I.

GENERAL

• P&ID: Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams.

• PFD: Process Flow Diagram.
• NCR: Nonconformance report.
• MOC: management of change.

1. What is RBI and its main formula and what is the Risk matrix?
• RBI: a risk assessment and management process focused on inspection
planning for loss of containment of pressurized equipment due to material
deterioration. Main formula: Risk = Likelihood x Consequence.
• Risk matrix is a risk ranking methodology.

• Probability Assessment
The probability assessment should be in accordance with API 580, Section 9, and must be based
on all forms of damage that could reasonably be expected to affect a vessel in any particular
service. Examples of those damage mechanisms include: internal or external metal loss from
localized or general corrosion, all forms of cracking, and any other forms of metallurgical,
corrosion, or mechanical damage, (e.g. fatigue, embrittlement, creep, etc.) Additionally, the
effectiveness of the inspection practices, tools, and techniques used for finding the potential
damage mechanisms must be evaluated. Other factors that should be considered in a probability
assessment include:
a. Appropriateness of the materials of construction.
b. b. Vessel design conditions, relative to operating conditions.
c. c. Appropriateness of the design codes and standards utilized.
d. d. Effectiveness of corrosion monitoring programs.
e. e. The quality of maintenance and inspection quality assurance/quality control
programs.
f. Equipment failure data will also be important information for this assessment.

• Consequence Assessment
The consequence of a release is dependent on type and amount of process fluid contained in
the equipment. The consequence assessment should be in accordance with API 580, Section
10 and must consider the potential incidents that may occur as a result of fluid release, the
size of a potential release, and the type of a potential release, (includes explosion, fire, or
toxic exposure.) The assessment should also determine the potential incidents that may occur
as a result of fluid release, which may include: health effects, environmental damage,
equipment damage, and equipment downtime.

II. MATERIAL
1. What are types of stainless steel?
1) Ferritic Stainless steel:
- Iron–chromium alloys with chromium ranging from 10.5 to 27% and less than 0.10% Carbon
(e.g. 405, 409, 429, 430, 442, and 446).
- Has resistance to stress corrosion cracking.

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 - Subject to severe embrittlement at 700–1100F temperature range.

2) Austenitic (the most common):

- iron–chromium–nickel alloys that contain 16–26% chromium and 6–22% nickel (e.g. 304,
304L, 304H, 309, 310, 316, 316L, 316H, 321, 321H, 347,347H, and C 276).
- has a high resistance to corrosion.
- Vulnerable to stress corrosion cracking.

o Type 304—the most common grade; the classic 18/8 (18% chromium, 8% nickel) stainless
steel. Outside of the US it is commonly known as "A2 stainless steel", in accordance with ISO
3506 (not to be confused with A2 tool steel).[6]
o Type 304L—same as the 304 grade but lower carbon content to increase weldability. Is slightly
weaker than 304.
o Type 304LN—same as 304L, but also nitrogen is added to obtain a much higher yield and
tensile strength than 304L.
o Type 308—used as the filler metal when welding 304.
o Type 309—better temperature resistance than 304, also sometimes used as filler metal when
welding dissimilar steels, along with inconel.
o Type 316—the second most common grade (after 304); for food and surgical stainless steel
uses; alloy addition of molybdenum prevents specific forms of corrosion. It is also known as
marine grade stainless steel due to its increased resistance to chloride corrosion compared to
type 304. 316 is often used for building nuclear reprocessing plants.
o Type 316L—is an extra low carbon grade of 316, generally used in stainless steel watches and
marine applications, as well exclusively in the fabrication of reactor pressure vessels for boiling
water reactors, due to its high resistance to corrosion. Also referred to as "A4" in accordance
with ISO 3506.[6]
o Type 316Ti—variant of type 316 that includes titanium for heat resistance. It is used in flexible
chimney liners.
o Type 321—similar to 304 but lower risk of weld decay due to addition of titanium. See also
347 with addition of niobium for desensitization during welding.

2. Differentiate between 304 and 316 and what does L and H stands for?
• 304: Popular 18–8 stainless steel
• 316: 17% chromium 11% nickel 2% molybdenum (Mo added for improved corrosion
resistance).
• The “L” and “H” suffixes refer to controlled ranges of low and high carbon content,
respectively (L has 0.03% carbon maximum in stainless For resistance to intergranular
corrosion and H has carbon range 0.04–0.10%, for high-temperature use for tensile and creep
rupture strength)

3) Martensitic:
- High Carbon content up to 1%, and poor weldability (e.g. 410, 410S, 416, 420, 440A, 440B,
and 440C).

4) Duplex:
- Approximately 50% ferritic and 50% austenitic.
- High strength and resistance to corrosion and SSC (2205, 2304, and 2507).

5) Precipitation hardening (PH):

- Provide an optimum combination of the properties of martensitic and austenitic grades (17-
4PH and 17-7PH) .

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 3. What are the benefits of Duplex over austenitic stainless steel?

• Strength: Duplex stainless steels are about twice as strong as regular austenitic or ferritic
stainless steels.
• Toughness and ductility: Duplex stainless steels have significantly better toughness and
ductility than ferritic grades; however, they do not reach the excellent values of austenitic grades.
• Corrosion resistance: As with all stainless steels, corrosion resistance depends mostly on the
composition of the stainless steel. For chloride pitting and crevice corrosion resistance, their
chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen content are most important. Duplex stainless steel grades
have a range of corrosion resistance, similar to the range for austenitic stainless steels, i.e from
Type 304 or 316 (e.g. LDX 2101©) to 6% molybdenum (e.g. SAF 2507©) stainless steels.

4.
5. 3. What are Nickel Alloys forms and their applications?
• a family of alloys containing nickel as a major alloying element (>30%) including Alloys 200,
400, K-500, 800, 800H, 825, 600, 600H, 617, 625, 718, X-750, and C276.
• Applications:
- Cryogenic applications, storage tanks for liquefied hydrocarbon gases, Nickel does not
form carbide and remains in solid solution.
- Nickel–Chromium–Iron Alloys: This family of alloys was developed for high-temperature
oxidizing environments. These alloys typically contain 50–80% nickel

III. PRESSURE VESSELS

1. What type of pressure vessels you worked with? and what type of material
Are they?
• Separators: SA 203-E, SA 240-304 etc….
• Drums: SA 285 Gr C, SA 516 Gr 60, 70 & C etc…….
• Towers: SA 516 Gr B, SA 387 Gr CL2, SA 516 Gr 60 & 70, etc…
• Atmospheric storage tanks: A283 Gr C.
• Spherical tanks: SA 537 Gr CL2.

2. How to conduct off stream inspection for Pressure vessels (steps)?

A. Document review:
• Reviewing design and construction records.
• Reviewing inspection history.

B. External inspection:
• Ladders, stairways, platforms, and walkways: corroded or broken parts, cracks, tightness of
bolts, condition of paint or galvanizing material, wear of ladder rungs and stair treads, the
security of handrails, and the condition of flooring on platforms and walkways.

• Foundations and Supports: deterioration such as spelling, cracking, settling, distortion, and
crevice formed between an exchanger shell or a horizontal vessel and a cradle support.

• Anchor Bolts: Distortion, corrosion, and looseness.

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 •
• Nozzles: If any settling of the vessel has occurred, nozzles and adjacent shell areas should be
inspected for distortion and cracking, If any settling of the vessel has occurred, nozzles and
adjacent shell areas should be inspected for distortion and cracking, Wall thickness, and leaks.
•
• Grounding Connections: Grounding connection resistance shall not exceed 25 ohms but 5 ohms
is normally preferred.
•
• Auxiliary Equipment: gauge connections, float wells, sight glasses, and safety valves (vibration
& corrosion).

1. Protective Coatings and Insulation:

- Coating: Rust spots, blisters, Flaking, and film lifting.

- Insulation: CUI of vessels subject to moisture ingress and
which operate between
* 10 °F (–12 °C) and 350 °F (175 °C) for carbon and low alloy steels; (pitting)
* 140 °F (60 °C) and 400 °F (205 °C) for austenitic stainless steels. (chloride
stress corrosion cracking)

Or In intermittent service.

- Susceptible Locations:
a. Insulation or stiffening rings.
b. Nozzles and man ways.
c. Other penetrations, e.g. Ladder clips, pipe supports.
d. Damaged insulation.
e. Insulation with failed caulking.
f. Top and bottom heads.
g. Other areas that tend to trap water.
• - If external coverings are in good condition and there is no reason to suspect damage behind
them, it is not necessary to remove them for inspection of the vessel (Neutron backscatter,
Thermography, or/and RT thickness profile are methods used to provide on-stream screening
assessment.

2. Metal surface: wall thickness corrosion, blistering, cracking, buckling,

bulging, hot spots, and leaking.

• Internal inspection:
• Reviewing previous records.
• Vessel entry: Vessel shall be isolated, drained, purged, cleaned, ventilated, and gas tested.
• Work permit.
• Safety gear.
• Preliminary Visual inspection when possible: collecting samples and visualizing fresh
corrosion or damage may be useful in determining type and causes.
• Surface preparation.
• Metal surface: Thickness measurement, corrosion, cracking, erosion, blistering, deformation.

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 • Welds.
• Internals.
• Nozzles.
• Lining:
• Metallic: corrosion, erosion, bulging, mechanical and cracking.
• Nonmetallic: Bulging, blistering, chipping, cracking, and mechanical damage (visual and
holiday test).
• Report
• Repair
• Records and final report

3. What are the internal components of a tower?

• Trayed towers: Trays (10 GA CS), trays support rings, support clips,
downcomer bars & vortex breaker.

4. How do you inspect a tower from A to Z?

• External inspection

- As in pressure vessel above.

- Skirt fireproofing: Any crack over 0.250 in. in width, and any
crack which has displacement or bulging of the concrete
fireproofing material should be investigated for corrosion under
fireproofing (CUF).

• Internal inspection

a. As in pressure vessel above.

b. Preliminary, or “dirty inspections”.
c. Manway covers, gasket surfaces and manway bore internal surfaces
should be labeled and inspected.

d. Access:
- Access should be provided onto the top tray, at the middle manway (if
present) and onto the bottom head.
e. Areas between trays
1. The liquid zone: Spot-checking (four to six locations per tray level)
under deposits is recommended. Scrape spots 4 in. to 8 in. long, from
above the weir height down to and including the tray support ring.
2. The froth zone: Light spot checking is usually sufficient (two to three
locations per tray level).
3. The vapor zone: The area consists of the last 3” or 4” below the tray.
f. Trays
In tray deck and attached hardware the Primary locations of concern
are the active and inactive panels of deck, the weirs, the downcomer
panels and the hardware, edges of the perforation and the edges of
the raised cap.
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 - Pitting or roughening of the tray panels. Bulging, sagging and
distortion of the tray panels.
- Cracking of the tray deck at support and stress points.
- Cracking of the tray deck is frequently adjacent to internal
manway openings.
- Loose or missing hardware on downcomer anti-jump baffles or
downcomer anti-vibration clips are the main point of failure for
these tray components.

IV. PIPING

1. How many category of piping in ASME B31.1?

• Category D Fluid Service: a fluid service in which all the following apply:
(1) The fluid handled is nonflammable, nontoxic, and not damaging to human tissues.
(2) The design gage pressure does not exceed 1035 kPa (150 psi)
(3) The design temperature is from −29°C (−20°F) through 186°C (366°F).

• Category M Fluid Service: a fluid service in which the potential for personnel which
a single exposure to a very small quantity of a toxic fluid, caused by leakage, can
produce serious irreversible harm to persons on breathing or bodily contact.

• High Pressure Fluid Service: High pressure is considered herein to be pressure in

excess of that allowed by the ASME B16.5 Class 2500 rating for the specified
design temperature and material group. However, there are no specified pressure
limitations for the application of these rules.
• Normal Fluid Service: a fluid service pertaining to most piping covered by this
Code, i.e., not subject to the rules for Category D, Category M, or High Pressure
Fluid Service

V. HEAT EXCHANGER

1. What type of heat exchangers your company has? With what type of material?
• Type: Shell & tube (fixed tube sheet, floating head, and U tube), double pipe,
and cooler.

• Material:
g. Shell → SA 517 Gr. 70, and SA 240 Gr. 304.
h. Tube → SA 334 Gr. 6, SA 335 Gr P9 SA213 Gr. TP304, and SA179.

2. What are shell & tube exchanger components? And how to inspect?
• Components:

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 1. Heads (channel & bonnet).
2. Shell.
3. Tubes.
4. Tube sheet.
5. Expansion joint.
6. Tie rods and spacers.
7. Transverse baffles.
8. Nozzles.
9. Support prackets
• Inspection:
A. Externally
i. As in pressure vessel.
B. Internally
1. Coordinate with other involved departments (as production, safety,
maintenance ….)
2. Review all relevant documents (Standards, Specification, drawings,
inspection procedure…)
3. Check work permit are signed and in work place.
4. Apply a pressure test on both shell side and tube for 1 hour to reveal leaks.
7. Pre visual inspection for tube bundles when they are first pulled from the shell
and for shell internal surface (sending a sample of fouling to lab if exist).
8. Follow up cleaning process and surface preparation.
9. for floating head and double tube:
a. Inspect shell, nozzles, and channel head for corrosion, erosion,
blisters, bulges, cracks, deposits, pits, etc...(Especially along bottom, weld
seams & HAZ, and areas adjacent to bundle baffles).
b. Inspect Tube sheet for corrosion, erosion, blisters, bulges, cracks,
deposits, pits, etc...
c. Carefully examine all gasket surfaces for corrosion, erosion, or
mechanical damage.
a. Inspect Tubes OD, Baffles and tie rods for corrosion, erosion, bulges,
cracks, deposits, pits, strain, or deformation etc...(next tube sheet, in
contact with baffles, and area facing shell inlet)
b. Inspect tube ID (using mirror, flash light, and/or IRIS) for corrosion, erosion
c. Inspect floating head, gasket surface, and partitions.
10. For fixed tube sheet; Inspect tube sheet and tube ID as in above.
11. For coolers unplug tubes and inspect ID as in above.
3. What are the likely locations of corrosion on heat exchanger?
• The outside surface of tubes opposite shell inlet nozzles may be subject to
erosion or impingement corrosion.
• Areas adjacent to the baffles and tube sheets for erosion-corrosion
• When a high-temperature material flows into the tube inlet pass; backside of the
stationary tube sheets or tubes immediately adjacent to it.

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 • Where sludge or similar deposit may form; along the bottom of the shell.
• Where dissimilar metals are in close contact (as in carbon steel channel gasket
surfaces near brass tube sheets).
• Nozzles and shell flanges for Cracks.
• Tubes Fretting at Baffles.

4. What are the Air coolers types?

1. Induced draft air cooler (fan above)
2. forced draft air cooler (fan below).

5. What are the Air cooler components? And how do you inspect it?
• Component:
3. Tube bundle.
4. Header box.
5. Plugs.
6. Nozzles.
7. Supporting column.
8. Plenum.
9. Fan.
10. Fan ring.
11. Drive assembly.

• Inspection:
A) Externally
1. Access, ladders, platforms, and stairways.
2. Concrete base, supporting elements and load carrying beams.
3. Plenum, fan ring, fan blades, and fan deck.
Attention should be paid to:
- Corroded or broken parts
- Cracks
- Tightness of bolts
- Condition of paint
- Wear of ladder rungs or stair treads
- Security of handrails
- Condition of flooring on platforms and walkways
- Condition of fireproofing
- Buckling or excessive deflection (on supports and beams)
- Condition of insulation
- Relief valve condition and Tag number
- level gauges and associated piping
- Stalling, cracking and settling of concrete foundation and
supports.

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 - Fan blades wear, corrosion or mechanical damage.

4. Insulation and susceptible areas for CUI.

5. Earth connection.
6. Anchor bolts and threaded joints for loose or corrosion.
7. Vibration.
8. Fins for fouling or damage (collect a sample).
9. Exposed tubes for corrosion.
10. Tube sheet and plug sheet for leakage
11. Nozzles weld (NDT applied).
12. Thickness measurements for:
j. Tube sheet (min. 20 mm including CA).
k. Plug sheet (min. 20 mm including CA).
l. Box top, bottom, and end plate (min. 12 mm including CA).
m. Exposed tubes (min. 2 mm).
n. Nozzles neck (min. as table 3 of API 661).
*Note: all tolerances is for CS.

B) Internally
1. Preliminary inspection:
• Remove about 25% of plugs and visually check tubes for
fouling, if fouled remove all plugs.
• Visually inspect tube internal condition using borescope (Erosion-
corrosion in tube inlet and last foot of outlet is common problem).
• Visually inspect header using borescope.
• Check gasket surface for mechanical damage (cut or scratches).
• Check nozzles internal surface for fouling, pitting, erosion, corrosion,
or cracks.
• Check flange face for flatness.
• Apply leak test for at least 1 hour. According to pressure code.

VI. TANKS ( MFL MANDATORY)

1. What are the types of tanks your company have? And what material they
are made from?
• Tanks types: floating roof (annular pontoon & double deck pontoon), fixed
roof, horizontal tanks.
• Material: SA 283 Gr C

2. How do you inspect a tank (steps)?

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 • Routine In-service Inspections (shall not exceed one month): visual
inspection of the tank’s exterior surfaces. Evidence of leaks; shell
distortions; signs of settlement; corrosion; and condition of the
foundation, paint coatings.

• External inspection (the least of 5 years or RCA/4N):

a. Preparation: Reviewing tank data and inspection records
b. Ladder, Stairway, Platform, and Walkway: corroded or broken parts, Ladder
rungs and stair treads for wear and corrosion, Welded joints for cracks
c. Foundation: Concrete pads, base rings, and piers/footings should be checked
for spalling, cracks, and general deterioration.
d. Anchor Bolt: Corrosion and looseness.
e. Grounding Connection: Total resistance from tank to earth should not exceed
approximately 25 ohms.
f. Protective Coating: Rust spots, blisters, peeling, and cracking.
g. Tank Shell: Thickness Measurements, Stiffeners & Wind Girders,
Cracking, blistering, Leaks, and Distortion.
h. Tank Roof: thinning, roof seals, sealing system, drain system, anti-rotation
guide, pole and pontoons.
i. Auxiliary Equipment: Manways, nozzles, fire-fighting equipment, Pressure-
vacuum vents and breather valves, and cathodic protection system.

• Internal inspection
j. Reviewing tank data & inspection records.
k. Tank must be emptied of liquid, freed of gases, and washed or cleaned.
l. Safety permit.
m. Preliminary Visual Inspection: checking internal condition of roof and legs or
columns for safe inspection.
n. Bottom: Corrosion, Depressions (especially areas around or under roof
supports), sumps, weld cracking.
o. Shell: Shell to bottom weld, liquid-level line, vapor, corrosion, blistering,
cracking, bulging, buckling.
p. Lining: Holes (indicated by bulging, blistering, spalling), cracking, and
mechanical damage.
q. Roof: Corrosion, distortion.
r. Internals: Nozzles, supports, floating roof swing lines
s. Primary report.
t. Repair.
u. Final report.

3. How do you calculate tmin for shell?

• tmin = 2.6 DHG for local area.
SE
Or tmin = 2.6
D( H −1)G for full shell course.
SE

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 4. What are the areas most susceptible to problems in a tank?
• Vapor space, the liquid-level line, and bottom.

5. What is the pressure you use when conducting a vacuum test on a tank?
• In general 3-5 psi and for detection of very small leaks 8-10 psi.

6. Define the mean of plumbness, critical zone?

• A measurement of straightness of tank shell and fixed roof columns
• It is 1/200 for new tanks and 1/100 for in-service tanks (Max. 5’’).
• Critical zone: means portion of tank bottom within 3 inches of shell inside
and measured radically inwards.

VII. PSV
1. What are the types of Pressure relief devices that you worked on?
• Rel
•
• ieve valves, safety valves, safety relieve valves, Conventional Safety-
relief Valve, Pilot-operated Pressure-relief valve.
• Relieve valves used for liquid service.
• Safety valves used for gas or steam service.
• safety relieve valves for both gas and liquid service.

2. What is the function of the bellow in PSV?

• Minimizing the effect of backpressure at the valve discharge.
• Back pressure test applied for check leakage.

3. How to conduct Calibration of PSV?

• As received pop test: If equal to or within tolerance of the set pressure,
then dismantling and visual inspection of the valve components, and if
not it must be re-tested and the cause of the malfunction determined
during dismantling and visual inspection
- PRV set pressure < 70 psig, tolerance + 2 psig
- PRV set pressure > 70 psig, tolerance + 3 %

• Shop visual inspection:

1. The flanges, for evidence of pitting, roughening or decreases in the
width of seating surfaces.

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 2. The springs, for evidence of corrosion or cracking and for the correct
pressure range at the PRVs operating pressure and temperature.
3. The bellows, if the PRV is of the bellows type.
4. The positions of the set screws and openings in the bonnet.
5. The inlet and outlet nozzles, for evidence of deposits of foreign
material or corrosion.
6. The external surface, for any indication of a corrosive atmosphere or of
mechanical damage.
7. The body wall thickness.
8. The pilots and associated parts (if pilot operated type).

• Final test:
1. Pop test.
2. Bubble test (seat tightness):
- At 90% of the set pressure for set pressure > 50 psig.
- At 5 psig less than the set pressure for set pressure ≤ 50
psig.

4. What is the inspection frequency used for PSV?

• Inspection and shop maintenance — Normal frequency is 5 years (max.)
but may be up to 10 years for clean, non-corrosive, non-fouling medium
• Visual on-line survey — 5 years max.

Note: ANSI/API Recommended Practice 527, Seat Tightness of Pressure

Relief Valves. Permissible leakage rate of conventional and bellows valves
and testing procedure.

VIII. WELDING

1. What are types of welded joints?

1. Butt joint.
2. T joint.
3. Corner joint.
4. Lap joint.
5. Edge Joint.
2. Differentiate between P-No, F-No, and A-No in ASME IX?
• P-numbers represent parent metal classification of similar composition
and properties, i.e., similar strength and ductility.
• F-numbers give similar usability aspects of filler material.
• A-numbers give similar chem. comp. In “As welded” condition.

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 3. What are the welding defects exist in SMAW and not in GTAW?
• Normally: slag inclusion, burn-through, undercut, and hydrogen cracking.

IX. NDT
1. What is IQI in RT? And what are the types?
• IQI = Image quality indicator.
• Hole type and Wire type.

2. What is the function of piezoelectric material in UT equipment?

• Convert Electrical energy to mechanical energy.

3. What is dwell time? And what are factors to determine the dwell time?
• Dwell time: the time required for liquid penetrant to penetrate
inside any surface defect.
• Factors:
1. Material.
2. Material form.
3. Type of discontinuity.

4. What are TOFD, Eddy Current and IRIS?

A.TOFD (Time of Flight Diffraction):

• An AUT method used for weld inspection consists of a separate ultrasonic transmitter &
receiver.

B. Eddy Current inspection (Used for non-ferrous heat exchanger tubes)

• Is based on the principles of electromagnetic induction. Eddy Currents are created through a process
called electromagnetic induction, alternating electrical currents induced into a conductive material by
an alternating magnetic field.

C.IRIS (Internal Rotary inspection system): Used for all types heat exchanger
tubes
• An immersion pulse echo technique whereby the ultrasonic transducer is centered in the tube to be
inspected. Ultrasonic pulses are emitted along a path parallel to the tube axis.
• These pulses are then reflected by a 45º mirror so that they are directed radially onto the tube wall.
• As the mirror rotates, the ultrasonic beam is traversed around the tube circumference as illustrated in.
All the measurements made during a complete scan around the circumference of the tube are
displayed on a screen.
• The couplent in this technique is the water.
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 • IRIS limitations are 1- very slow 2- need good cleaning.

Tubular NDT
Common Methods
• Eddy-current testing (ECT) is commonly used on non-[ferromagnetic] metals and alloys such as
copper, brass, and copper nickel. Variations on ECT are partial saturation ECT and magnetic
biased ECT, both of which use magnets to allow ECT to operate in lightly ferromagnetic materials
or in thin-wall ferromagnetic tubes.
• Remote field testing (RFT) is used on [ferromagnetic] materials such as carbon steel.
• IRIS (Internal rotary inspection system) can be used on all types of metal tubes. IRIS is very slow,
but very accurate, and is often used as a back-up to a remote field examination.
• Magnetic flux leakage (MFL) testing is used on carbon steel tubes, although it tends to be less
accurate than remote field testing.[1]

X. CORROSION AND COATING QUESTIONS

1. What is the corrosion?
• Chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material and its environment that produces
deterioration (change) of the material and its properties.

2. What are the types of corrosion?

• Corrosion that is not influenced by any other process:
1. Uniform Corrosion, and Localized Corrosion.
2. Metallurgical Influenced Corrosion (e.g. Graphitization, temper embrittlement & brittle
fracture) and Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC).

 Graphitization
Graphitization is a change in the microstructure of certain carbon steels and 0.5Mo steels after long-
term operation in the 800F to 1100F (427C to 593C) range that may cause a loss in strength,
ductility, and/or creep resistance. At elevated temperatures, the carbide phases in these steels are
unstable and may decompose into graphite nodules. This decomposition is known as graphitization.

 Softening (Spheroidization)
Spheroidization is a change in the microstructure of steels after exposure in the 850F to 1400F
(440C to 760C) range, where the carbide phases in carbon steels are unstable and may agglomerate
from their normal plate-like form to a spheroidal form, or from small, finely dispersed carbides in
low alloy steels like 1Cr-0.5Mo to large agglomerated carbides. Spheroidization may cause a loss in
strength and/or creep resistance.

 Temper Embrittlement
Temper embrittlement is the reduction in toughness due to a metallurgical change that can occur in
some low alloy steels as a result of long term exposure in the temperature range of about 650oF to

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 1100oF (343C to 593C) . This change causes an upward shift in the ductile-to-brittle transition
temperature as measured by Charpy impact testing. Although the loss of toughness is not evident at
operating temperature, equipment that is temper embrittled may be susceptible to brittle fracture
during start-up and shutdown.

 Creep
a) At high temperatures, metal components can slowly and continuously deform under load below
the yield stress. This time dependent deformation of stressed components is known as creep.
The initial stages of creep damage can only be identified by scanning electron microscope
metallography. Creep voids typically show up at the grain boundaries and in later stages form
fissures and then cracks.
Inspection and Monitoring
a. Creep damage with the associated microvoid formation, fissuring and dimensional changes is not
effectively found by any one inspection technique. A combination of techniques (UT, RT, EC,
dimensional measurements and replication) should be employed. Destructive sampling and
metallographic examination are used to confirm damage.
b. For pressure vessels, inspection should focus on welds of CrMo alloys operating in the creep
range. The 1 Cr-0.5Mo and 1.25Cr-0.5Mo materials are particularly prone to low creep ductility.
Most inspections are performed visually and followed by PT or WFMT on several-year intervals.
Angle beam
(shear wave) UT can also be employed, although the early stages of creep damage are very difficult
to detect. Initial fabrication flaws should be mapped and documented for future reference.
c. Fired heater tubes should be inspected for evidence of overheating, corrosion, and erosion as
follows:
1. Tubes should be VT examined for bulging, blistering, cracking, sagging, and bowing.
2. Wall thickness measurements of selected heater tubes should be made where wall losses are most
likely to occur.
3. Tubes should be examined for evidence of diametric growth (creep) with a strap or go/no go
gauge, and in limited cases by metallography on in place replicas or tube samples. However,
metallography on the OD of a component may not provide a clear indication of subsurface damage.
4. Retirement criteria based on diametric growth and loss of wall thickness is highly dependent on
the tube material and the specific operating conditions.

 Caustic Corrosion
1. Localized corrosion due to the concentration of caustic or alkaline salts (NaOH or KOH). that
usually occurs under evaporative or high heat transfer conditions. However, general corrosion
can also occur depending on alkali or caustic solution strength. (Primarily carbon steel, low alloy
steels and 300 Series SS).

 Sulfidation
• Corrosion of carbon steel and other alloys resulting from their reaction with sulfur compounds in
high temperature environments. The presence of hydrogen accelerates corrosion.

• In general, the resistance of iron and nickel base alloys is determined by the chromium content of
the material. Increasing the chromium content significantly increases resistance to sulfidation. 300
Series SS, such as Types 304, 316, 321 and 347, are highly resistant in most refining process

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 environments. Nickel base alloys are similar to stainless steels in that similar levels of chromium
provide similar resistance to sulfidation.

• Corrosion that influenced by other process:

1. Mechanically assisted degradation (e.g. Erosion corrosion & mechanical fatigue).
2. Environmentally Induced cracking (e.g. chloride stress corrosion cracking &
Hydrogen embrittlement).

3. What is HIC and how to inspect it?

• Definition: Cracks develop between hydrogen blistering exist in a different planes
in affected metal sometimes referred to as “stepwise cracking”.
• How to inspect: best detected by WFMT, EC, RT or ACFM techniques.

4. What is CO2 corrosion?

• A damage mechanism occurs when Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves in water to
form carbonic acid (H2CO3) that lower the pH and promote general corrosion
and/or pitting corrosion of carbon steel.

5. What is CL SCC, what is sensitization and how to avoid?

• SL CSS: Surface initiated cracks caused by environmental cracking of 300
Series SS and some nickel base alloys under the combined action of tensile
stress, temperature and an aqueous chloride environment.
• Sensitization: 300 series SS become sensitized when exposed to
elevated temperatures during manufacturing, welding or high temperature service
(400°C to 815°C) causing formation of chromium carbide in the grain boundaries
which lead to intergranular corrosion.

• Avoiding:
1. Using Low carbon ”L” grades < 0.03% C ( if exposed more than several hours
above about 538oC or long term above 400oC.
2. Using stabilized grades with Titanium and niobium Stabilizers (types 321 and
347).
3. Use stabilizing heat treatment at about 900 °C to chemically stabilized austenitic
stainless steel welds after all welding is complete.

XI. DAMAGE MECHANISEM

6. What is the associated failure mech. of cyclic load, notch, and stress riser?
- Mechanical fatigue.

DEFINITIONS

• ACFM: Alternating current field measurement.

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 • Condition monitoring locations (CMLs): Designated areas on pressure vessels where
periodic examinations are conducted. Previously, they were normally referred to as “thickness
monitoring locations (TMLs)”.

• Fitness-for-service evaluation: A methodology whereby flaws and conditions contained

within an equipment item are assessed in order to determine the integrity of the equipment for
continued service.

• Hold point: A point in the repair or alteration process beyond which work may not proceed until
the required inspection or NDE has been performed and documented.

• Imperfections: Flaws or other discontinuities noted during inspection that may or may not
exceed the applicable acceptance criteria.

• On-stream inspection: An inspection performed from the outside of a pressure vessel while it
is on-stream using NDE procedures to establish the suitability of the pressure boundary for
continued operation.

• temper embrittlement: The reduction in toughness due to a metallurgical change that can
occur in some low alloy steels, e.g. 2-1/4Cr-1Mo, as a result of long term exposure in the
temperature range of about 650ºF – 1100ºF (345ºC – 595ºC).

• transition temperature: The temperature at which a material fracture mode changes from
ductile to brittle.

• Thermocouples are simple temperatures sensors that consist of two dissimilar materials in
thermal contact. The operation of thermocouple is based on the thermoelectric effect. Common
thermocouple, The K type is made with Ni-Cr and Ni-Al wires (ranging from room temp to 1250
ºC).

• Heat treatment for carbon steel at 650 ºC, for stainless steel at 730 ºC.

• Soaking time based thickness 1Hr/inch (normal 2 hours).

• SA 333 used in LNG plant (-45 ºC), the electrode used in to weld this material is
ER70S6 in first pass (Argon welding), and complete the weld with E7018.

• Lockout-tagout (LOTO) or lock and tag is a safety procedure which is used in

industry and research settings to ensure that dangerous machines are properly
shut off and not started up again prior to the completion of maintenance or
servicing work. It requires that hazardous power sources be "isolated and rendered
inoperative" before any repair procedure is started. "Lock and tag" works in
conjunction with a lock usually locking the device or the power source with the
hasp, and placing it in such a position that no hazardous power sources can be
turned on. The procedure requires that a tag be affixed to the locked device
indicating that it should not be turned on.

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 • I worked on ultrapipe ,Meredium and SAP (softwares).

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