Q1.

Summarize the drawbacks and benefits of the presence of the following

residual elements in steel: Phosphorus, Silicon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Sulphur, Tin,
Arsenic, Antimony and Nitrogen
Ans: Residual elements in steel can have both positive and negative effects on the
material's properties. While some elements can improve strength, hardness, and
corrosion resistance, they can also cause embrittlement, reduced ductility, and
decreased weldability. Controlling the concentrations of these residual elements is
essential for ensuring the desired properties and performance of steel in specific
applications.
Phosphorus:
Benefits: Increases strength, hardness, and corrosion resistance in low
concentrations; improves machinability in free-cutting steels.
Drawbacks: Reduces ductility, toughness, and weldability; can cause brittle
fracture and cold shortness (failure under cold working).
Silicon:
Benefits: Acts as a deoxidizer in steel production; improves strength,
hardness, and elasticity; increases resistance to oxidation and corrosion at high
temperatures.
Drawbacks: Reduces ductility and weldability; in higher concentrations, can
cause solidification cracking during welding.
Oxygen:
Benefits: None, as oxygen is generally considered an impurity in steel.
Drawbacks: Causes porosity, inclusions, and hot shortness (failure under hot
working); negatively affects ductility, toughness, and fatigue resistance.
Hydrogen:
Benefits: None, as hydrogen is generally considered an impurity in steel.
Drawbacks: Causes hydrogen embrittlement, leading to reduced ductility,
toughness, and cracking under stress.
Sulphur:
 Benefits: Increases machinability in free-cutting steels due to the formation
of manganese sulfide inclusions.
Drawbacks: Causes hot shortness and reduces ductility, toughness, and
weldability; can lead to the formation of iron sulfide inclusions, which can cause
cracking.
Tin:
Benefits: Improves corrosion resistance and solderability in some alloy
steels.
Drawbacks: Causes embrittlement and reduces ductility when present in
high concentrations; can promote the formation of coarse-grained structures,
reducing strength and toughness.
Arsenic:
Benefits: Increases strength and hardness in low concentrations; improves
corrosion resistance in some alloy steels.
Drawbacks: Causes embrittlement and reduces ductility and toughness; can
lead to temper brittleness in heat-treated steels.
Antimony:
Benefits: Enhances mechanical properties in some alloy steels; can act as a
grain refiner, increasing strength and hardness.
Drawbacks: Causes embrittlement and reduces ductility and toughness; can
promote the formation of coarse-grained structures, reducing strength and
toughness.
Nitrogen:
Benefits: Enhances strength, hardness, and corrosion resistance in some
alloy steels; can act as a grain refiner, increasing strength and hardness.
Drawbacks: Can cause strain aging, leading to reduced ductility and
toughness; reduces weldability and promotes the formation of brittle nitrides in
some alloy steels.
Q2. Why does phosphorus addition improve the machinability of steels? What are
possible drawbacks involved with the manufacturing and use of rephosphorized
high strength steels?
Ans: Phosphorus improves the machinability of steels by promoting the formation
of manganese sulfide (MnS) inclusions and creating a more brittle chip during
machining operations. These inclusions act as stress raisers and chip breakers,
causing the chips to break off more easily and reducing the cutting forces
required. The presence of manganese sulfide inclusions also helps in reducing tool
wear and improving surface finish.

While the addition of phosphorus can improve machinability, there are potential
drawbacks involved with the manufacturing and use of rephosphorized high
strength steels:

1. Reduced ductility and toughness: Phosphorus segregates to grain

boundaries, which can lead to the embrittlement of steel, resulting in
reduced ductility and toughness. This can make the steel more susceptible
to brittle fracture, especially under impact loads or dynamic loading
conditions.
2. Cold shortness: The presence of phosphorus can cause cold shortness,
which is the failure of steel under cold working conditions. Cold shortness is
a result of the formation of iron phosphide (FeP) along the grain
boundaries, which embrittles the steel and can lead to cracking during cold
working processes like bending, rolling, or drawing.
3. Weldability issues: Phosphorus can negatively affect the weldability of
steel. The presence of phosphorus in the weld region can lead to the
formation of brittle phosphides and contribute to solidification cracking. It
can also cause a phenomenon called "weld decay," where grain boundary
precipitation and sensitization occur, making the steel susceptible to
intergranular corrosion.
4. Strain aging: Phosphorus can promote strain aging in steel, which is the
embrittlement of steel after being subjected to plastic deformation. Strain
aging can lead to reduced ductility, increased yield strength, and decreased
toughness.
Q3. What is ‘temper embrittlement?’ Which trace elements of steel cause temper
embrittlement and why?
Ans: Temper embrittlement is a phenomenon that occurs in some alloy steels
during heat treatment, specifically during tempering after quenching. It results in
a reduction in ductility and toughness, making the steel more susceptible to brittle
fracture, especially under impact loads or low-temperature conditions. This
embrittlement is often associated with a temperature range known as the
"embrittlement temperature range" or "susceptibility range," typically between
350°C and 600°C (660°F and 1112°F).
The primary trace elements in steel that cause temper embrittlement are
phosphorus, tin, antimony, and arsenic. These elements are considered impurities
and segregate to the grain boundaries during tempering, leading to
embrittlement. The segregation of these elements weakens the grain boundaries,
increasing the likelihood of intergranular fracture under applied stress.
Q4. What is secondary hardening? Explain the role of nitrogen in secondary
hardening of steel.
Ans: Secondary hardening is a phenomenon that occurs in some alloy steels
during tempering after quenching, where the steel exhibits an increase in
hardness and strength at higher tempering temperatures. This is in contrast to the
typical tempering behavior, where hardness and strength decrease with increasing
tempering temperature. Secondary hardening occurs in specific alloy steels, such
as tool steels and high-speed steels, which contain alloying elements like
chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, and tungsten.

The role of nitrogen in secondary hardening of steel is related to the precipitation

of fine nitride particles in the steel matrix during tempering. Nitrogen, as an
interstitial element, can form stable nitrides with some alloying elements, such as
vanadium, titanium, and aluminum. These nitrides are fine, coherent, and
thermally stable, which allows them to remain effective at higher tempering
temperatures. During tempering, the nitrogen in the steel forms nitrides with the
alloying elements, resulting in the precipitation of fine nitride particles dispersed
throughout the steel matrix. These precipitates strengthen the steel through a
mechanism known as precipitation hardening. The presence of these nitrides
provides additional resistance to dislocation movement, resulting in an increase in
hardness and strength during tempering.
Q5. Which alloying elements of steel contribute to secondary hardening effect?
Explain the process with an emphasis on the nature of the precipitation that leads
to this effect.

Ans: Alloying elements that contribute to the secondary hardening effect in steel
include chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium, and cobalt. These
elements are often found in high-speed steels, hot-work tool steels, and some
high-strength low-alloy steels. The secondary hardening effect occurs during
tempering after quenching, where the steel exhibits an increase in hardness and
strength at higher tempering temperatures. This is contrary to the typical
tempering behavior, where hardness and strength decrease with increasing
tempering temperature.

The process of secondary hardening involves the precipitation of fine, thermally

stable carbides, nitrides, or carbonitrides in the steel matrix. These precipitates
strengthen the steel through a mechanism known as precipitation hardening. The
presence of these fine particles provides additional resistance to dislocation
movement, resulting in increased hardness and strength during tempering.

The nature of the precipitation that leads to the secondary hardening effect
depends on the specific alloying elements present in the steel:

1. Chromium: Forms chromium carbides (Cr23C6, Cr7C3) that are coherent with
the steel matrix and provide resistance to dislocation movement.
2. Molybdenum and tungsten: Form complex carbides (Mo2C, WC) and
carbonitrides (MoC, W2C). These precipitates provide additional resistance
to dislocation movement, contributing to the secondary hardening effect.
3. Vanadium: Forms vanadium carbides (VC) and vanadium nitrides (VN) that
are thermally stable and fine, providing effective strengthening through
precipitation hardening.
4. Cobalt: Does not form carbides or nitrides directly, but it can enhance the
secondary hardening effect by promoting the precipitation of other alloy
carbides and increasing the tempering resistance of the steel.
Q6. Name an alloying element of steel that broadens the gamma-phase field.
What effect does this have on hardening and why?

Ans: An alloying element of steel that broadens the gamma-phase field (austenite
phase field) is nickel (Ni). By increasing the stability range of the austenite phase,
nickel promotes the formation and retention of austenite in the steel at lower
temperatures.

The broadening of the gamma-phase field has an effect on hardening by altering

the phase transformations that occur during heat treatment. When the austenite
phase is stable over a broader temperature range, it allows for the formation of
finer martensite upon quenching, which results in an increase in hardness and
strength. This is because the transformation from austenite to martensite is
diffusionless and occurs rapidly when the steel is cooled from the austenitic
region.

The presence of nickel in steel also contributes to the hardening by promoting the
precipitation of fine secondary phases during tempering, which further
strengthens the steel through precipitation hardening.
Q7. Summarize the effect of different alloying elements such as Ni, Cr, Ti, Mo etc
on the eutectoid composition and eutectoid temperature of steel.

Ans: Alloying elements in steel can have a significant impact on the eutectoid
composition and eutectoid temperature. The eutectoid composition refers to the
specific carbon content at which the steel transforms from austenite to a mixture
of ferrite and cementite (pearlite) during cooling. The eutectoid temperature is
the temperature at which this transformation occurs. Here is a summary of the
effects of different alloying elements on the eutectoid composition and
temperature of steel:

Nickel (Ni): Nickel tends to increase the stability of austenite and shift the
eutectoid composition to higher carbon contents. It also slightly decreases the
eutectoid temperature. This promotes the formation and retention of austenite at
lower temperatures and enhances hardening.

Chromium (Cr): Chromium increases the eutectoid composition and reduces the
eutectoid temperature. This results in a decrease in the solubility of carbon in
austenite, promoting the formation of carbides during heat treatment, which can
contribute to hardening.

Titanium (Ti): Titanium has a strong affinity for carbon and nitrogen, forming
stable carbides and nitrides. This reduces the carbon available for the eutectoid
transformation, leading to a shift in the eutectoid composition to lower carbon
contents. The eutectoid temperature may also be slightly decreased.

Molybdenum (Mo): Molybdenum increases the eutectoid composition and

reduces the eutectoid temperature. It promotes the formation of carbides during
heat treatment, which can contribute to hardening. Molybdenum also enhances
tempering resistance, retaining strength at elevated temperatures.
Q8. Consider a plain carbon steel with 0.2% C. Predict the as-cast microstructure
of such a steel and mention t phase fractions se-fractions. Now, propose an
annealing schedule for this steel with heating rate, annealing time, and annealing
temperature. Next, propose a normalizing schedule for this steel. What will be the
difference in microstructure between the annealed and normalized sample and
how will they both differ from the as-cast microstructure?
Ans: For a plain carbon steel with 0.2% C, the as-cast microstructure will primarily
consist of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite. Since 0.2% C is below the eutectoid
carbon content (0.77% C), the steel is considered hypoeutectoid. The phase
fractions can be determined using the lever rule on the iron-carbon phase
diagram. The proeutectoid ferrite fraction is the largest, while pearlite is present
in a smaller amount.

For the annealing schedule of this 0.2% C steel:

1. Heating rate: A typical heating rate is 100°C/hour, but it may vary

depending on the specific application and equipment.
2. Annealing temperature: Heat the steel to a temperature within the
austenitic region, approximately 50-100°C above the upper critical
temperature (A3). For 0.2% C steel, this would be around 750-800°C.
3. Annealing time: Hold the steel at the annealing temperature for
approximately 1 hour per 25 mm of thickness to ensure homogenization
and complete transformation to austenite.

After annealing, the steel is slowly cooled to room temperature, usually within
the furnace. This process results in a microstructure of equiaxed, fine-grained
ferrite and spheroidized cementite, improving ductility and machinability.

For the normalizing schedule of this 0.2% C steel:

1. Heating rate: Similar to annealing, use a rate of approximately 100°C/hour.

2. Normalizing temperature: Heat the steel to a temperature slightly higher
than the annealing temperature, around 900-950°C.
3. Soaking time: Hold the steel at the normalizing temperature for
approximately 1 hour per 25 mm of thickness.
4. After normalizing, the steel is cooled in air, resulting in a microstructure of
fine-grained ferrite and pearlite. This process refines the grain size,
improving strength and toughness compared to the as-cast condition.
5. The primary difference in microstructure between the annealed and
normalized samples is the distribution of cementite. The annealed sample
has spheroidized cementite, while the normalized sample has lamellar
cementite within pearlite. Both annealed and normalized samples have a
finer grain size compared to the as-cast microstructure, resulting in
improved mechanical properties. However, the normalized sample
generally has higher strength and toughness due to its finer pearlite
structure, while the annealed sample has better ductility and machinability
due to the spheroidized cementite.
Q9. Now consider if the steel sample from question-8 also contained 2% Mn, 1.2%
Si, 3%Cr and 1.5% Ni. What changes would you have to make to the annealing and
normalizing schedules for such a sample?
Ans:
These alloying elements can increase the hardenability of the steel and alter the
kinetics of phase transformations. The main adjustments to the annealing and
normalizing schedules for a steel sample containing alloying elements involve
increasing the annealing and normalizing temperatures to accommodate the
changes in phase transformation temperatures. Additionally, soaking times might
need to be slightly increased to ensure complete austenite formation, considering
the effect of alloying elements on phase transformation kinetics.

Consequently, adjustments to the annealing and normalizing schedules are

required.

For the annealing schedule of the alloy steel:

1. Heating rate: The heating rate can remain the same at around 100°C/hour.
2. Annealing temperature: The presence of alloying elements will generally
raise the A3 temperature (upper critical temperature). For this alloy steel,
you might need to increase the annealing temperature to around 800-
850°C to ensure complete austenite formation.
3. Annealing time: The soaking time at the annealing temperature might need
to be increased slightly to ensure homogenization and complete
transformation to austenite, considering the effect of alloying elements on
phase transformation kinetics.

After annealing, the steel should be slowly cooled within the furnace to room
temperature. This will still result in a microstructure of equiaxed, fine-grained
ferrite with spheroidized cementite, along with any secondary phases that may
form due to the presence of alloying elements.

For the normalizing schedule of the alloy steel:

1. Heating rate: The heating rate can remain the same at around 100°C/hour.
 2. Normalizing temperature: Due to the presence of alloying elements, the
normalizing temperature should be increased to around 950-1000°C to
ensure complete austenite formation.
3. Soaking time: Similar to annealing, the soaking time might need to be
increased slightly to ensure complete transformation to austenite.

After normalizing, the steel should be cooled in air, which will result in a
microstructure of fine-grained ferrite and pearlite, along with any secondary
phases that may form due to the presence of alloying elements. The normalizing
process will still refine the grain size and improve the strength and toughness of
the steel compared to the as-cast condition.
Q10. Consider a plain carbon steel with 0.85% C. Predict the as-cast
microstructure of such a steel and mention the relevant phase fractions. Using the
annealing and normalizing schedules proposed by you in question-8, mention the
difference between the annealed and normalized microstructures.
Ans: For a plain carbon steel with 0.85% C, the as-cast microstructure will consist
of proeutectoid cementite and pearlite. Since 0.85% C is slightly above the
eutectoid carbon content (0.77% C), the steel is considered hypereutectoid. The
phase fractions can be determined using the lever rule on the iron-carbon phase
diagram. The proeutectoid cementite fraction will be smaller, while pearlite will be
present in a larger amount.
Applying the annealing and normalizing schedules proposed in the previous
question:
1. Annealing:
- Heating rate: Approximately 100°C/hour.
- Annealing temperature: Heat the steel to a temperature within the
austenitic region, approximately 50-100°C above the upper critical temperature
(Acm). For 0.85% C steel, this would be around 750-800°C.
- Annealing time: Hold the steel at the annealing temperature for
approximately 1 hour per 25 mm of thickness.
After annealing and slow cooling within the furnace, the steel will have a
microstructure of fine-grained, equiaxed austenite, and spheroidized cementite.
This improves ductility and machinability.
2. Normalizing:
- Heating rate: Approximately 100°C/hour.
- Normalizing temperature: Heat the steel to a temperature slightly higher
than the annealing temperature, around 900-950°C.
- Soaking time: Hold the steel at the normalizing temperature for
approximately 1 hour per 25 mm of thickness.
After normalizing and cooling in air, the steel will have a microstructure of fine-
grained pearlite and proeutectoid cementite. This refines the grain size, improving
strength and toughness compared to the as-cast condition.
The primary difference in microstructure between the annealed and normalized
samples is the distribution of cementite and the presence of austenite. The
annealed sample has spheroidized cementite and fine-grained austenite, while
the normalized sample has proeutectoid cementite and fine-grained pearlite. Both
annealed and normalized samples have a finer grain size compared to the as-cast
microstructure, resulting in improved mechanical properties. However, the
normalized sample generally has higher strength and toughness due to its finer
pearlite structure, while the annealed sample has better ductility and
machinability due to the spheroidized cementite and presence of austenite.
Q11. If you were to quench the plain-carbon steel samples of question-8 and
question-10, which one would have a harder case? Please give your reasoning.
Ans: If you were to quench the plain-carbon steel samples of the previous two
questions (0.2% C and 0.85% C), the 0.85% C steel would have a harder case. The
primary reason for this is the difference in carbon content between the two steels.
When steel is quenched from the austenitizing temperature, the rapid cooling rate
prevents carbon from diffusing out of the austenite. This results in a diffusionless
transformation of austenite to martensite, which is a hard and brittle phase. The
hardness of martensite is directly related to its carbon content; higher carbon
content results in harder martensite.
In the case of the 0.2% C steel, the carbon content is below the eutectoid
composition, making it hypoeutectoid. Upon quenching, the steel will form a
mixture of martensite and ferrite, with martensite having a relatively lower carbon
content. This results in a moderately hard case.
On the other hand, the 0.85% C steel has a carbon content slightly above the
eutectoid composition, making it hypereutectoid. Upon quenching, the steel will
form a mixture of martensite and proeutectoid cementite. The martensite formed
in this steel will have a higher carbon content, resulting in a harder case compared
to the 0.2% C steel.
Q12. Which heat treatment technique can be used to reduce the brittleness of
martensite formed from quenching? Explain the transformations that occur as a
result of this heat treatment.
Ans: The heat treatment technique used to reduce the brittleness of martensite
formed from quenching is called tempering. Tempering is performed by heating
the quenched steel to a temperature below the lower critical temperature (A1),
typically in the range of 150-700°C, depending on the desired properties. The steel
is then held at this temperature for a specific time, followed by cooling to room
temperature.
During tempering, several transformations occur that help reduce the brittleness
of martensite:
1. Decomposition of retained austenite: If any retained austenite is present after
quenching, it may transform into a mixture of ferrite and cementite during
tempering, which helps improve the overall ductility and toughness of the steel.
2. Decomposition of martensite: The supersaturated carbon in the martensite
starts to diffuse out and form carbides, which are distributed within the ferrite
matrix. This results in a microstructure called tempered martensite, consisting of a
ferrite matrix with fine, dispersed carbides.
3. Spheroidization of cementite: The carbides formed during the decomposition of
martensite may coalesce and spheroidize. The spheroidization of cementite
particles contributes to an increase in ductility and toughness.
4. Reduction of internal stresses: The rapid cooling during quenching can generate
significant internal stresses within the steel. Tempering helps to relieve these
stresses, further improving the ductility and toughness of the material.
Q13. Describe the various stages of cooling that take place when a sample is
submerged in a quenching media. Explain the associated kinetic phenomena.
Ans: When a sample is submerged in a quenching media, the cooling process can
be divided into several stages, each associated with different kinetic phenomena.
The various stages of cooling during quenching are the vapor blanket stage,
nucleate boiling stage, convective cooling stage, and the final cooling stage. Each
stage is associated with different kinetic phenomena, which affect the cooling rate
and the efficiency of heat transfer between the sample and the quenching media.
The goal of quenching is to achieve a rapid cooling rate to promote the formation
of martensite and other hard phases, which is primarily achieved during the
nucleate boiling and convective cooling stages.
1. Vapor blanket stage (boiling stage): As the hot sample is submerged into the
quenching media, the temperature difference between the sample and the media
causes the media to rapidly vaporize, forming a vapor blanket around the sample.
This vapor blanket acts as an insulating layer, temporarily reducing the rate of heat
transfer from the sample to the media. The cooling rate during this stage is
relatively low.
2. Nucleate boiling stage: As the sample continues to cool, the vapor blanket
surrounding the sample starts to collapse due to a decrease in temperature
difference between the sample and the quenching media. This leads to the
formation of numerous small bubbles on the sample's surface, which is called
nucleate boiling. The collapse of the vapor blanket and the nucleate boiling
significantly increase the cooling rate as the heat transfer becomes more efficient.
3. Convective cooling stage (film boiling stage): As the sample's temperature
further decreases, the nucleate boiling eventually stops, and the quenching media
forms a thin liquid film on the sample surface. At this stage, the main mode of
heat transfer is convective cooling, where the quenching media absorbs heat from
the sample and moves away, being replaced by cooler media. The cooling rate
during this stage is lower than the nucleate boiling stage but still faster than the
vapor blanket stage.
4. Final cooling stage: In the final stage, the sample's temperature approaches the
temperature of the quenching media, and the cooling rate gradually decreases.
Eventually, the sample reaches thermal equilibrium with the media.
Q14. What is the difference between hardness and hardenability?
Ans: Hardness and hardenability are related but distinct concepts in the context of
materials, particularly steel. Hardness is a measure of a material's resistance to
localized plastic deformation, while hardenability is the ability of a steel or alloy to
be hardened through heat treatment, indicating the depth to which the material
can be hardened. Both properties are influenced by factors such as material
composition and heat treatment, but they describe different aspects of a
material's behavior.
Hardness: Hardness is a measure of a material's resistance to localized plastic
deformation, such as indentation, abrasion, or scratching. In metals, hardness is
often related to the strength of the material and is typically measured using
indentation tests, such as Rockwell, Brinell, or Vickers hardness tests. The
hardness of a metal depends on its composition, grain size, and heat treatment,
among other factors. In the case of steel, a higher carbon content and proper heat
treatment, like quenching and tempering, can increase its hardness.
Hardenability: Hardenability is a measure of the ability of a steel or alloy to be
hardened through heat treatment, specifically by the formation of martensite
upon quenching. It describes the depth to which a material can be hardened and
is influenced by the material's chemical composition and the cooling rate during
quenching. The presence of certain alloying elements, such as chromium,
molybdenum, and manganese, can increase the hardenability of steel by slowing
down the rate of phase transformations, allowing for martensite formation even
at relatively slower cooling rates. The hardenability is often assessed by the
Jominy end-quench test or other methods that measure the hardness as a
function of distance from the quenched surface.
Q15. Explain the hardenability can be quantified using Grossmans method with an
emphasis on quenching media and hardening depth.
Ans: Grossman's method is an approach to quantifying hardenability in steel by
evaluating the critical cooling rate necessary to produce a fully martensitic
structure. This method involves the determination of the cooling rate at which the
nose of the Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) curve is just avoided during
quenching. The cooling rate is primarily influenced by the quenching media and
the hardening depth. In Grossman's method, the cooling curves are generated for
various quenching media, such as water, oil, or brine. These cooling curves are
then superimposed on the TTT diagram of the steel being investigated. The
intersection point between the cooling curve and the TTT curve nose is
considered the critical cooling rate. This cooling rate is an essential parameter for
evaluating hardenability because it indicates the minimum cooling rate required
to prevent the formation of other phases, such as pearlite or bainite, ensuring the
formation of martensite.
The quenching media plays a crucial role in determining the cooling rate of a
material during quenching. Different quenching media have different cooling
rates, depending on their thermal conductivity, specific heat, and viscosity. For
instance, water generally provides a faster cooling rate than oil due to its higher
thermal conductivity and lower viscosity. The choice of quenching media directly
affects the hardening depth by influencing the cooling rate within the material.
The hardening depth refers to the depth from the surface of the material where
martensitic transformation occurs during quenching. The hardening depth
depends on the hardenability of the steel and the cooling rate imposed by the
quenching media. When a material with high hardenability is quenched,
martensite can form at a greater depth due to the slower critical cooling rate
required, leading to a more substantial hardened case.
Q16. Consider that you have been told to produce a quenched plain carbon steel
with as-quenched hardness of 40 HRC after tempering. Mention the required
carbon percentage and tempering rate needed to achieve this.
Ans: To produce a quenched plain carbon steel with an as-quenched hardness of
40 HRC after tempering, you will need to consider both the appropriate carbon
content and the tempering temperature.
1. Carbon content: The carbon content plays a crucial role in determining the
hardness of steel. Generally, higher carbon content leads to higher hardness after
quenching. Based on the hardness conversion tables, a hardness of 40 HRC
corresponds to approximately 375-425 Brinell hardness (HB). For plain carbon
steel with a hardness in this range, you would typically need a carbon content of
around 0.4-0.5%.
2. Tempering temperature: After quenching, the plain carbon steel will have a
martensitic structure. Tempering is needed to reduce the brittleness of martensite
and improve the toughness of the material. The tempering temperature and time
will directly influence the final hardness of the material.
For a tempered steel with a hardness of 40 HRC, a tempering temperature of
approximately 450-550°C is generally used. The tempering time depends on the
size and geometry of the component, but it is typically held for at least 1-2 hours
to ensure uniform temperature distribution and proper diffusion of carbon atoms.