-Isolated Structure with Rubber-Bearing"

has been written by Tian Xue Min and Lu Ming. Their paper shows the difference between the

isolated structure and the non-isolated structure under seismic loads. Also, the theories and steps

of base-isolated structure with rubber-bearing design are introduced, then a practical example with

isolating rubber-bearings and the corresponding design process are introduced and the simulation

results are analyzed. The experiment was done on a frame-shear wall structure building, the type

of the base is stiffened raft foundation, the height of the building above the ground is 31m, 8 floors,

while the height under the ground is 17m, 3 floors. The isolation layer is between the first floor

and the roof slab of the basement, the height of the isolation layer is 1.65m. The amplitude or the

maximum displacement of the building and inter-surface shear stress in both X and Y directions

12
have been recorded under severe earthquakes. In the analysis of structure seismic response, an

earthquake wave is an input into the top of the first floor of the basement from the horizontal and

vertical directions simultaneously. The results showed that the max horizontal displacement of

isolation bearing can meet the expected target and the requirement of the standard. and, based on

the average of each computation result, the max ratio of inter-surface shear stress, which is the

ratio of maximum shear stress to average shear stress, is 0.21. [18]

3.13) This book under the title, “Earthquake-Resistant Structures: Design, Assessment, and

Rehabilitation” is written by Abbas Moustafa, and it carefully analyzes the different techniques

that can be used against earthquake forces. While giving a detailed explanation of how an

earthquake works, it also focuses on a technique that can withstand different types of vibrations.

Choosing the right technique is extremely crucial when it comes to increasing a building’s

earthquake resistance. This is because different techniques resist different vibrations. Therefore,

the geographical, as well as the geological aspect of the building, should be considered when the

technique is chosen. This is because based on the geography, geology, and the surrounding of the

building, the vibration occurs. Further, to better elaborate on this, it should be mentioned that

earthquakes can occur in two different ways. It can either vibrate vertically or horizontally.

Therefore, this book focuses on a technique that can withstand both types of vibrations. As a result,

it suggests that by using base isolation and bearings together, it can withstand both the vertical and

horizontal vibrations. This is because the base isolation reduces horizontal load while the

installment of bearings can reduce vertical load. Further, this book also focuses on the design

principles, approaches, and testing experiments for earthquake shocks. Further, it also focuses on

explaining the earthquake response for reinforced concrete as well as masonry building. Therefore,

in general, the book deals with earthquake-resistant structures by taking into account the safety

13
assessment, rehabilitation, and strengthening of existing structures. This can particularly come in

handy since the project chosen is being carried out in the city of Sulaymaniyah. This way all the

factors can be taken into consideration when working on the improvement of the apartment

buildings that are already built. [19]

3.14) This source describes an earthquake resistance technique which is a base isolator.

The importance of this technique is that it does not only protect the structure but also provides

safety for the people and the property inside of the building. This source talks about methods for

controlling response. These methods are best for high-rise buildings. The source reviews three

types of these methods which are steel hysteretic damper, viscous fluid damper, and viscoelastic

damper. The study has been conducted by comparing two buildings both having the same height,

one with dampers and the other without. Figure 2 explains the idea better and shows the difference

clearly. The picture shows seismic isolated structure vs. conventional earthquake-resistant

structure. If we look at the picture, we can see the importance of base isolators and how it helps

with saving lives and properties inside buildings when an earthquake happens. This method can

also be done in Sulaimani as it is getting famous in the world especially in countries where many

earthquakes happen. However, one problem with this structure can be the cost because the building

needs to have a base isolator which is an extra cost added to all other costs a building requires.

[20]

14
 Figure 2: Earthquake-resistant horizontal movement.

3.15) This source recommends different designs for earthquake protection. The scope of

this paper is around high-rise buildings. The design requirement for earthquake-resistant buildings

varies greatly from region to region. The reason for this is mainly the likelihood of earthquakes in

each region. In Japan and China for example, since earthquakes are frequent, their requirements

are very rigorous. In Sulaymaniyah, the likelihood of earthquakes has only increased in recent

years. This is why the requirements were not so rigorous. This source is important because it

highlights the regulations that have to be taken to prevent earthquakes, and it talks about regions

where earthquakes happen the most. If regulations from these regions are considered for every

region, then for sure, earthquakes will not be a danger on the buildings of regions where

earthquakes are less of an issue. It looks like taking these precautions will add an extra cost.

However, considering the fact that earthquakes are natural, and unpredictable, and the fact that

they hadn’t been an issue in Sulaimani, for example, for so many years, and now it is an issue, it

is worth looking over. [21]

3.16) In this article, the use of masonries that can resist earthquakes is pointed out. The

article mostly focuses on the historical site of the use. It mostly talks about the use of this masonry

15
in Greece and other countries where they have experienced large earthquakes. This paper presents

a methodology for earthquake-resistant design or assessment of masonry structural systems. At the

end of the article and after analyzing different types of masonries that have been used in European

countries, the authors could draw useful conclusions regarding the effectiveness of the intervention

techniques used for the reduction of the vulnerability of the case-study structures, through the

comparison of the results obtained. This is specifically important for buildings in Sulaimani

because masonry is an available construction unit in Kurdistan and is already used in many places.

[23]

3.17) This article focuses on different building shapes that resist earthquakes. In Japan,

building shapes are earthquake resistant because they use a grid of steel beams and columns and

they are concrete core shapes. These shapes will distribute the energy of the earthquake evenly

throughout the building and it has dampers that work as shock absorbers. The article also mentions

that ductile buildings are the most resistant buildings because they flex to both vertical and

horizontal earthquakes. As we know, concrete structures are brittle, meaning they are easy to break.

However, they can be ductile by adding more steel reinforcement. This can be implemented easily

in Sulaimani because people already use concrete and steel for construction and it is available in

the market at a good price that can be afford. Moreover, the article mentions some other

construction methods that can help with reducing the damage of earthquakes. The two other

methods are base isolation which is built within the building structure and flexible joints and

automatic shut-off valves which are installed in the building. “Protecting Against Earthquake

Damage Prepare a Seismic Risk Map for the globe which identifies rock types, liquefaction

potential, landslide potential” (Saurav). The construction materials that are used in these structures

are wood, steel, and reinforced concrete that can be shaken as an earthquake happens. This article

16
is important for the research because the resources that it talks about are available in Sulaimani

and it is doable. However, the article does not mention how practical this design can be. [23]

3.18) This research paper represents the pendulum-bearing damper that is used to minimize

the effect of earthquakes in heavy building structures and bridges decks. Pendulum bearings are

also known as seismic isolation because they carry the weight of the supporting structure to protect

the structure from violent ground accelerations during an earthquake. These seismic isolation

devices are designed in a way that they isolate the supporting structure from the sudden, destructive

movements of the ground beneath. Also, they Dissipate the energy introduced by the ground

movements into the supporting structure, and re-center the supported structure after the event, to

maintain the structure’s serviceability. By isolating the supporting structure from the horizontal

acceleration of the ground beneath, they reduce the natural-induced acceleration of the earthquake

which prevents the occurrence of resonance, which could lead to severe damage or even collapse

of the structure. This research also shows the different types of pendulum isolators, their structures,

and the way they work to reduce seismic effects on buildings. The way these pendulums work is

by transfusing the energy of the earthquake to dynamic friction between the curved stainless steel

sliding surface and the sliding material of its sliding partner. Furthermore, the restoring force due

to gravity, resulting from the isolator’s geometry, will re-enter it after the earthquake, bringing it

back towards its original position. This approach to seismic isolation allows the structural engineer

to achieve desired periods without having to consider the supported mass because the performance

of the device depends mainly on its radius of curvature and the coefficient of friction of its sliding

surface. [25]

3.19) This journal article, “Historical Perspective: Earthquake! Are We Ready?” is written

by Alexander G. Tactics, and published by the Society of American Military Engineers. It focuses

17
on earthquake-resistant techniques from analyzing their historical perspective. The paper begins

by explaining the basic measures that are taken for building an earthquake-resistant building, such

as the ductility of the structural materials and the building’s inelastic distortion. Then, it goes on

to explain the older methods that were used as earthquake-resistant techniques, and how they are

different from the new ones. For instance, this article analyzes and emphasizes one of the most

advanced earthquake-resistance which is base isolation. To further elaborate, it also explains how

this technique can withstand horizontal ground movement and vibration so that it does not transfer

to the structure or building. Moreover, this research also evaluates and examines how base

isolation works. It states, there is a relationship between the frequency of the building and the

frequency of the earthquake, and the reason this relationship is important is that it impacts the

behavior of the building during the earthquake (Tarics, 2016). Another factor that makes “base

isolation” one of the best technological advancements is the fact that it is also economical and

affordable along with being one of the most effective techniques. That said, technological

advancement has not stopped after developing the “base isolation” technique. Indeed, more work

and research are being done towards advancing the “base isolation” technique. According to this

research, there are no new developments regarding “base isolation”. One of the advancements in

high damping rubber base isolation. Also, other types of “base isolation” have been tested and

successfully used in various building structures. [26]

3.20) This journal article under the title, “Designing Earthquake-Resistant Structures:

Integrating Science and Engineering Practices” was published by the National Science Teachers

Association, and it examines the engineering practice aspect of earthquake-resistant structures.

What makes this journal article stand out is the fact that it describes how to create artificial

earthquakes for a project as well as measuring the building’s earthquake. As it has been explained

18
before, bracing can be used as an earthquake-resistant technique in buildings. To add to that, this

journal article examines the different types of braces. In addition, it also evaluates which one is

the least effective during an earthquake and which one is the most effective. Since this journal

article puts the focus on the research and experiment conducted, it comes to find out that the

different building structures with different bracings were having different earthquake-resistant. For

instance, the structure with the cross-bracing was able to withstand the earthquake for the longest

time, meanwhile, the structure without any bracing could not withstand the vibration. That

mentioned, the V bracing and the cross-bracing was extremely resistant towards the wave that

caused the side-to-side vibration and movement. Furthermore, since this research was conducted

using table shaking, it is crucial to mention that table shaking does not create a specific type of S

waves and P waves. Moreover, another technique that was used for the design and experiment was

using rollers. In their case, a wooden base and wooden dowels were used. As a result, they were

surprised to see that a base isolation building can withstand earthquake vibration for so long. As a

result of their designs and various techniques that they used, they found out that the rolling

foundation was the most effective. [28]

3.21) The advantages of using dampers in buildings are that dampers can be easily

positioned and can be easily replaced, and they work well with other members that are constructed

within the building. In this paper, the performance of different types of dampers on different

buildings has been investigated. The efficiency of dampers against both wind and earthquake loads

was not the only result of this study. The limitations of constructions for buildings can be reduced

by the usage of dampers in buildings. Based on friction performance, metal followability,

viscosity, and viscoelasticity dampers are classified into different types. Potential and kinetic

energies are applied when buildings face earthquakes. The lateral force that buildings are exposed

19
to during earthquakes is reduced with the use of dampers. Dampers are a type of base isolation and

are usually rubbery-like, and they will absorb the energy earthquakes give to the buildings [29].

3.22) Besides mentioning some of the modern techniques, this article puts light on the old

techniques that were used for earthquakes and were proven to be effective. These techniques are

mostly about the mixture of concrete. One of them is using fly ash, cement with polymer-based

fibers in the mixture of the concrete. They make the structure malleable and strong. It has been

proved that “This material when utilized as a slim coating (10mm), was noticed to have enhanced

seismic resistance of the structure by enduring a seismic risk of intensity 9 to 9.1 on Richter scale”

(Jebaraj R, Arulraj 2020). However, this can be very costly which is why people do not use this

technique frequently, but again it is doable and can be implemented in Sulaimani. [30]

3.23) The article “Advanced Earthquake Resistant Design” puts light on the techniques

that can be used to reduce the damage of the earthquakes. The article especially focuses on two

construction methods which are base-isolation, flexible joints and automatic. The article also talks

about the steps that engineers and architects can take when designing a building in order to reduce

the potential damage. For example, when a building is built, it is important to check the soil of the

area that the building will be placed in. Second point is to “prepare a Seismic Risk Map for the

globe which identifies rock types, liquefaction potential, landslide potential” (Johnny). Moreover,

all the hidden and active faults should be identified before the construction starts. It is highly

recommended to use reinforced concrete because “unreinforced concrete and heavy masonry tend

to move independently and in opposition to the shaking, battering one another until the structure

collapses” (Johnny). The article is important because it reminds engineers of some geological and

engineering points that should be followed in order to reduce the damage of the buildings during

earthquakes. More importantly is that the mentioned points are doable and the mentioned tests and

20
construction units are available in the country. However, the article does not dig deeply into the

topic. [12]

3.24) The article named “How to design earthquake proof buildings” focuses on the

construction of earthquake-resistant buildings and the steps that should be taken in this regard.

First point that the engineer focuses on when designing an earthquake-resistant building is stiffness

and strength. “Structural engineers recommend adequate vertical and lateral stiffness and strength

especially laterally” (How to design earthquake proof buildings). Second thing that engineers

should take into consideration while designing a structure is the regularity of the building.

Regularity in engineering norms means the movement of the building. The movement should be

in “lateral directions. Safety professionals and structural engineers should ensure that buildings

move equally, to enable seamless dissipation of energy from the quake without placing too much

force on one side or another”. If the buildings are not designed regularly, when the buildings sway,

you will be able to notice the weakness. Moreover, another point that might be considered is

redundancy. Even though this can be an extra cost for the building, you will find out its worth

when a disaster happens because redundancy helps in equally dividing the mass and strength

throughout the structure. Finally, not only for earthquake-resistant buildings, it is important for

every building to have a stable foundation which will ensure the long-term survival of the structure.

This article is helpful for our research because we are looking for the possible and doable

techniques that will help in designing buildings that resist earthquakes. The mentioned points in

the article are doable in Sulaimani. However, the article does not give details about the

implementation of the designs. [10]

3.25) There are different types of dampers. In this paper, the efficiency of a type of damper

which is a steel pipe damper is discussed. Steel pipe dampers are a type of moment frame in which

21
members are connected together rigidly in order to resist both the lateral and the overturning forces.

These members are attractive for their low cost, and their ease of application. Throughout the

paper, it is shown that the model of the pipes and their efficiency is first examined using finite

element analysis, and then these results have been validated by experimental data. These

experiments are all based on steel structures of 4,8, and 16 stories. It is concluded in the paper that

these inactive frames are good at absorbing the seismic energy. For the 4 stories building, it was

proved that the base shear was decreased by half. The base shear was not the only thing that

decreased, the displacement was also decreased by %50-70. Also, from the analysis for the 8 story

building, a better stress distribution was found. This source is good because it is thorough, and it

helps choose a type of damper that is much less costly than regular dampers. However, it is

important to notice that these dampers are only used for steel structures, and not for RCC

structures. [3]

3.26) An efficient earthquake resistant technique is pendulums. These pendulums are used

for high-rise buildings. This article talks about a type of pendulum which is a triple friction

pendulum for base-isolated high-rise buildings. It has been found that they have stiffness and

damping that varies, a reason why this technique is attractive. This, however, has been investigated

and studied for lower rise buildings, and much less studies exist that investigates this technique for

high-rise buildings. This technique has only been proposed recently. In this article, the efficiency

of this technique has been evaluated using theoretical, numerical, and experimental methods.

Optimization of technique and equations have been derived in this article for high-rise buildings.

Since this optimization has been done through considering different techniques, it is reliable.

However, more research is needed to prove the efficiency of this technique because not much

22
research has been conducted on this. It can be seen that this source depends on sources that have

been done for medium and low-rise buildings. [31]

3.27) The article Study on mechanical properties of high damping viscoelastic dampers

puts light on the mechanical properties of the viscoelastic damper which was made in China from

the high strength damper rubbers. The model itself has not been implemented in reality. However,

in China, they did tests in the laboratory to dedicate the mechanical properties of the design. Based

on the lab results which are illustrated in the article, when using damping rubbers, the mechanical

properties, especially the strength, is a resistor to the earthquake. As the results of the test were

analyzed, they found out that “The high damping viscoelastic dampers possess excellent energy

dissipation capacity”. This helps it to resist earthquake energy when it hits. This model or the use

of damper rubbers can be a useful idea to be implemented in the future and there is the possibility

that we see this model built in places where earthquakes happen frequently. However, the article

could have explained more about the model being implemented in reality. [9]

23
4. Experiments

For this project, there are two variables that will be measured. The first one is height and

the second one is technique. Two different heights have been selected which are three floors and

six floor models. There is a control group. This means two of the models are plain, and there are

no techniques used on these two models, one that has three floors, and the other that is six floors.

In addition to these, three techniques are used which are shear walls, diagonal bracing, and cross

bracing. Each of these methods are used once on the three floored model, and once on the six

floored model.

Each model has floors and the floors are connected together by columns. These heights are

chosen because the shorter models are exactly half of the taller models, and therefore, the effect

that height will have during the experiment will be more noticeable.

The floors of the models, as well as the shear walls are MDF wood. The floors have been

cut to measure 40x40 cm. With that said, the columns and the bracings are made with balsa wood.

The columns are 2x3 cm, and they are cut to be 15 cm at length. The braces were cut to be 1x1cm.

Firstly, the floors were assembled with the columns with a glue that is specifically used for

MDF wood. The first used technique is diagonal bracing. For implementing this technique, the

inside diagonal length of each of the floors were measured, this is because due to the variation in

the thickness of the columns, the diagonal length differed slightly from floor to floor. After this,

the balsa woods were cut from each side by an angle of 20 degrees. And then each of the braces

were fixed, using glue, on the floors alternatively on two sides of the models.

24
 Figure 3. The 6 floor and 3 floor building supported with the diagonal bracing technique

The second technique that is used is cross bracing. For this, the diagonal length of the floors

was measured. Then, the balsa wood was cut to fit inside of the floor. After this, the center of each

of the cross braces were marked, and then on these marks, an angled cross half-lap joint was

created, so that the braces fit into each other. After this, they were fixed on the models using glue.

Figure 4. The cross-bracing technique used to embrace the two 6 and 3 floors building.

25
 Figure 5. The angled cross half-lap joint technique that was used in the cross-bracing.

For the third technique, which is the shear wall, the floors were cut in the middle by a

thickness of 10 cm, this is so that the shear walls fit into the slabs. Then, after assembling the

floors, the final height of the models was measured, and then the shear walls were cut to the exact

height of each of the two models. Then the shear walls were fixed into each of the models using

glue.

Figure 6. Both 3 and 6 floors building with the shear wall technique

Now that all of our models are ready, we are planning to test each of them on a shaking

table in order to see which one holds up for longer depending on the variables we have, which

26
are heights and techniques. This is when we will analyze the failure of these models and discuss

the data further.

27
 Figure 7. The two different height floors building with their techniques

Each of these models were later tested on a shaking table. The shaker was leveled and

stabled by putting weight on its legs, so that it allowed a very subtle movement. The shaking

table had four square holes in it, and we used strings to attach the models to the shaking table

while we tested them. The shaking table was connected to a computer software... When we

started the shaking table by using the software, we used 10 seconds increment of time, and we

increased the frequency of the shaking table by 5.00 Hz. The frequency was increased by 5.00

Hz each 10 seconds. The models were later tested one by one.

28
5. Results

In this section the results of our tests are explained. First, the failure point of each model

is mentioned.

The Three Floored Models:

The simple model broke at the joint between the columns and the slab of the first floor

first, and then all of the other joints also failed.

For the model with the diagonal bracing, first the upper joint of the brace fell followed by

its other joint, and then all the column joints of the first floor failed, but the other two floors

remained intact.

29
 For the model with the cross-bracing technique, first an end joint of the brace fell, and

then the column joints of the first floor fell followed by the failure of the second floor as well.

The third floor remained intact.

For the model with the shear wall technique, the lower joints of the shear wall and the

columns break first, however, all the other joints remain intact.

30
The Six Floored Models:

The simple model broke at the column joints of the first floor first, and then all the other

joints followed and failed.

The model with the diagonal bracing broke at the joint between the brace and the slab

first, and then the column joints of the first floor broke, and every other floor remained intact.

31
 The model with the cross bracing broke at the joint between the slab and the brace, and

then the cross-lab joint of one of the braces failed followed by the column joints of the first floor.

Every other floor remained intact.

The model with the shear wall technique broke at the lower joints between the slab with

the shear wall and the columns of the first floor. Every other floor remained intact.

32
Table 1. Shows the resisting time and frequency of the three-floor building with the
different techniques on the shaking table.

Model Type Resisting Time (Sec.) Frequency (Hz.)

Simple 60.4 30.5
Diagonal Bracing 84 44.5
X-Bracing 109 52.7
Shear Wall 128 62.1

Table 2. Shows the resisting time and frequency of the six-floor building with the different
techniques on the shaking table.

Model Type Resisting Time (Sec.) Frequency (Hz.)

Simple 57 28.7
Diagonal Bracing 62 30.3
X-Bracing 80 39.7
Shear Wall 95 45.6

Figure 8. Shows the relationship between time and frequency of the 3-floor building

33
 Figure 9. Shows the relationship between time and frequency on the 6-floor building

Figure 10. Shows the relationship between the techniques and their resisting time to earthquake.

34
6. Discussion

In this section the results of this study are analyzed. For this study two variables were

tested. First was height, and the second was the three techniques that were used. It is noticed

from the graphs that the higher a building is, the less resistant to earthquakes it is. The columns

of the building fail by the moment. We already know that the more the distance a force is acting

on, the higher the momentum will be. And this is why the moment on the higher buildings, in our

case, the higher buildings were exactly twice as high as the shorter models, the larger the

moment will be; therefore, they fail at a less frequency and resist for a shorter time.

As for the techniques, the most effective technique is the shear wall technique, and the

least effective technique is the diagonal bracing technique. Bracing is a technique usually used to

strengthen buildings. There are several different bracing systems, and for our study we have

chosen two of them which are diagonal bracing as well as cross bracing. Both of the bracings

that we have chosen are concentrically framed braces. The reason why we chose this framing

system was because it has a higher stiffness than eccentrically braced frames. Bracing system is

very useful because it adds additional strength without increasing the self-weight of the building

too much (Chimeh & Homami)[7]. Bracing system should be in a way that the forces will be

distributed equally. And this is the reason why we chose diagonal bracing with the cross bracing.

The cross bracing was stiffer than the diagonal bracing. The three-floor model with diagonal

bracing resisted for 84 seconds while with cross bracing, it resisted for 109 seconds. While the

six floor models, with the diagonal bracing resisted for 62 seconds, and with the cross resisted

for 80 seconds. When bracings are used, the force is distributed between more joints. And this

means that there is less stress on the column joints during earthquakes. And this is the reason

35
why in the failure of these models with bracing, the failure point was at the joint between the

braces and the slabs and not at the column joints first.

The shear wall technique in our case was especially effective because it was blended in

with the slabs. This technique was chosen because it makes the structure more stable and it

reduces the vibration caused by the earthquake. Not only that, it also reduces the natural

vibration that a building exhibit. The placement of the shear wall is also important. In our case,

we fixed the shear wall in the center of the models. In the three-floor model, the model resisted

for 128 seconds, and in the six-floor model, the building resisted for 95 seconds.

The models with all of the used techniques failed at some point. However, it is worth

mentioning that the model with the shear wall technique only failed at the very first floor, and

therefore, it suffered less damage than the others. It is safe to say that despite failure, it remains

true that using shear walls, since it connects the roof with the floor, in failure, is much safer than

the other structures, and this includes less nonstructural failure (Tarigan, Manggala, &Sitorus,

2018)[27]. All of these used techniques variably increased the time each model resisted because

they reduce the moment that existed on the models during earthquakes. Since the frequency has

been increased at the rate of 5 Hz per each 10 seconds, it is shown from Figure 9 & 10 that there

is a linear trend, and when time passes, frequency increases up until the model breaks. However,

it is important to notice that if the time increment was longer, then each model would have

resisted for a longer time before finally breaking down.

The sources of error include the inconsistency in the thickness of the column and the

bracings as well as their height. This is because although the thicknesses of the bracings were cut

at wood shops, the thickness of 1x1cm is too small that it was not achieved on each and every one

of the braces. The thickness of the columns also differed slightly. The angle, the length, and the

36
cross laps on the braces were cut at the Fabrication Shop lab at AUIS, and they are not as accurate

as they can be. Also, the amount of the glue that is used on each brace, and each column is not

exactly the same, so this is also considered a source of error. Also, the shaking table that was used

was only testing the model in 2 dimensions, and not in the 3 dimensions, the way real earthquakes

actually happen. The stability of the table has not been considered or calculated in this study. It is

important to mention that even though strings were used, the buildings were not perfectly attached

to the shaking table, and the models had a movement to them. The software did not allow for

downloading or recording data. The software did not allow for automatic timing, that is why the

timing was done manually using a phone. And in this, the 10 second increment has not been exactly

accurate.

Real Life Examples:

There are many examples of earthquakes recently happened in the region especially

Kurdistan. In 2017, a big earthquake hit Kurdistan region especially Sulaimanyah Province. This

earthquake has great damages on the life and the properties of people. According to the US

Geological Survey, the epicenter of the earthquake was 30 km from the south of Halbja, and it had

19 km of focal depth. (Issa, 2017). In this section,

pictures that show some of the damages that the

earthquake has left on the properties of people are

analyzed. In figure 11, we can see cracks in the earth

happened because of the seismic waves coming out

from the earthquake and this leads to shaking in the

ground which finally results in cracks in the foundation.

Figure 11. Cracks in the ground caused by the
earthquake
37
 If we have a look at figure 12, we can see that there is a contact between the spillway and

dam body at the upstream slope. As a result of the earthquake, parts of the spillway were destroyed

and we can see that in the picture clearly. The cracks in the stairs might be a result of the concrete

mixture used in the foundation of the stairs or it is probably because of the steel used in the

building.

Figure 12. contact between spillway and dam body at upstream slope

Figure 13 and 14 show damages in the houses. This happens because the ground of every

building has a specific resonant frequency. This decides how long the building will oscillate until

it collapses. “If the period of ground motion matches the natural resonance of a building, it will

undergo the largest oscillations possible and suffer the greatest damage” (Building Resonance:

Structural stability during earthquakes). This is why it is important for a building to have a stable

and strong foundation. In figure 13, the foundation seems to only be able to hold the first floor of

the building and not the second floor. Therefore, we can see huge cracks at the walls of the second

38
floor. On the other hand, figure 14 seems to be fully collapsed because natural resonance’s period

of the building fully matches the ground motion hence it is fully destroyed.

Figure 13. Second floor cracked due to earthquake

Figure 14. Picture shows a completely destroyed house due to earthquake

Not only concrete, roads made from asphalt also get affected by the earthquakes too as we can see

in both figure 15 and 16. This has the same reasons as the previous one. It happens because of the

39
specific natural resonance of the ground. When the ground shakes, if it takes longer than natural

resonance, the road will start to crack.

Figure 15. Cracks in the asphalt road due to earthquake

Figure 16. Cracks in the asphalt road due to earthquake

40
Having these pictures in mind and knowing that the earthquake that happened in 2017 was huge

compared to the history of the region with earthquakes, we should focus more on the way we build

buildings and materials we use so that we reduce the impacts of any future earthquakes.

7. Conclusion

It is important to study earthquake techniques and especially in Sulaymaniyah city

because earthquakes in this region used to happen far less than they do now, and it is important

to employ earthquake techniques so that when earthquakes happen, there will be less damage.

Studying different techniques of earthquakes is important because In this study, there were

several findings made. The first of those findings were that earthquakes are more damaging to

higher buildings than they are to shorter buildings. Another finding is that earthquakes in general

are reduced by using techniques. And the most effective of these techniques was the shear wall

technique. It is important to notice that in places where earthquakes are not a major threat, less

costly techniques like diagonal bracing can be adapted. Also, there are several sources of error

that have affected the results of the study. These errors include the unequal distribution of the

used glue, and the instability of the models on the shaker.

41
8. Plan for Design II

The plan for design II is to conduct primary research. This research will include making a

survey in order to find out what techniques are already used for high-rise buildings in Sulaimani

to protect the tall buildings from earthquake force. Also, this research will help with finding out

which buildings have performed the best during major earthquakes in Sulaimani. Afterwards,

based on the findings from the primary research, and the evaluation from the literature review, a

model will be developed to showcase the best earthquake-resistant technique for high-rise

buildings in Sulaimani. So far, from the literature review, it has been concluded that techniques,

such as bracing, base isolation, and pendulums perform the best under intense earthquake force.

Therefore, the model will most likely include these techniques. That said, other earthquake

resistant techniques such as the use of certain building materials and reinforcing structures are

also beneficial, however, they may not be shown on the model.

42
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