Namma Kalvi 12th Physics Unit 1 Study Material em 219159

Namma Kalvi
www.nammakalvi.in
12th PHYSICS
UNIT -1
ELECTROSTATICS
MR.THIVIYARAJ V.,M.Sc.,M.Phill.,B.Ed
www.nammakalvi.in
ELECTROSTATICS THIVIYARAJ V
M.Sc. ,M.Phill., B.Ed.,
1. CHARGING BY RUBBING [ 2 MARK]
Some materials are found to be charged by rubbing with suitable materials.
EX
1. Amber rod is charged by rubbing with animal fur.

2. Glass rod is charged by rubbing with silk cloth.
2. EXPERIMENT [ 3 MARK]
Consider a charged rubbed rod hanging from a thread. When another charged rubber
rod is brought near it will be repelled instead if a charged glass rod is brought near rubber
rod, it will be attracted.
3. CONCLUSION [ 2 MARK]
 Like charges repel force.
 Unlike charges attract force.
Two kinds of charges
1. Positive charge (+ve)

2. Negative charge (-ve)
4. NEUTRAL CHARGES [ 2 MARK]
If the net charge is zero in the object it is said to be electricity neutral.
CHARGE OF AN ATOM
All material are made up of atoms which are electrically neutral.
But its constituent particles posses charges.
2
i. Protons +ve
ii. Electrons -ve
iii. Neutrons zero
5. TRIBOELECTRIC CHARGING[ 2 MARK]
When an object is rubbed with another object [EX: Rubber with silk cloth], some
amount of charges is transferred from one object to the other due to friction between them.
The object is said to be ‘Electrically charged’. This method of charging the objects through
rubbing is called ‘Triboelectric charging’.
6. BASIC PROPERTIES OF CHARGES

1. ELECTRIC CHARGE [ 2 MARK]
Electric charge is inherent and fundamental property of particles.
Charge is the physical property of particles is matter that experiences is directly
Proportional to the force when placed in an electromagnetic field.
S.I unit Coulomb [c]
2. CONSERVATION OF CHARGES[ 2 MARK]
The total electric charge in the universe is constant and charge can be
neither created nor destroyed . In any physical process, the net charge is always zero.
3. QUANTISATION OF CHARGES[ 2 MARK]

The charge of any object is equal to an integral multiple of the
fundamental unit of charge e,
q=ne
n integer [0, ±1, ±2,.....]
e charge of an electron.
The charge of electron is found to be ‘-e’ -1.6 x × 10−19 C
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The charge of proton is found to be ‘+e’ 1.6 x × 10−19 C
Charge Quantization is applicable for microscopic level and not for macroscopic.
When a glass rod is rubbed with silk cloth, approximately 1010 charges are transferred
and the charges are treated to be continuous.
The smallest charge in nature :-
Charge of electron (-e) and charge of proton (+e)
7. COULOMB’S LAW [ 5 MARK]
STATEMENT [2 MARK]
The force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges [q1 and q2]
separated by a distance ‘r’ is directly proportional to the product of the charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The force acts along the
line joining the two charges.
PROOF
Consider two charges q1 and q2
distance r
⨁ ................ ⨁ 21
q1 12 q2
The force on the point charge ‘q1’ exerted by charging ‘q1’ is
21 ∝ 12
21 =K 12
In the similar manner the force on the charge ‘q1’ exerted by ‘q2’ is,
12 =K 21
K= = 9 x 10 9 Nm2C-2
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εo Permittivity of free space 8.85 x 10-12 C2N-1m2
8. RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY [ Dielectric constant, εr ] [ 2 MARK]
Force between two point charges in medium is always less than that in vacuum.
In Vacuum:
[ 21]vac 12
In Medium:
[ 21]Med 12
= >1 Since
The ratio is called relative permittivity of the Medium.
εr =
In air (or) vacuum εr =1
For all other medium εr >1
9. SIMILARITIES BETWEEN COULOMB’S LAW AND

NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION [ 3 MARK]
S.NO COULOMB’S LAW NEWTON’S LAW

Electrostatic force between Gravitational force between charges
1 charges q1 and q2. masses m1 and m2.
F ∝q1q1 F ∝m1m2
2
F∝ F∝
3
Attractive or Repulsive depending Always attractive.
4 on the nature of the charge.
5
5 Depends on the nature of the Independent of the medium.

Medium in which the charges are
kept.
6 Varies when they are in motion. Remains the same when the masses are
at rest as in Motion.
7 K= 9 X 109 Nm2C-2 G=6.67 X 10-11Nm2kg-2
K is much higher than G.
Electrostatic force is always greater [Magnitude] than gravitational force for

smaller size object .
10. FORCE BETWEEN CHARGES [NEWTON’S lll LAW ] [ 3 MARK]
Prove that electrostatic force obeys Newton’s third law:
Two point charges q1 and q2 ; distance ‘ r’.
Force on the point charge ‘q2’ exerted by charging ‘q1’
21 =K 12
Force on the point charge ‘q1’ exerted by charging ‘q2’
12 =K 21
But 21 =- 12
Substituting,
12 =K [- 12 ] =-K [ 12 ]
12= - 21
Equal in Magnitude but opposite in direction.
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11. LIMITATION OF COULOMB’S LAW [ 2 MARK]
The coulomb force is the only for point charges and is applicable for
charges whose size is smaller compared to the distance between them.
12. MAGNITUDES OF ELECTROSTATIC AND GRAVITATIONAL FORCES
[3 MARK]
Why a charged comb attracts an uncharged piece of paper with greater force even through the
paper is attracted by the gravitational force of the earth?
The electrostatic force between a proton and electron is found to be 1039 times
than that of the gravitational force between them.
Fe =1039 FG
Thus, the gravitational force is negligible compared to the electrostatic force for small
size objects in the atomic domain. This is the reason that a charged comb attracts an
uncharged piece of paper with greater force even through the paper is attracted downwards
by the gravitational force.
13. SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE [ 3 MARK]
“ The total force acting on a given charge is equal to the vector sum of forces
Exerted on it by all the other charges “
Consider the system of ‘n’ charges, namely q1, q2, q3, . . . .qn.
The force on ‘q1’ exerted by charging ‘q2’
12 =K 21
The force on ‘q1’ exerted by charging ‘q3’
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13 =K 13
tot
1 = 12 + 13+ . . . . . .+ 1n
1
tot
=K [ 21 + 13 +....+ n1 ]
ELECTRIC FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
14. ACTION AT A DISTANCE [ 2 MARK]
Consider a point charge kept at a point in space.If another charge is placed at
some distance from the first charge , it experiences a attractive or repulsive force. This is
called “ action at a distance” [non- contract force ]
15. ELECTRIC FIELD[ 2 MARK]
The region of space around a charged particle which exerts a force on another
charged particle brought near it.
is the force experienced by a charge qo.
Electric field, =
S.I unit NC-1
Direction of is along the direction of force.
16. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO POINT CHARGE[ 3 MARK]
q qo [test charge ]
Consider a source point charge q placed at some point in space. Let another point
charge qo is placed at a point ‘p’ which is at a distance ‘r’ from q.
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The force experienced by ‘qo’ is =K
Electric field =
UNIT NC-1 ; Vector quantity.
17. PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC FIELD[ 3 MARK]
1. The electric field of a positive charge is directed away from the source
charge and
the electric field of a negative charge is directed towards from the source charge.
2. Coulomb’s law in terms of electric field:-
If the electric field at a point P is E,then the force experienced by qo at p is
= qo
3. = . is independent of the test charge qo and depends only
on the source charge ‘q’.
4. is Vector quantity which posses both magnitude and direction . E∝
is decreases in magnitude as the distance increases and vice versa.
5. It is assumed that the test charge is sufficiently smaller such that brightly it
near the
source charge will not modify the electric field of the source charge.
6. E= is valid only for point charges , for continuous and finite charge
distributions
integration technique are used.
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7. These are two kinds of electric fields, uniform and non uniform electric
fields.
18. UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD[ 2 MARK]
If the electric field has the same direction and constant magnitude at all points
in space , then the electric field is said to be uniform .
19. NON- UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD[ 2 MARK]
If the electric field has different direction or different magnitude or both at
different points in space, then the electric field is said to be non-uniform.
20. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A SYSTEM OF POINT CHARGES[ 3 MARK]
Electric field obeys the superposition principle .”The electric field due to a
collector of charges at any point is equal to the vector sum of the individual charges”
Consider a collection of point charges q1 ,q2 ,q3, . . . . qn located at various points in space.
tot= 1+ 2 + 3+ ..... n
= 1P ; = 2P ; = nP .
ε ε ε
tot = [ 1P + 2P + . . . . . .+ nP ]
ε
tot =
ε
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21. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A CONTINUOUS CHARGE

DISTRIBUTION
[ 3 MARK]
In order to find the electric due to charged wire , charged sphere etc.,
The charges are assumed to be distributed continuously, this is because the charges are
closely spaced with lesser inter-particles distance. Hence, they are consider as continuously
distributed and not discrete.
22. EXPRESSION FOR OF A CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
[ 3 MARK]
Consider a charged irregular object. Divide the entire object into a large
number of charge elements q1, q2, q3, . . . qn Each charge element is taken as
a point charge.
The electric field at a point P, due to the charged object is given by the sum
of the field at ‘P’ due to all charge elements q1, q2, q3, . . . qn
[ 1P + 2P + . . . . . .+ nP ]
①
ε
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qi is the ith charge element , rip is the distance of the point P from the ith charge
element and ip unit vector.
To incorporate the continuous charge distribution take the limit as q 0

In this limit the summation in the equation ① becomes an integral.
r distance of the point P from the infinite similar charge
23. Show that F=qE is applicable for continuous charge distribution also:
[ 3 MARK]
PROOF
The electric field for a continuous charge distribution is,
E = ε
E =K
E=
E= ①
Multiplying both sides of equation ① by q,
qE =
F=
F = qE is applicable for continuous charge distribution.
24. LINEAR CHARGE DENSITY ( λ ) [ 2 MARK]
The charge (Q) per unit length (L).

S.I unit cm-1
λ=
12
25. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A LINEAR CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
[ 3 MARK]
Consider a linear distribution of charges over a length L of a wire. Let Q be

the total change distributed over the length L. Consider an elementary length dl is dq.
P
r
The electric field ,
dq= rdl d =
= (or) dq = l
l
d =
l
=
26. SURFACE CHARGE DENSITY ( σ ) [ 2 MARK]
The charge (Q) per unit surface area(A).
σ=
Unit cm-2
27. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A SURFACE CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

[ 3 MARK]
Consider a charged surface .Let Q be the charges distributed over the surface of
area A. Let an amount of charge dq is over dA.
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r P
dq= σdA
σ= (or) dq = σdA
d =
28. VOLUME CHARGE DENSITY(ρ) [ 2 MARK]
Charge (Q) per unit volume (V)
unit cm-3
ρ=
29. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A VOLUME CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
[ 3 MARK]
Consider a charged volume. Let Q charges are distributed over the volume V.
Consider an elementary dv over dq.
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d =
ρ (or) dq= ρ
d =
30. ELECTRIC FIELD LINES [ 2 MARK]
Electric field lines are the imaginary lines drawn to visualize the electric field in
same region of space .
31. RULES FOR DRAWING ELECTRIC FIELD LINES FOR CHARGES
[ 3 MARK]
Electric field vectors are visualized by the concept of electric field lines . They form
a set of continuous lines which represent electric field in some region of space visuality.
1. The electric field lines start from a positive charge and end at negative
Charge or at infinity . For a positive point charge the electric field lines point radially
outward and negative point charge electric charge electric field lines point radially inward.
2. The electric field vectors at a point in space is tangential to the electric field
lines at that point.
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3. The electric field lines are denses [more close] in a region where the electric
filed has large magnitude and less dense in a region where the electric field is of smaller
magnitude . In other words, the number of lines passing through a given surface area
perpendicular to the lines is proportional to the magnitude of the electric field in that region.
4. No two electric field lines intersect each other. If two lines cross at a point,
then these will be two different electric field vectors at the same point.
5. The number of electric field lines that emanate from the positive charge or end
at a negative charge is directly proportional to the magnitude of the charges.
ELECTRIC DIOPLE AND ITS PROPERTIES
32. ELECTRIC DIOPLE [ 2 MARK]
Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance is called an
Electric dipole.
33. ELECTRIC DIPOLE MOMENT ( P ) [ 2 MARK]
The product of charge and the distance between them.
For a dipole of ‘+q’ and ‘-q’ separated by a distance ‘r’
= q2 = 2q
=2q
It is vector quantity . S.I unit cm.
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34. EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRIC DIOPLE MOMENT [ 3 MARK]
Consider two equal and opposite charges (+q,-q) separated by a distance ‘2a’ along
the x- axis.
⊖ ⨁ X
-q a a +q
= (+q) + (-q)
Position vector of +q from the origin .
Position vector of - q from the origin .
Distance between the charges +q and –q is 2a.
= a( ) and = a( )
=q -q
= 2qa
The electric dipole moment vector lies along the line joining two charges and
directed from –q and +q.
35. PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC DIPOLE MOMENT [ 3 MARK]
1. will point from –q to +q whatever be the direction of its placement.
2. The magnitude of electric dipole moment is equal to the product of
magnitude of the charges and the distance between them.
= 2qa
3. For a collection of point charges, the electric dipole charges, the electric
dipole moment is
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= i
where i is the possibility vector of , from the origin
36. DIPOLE MOMENT OF H2O[ 3 MARK]
The water molecules (H2 O) has this charge configuration. The water molecules
has three atoms [ two H atom and one O atom ]. 1 A°= 10-10 m
H+ Centre of +ve charge
1
O + H
2 0.958A° H⨁ +q
H+
O ⊖ 104 °
Centre of -ve charge -2q ⨁-q

H
The centers of positive (H+) and negative ( O) charges of a water molecules lie at
different points , hence it posses permanent dipole moment . The O-H bond length is
0.958 A° due to which the electric dipole moment of water molecule has the magnitude
P= 6.1 X 10-30 cm The electric dipole moment is directed from center of negative charge
to the centre of positive charge .
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ELECTRIC FILED DUE TO DIPOLE
37. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE AT POINTS ON THE

LINE [ 5 MARK]
Consider an electric dipole separated by a distance 2a placed on x-axis .
A B - +
⊖ ⨁
-q a o a +q C
r
A point C is located at a distance r from the midpoint O along the axial line.
The electric field at the point C is obtained by summing the field due to +q and –q at C.
The charge +q is at a distance r a from C and –q is at a distance r + a from C .
+ due to +q at the point C
+ = along BC
–
is -q to +q and is along BC.
+ =
–
- due to -q at the point C
- = along BC
Since +q is closes to the point C than –q , + is stronger than - . The length
of the vector is a measure of its magnitude. Therefore, the length of + vector is drawn
larger than that of the point C is calculated from the superposition principle of the
electric field as ,
tot = + + -
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=
–
= [ –
- ]
= [ –
–
]
= [ –
]
= [ –
]
tot = [ ]
1. ‘C’ is very far away from dipole , r >> a
r4
tot = [ ]
= 2aq.
TOT = (a)
A a a B TOT
⊖ ⨁
-q +q C
r
2. Points ‘C’ is left side of the dipole . TOT still in the direction of
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38. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE AT A POINT ON

THE EQUATION PLANE [ 5 MARK]
Consider a dipole separated by a distance ‘2a’ . A point ‘C’ at a distance ‘r’
from the m midpoint ‘O’ of the dipole on the equatorial plane. Since C is at equal distance
from the charges +q and –q , the magnitude of the electric field and – will be the
same. is along BC, – is along CA.
EQUATORIAL PLANE
TOT c
A Θ r Θ B
⊖ ⨁
-
-q a o a +q
Θ c
+ and - are resolved into two components, one component parallel to
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the dipole axis and the other perpendicular to it . The perpendicular components are
oppositively dissected and cancel each other . Hence the magnitude of the total electric field
at C is the sum of parallel components of + and - .Total electric field tot are
along -
tot = - Θ - Θ
Electric field + at C due to +q is
+ = along BC
r+ is the distance between +q and C.
From the triangle OCB = r2 + a2
Electric field - at C due to -q is
= along CA
From the triangle OCB = r2 + a2
= =
tot = - -
ε ε
tot = -
ε
In ∆OCB, OB=a ; BC2 = r2 + a2
= =
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tot = -
ε
tot = -
ε
tot = - =2qa
ε
Point ‘C’ is very far away from the dipole
r>>a r3
(b)
tot = -
ε
39. IMPORTANT INFERENCES[ 3 MARK]
1. RELATION BETWEEN THE MAGNITUDE OF ELECTRIC FIELD

DUE TO A DIPOLE AT LARGE DISTANCE ON THE DIPOLE AXIS
AND EQUATORIAL PLANE
Comparing (a) and (b) magnitude of the electric field on the dipole axis is
twice the magnitude of electric field on the dipole axis is twice the magnitude of
electric field at points on the equatorial plane.
Direction tot and are the same at a point at large distance on the
axis , but they are oppositely dissected at a point at large distance on the equatorial plane.
2. COMPARISON BETWEEN ELCTRIC FIELD DUE TO A DIPOLE AND

POINT CHARGE AT LARGE DISTANCE :
At large distance, the electric field due to a dipole [Etot] varies as .
But for a point charge Electric field varies as . Thus at large distance , the electric
field due to a dipole goes to zero faster than that of a point charge . Hence at very
large distance the two charges of the dipole appear close and neutralize each other .
3. POINT DIPOLE :
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If the distance 2a approaches zero and q approaches infinity such
that the product =2qa is finite . Then the dipoles is called a point dipole equations
(a) and (b) hold true. Thus if the distance between the charge in a dipole is zero, then it
is called a point dipole .
40. TORQUE EXPERIENCE BY AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN UNIFOEM

ELECTRIC FIELD: [ 3 MARK]
Consider an electric dipole of dipole moment placed in a uniform
Electric field .
+q ⨁ q
a θ
O 2asinθ
-q ⊖ -q
A
⃰ Torque is in to the paper
The charge +q in the dipole experience a force q in the direction of the
field and the charge –q experience force - q in a direction opposite to the direction of
The forces acting at the two ends of the dipole are equal and opposite .Hence the total force
acting on the dipole is zero because these two forces cancel each other . But the torque is
not zero.
This torque makes the dipole to rotate through an angle θ. The total torque
acting at the two ends of the dipole . OA and OB are the perpendicular distance and the force
acting at the ends are + q and - q
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The total torque on the dipole about the point ‘O’

= x (-q ) + x (q )
The total torque [from right – hand corkscrew rule] is perpendicular to the plane of
paper and direction into it. Since θ is angle between and -q
x (-q )=
Similarly,
x (q )=
= +
= =a
= q aE + q aE
= 2 q aE
Since = 2aq
= X =
Case (1) :
is maximum , θ = 90°
= PE 90°
= PE
This torque rotates the dipole and when it is align with the electric field
θ=0;
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Case (2) : [ 2 MARK]
If the electric field is non – uniform.
q 1
⨁ +q
Net torque , Net force
q 2 ⊖ -q
The force experienced by +q will be the same as experienced by –q. The
net force is not zero. Hence in addition to the torque there will be a net force acting on the
dipole .
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL
AND
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
41. ELECTICSTATIC POTENTIAL( V ) [ 2 MARK]
The workdone to bring a unit positive charge from infinity to a point
in the region of external electric field.
42. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (∆V) [ 2 MARK]
The workdone by an external force to bring a unit positive charge
from one point to another point in space.
Unit Jc-1 (or) Volt
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43. EXPRESSION FOR POTENTIAL DIFFERNCE [ 3 MARK]
⨁ ql
R
P
⨁ q
Consider a positive charge q in space . It produces an electric field
which is pointed outwards around it. Let a +ve test charge ql is brought from a point R to
the point P. The charge ql experience a electron static repulsive force due to +q. Work must
be done by the charge ql to overcome this repulsive force. This workdone is stored as
potential energy. The test charge ql is brought from R to P with a constant velocity so that
the external force needed to bring the charge ql from R to P must equal and opposite to
the coulomb force of repulsion .
The workdone to move the charge from R to P
W=Force x distance
Let dr be the small distance moved by ql and qw is the workdone.
dw= .
Let the potential energy of ql be UP at P and UR at R.
W=UP-UR UP-UR = ∆U
W= ∆U
∆U =
= -ql
Negative sign is opposite to
∆U =
∆U =
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The potential energy difference per unit charge
= =-
=-
The above equation is independent of ql .
The quantity =- is called electro potential difference R and P.
VP – VR =∆V
VP – VR =∆V =-
=-
∆U= -
∆U=∆V [Since, ∆V= - ]
If the point R is taken at infinity the potential is zero. [V =0 because V= = =0 ]
The electric potential at a point P is equal to the workdone by an external
force to bring a unit positive charge with constant velocity from infinity to a point P
in the velocity from infinity to a point P in the region external field which can be
expressed mathematically as,
∆V= -
The electric potential at a point P depends only on the electric field due to the
source charge q and not on the test charge ql.
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44. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE : [ 3 MARK]
Consider a positive charge q at the origin . Let P be a point at a distance
‘r’ from the charge q.
P
⨁ r
Electric potential at the point ‘P’ is,
V= -
V= -
Small displacement is along the direction of .Let be the unit vector along
V= -
=-
=-
r
=- [ ]
r
=- [ ]
= [ ]
V= (or) V =
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45. PROPERTIES OF POTENTIAL : [ 3 MARK]
1. The potential V is positive for a positive source charge (V > 0 ) and V is
negative if the source charge is negative (V < 0).
2. The motion of charges can be described easily in terms of potential that that
of field.
3. V∝ Hence as the distance r increases the potential decreases . If the potential
charge q is negative V∝ the potential increases as the distance is increased . The electric
potential is zero. [V = 0]
4. Super position principle :
r1 P
q1
r2
q2 r3 r4
r1
q 3 r1
rq
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Electric potential V obeys superposition principle. Consider a
1
collection of charges , , ,.... . The electric potential at a point ‘P’ due to these
charges are the sum of electric potential due to individual charges.
Vtot = + + +....+
Potential is always a scalar quantity .
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46. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTAIL AT THE POINT DUE TO AN ELECTRIC

DIPOLE [ 5 MARK]
Consider two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance 2a.
The point P is located at a distance r from the midpoint of the dipole . Let θ be the
angle between the line OP and dipole axis AB.
-q 180-θ θ +q
⊖ ⨁
A a O a B
BP = ; AP =
Potential at P due to +q = ε
Potential at P due to - q = ε
Total potential at the point P,
V= ε ε
V= ε
[ ]
a << r
By the cosine law for triangle BOP,
= + -2ra
= [1+ - ]
a << r , the term is very small and can be neglected
= [1 - ]
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=r
<< 1, we can use binomial theorem .
Similarly applying the cosine law for triangle AOP,
= + -2ra
= + +2ra [ ]
= [1+ + ]
= [1 + ] Neglecting [ a<<r]
=r
Use Binomial theorem,
V= ε
[ ]
V= ε
[ ]
V= P=
ε
V= P =
ε
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V= ε
Special cases :
Case (1)
If the point P lies on the axial line of the dipole on the side of +q ,then θ=0.
V= ε
COS 0°=1
Case (2)
The point P lies on the axial line of the dipole on the side of –q, then θ=180°.
V=- COS 180°=-1

ε
Case (3)
The point P lies on the axial line of the equatorial line the dipole , then θ=90°.
COS 90°=0
V=0
IMPORTANT POINTS
1. The potential due to an electric dipole falls as and the potential due to
single point charge falls as .Thus, the potential point charge falls faster than that due
to a monopole . As the distance increase from electric dipole , the effects of positive and
negative charges nullify each other .
2. The potential due to a point charge is spherically symmetric since it
depends only on the distance r. But the potential due to a dipole is not spherically
symmetric because the potential depends on the angle between and position vector
of the point .
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r axial line
-q θ +q
⊖ ⨁
O θ
However, the dipole potential is axially symmetric , If the position vector
is rotated about by keeping θ fixed, then all points, on the cone potential as shown in
figure.
47. EQUI-POTENTIAL SURFACE[ 3 MARK]
An equipotential surface is a surface on which all the points are at the same
Potential .
3
A B 2
J
I r 1
C
H q D q
G E
F
Consider a point charged ‘q’ in space. Assume an imaginary spherical
surface of radius ‘r’ with the charge of its centre .
The potential of the point charge is V= . As the radius r is the same at
each and every point along the spherical surface . The potential V at all points on the
surface of the sphere is also the same . Such a surface is called an equipotential
surface.
All spherical surface drawn concentric to the equipotential surface will
also be equipotential surface . But the value of the potential will differ for different
spherical surfaces [ as r varies ] . For a uniform field , the equipotential surfaces form a
set of planes normal to the electric field
34
48. PROPERTIES OF EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES[ 3 MARK]

1. The workdone to move a charge q form one point to another on the same
equipotential surface is zero.
Example :
Consider two points A and B .The workdone to move a charge from A to B is
W=q(VB – VA). Since A and B have the same potential VB – VA = 0 (or) W=0
2. The electric field is always normal to an equipotential surfaces.
Equipotential surfaces
RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD AND POTENTIAL
Consider a positive charge q kept fixed at the origin. To move a unit
positive charge by a small distance dx in the electric field E, the work done is given by,
workdone= Force X distance
W=F.x
F = qE
W=qE.x
dW= - qE.dx
Given q is a unit point charge
q= 1C
dW= - E.dx
E=
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The electric field is the negative gradient of the electric potential.
=- [ + + ]
49. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY FOR COLLECTION OF POINT
CHARGE WORKDONE TO MOVE A CHARGE [ 3 MARK]
The electric potential at a point at a distance r from a point charge is
V= ε
In order to bring another charge from infinity to a point in the fielf of
at a distance r from work has to be done .
W= V
Workdone is the product of charge and potential .This workdone is stored as
the electrostatic potential energy (U) in a system of charges and is
U= V= ε
The electrostatic potential energy (U) in a system of charges and is
U= ε
Electrostatic potential energy depends only on the distance between the two
charges and .This equation holds good for any collection of point charges .
50. EXPRESSION FOR ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A
COLLECTION OF POINT CHARGES [ 3 MARK]
Consider three point charges , and . In order to assemble these three
charges in a region of space work has to be done. Workdone is stored in the form of
potential energy .Bring the three charges one by one to a configuration as shown in the
figure.
C
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Let the charge is brought from infinity to that point A. The charge does not
experience any field no other charges was present in the present in the vicinity of .
Hence, the workdone is zero .The potential due to the charge is zero. But the charge
creates an electric field .Let another charge is brought to a point B which is at a
distance of from .Hence work must be done against the field .The workdone is
bringing the charge to B is
W=
Since, Workdone = charge X potential.
Electrostatic potential energy due to the charge at B.
The electrostatic potential energy due to is,
U= ε
Now the electric field is produced by the two charges and .Let another charge
be brought to the point C which is at a distance of from and from .
The workdone to bring the charge to C is,
W= [ + ]
Electrostatic potential energy due to the charge at C
Electrostatic potential energy due to the charge at C
The electrostatics potential energy due to the charge is,
U= ε
[ ]
The total electrostatic potential energy for assembly , and is ,
U= ε
[ ]
The above expression is the same if the charges are brought to these positions in any
other order. (i.e.) The electrostatic potential energy is independent of the manner in
which the charges arrived.
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51. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A DIPOLE IN A

UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD[ 3 MARK]
Consider a dipole placed in a uniform electric field as shown in the figure
B
+q ⨁
a θ
O 2asinθ
a
-q ⊖
A 2acosθ
The electric field exerts a force on the dipole .As a result , the dipole
experience a torque and aligns the dipole in the direction of electric field .To rotate the
dipole at constant angular velocity from an initial angle ‘θ’ to another angle θ against the
torque exerted by the electric field , an equal and opposite external torque must be
applied on the dipole.
The workdone by the external torque to rotate the dipole from angle θ1 to θ
at constant angular velocity is,
W= θ
Torque due to the field
= X
= =
W= θ
= θ θ
= PE [-cosθ
= PE[- cosθ +cosθ ]
W= PE [cosθ - cosθ]
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The above equation for workdone is equal to the potential energy difference
between the angular position θ and θ .
U(θ - U(θ =∆U= - PEcosθ +PEcosθ
If θ =90° and is taken as reference point.
U(θ = PEcos90° = 0
U = - PEcosθ = -
U =-
The potential energy depends on , but also on the oriented θ of the
dipole with respect to the electric field .
Special cases:
1. If θ= , the dipole is aligned antiparallel to the electric field and potential energy
is maximum.
2. If θ= , the dipole is aligned parallel to the electric field and potential energy is
Minimum.
GAUSS LAW AND ITS APPLICATIONS
52. ELECTRIC FLUX ( ) [ 2 MARK]
The number of electric field lines crossing a given area kept normal to the
electric
field lines is called electric flux.
Unit Nm2c-1
Scalar and it may +ve or –ve.
53. ELECTRIC FLUX FOR UNIFROM ELECTRIC FIELD [ 2 MARK]
Consider a uniform electric field in a region of space. Let us choose an area A
normal to the electric field lines as shown in Figure . The electric flux for this case is
=EA
Suppose the same area A is kept parallel to the uniform electric field, then no
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electric field lines pierce through the area A , The electric flux for this case is zero.
=0
If the area is inclined at an angle θ with the field, then the component of the
electric field perpendicular to the area alone contributes to the electric flux. The electric field
component parallel to the surface area will not contribute to the electric flux.The electric flux,
= (E cosθ) A
Further, θ is also the angle between the electric field and the direction normal to the
area. Hence in general, for uniform electric field, the electric flux is
= . = E A cosθ
Here, note that is the area vector =A . Its magnitude is simply the area A and
the direction is along the unit vector perpendicular to the area
= .
θ = 0° ; = E A cos0° =EA
θ = 90° ; = E A cos90°
Here, =A
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54. ELECTRIC FLUX IN A NON – UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD AND

AN ARBITRARILY SHAPED AREA: [ 3 MARK]
Suppose the electric field is not uniform and the area A is not flat then the
entire area is divided into ‘n’ small area segments ∆ ∆ ,∆ ,...∆ such that
each area element is almost flat and the electric field over each area element is considered
to be uniform. The electric flux for the entire area A is approximately written as
= ∆ + ∆ + ∆ +... . ∆
= (a)
By taking → 0 ,the summation in equation ( a ) becomes an integral,
Thus electric flux depends on the electric field on the surface and the orientation
of the surface with the electric field .
55. ELECTRIC FLUX FOR CLOSED SURFACE [ 3 MARK]
Consider a closed surface in a region of non – uniform electric field as
shown in figure.
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(a)
The total electric flux over the closed surface is
(b)
Let the flux lines enter and leave the surface through an elementary area
, as shown in figure (b) . For each elemental area, the outward normal is the
direction of . In the figure (b) the angle between and is greater than 90° for
one area element less than 90° for the other elementary area. For θ < 90°, the electric
flux is positive and for θ > 90°, the electric field is negative.
[ has negative values if θ > 90°, and the value is positive for θ >90°]
Thus , the electric flux is negative if the electric field lines enter the closed
surface and positive if the electric field lines leave the closed surface.
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= dA cosθ
θ is the angle between and .
56. GAUSS LAW[ 2 MARK]
If a charge Q is enclosed by an arbitrary closed surface , then the
total electric flux over the closed surface is times the total charges Q enclosed
by the surfaces.
= =
represents the charges inside the closed surfaces.
PROOF[ 3 MARK]
When the charge is at the centre of the sphere, the electric field is everywhere
normal to the surface and constant in magnitude.
Consider a point +q placed at the centre of a sphere , as shown in
figure . The electric field is directed radially outward at all points on the surface of the
sphere. Let be the elementary area on the surface of the sphere . The direction of
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is along the same direction as the electric field . Hence the angle between and
is zero. (i.e) θ=0°.
= =
θ=0°.
As the electric field has the same magnitude along the surface of the sphere .
= = EA
A Area of the sphere ,
r radius of the sphere , then A=
= EA=E.
E is the electric field due to point charge Q
=
ε
=
ε
This law is applicable for any arbitrary shaped closed surfaces which encloses a
charge Q.
57. IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF GAUSS LAW : [ 3 MARK]

1. From the equation = , it is observed that the total electric flux depends
only on the charges enclosed by the closed surface and independent of the charges present
outside the surface , and the surface of the closed surface .
2. The total electric flux is independent of the location of the charges inside the
closed surface
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3. Gaussian Surface :
The imaginary surfaces chosen to find the electric field using gauss law
is called a Gaussian surface depends on the type of charge configuration and the type
of symmetry existing in that charge distribution .
a) For a point charge and spherical charge distribution the Gaussian surfaces is in
the form of a sphere concentric to the charge distribution
b) For a cylindrical charge distribution the Gaussian surface is taken in the form
of a cylinder
c) For a plane charge distribution , the Gaussian surface is taken in the form of a
Pill box.
4. The electric field depends only on the charges enclosed by the closed
surfaces
5. Gaussian surface is not applicable for discrete charges ,because the electric
field
is not well defined . Gaussian surface is applicable for continuous charge distribution .
6. Gauss law is another form of Coulomb’s law and it is also applicable to the
charges in motion. Thus, Gauss law is treated as a more general law than Coulomb’s law.
APPLICATION OF GAUSS LAW:
58. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO AN INFINITY LONG WIRE (or)
CYLINDRICAL CHARGE DISTRIBUTION [ 5 MARK]
Consider an infinity long straight wire with linear
charge density
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The electric field due to the charged wire at a point P which at a
distance r from the wire is determined using Gauss law. Consider two charge
elements A1 and A2 on the wire which are at equal distance from P. The resultant field
due to these charge elements points radially outwards from the wire. Moreover, the
magnitude of the electric field at a distance r is the same around the wire .Hence , the
wire possess cylindrical symmetry .
To find the electric field
Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r and length L.
Because for cylindrical symmetry , the Gaussian surface should be taken in the form
of a cylinder.
From Gauss law,
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The cylindrical charge distribution contains three surfaces , top, bottom and curved
surface .All these surfaces contribute to the total electric flux
= + +
Curved top Bottom
surface surface surface
For the top and bottom surface and vectors are perpendicular .
Therefore, and are perpendicular .
. = cos90
. =E x dA x 0
. =0
For the top and bottom surfaces ,
=0 and
top Bottom
surface surface
=
Curved
surface
For the curved surface , the parallel to .Hence, is parallel to
. = cos0°
. =E .dA x 1
. = E .dA
has constant magnitude around the closed surface.
Charge density ; dQ= dL
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Q=
Using Gauss law,
= = ε
Curved
surface
= = ε
=ε
= .
ε
A Area of the curved surface.
A=2 [ circumference X Lenght]
E. 2 =ε
E. =
Vector form,
= (a)
The electric filed due to an infinitely long charged wire is =
is depends on .
This equation shows that ,
1. is always perpendicular to the length of the wire .
2. If >0, points perpendicular in outward direction (
3. If <0, points perpendicular in inward direction (
4. Eq (a) is only for an infinitely long charged wire. If the length of the wire
is true around the midpoint of the wire and far away from the both ends of the
wire.
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59. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A CHARGED INFINITE SHEET[ 2 MARK]

Consider an infinite plane sheet of charge as shown in the fig . Let σ
be the surface charge density.
Consider a point P at a distance r from the sheet . The electric field
points radially outward on both side of the sheet . should be same at equal
distance on both sides. The Gaussian surface is taken in the form of cylinder of length 2r
extending at equal distance of r on both sides of the sheet .Let A be the area of the
flat surface of the cylinder . The plane sheet passes perpendicularly through the middle of
Gaussian surface .Use Gauss law for the cylindrical surface.
= + +
Curved P Pl
surface
= ε
is perpendicular to the element area at all points on the curved surface.
. =0
= + = ε
l
P P
P and Pl and are parallel.
. = cos0° cos0°=1
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. = E.dA
= + = ε
P Pl
Since the magnitude of the electric field at these two equal surfaces [P and Pl ]
is uniform E can be taken out of the intergration .
= + = ε
P Pl
= = ε
P
Charge density , σ =
dQ = σ.dA .
= = ε
P
2EA= ε
2EA= unit vector normal to the plane

ε
= ε (a)
due to an infinite plane sheet of charge depends on the surface charge density ‘ ’
and independent of ‘r’ .
1. If > 0, at any point P points perpendicularly outwards to the point
( ) and if > 0, at any point P points perpendicularly inwards to the point (- )
2. Eq (a) is true only in the middle region of the plane and at points far away
from both ends.
60. ELECTRIC FILED DUE TO TEO PARALLEL CHARGED INFINITE

SHEETS [ 3 MARK]
Consider two infinitely charged plane sheets with equal and opposite
charge density + and – placed parallel to each other as shown in figure .
50
The electric field between the plates and outside the plates is found using Gauss law
The magnitude of the electric field due to an infinite charged plane sheet is ε
and it points perpendicular outward is > 0 and points inwards if < 0.
Consider a point P1 in between the plates . The electric field due to + points
outwards and the electric field due to - points radially inwards.
The electric field at the point P1 due to + and – are in the same direction .That
towards the right .
The electric field at P1 due to + is,
= ε
The electric field at P1 due to - is,
= ε
Total electric field at the point P1 is
E inside = ε + ε
E inside =
ε
E inside = ε
E inside = ε
The direction of the electric field the plates is directed from positively charged
plate is the plates is directed from positively charged to negative charged plate
and is uniform everywhere inside the plate.
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Consider the two points P2 and P3 on the right and left sides of the plates .
The electric field at P2 due to + and – are and
and are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction . Hence the net electric
field at P2 is zero .
Similarly, the electric field at ‘P3’
and are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction . Hence the net electric
field at P3 is zero .
Hence, the net field is zero at the points P2 and P3 outside the plates .
Hence , the electric field due to two parallel charged infinite sheets is,
= ε
61. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED SPHERICAL

SHELL[ 5 MARK]
Consider a uniformly charged spherical shell as shown in figure. The
electric field points radically outwards in all directions around the shell . For the spherical
charge distribution , the Gaussian surface is taken in the form of a sphere concentric to the
charge distribution .
a) ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT OUTSIDE THE SHELL : ( r > R )
Consider a point P at a distance r from the centre of the shell , as
52
shown in figure (a) .The charges are uniformly distributed on the spherical surface .
If Q is positively (Q > 0) the electric field points radially
outwards and if Q is negative (Q <0) the electric field points radially inwards .Applying
Gauss law to the Gaussian surface of radius r.
= ε
and points in the same direction radially outwards at all points on to Gaussian
surface.
Angle between and is θ=0°
Hence , . = cos0° cos0°=1
. = E.dA
= ε
E = ε
= ε
A Surface area of the sphere.
= ε
The electric field at a point outside the shell is ,
= ε
= ε
If Q>0, points outwards and if Q<0, then points inwards.
The electric field at a point outside a charged shell looks as through the entire
charges are concentrated at the centre of the spherical sphere.
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b) ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT ON THE SURFACE OF THE
SPHERICAL SHELL (r =R)
On the surface of the shell r = R.
The electric field at points on the spherical shell is,
= ε
c) ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT ON THE SURFACE OF THE

SPHERICAL SHELL (r < R)
Consider a point P inside the shell at a distance r from the centre.
Imagine a Gaussian surface of radius ‘r’ passing through the point P, Applying Gauss law
to the Gaussian surface .
= = ε
and points in the same direction radially outwards at all points on to Gaussian surface.
θ°=0.
. = cos0°= E.dA
= = ε
= ε
EA= = ε
A= 4
E. 4 = ε
E= ε
Since Gaussian surface encloses no charges ,
Q=0
E=0
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The electric field due to the charged spherical sphere is zero at all the points
inside the shell.
As ∝ the electric field decreases as r increases and vice versa. The plot
of ‘E’ versus ‘r’ of a spherical shell. From the graph, inside the sphere is zero, and it
maximum at the surface (r = R) and decreases exponentially with distance r.
ELECTROSTATICS OF CONDUCTORS AND DIELECTRICS :
62. CONDUCTORS[ 2 MARK]
Electrical are materials which has a large number if mobile charges [ free
electrons ] which are free to move in the material .
Ex : copper
63. ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM: [ 2 MARK]
The free charges in a conductor are not bound and they are free to
move in all directions , Hence there is no net motion of charges [ namely electrons ] along
a particular direction and there is no net current in the conductor .This state is called
Electrostatic equilibrium.
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64.PROPERTIES OF CONDUCTOR AT ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM:
[ 3 MARK]
i. The electric field is zero everywhere inside a conductor .This is true for all
conductors , whether it is solid or hollow.
EXPERIMENTAL PROOF:
Consider a conductor placed in an external electric field as shown in the
figure . Before the application of electric field the free electrons are uniformly distributed
in all the possible directions in the conductor .After the application of electric field , the
negative electrons are accelerated to the left side of the plate and the positive charges
are accelerated to the right side of the plate .[ This is because the external field has its
positive potential in the left and negative potential in the rights side ].
Due to this alignment of free electrons an internal field int is created inside
the conductor in a direction opposite to the applied field .This internal field int increases,
until it nullifies the external field. Hence, the net field inside the conductor is zero At this
stage the conductor is said to be in electrostatic equilibrium . The time taken by the
conductor to reach electrostatic equilibrium state is instantaneous of the order of 10-16 sec.
ii. These is no net charge inside the conductors . The charges resides only on the
surface of the conductors .
56
PROOF :
Consider an arbitrarily shaped conductor as shown in figure . To find the effect of
charges inside the conductor .Imagine , a Gaussian surface inside the conductor such that
it is very close to the surface of the conductor . The electric field is zero everywhere
inside a conductor , which shows that there is no net charge inside the conductor .No
charge is enclosed by the Gaussian surface .Even if any charge is introduced inside the
conductor , it immediately searches the surface of the conductor .
iii. The electric field outside the conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the
conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the conductor and has a magnitude of ε ,
where is the surface charge density at that point.
PROOF :
To show that the electric filed is perpendicular to the surface of the conductor at
electrostatic equilibrium . The electric field on the surface of the conductor may have
parallel and perpendicular components as shown in figure .If the electric field has
components parallel to the surface this filed would exert a force on the neighbouring
charges. This creates an acceleration of the free electrons on the surface. This means that
the conductor is not in electrostatic equilibrium .Hence the electric field must be
57
perpendicular to the surface as shown in figure .When the conductor is at electrostatic
equilibrium.
65. TO SHOW THAT E= AT ANY POINT OUTSIDE THE SURFACE OF

THE CONDUCTOR: [ 3 MARK]
Consider a conductor as shown in figure. To find the electric field at a point
outside the conductor imagine a Gaussian surface in the form of a cylinder , such that one
half of the cylinder is embedded inside the conductor since the electric field is normal to the
surface of the conductor ,the curved part of the cylindrical surface has zero electric flux .The
bottom part of the Gaussian surface is inside the conductor where the electric field is zero.
The top flat surface of the cylinder alone contributes to the total electric flux. let A be the
area of cross section of the top surface .
Applying Gauss law ,
Q is the charge over the area A. If is the surface density of charges .
= (or) Q= A.
E.A=
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E.A=
E=
is the unit vector pointing outwards normal to the surface of the conductor .
If > 0 , then the electric field points inwards and =-
iv. The electrostatic potential has the same value on the surface and inside of the
conductor
EXPLANATION
The electric field outside the conductor is perpendicular to the surface

of the conductor. Therefore, electric field has no parallel component on the surface . The
charges on the surface does not experience any field in the parallel direction. Since there is no
force due to the field in the parallel direction .The work done along the direction parallel to
the surface of the conductor will be zero . Hence charges can be moved on the surface
without doing any work. As w=qv ,this is possible only if the Potential V is constant at all
points on the surface, and there is no potential difference between any two points on the
surface.
The electric field inside the conductor is zero. The potential is the
same on the surface of the conductor .Thus at electrostatic equilibrium, the conductor is
always at equipotential.
66. ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING[ 2 MARK]
Using Gauss law ,we proved that the electric field inside a charged spherical shell
is zero. Further, we showed that the electric field inside both hollow and solid conductors is
zero .It is very interesting property which has an important consequence.
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Consider a cavity inside the conductor as shown in figure. whatever the charges at
the surfaces and whatever the electrical disturbances outside, the electric field inside a cavity
is zero. A sensitive electrical instrument which is to be productive from external electrical
disturbance is kept inside the cavity this is called electrostatic shielding.
Faraday cage is an instrument used to demonstrate this effect .It is made up of metal
bars. If an artificial lighting jolt is created outside, the person inside is not affected.
67. ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION[ 2 MARK]
Charging of conductors without actual contact is called electrostatic

induction.
68. EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION
[ 3 MARK]
Consider an uncharged equal distribution of charges cancel each other

conducting sphere at rest on an insulating stand as shown in figure. Let a negatively charged
conducting rod is brought near the sphere without touching it . The negative charges in the
rod repels the negative charges of the sphere. As a result, the negative charges are moved
further side, But the total charge is zero.
Now connect the conducting sphere to the ground, through a wire. This is called
grounding. [Ground can receive any amount of electrons] The electrons in the sphere are removed
60
from the sphere as shown in the figure .The positive charges remain near the region of the rod , as
they are attracted by the negative charges of the rod.
The grounding wire is now removed as shown in the figure .The sphere has
positive charges alone near the region of the rod.
Now that charged rod is taken away from the conductor. The positive charge
are now uniformly distributed on the surface of the conductor as shown in figure.
The neutral conducting sphere is now positively charged without direct
contact between the rod and the sphere for an arbitrary shaped sphere conductor distribution
of positive charges is not be uniform.
69. DIELECTRICS OR INSULATORS[ 2 MARK]
A dielectric is a non conducting material with no free electrons.
Ex: Ebonite, glass, mica. A dielectric is made up of either polar molecules or non polar
molecules.
70. NON – POLAR MOLECULES[ 2 MARK]
Non-polar molecules are molecules which has no permanent dipole
moments.
Ex : Hydrogen ( H2 ), oxygen (O2 ), carbon dioxide(CO2 )
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71. EFFECT OF ELECTRIC FIELD ON NON- POLAR MOLECULES

[ 3 MARK]
The atoms constituting the molecule has positively charged nucleus and
orbiting electrons . Each atom is considered as a dipole. The nucleus is at the centre and the
e moving electrons create an electron cloud. The centre of the positive nucleus and the centre
of the negatively electron clouds coincides in a non-polar molecule without any external
electric field as shown in the figure.
When an external electric field is applied the positive charge moves a bit to
the right and the negative charge moves a bit to the left .The positive and negative charges are
separated by a small distance . This indicates a dipole moment in the direction of the
external field as shown in the figure . The dielectric is now said to be the polarized. Thus ,a
non-polar molecule is polarized by an external external field
72. POLAR MOLECULES[ 2 MARK]
Polar molecules are molecules which have permanent dipole moments.
Ex: H2O , N2O , NH
73. EFFECT OF ELECTRIC FIELD ON POLAR MOLECULES [ 2 MARK]
In polar molecules ,the centre of positive and negative charges are separated even
in the absence of an external electric field. This, they have a permanent dipole moment one
to thermal motion ,the direction of each dipole moment is oriented randomly . Hence the
dipole moment gets cancelled due to this random orientation as shown in figure . The net
dipole moment is zero in the absence of an external electric field.
62
When an external electric field is applied, the dipoles align in the direction of
the external electric field. This indicates a dipole moment and the dipole are polarized by the
external electric field as shown in the figure. The external electric field indicates polarization
in both the polar and non-polar molecule.
74. POLARI SATION [ 2 MARK]
The total dipole moment per unit volume in a dielectric is called polarization ( )
For a linear dielectric, the polarization is directly proportional to the applied

electric field.
∝ ext
Xe ext 
Where, Xe is constant called the electric susceptibility of the dielectric.
75. SUSCEPTIBILITY (Xe) [ 2 MARK]
Susceptibility is defined as the case with which a dielectric is electricfield.
Xe =
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It is the polarisation induced in a dielectric per unit electric field.
76. INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELD INSIDE A DIELECTRIC : [ 3 MARK]
Consider a rectangular dielectric slab placed between two oppositely charged

capacitor plates as shown in figure . The opposite charges on the plates provide external
electric field for the dielectric. The dipole try to align in the direction of the external electric
field ext as shown in figure. Consider a linear string of dipoles in the field as shown in the
figure .Each positive charge canels with neighbouring negative charge at the centre .But at
the ends there are no neighbouring charges to get cancelled .Hence a negative charge and
positive charge are left at both the ends. These charges cannot be removed and they are
cancelled bound charges. So, the dielectric in the external field is equivalent to two
oppositely charged sheets with surface charge densities + b and – a . These bound charges
are not free to move like free electrons in conductors. These Bound charges also produce
electric field within the dielectric.
EXAMPLE
A charged balloon after rubbing sticks on a wall ,because the negatively charged
balloon when brought near the wall indicates opposite charges on the surface of the wall,
which attracts the balloon.
DIELECTRIC STRENGTH:
When the external electric field applied to a dielectric is very large ,it tears the
atoms apart so that they bound charges become free charges. Then the dielectric starts to
conduct electricity. This is called a dielectric breakdown. The maximum electric field the
dielectric can withstand before it breakdowns is called dielectric strength .For example, that
dielectric of air is 3 x 106 Vm-1. If the applied electric field increases beyond this, a spark is
produced in the air. The dielectric strengths of some dielectrics are given in table below.
Substance Dielectric
strength (Vm ) -1
Mica 100 × 106

Teflon 60 × 106
Paper 16 × 106
Air 3 × 106
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Pyrex glass 14 × 106
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
77. CAPACITOR[ 2 MARK]
Capacitor is a device used to store electric charge and electric energy.
CAPACITANCE OF A CAPACITOR
A capacitor consists of two parallel metal plates separated by a small

distance as shown in figure (a). When the capacitor is connected to a battery of potential
difference V the plate connected to the positive terminal of the battery acquires a charge of +
Q and the plate connected to the negative terminal acquires charge of - Q .The potential
difference between the plates is equal to the battery's terminal voltage as shown in figure (b).
As the battery voltage V is increased. The amount of charge stored in the plates also
increase. Thus, the charge stored in the capacitor is proportional to the potential difference
V. ( i.e) Q ∝V
Q =cV
c is proportionality constant called the capacitance.
78. CAPACITANCE [ 2 MARK]
The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of charge on

the conductor plates in the potential difference existing between the conductors .
C=
Unit of capacitance is COULOMB per volt or farad (F).
Farad is the larger unit of capacitance and capacitors are available in the range of
65
Microfarad [1µF =10-6 F] to picofarad [1PF = 10-12F]. The capacitor is represented by the
symbol or
79. TOTAL CHARGE STORED IN A CAPACITOR [ 2 MARK]

The total charge stored in the capacitor is the sum of charges deposited on the two
plates. The total charges stored in a capacitor is Q - Q =0 [because equal number of positive
charge and negative charges are deposited on the plates which gets cancelled]
When a capacitor is said to store charges ,it actually represents the amount of
charges stored in any one of the plates.
80. TYPES OF CAPACITOR[ 2 MARK]

Available shapes of capacitors:
Cylindrical, disc.
Available types of capacitors:
Tantalum,ceramic ,electrolytic
81. CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR [ 3 MARK]
Consider a capacitor with two parallel plates as shown in the figure.
Let 'A' be the cross sectional area of the plates and 'd' is the distance between
them . The electric field between these two infinite parallel plates which is uniform and is
given by E= .
66
= ; If d is much smaller than A then the above result is used even for finite sized
parallel plate capacitor .Using Gauss law ,the electric field E between the plates is,
E.A=
E=
In the above equation the R.H.S is a constant .
is thus uniform ,
V=E.d
V =ε
Capacitance C of a capacitor is =
ε
= =
ε
C=
From above equation ,the capacitance C is directly proportional to area of cross

section and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates.
From above equation, as the area of cross section of the capacitor plates is increased
,more charges are distributed for same potential difference V. As a result, the capacitance is
increased.
From above equation , V=E.d , if the distance between the plates 'd' is reduced, the
potential difference decreases with 'E' constant voltage difference V increases to keep E
constant. This leads to an additional form of charges to the battery, till the voltage on the
capacitor is equal to the battery voltage with the distance 'd' is increased [V ∝ d],the capacitor
voltage increases and when it is greater than the battery voltage, then the charges flow from
capacitor plates to battery till both the voltages are equal.
67
82. ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR : [ 3 MARK]
Capacitor not only store charges, but it also stores energy. Consider a
capacitor connected to a battery. The electrons from the plate connected to the negative
terminal of the battery will be transferred to the plate connected to the positive terminal. Let
the total charge transferred is -Q. To transfer the charge work is done by the battery and this
work done is stored as potential energy in the capacitor.
Let the potential difference V transfers a small infinitesimal charge dQ and let
dw the work done to transfer this charge.
W=VQ
dw = V.dQ
V= .
dw= . dQ
W= = .
This workdone is stored as electrostatic potential energy (UE) in the capacitor.
UE =
Q = VC
UE =
UE = CV2
The energy stored (i.e) potential energy is proportional to the capacitance
of the capacitor and square of the voltage between the plates.
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83. ENERGY DENSITY (UE ) [ 2 MARK]
The energy stored per unit volume of space is defined as the energy density .
UE=
84. EXPRESSION FOR ENERGY DENSITY (UE ) [ 3 MARK]
For a parallel plate capacitor of capacitance is,
C=
A Area of the plates
d separation between the plates
The potential V in between the plates is
V=E.d
The electrostatic potential energy UE of the capacitor is
UE = CV2
ε
UE = [ [E.d]2
Where Ad is the volume of the space between the capacitor plates. From the
definition of energy density.
UE=
ε
Volume = Ad ; UE=
2
UE =
Above equation shows that the energy is stored in the electric field existing in between
the plates of the capacitor. Thus, the energy density depends only on the electric field and not
on the size of the capacitor plates .Equation holds for any types of charge configurations.
69
85. APPLICATIONS OF CAPACITORS[ 2 MARK]
Capacitors are used in various electronic circuits. A few of the applications are ,
a) Most people are now familiar with the digital camera .The flash which
comes from the camera when we take photographs is due to the energy released from the
capacitor called the flash capacitor .
b) During cardiac arrest, device called heart defibrillator is used to give a
sudden surge of a large amount of electrical energy to the patient's chest to retrieve the
normal heart function. This defibrillator uses a capacitor of 175 µF charged to a high
voltage of around 2000 V.
c) Capacitors are used in the ignition system of automobile energy to
eliminate sparking.
d) Capacitors are used to reduce power fluctuations in power supplies and to
increase efficiency of power transmission.
However, Capacitors have disadvantages as well. Even after the battery or power
supply is removed the capacitor stores charges and energy for some time .For example, if the
TV is switched off it is always advisable to not touch the back side of the TV panel .
86. EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC IN CAPACITORS[ 5 MARK]
The capacitance of a capacitor is altered by the insertion of dielectric

materials like mica ,glass or paper in between the plates. The dielectric can be inserted in two
ways,
i. When the capacitor is disconnected from the battery.

ii. When the capacitor is connected to the battery.
70
I. WHEN THE CAPACITOR IS DISCONNECTED FROM THE

BATTERY
Consider a capacitor of cross- sectional area A and separated by a distance d. Let the
capacitor is charged by a voltage VO. QO is that charge stored in the capacitor and. EO is
the electric field between the plates. The space between the plate is empty .The capacitance
of a capacitor is taken as CO .
The battery is now disconnected from the capacitor and let a dielectric is inserted
between the plates are shown in the figure .The dielectric constant of the dielectric is εr.
The introduction of dielectric modifies the electric field . Let the new field be E.
E=
EO is the electric field inside the capacitor plates without the dielectric. For any
dielectric material , > 1. Hence, E < EO. The new electric field E decreases when the
dielectric is inserted. The new potential difference V is,
V=Ed.
V= d
V=
V < VO , The potential decreases by the introduction of dielectric.
Capacitance increases when the dielectric is introduced between the plates of the capacitor .
PROFF :
The new capacitance in the presence of dielectric is
C= = =
71
C= O
Since > 1, C > CO. Thus , the capacitance of the capacitor is increased in the presence of
dielectric.
ε
Co=
ε ε
C=
ε
ε =ε ; ε= ε ε
ε
C=
Permittivity of the dielectric medium.
ENERGY STORED IN THE CAPACITOR BEFORE AND AFTER THE
INSERTION
Before the insertion of dielectric ,the energy stored in the capacitor Uo is,
Uo =
After the insertion of dielectric the charge Qo remains constant and the
capacitance is increased by an amount C= ε ε . The energy stored after the insertion of
dielectric is
U=
U= = C= O
U=
As > 1, U < Uo . Thus, the energy stored in the capacitor decreases as the dielectric
introduced. This decrease is due to the fact that the capacitor spends some energy in pulling
the dielectric inside.
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II. WHEN THE BATTERY REMAINS CONNECTED TO THE

CAPACITOR
Consider a dielectric inserted between the plates of a capacitor, when a
battery of voltage Vo is connected across it as shown in the figure. The charge stored in a
capacitor increases by a factor when a dielectric is introduced between the plates.
Q= Qo
As Q is increased ,the capacitance C is also increases . The new capacitance C is,
C= =
Co =
C= Co
As the battery is connected, the potential remains the same .The capacitance is
increased by the introduction of dielectric.
ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR BEFORE AND AFTER THE INSERTION
OF DIELECTRIC
Before inserting the dielectric ,the energy stored in the capacitor is,
Uo =
After the insertion of dielectric, the capacitance increases as C= Co. Hence, the
energy stored is
U= =
U= Uo
73
Since > 1.U >UO .The energy (U) of the capacitor increases after the introduction
of dielectric . Since the voltage between the capacitor plates Vo is constant, the electric
field ( Eo) also remains constant.
The energy density U is given by
U=
Where, is permittivity of the dielectric material.
87. CAPACITOR IN SERIES : [ 3 MARK]
Consider three capacitors C1, C2 and C3 are connected in series with a
battery of voltage V as shown in the figure. Let electrons of charge - Q are transferred from
the negative terminal of the battery to the right plate of C3. [ This is because the negative
potential repels the negative electrons away from the battery ] . This induces an equal
amount of positive charge on the left plate of C3. The transferred – Q electrons from the
right place of the C3 pushes the same amount of - Q to the right plate of C2 due to
electrostatic induction. Similarly, the positive charges induced on the left to plate of C2
pushes the equal amount of charge - Q on the right plate of C1 .At the same time the electron
of charge – Q are transferred from left plate of C1 to the positive terminal of battery. Hence
the same amount of charge Q is store in all the capacitors C1, C2 and C3
But the voltage across the capacitor varies .Let V1, V2 and V3 be the voltage
across C1, C2 and C3 .
74
The battery voltage across each capacitor is equal to the battery voltage v
V = V1+ V2 + V3
As Q= cV V=
V1 = , V2 = , V3 = as the charge Q remains the same in C1, C2 and C3 .
V= + +
V= , Equivalent capacitor when the capacitors are connected in series.
= + +
= + +
The inverse of equivalent capacitance ‘C3’ of the three capacitors connected in series
is equal to the sum of the inverse of each capacitance. The equivalent capacitance C3 is
always less than the smallest individual capacitance in series.
88. CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL[ 3 MARK]
75
Consider three capacitors C1, C2 and C3 connected in parallel with the battery
of voltage V are shown in the figure .Since C1, C2 and C3 connected across the battery, the
potential across C1, C2 and C3 will be same equal to the battery voltage V.Since the
capacitance of the capacitor are different , the charges flowing through the capacitors varies.
According to the conservation of charge, the sum of charges through C1, C2 and C3 is equal
to the total charge transferred by the battery.
i.e) Q = Q1+ Q2 + Q3
Since , Q= CV Q1= C1V, Q2= C2V and Q3= C3V
Let the combined capacitance of the parallel combination be CP.
Q= CP V
CP V= C1V+ C2V +C3V
CP V= V [C1+ C2 + C3]
CP = C1+ C2 + C3
Thus, the equivalent capacitance of capacitors connected in parallel is equal to the
sum of individual capacitors CP is always larger than the largest individual capacitance.
89. DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES IN A CONDUCTOR AND ACTION AT
POINTS [ 3 MARK]
Considering two conducting spheres A and B of radii and
respectively connected to each other by a thin conducting wire as shown in figure.
The distance between the sphere is much greater than the radii of the spheres.
If a charge Q is introduced into any one of the spheres, this charge Q is redistributed
76
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into both the sphere such that the electrostatic potential is same in both the space .They are
now uniformly charged and attain electrostatic equilibrium .Let be there charge residing
on the surface of sphere A and is the charge residing on the surface of sphere B such that
the Q = .The charges are distributed only on the surface and there is no net charge
inside the conductor.
The electrostatic potential at the surface of the sphere A is given by,
VA =
ε
The Electrostatic potential at the surface of the sphere B is given by,
VB =
ε
The surface of the conductor is an equipotential . Since the spheres are connected by
the conducting wire , the surfaces of both the spheres together from an equipotential surface.
This implies that,
VA = VB
=
ε ε
Let us take the charge density on the surface of sphere A and charge density on
the surface of sphere B and implies that = σ and = σ .
Substituting these values,
σ σ
=
=
From which we concluded that,
tant
Thus, the surface charge density ‘ ‘ is inversely proportional to the radius of the sphere.
77
For a smaller radius , the charge density will be larger and vice versa.
90. ACTION OF POINTS ( OR ) CORONA DISCHARGE[ 2 MARK]
Consider a charged conductor of irregular shaped as shown in the figure . In
conductors, if the radius curvature is smaller ,the charge density around it will be larger,
because of the large accumulator of charges over a small area.
The electric field near the edge of smaller curvature is very high and it ionizes the
surrounding air. (i.e) The positive ions are repelled are there sharp edge and negative ions are
attracted towards the sharper edges . This causes neutralisation of charges and reduced the
charge of the conductor near the sharp edge. This is called action at points (or) corona
discharge.
91. LIGHTNING ARRESTED [ OR ]LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR[ 3 MARK]
This is a device used to protect tall building from lightning strikes .It works on
the principle of action at points on Corona discharge This device consists of a long thick
copper rod passing from top of the building to the ground .The upper end of the rod has
a sharp spike or a sharp needle as shown in the figure.
78
The lower end of the rod is connected to the copper plate which is buried deep into
the ground. When a negatively charged cloud is passing above the building ,it induces a
positive charge on the spike. Since the induced charge density on the sharp spike is large , it
results in corona discharge .This positively charge ionizes the surrounding air which in turn
neutralizes the negative charge in the cloud .The negative charge pushes to the spikes passes
through the copper rod and is safety diverted to the earth. The Lightning arrester does not
stop lightning ;rather it diverts the lightning to the ground safely.
92. VAN DE GRAFF GRNERATOR[ 5 MARK]
In the year 1929, Robert van de Graaff designed a machine which produce large
amount of electrostatic potential difference, up to several million volts [107]. This van de
graaff generator works on the principle of electrostatic induction and action at points.
A large hollow spherical conductor is fixed on the insulating stand as shown in the
figure .A pulley B is mounted at the centre of a hollow sphere and another pulley C is fixed
at the bottom.A belt made up of insulating materials like silk or rubber runs over both
pulleys. The pulley C is driven continuously by the electric motor .Two comb shaped metallic
conductors E and D are fixed near the pulleys.
79
The comb D is maintained at a positive potential of 104 V by a power supply .The
upper comb E is connected to the inner side of the hollow metallic sphere.
Because of the highest field near comb D air between the belt and comb D gets
ionized. The positive charges are pushed towords the belt and Negative charges are attracted
towards the comb D. The positive charges stick to the belt and move up .When the positive
charges reach the comb E, a large amount of negative and positive charges are induced on
either side of comb E,due to electrostatic induction .As a result ,the positive charges are
pushed away from the comb E and they reach the outer surface of the sphere .Since the
sphere is a conductor, the positive charges are distributed uniformly on the outer surface of
the hollow sphere .At the same time, the negative charges nullify the positive charge in the
belt due to Corona discharge before it passes over the pulley.
When the belt descends, it has almost no net charge. At the bottom, it again gains a
large
positive charge. The belt goes up and delivers the positive charge to the outer surface of the
sphere .This process continues until the outer surface produces the potential difference of the
order of 10 7 V. Which is the limiting value we can't store charges beyond this limit. Since
the extra charges starts leaking to the surroundings due to ionization of air .The leakage of
charges can be reduced by enclosing the machine in a gas filled steel chamber at very high
pressure.
The high voltage produced in this Van De graaff generator is used to accelerator
positive ions [ protons and deutrons ] for nuclear disintegration and other applications.
80
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IMPORTANT FORMULAE:
1. ul mb’ l 21 = 12
2. Electric field due to a point charges ,

=
3. Electric dipole moment , =2q
4. Electric field due to a dipole along its axial line ,
tot =
5. Electric field due to a dipole along its equatorial line ,

tot =
6. Torque experience by an electric dipole in a uniform electric field .
= X ; =
7. Electric potential at a point due to a point charge,

V=
8. Electric potential at a point due to electric field ,

V=
9. Electric field E = =-[ + + ]
10. Electrostatic potential energy between two charges is ,

U=
11. Electrostatic potential energy between there charges is ,

U= [ ]
81
12. Electrostatic potential energy stored in a dipole in an uniform electric field ,

U = - PEcosθ = -
13. l t t t p t t l gy ff b t t gul p t θ
of a dipole kept in an uniform electric field ,
U= - PEcosθ +PEcosθ
14. Electric flux , = . θ
15. Total electric flux through a closed surface ,

=
16. Electric field due to an infinitely long charged wire is,

E. =
17. Electric field due to charged infinite plane sheet is,

=
18. Electric field due to two parallel charged infinite sheet at a point between the
sheet
=
19. l t f l u t u f mly h g ph l h ll f u ‘R’ t p t

outside the shell ,
=
20. Electric field due to uniformly charged sph l h ll f u ‘R’ t p t

the shell ,
=
21. For a parallel plate capacitor,

Electric field , E=
Potential difference , V=
Capacitance , C=
Stored electrostatic energy , U = 2
Energy density , UE = 2
82
22. (a) Battery is disconnected from the capacitor and a dialectic is

inserted between the plates ,
Co= , E= , V= , C= , UO = , U=
(b) Battery remains connected and a dielectric inserted between the

plates of the capacitor ,
Q= , C= , C= , UO = , U=
23. Capacitor in series : = + +

Capacitor in parallel : CP = C1+ C2 + C3
24. Two charged spheres connected through a wire ,

= , Q= , = .
=Q[ ]
25. In van de graaff generator , maximum potential difference created ,
= 107 V.
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Namma Kalvi 12th Physics Unit 1 Study Material em 219159

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Namma Kalvi

1. CHARGING BY RUBBING [ 2 MARK]

Some materials are found to be charged by rubbing with suitable materials.

1. Amber rod is charged by rubbing with animal fur.

rod, it will be attracted.

Two kinds of charges

1. Positive charge (+ve)

4. NEUTRAL CHARGES [ 2 MARK]

If the net charge is zero in the object it is said to be electricity neutral.

All material are made up of atoms which are electrically neutral.

But its constituent particles posses charges.

5. TRIBOELECTRIC CHARGING[ 2 MARK]

rubbing is called ‘Triboelectric charging’.

6. BASIC PROPERTIES OF CHARGES

Electric charge is inherent and fundamental property of particles.

Charge is the physical property of particles is matter that experiences is directly

Proportional to the force when placed in an electromagnetic field.

S.I unit Coulomb [c]

2. CONSERVATION OF CHARGES[ 2 MARK]

3. QUANTISATION OF CHARGES[ 2 MARK]

fundamental unit of charge e,

n integer [0, ±1, ±2,.....]

The charge of electron is found to be ‘-e’ -1.6 x × 10−19 C

The charge of proton is found to be ‘+e’ 1.6 x × 10−19 C

and the charges are treated to be continuous.

The smallest charge in nature :-

Charge of electron (-e) and charge of proton (+e)

7. COULOMB’S LAW [ 5 MARK]

line joining the two charges.

Consider two charges q1 and q2

The force on the point charge ‘q1’ exerted by charging ‘q1’ is

εo Permittivity of free space 8.85 x 10-12 C2N-1m2

8. RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY [ Dielectric constant, εr ] [ 2 MARK]

The ratio is called relative permittivity of the Medium.

In air (or) vacuum εr =1

For all other medium εr >1

9. SIMILARITIES BETWEEN COULOMB’S LAW AND

S.NO COULOMB’S LAW NEWTON’S LAW

5 Depends on the nature of the Independent of the medium.

7 K= 9 X 109 Nm2C-2 G=6.67 X 10-11Nm2kg-2

K is much higher than G.

Electrostatic force is always greater [Magnitude] than gravitational force for

10. FORCE BETWEEN CHARGES [NEWTON’S lll LAW ] [ 3 MARK]

Prove that electrostatic force obeys Newton’s third law:

Two point charges q1 and q2 ; distance ‘ r’.

Force on the point charge ‘q2’ exerted by charging ‘q1’

Force on the point charge ‘q1’ exerted by charging ‘q2’

Equal in Magnitude but opposite in direction.

11. LIMITATION OF COULOMB’S LAW [ 2 MARK]

charges whose size is smaller compared to the distance between them.

12. MAGNITUDES OF ELECTROSTATIC AND GRAVITATIONAL FORCES

paper is attracted by the gravitational force of the earth?

than that of the gravitational force between them.

by the gravitational force.

13. SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE [ 3 MARK]

Exerted on it by all the other charges “

The force on ‘q1’ exerted by charging ‘q2’

The force on ‘q1’ exerted by charging ‘q3’

ELECTRIC FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD LINES