Book-2 - Physcis - 312 - Senior Secondary PDF

SENIOR SECONDARY COURSE
PHYSICS
2
(CORE MODULES)
Coordinators
Dr. Oum Prakash Sharma
Sh. R.S. Dass
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OPEN SCHOOLING

A-25, INSTITUTIONAL AREA, SECTOR-62, NOIDA-201301 (UP)
COURSE DESIGN COMMITTEE

CHAIRMAN
Prof. S.C. Garg
Former Pro-Vice Chancellor
IGNOU, Maidan Garhi, Delhi
MEMBERS
Prof. A.R. Verma
Former Director, National
Physical Laboratory, Delhi,
160, Deepali Enclave
Pitampura, Delhi-34
Dr. Naresh Kumar

Reader (Rtd.)
Deptt. of Physics
Hindu College, D.U.
Dr. Oum Prakash Sharma

Asstt. Director (Academic)
NIOS, Delhi
Prof. L.S. Kothari

Prof. of Physics (Retd.)
Delhi University
71, Vaishali, Delhi-11008
Dr. Vajayshree
Prof. of Physics
IGNOU, Maidan Garhi
Delhi
Sh. R.S. Dass

Vice Principal (Rtd.)
BRMVB, Sr. Sec. School
Lajpat Nagar, New Delhi-110024
Dr. G.S. Singh

Prof. of Physics
IIT Roorkee
Sh. K.S. Upadhyaya

Principal
Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya
Rohilla Mohammadabad (U.P.)
Dr. V.B. Bhatia

Prof. of Physics (Retd.)
Delhi University
215, Sector-21, Faridabad
COURSE DEVELOPMENT TEAM

CHAIRMAN
Prof. S.C. Garg
IGNOU, Delhi
MEMBERS
Prof. B.B. Tripathi
Prof. of Physics (Retd.),
IIT Delhi, 9-A, Awadhpuri,
Sarvodaya Nagar
Lucknow-226016
Dr. Vajayshree
Prof. of Physics
IGNOU, Maidan Garhi
Delhi
Dr. Naresh Kumar

Reader (Rtd.)
Deptt. of Physics
Hindu College, D.U
Dr. Shubha Gokhle

Reader in Physics
IGNOU, Maidan Garhi, Delhi
Dr. Komilla Suri

Lecturer
Delhi University
Sh. R.S. Dass

Vice-Principal (Rtd.)
BRMVB, Delhi-110024
EDITORS TEAM
CHAIRMAN
Prof. S.C. Garg
IGNOU, Delhi
MEMBERS
Dr. P.K. Mukherjee
Reader Deptt. of Physics
Deshbandhu College, D.U.
Dr. Shoeb Abdullah

Reader Deptt. of Education
Jamia Millia Islamia
Delhi
GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATORS
Vijay Computer
1E, Pocket-1, Mayur Vihar
Sh. Mahesh Sharma

NIOS
Dr. M.K. Gandhi

EO (Academics)
Council of Indian School Certificate
Examination, Nehru Place, Delhi
A Word With You

Dear Learner,
Welcome!
Keen observation, careful experimentation and single minded devotion have helped successive
generations of researchers to accumulate vast treasure of knowledge. As you go to higher classes, you
will appreciate that the method of sciences is characterised by objectivity, openness to change, innovation,
self-correction and dynamism. It is therefore important in these formative years for you to learn
science by doing: develop problem solving and experimenting skills to unfold unknown situations.
To encourage this, we have included a number of exercises and activities. These can be performed by
using readily available materials to get a feel of the physical principles in operation. This will also
provide you an opportunity to reflect on how a scientist works.
Physics has always been an exciting subject. But fundamental discoveries in rapid succession in the
early half of the 20th century brought in profound changes in our concepts of space, time, matter and
energy. Another phenomenon characteristic of the previous century is the reduction in the time gap
between a new discovery and its applications from a decade or so to a few years due to close linking of
science and technology. Therefore, future development in knowledge society will heavily depend on
the availability of well trained scientific human capital endowed with entrepreneurship capabilities.
This should provide you enough motivation to study science, do well and participate in the process of
sustainable growth and national development.
The organisation of the course is generic. It is divided into eight core modules spread over 29 lessons.
Out of two optional modules, which intend to develop professional competencies, you will be required
to opt for any one. You will get an opportunity to work in a physics laboratory and make precise
measurements using sensitive instruments. This will also give you an opportunity to understand basic
physical principles.
As a self-learner, you would be required to demonstrate the ability, capacity and eagerness of Ekalavya.
Your confidence in yourself and genuine interest in learning science should help you develop being an
independent learner with drive and initiative. Experience shows that interactive learning is more
rewarding. So to ensure your active participation in teaching-learning as also to facilitate selfregulation and pacing, we have given questions in the body of each lesson. You must answer these.
In curriculum design an effort has been made to put thematically coherent topics together for braviety
and completeness. Although we have strived hard to lucidly explain various concepts, it is possible that
you may still find some concepts/topics difficult to comprehend. You are therefore advised to make a
note of your difficulties and discuss them in the counselling sessions as well as amongst peers.
You will find some useful information on the life and works of leading physicists/scientists who have
contributed to our vast pool of knowledge. It is sincerely hoped that their lives will inspire you as role
models to contribute your best!
Our best wishes are with you.
Curriculum Design and
Course Development Team
A Note From the Director

Dear Learner,
Welcome!
The Academic Department at the National Institute of Open Schooling tries to
bring you new programmes is accordance with your needs and requirements. After
making a comprehensive study, we found that our curriculum is more functional,
related to life situations and simple. The task now was to make it more effective
and useful for you. We invited leading educationists of the country and under
their guidance, we have been able to revise and update the curriculum in the subject
of Physics.
At the same time, we have also removed old, outdated information and added new,
relevant things and tried to make the learning material attractive and appealing
for you.
I hope you will find the new material interesting and exciting with lots of activities
to do. Any suggestions for further improvement are welcome.
Let me wish you all a happy and successful future.
(K. R. Chandrasekaran)
April 2007
HOW TO USE THE STUDY MATERIAL

Your learning material has been developed by a team of physics experts in open and distance
learning. A consistent format has been developed for self-study. The following points will give
you an idea on how to make best use of the print material.
Title is an advance organisor and conveys an idea about the contents of the lesson.
Reflect on it.
Introduction highlights the contents of the lesson and correlates it with your prior
knowledge as well as the natural phenomena in operation in our immediate environment.
Read it thoroughly.
Objectives relate the contents to your desired achievements after you have learnt the
lesson. Remember these.
Content of the lesson has been divided into sections and sub-sections depending on
thematic unity of concepts. Read the text carefully and make notes on the side margin of
the page. After completing each section, answer intext questions and solve numerical
problems yourself. This will give you an opportunity to check your understanding. You
should continue reading a section till such time that you gain mastery over it.
At some places you will find some text in italics and bold. This indicates that it is important.
You must learn them.
Solved Examples will help you to understand the concepts and fix your ideas. In fact,
problem solving is an integral part of training in physics. Do them yourself and note
the main concept being taught through a particular example.
Activities are simple experiments which you can perform at your home or work place
using readily available (low cost) materials. These will help you to understand physics
by doing. Do them yourself and correlate your findings with your observations.
Intext questions are based on the concepts discussed in every section.
questions yourself in the space given below the question and then check
with the model answers given at the end of the lesson. This will help you
progress. If you are not satisfied with the quality and authenticity of your
the pages back and study the section again.
Answer these
your answers
to judge your
answers, turn
What you have learnt is essentially summary of the learning points for quick recapitulation.
You may like to add more points in this list.
Terminal exercises in the form of short, long and numerical questions will help you to
develop a perspective of the subject, if you answer these meticulously. Discuss your
responses with your peers or counsellors.
Answers to intext questions : These will help you to know how correctly you have
answered the intext questions.
Audio: For understanding difficult or abstract concepts, audio programmes are available
on certain content areas. You may listen to these on FM Gyanvani or may buy the CDs
from Priced Publication Unit, NIOS
Video: Video programmes on certain elements related to your subject have been made to
clarify certain concepts. You may watch these at your study center or may purchase
these CDs from Priced Publication Unit, NIOS.
www
These are few selected websites that you can access for extended learning.
Studying at a distance requires self-motivation, self-discipline and self-regulation.
Therefore you must develop regular study habit. Drawing a daily schedule will help
you in this endeavour. You should earmark a well-ventilated and well-lighted space in
your home for your study. However, it should not be noisy or distract your concentration
from your work.
Overview of the Learning Material
Module - I
Motion, Force and Energy
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1
9.
Module - III
Thermal Physics
Units, Dimensions and Vectors

Motion in a straight line
Laws of Motion
Motion in a Plane
Gravitation
Work Energy and Power
Motion of Rigid Body
10. Kinetic Theory of Gases

11. Thermodynamics
12. Heat Transfer and Solar Energy
Module - IV
Oscillations and Waves
Module - II
Mechanics of Solids and Fluids
8.
13. Simple Harmonic Motion

14. Wave Phenomena
Elastic Properties of Solids
Module - V
Electricity and Magnetism
2
23. Optical Instruments
Module - VII
Atoms and Nuclei
15.
16.
17.
18.
Electric Charge and Electric Field

Electric potential and Capacitors
Electric Current
Magnetism and Magnetic
Effect of Electric Current
19. Electromagnetic induction and
Alternating Current
24.
25.
26.
27.
28. Semiconductors and

Semiconductor Devices
29. Applications of
Semiconductor Devices
20. Reflection and Refraction of Light

21. Dispersion and Scattering of Light
22. Wave Phenomena of Light
Module - IXA
Electronics and Communications
Structure of Atom
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
Nuclei and Radioactivity
Nuclear Fission and Fusion
Module - VIII
Semiconductor
Module - VI
Optics and Optical Instruments
30.
31.
32.
33.
Properties of Fluids
Electronics in Daily Life

Communication Systems
Communication Technique and Devices
Communication Media
Module - IXB
Photography and
Audio-Videography
30.
31.
32.
33.
Photography Camera
Film Exposing and Processing
Audio-Video Recording
Compact Disc for Audio-Video
Recording
CONTENTS
Name of the Lesson
Page No.
Module - V : Electricity and Magnetism

15.
16.
Electric potential and Capacitors
27
17.
Electric Current
53
18.
Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
89
19.
Electromagnetic induction and Alternating Current

Students Assignment 5
120
162
Modul - VI : Optics and Optical Instruments

20.
Reflection and Refraction of Light
165
21.
Dispersion and Scattering of Light
195
22.
Wave Phenomena of Light
208
23.
Optical Instruments
225
246
Module - VII : Atoms and Nuclei

24.
Structure of Atom
248
25.
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
264
26.
284
27.
303
319
Module - VIII : Semiconductor

28.
Semiconductors and Semiconductor Devices
321
29.
Applications of Semiconductor Devices
349
371
MODULE - V
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
15. Electric Charge and Electric Field
16. Electric potential and Capacitors
17. Electric Current
18. Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric
Current
19. Electromagnetic induction and Alternating
Current
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
15
ELECTRIC CHARGE AND
ELECTRIC FIELD
Notes
So far you have learnt about mechanical, thermal and optical systems and various
phenomena exhibited by them. The importance of electricity in our daily life is too evident.
The physical comforts we enjoy and the various devices used in daily life depend on the
availability of electrical energy. An electrical power failure demonstrates directly our
dependence on electric and magnetic phenomena; the lights go off, the fans, coolers and
air-conditioners in summer and heaters and gysers in winter stop working. Similarly, radio,
TV, computers, microwaves can not be operated. Water pumps stop running and fields
cannot be irrigated. Even train services are affected by power failure. Machines in industrial
units can not be operated. In short, life almost comes to a stand still, sometimes even
evoking public anger. It is, therefore, extremely important to study electric and magnetic
phenomena.
In this lesson, you will learn about two kinds of electric charges, their behaviour in different
circumstances, the forces that act between them, the behaviour of the surrounding space
etc. Broadly speaking, we wish to study that branch of physics which deals with electrical
charges at rest. This branch is called electrostatics.
Objectives
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
state the basic properties of electric charges;
explain the concepts of quantisation and conservation of charge;
explain Coulombs law of force between electric charges;
define electric field due to a charge at rest and draw electric lines of force;
define electric dipole, dipole moment and the electric field due to a dipole; and
state Gauss theorem and derive expressions for the electric field due to a point
charge and a long charged wire.
3.1
1
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
15.1 Frictional Electricity

The ancient Greeks observed electric and magnetic phenomena as early as 600 B.C.
They found that a piece of amber, when rubbed, becomes electrified and attracts small
pieces of feathers. The word electric comes from Greek word for amber meaning electron.
Notes
You can perform simple activities to demonstrate the existence of charges and forces
between them. If you run a comb through your dry hair, you will note that the comb begins
to attract small pieces of paper. Do you know how does it happen? Let us perform two
simple experiments to understand the reason.
Activity 15.1
Take a hard rubber rod and rub it with fur or wool. Next you take a glass rod and rub it
with silk. Suspend them (rubber rod and a glass rod) separately with the help of nonmetallic threads, as shown in Fig. 15.1.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 15.1 : Force of attraction/repulsion between charges : a) a charged rubber rod repels another
charged rubber rod : like charges repel each other; and b) a charged glass rod
attracts a charged rubber rod : unlike charges attract each other.
Now bring rubber rod rubbed with wool near these rods one by one. What do you observe?
You will observe that
when a charged rubber rod is brought near the charged (suspended) rubber rod, they
show repulsion [Fig. 15.1(a)]; and
when the charged rubber rod is brought near the (suspended) charged glass rod, they
show attraction [Fig 15.1(b)].
Similar results will be obtained by bringing a charged glass rod.

On the basis of these observations, we can say that
A charged rubber rod attracts a charged glass rod but repels a charged rubber rod.
A charged glass rod repels a charged glass rod but attracts a charged rubber rod.
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
From these activities we can infer that the rubber rod has acquired one kind of electricity
and the glass rod has acquired another kind of electricity. Moreover, like charges repel
and unlike charges attract each other.
Franklin (Benjamin Franklin, 1706 -1790) suggested that the charge on glass rod is to be
called positive and that on the rubber rod is to be called negative. We follow this convention
since then.
Notes
Once a body is charged by friction, it can be used to charge other conducting bodies by
conduction, i.e., by touching the charged body with an uncharged body; and
induction, i.e., by bringing the charged body close to an uncharged conductor and earthing
it. Subsequently, the charged body and the earthing are removed simultaneously.
15.1.1 Conservation of Charge

In Activity 15.1, you have seen that when a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod acquires
positive charge and silk acquires negative charge. Since both materials in the normal state
are neutral (no charge), the positive charge on the glass rod should be equal in magnitude
to the negative charge on silk. This means that the total charge of the system (glass + silk)
is conserved. It is neither created nor destroyed. It is only transferred from one body of
the system to the other. The transfer of charges takes place due to increase in the thermal
energy of the system when the glass rod is rubbed; the less tightly bound electrons from
the glass rod are transferred to silk. The glass rod (deficient in electrons) becomes positively
charged and silk, which now has excess electrons, becomes negatively charged. When
rubber is rubbed with fur, electrons from the fur are transferred to rubber. That is, rubber
gains negative charge and fur gains an equal amount of positive charge. Any other kind of
charge (other than positive and negative) has not been found till today.
15.1.2 Quantisation of Charge

In 1909, Millikan (Robert Millikan, 1886-1953) experimentally proved that charge always
occurs as some integral multiple of a fundamental unit of charge, which is taken as the
charge on an electron. This means that if Q is the charge on an object, it can be written as
Q = Ne, where N is an integer and e is charge on an electron. Then we say that charge is
quantised. It means that a charged body cannot have 2.5e or 6.4e amount of charge. In
units 24-26, you will learn that an electron has charge e and a proton has charge + e.
Neutron has no charge. Every atom has equal number of electrons and protons and that is
why it is neutral. From this discussion, we can draw the following conclusions :
There are only two kinds of charges in nature; positive and negative.
Charge is conserved.
Charge is quantised.
3.3
3
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
Intext Questions 15.1

1. A glass rod when rubbed with silk cloth acquires a charge q = +3.21017 C.
i) Is silk cloth also charged?
ii) What is the nature and magnitude of the charge on silk cloth?
Notes
....................................................................................................................................
2. There are two identical metallic spheres A and B. A is given a charge + Q. Both
spheres are then brought in contact and then separated.
(i) Will there be any charge on B ?
(ii) What will the magnitude of charge on B, if it gets charged when in contact with A.
3. A charged object has q = 4.8 10
16
C. How many units of fundamental charge are

19
there on the object? (Take e = 1.6 10
C ).
....................................................................................................................................
15.2 Coulombs Law

You have learnt that two stationary charges either attract or repel each other. The force of
attraction or repulsion between them depends on their nature. Coulomb studied the nature
of this force and in 1785 established a fundamental law governing it. From experimental
observations, he showed that the electrical force between two static point charges q1 and
q2 placed some distance apart is
directly proportional to their product ;
inversely proportional to the square of the distance r between them;
directed along the line joining the two charged particles ; and
repulsive for same kind of charges and attractive for opposite charges.
The magnitude of force F can then be expressed as

q1 q2
F =k
(15.1)
1 r 2 q1 q2
(15.2)
For free space, we write
F = 4
r2
0
1
1
where constant of proportionality k =
for free space (vacuum) and k =
for a
4
40
material medium. 0 is called permittivity of free space and is the permittivity of the
medium. It means that if the same system of charges is kept in a material medium, the
4
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
magnitude of Coulomb force will be different from that in free space.

The constant k has a value which depends on the units of the quantities involved. The unit
of charge in SI system is coulomb (C). The coulomb is defined in terms of the unit of
current, called ampere. (You will learn about it later.) In SI system of units, the value of k is
k =
N m2
1
= 9 109
C2
40
(15.3)
since 0 = 8.85 1012 C N1 m2.
Notes
Thus in terms of force, one coulomb charge can be defined as : If two equal charges
separated by one metre experience a force of 9 109 N, each charge has a magnitude
of one coulomb. The value of electronic charge e is 1.60 1019 C.
Note that
Coulombs law is also an inverse square law just like Newtons law of Gravitation,
which you studied in lesson 6.
Coulombs law holds good for point charges only.
Coulombs force acts at a distance, unlike mechanical force.
How Big is One Coulomb?

The unit of electrical charge is coulomb. Have you ever thought : How big a coulomb
is? To know this, let us calculate the magnitude of force between two charges, each
of one coulomb, placed at a distance of one metre from one another:
F =k
q1 q2
r2
11
12
= 9.0 109 1010 N
= 9.0 109
If the mass of a loaded passenger bus is 5000 kg, its weight mg = (5000 10) N
(assume g 10 m s) = 5 104 N.
Let us assume that there are 10,000 such loaded buses in Delhi. The total weight of
all these buses will be 5 104 10,000 = 5 108 N. If there are 10 cities having
same number of buses as those in Delhi, the total weight of all these loaded buses
will be 5 109 N. It means that the force between two charges, each of 1C and
separated by on metre is equivalent to the weight of about two hundred thousand
buses, each of mass 5000 kg.
3.5
5
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
Charles Augustin de Coulomb

(17361806)
A French physicist, Coulomb started his career as military engineer
in West Indies. He invented a torsional balance and used it to perform
experiments to determine the nature of interaction forces between
charges and magnets. He presented the results of these experiments
in the form of Coulombs law of electrostatics and Coulombs law of magnetostatics.
The SI unit of charge has been named in his honour.
You now know that the ratio of forces between two point charges q1 and q2 separated by
a distance r, when kept in free space (vacuum) and material medium, is equal to /0:
F0 (in vaccum)
= = r
F (in medium) 0
where r is known as relative permittivity or dielectric constant. Its value is always
greater than one. We will define dielectric constant in another form later.
15.2.1 Vector Form of Coulombs Law

You know that force is a vector quantity. It means that force between two charges should
also be represented as a vector. That is, Eqn. (15.1) should be expressed in vector form.
Let us learn to do so now.
Let there be two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r (Fig. 15.3). Suppose
that F12 denotes the force experienced by q1 due to the charge q2 and F21 denotes the
force on q2 due to charge q1. We denote the unit vector pointing from q1 to q2 by r12 . Then
from Fig. 15.3 (a), it follows that
q1 q2
F 12 = k | r 2 | r12
12
(15.4)
Similarly, for charges shown in Fig. 15.3 (b), we can write
q1 q2
F 21 = k | r 2 | r12
12
(15.5)
r
F 21
F 12
q1
q2
(a)
F 12
F 21
q1
q2
(b)
Fig. 15.3 : Two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r : a) the direction of forces
of repulsion between two positive charges, and b) the direction of forces of
attraction between a positive and a negative charge.

The positive sign in Eqn. (15.4) indicates that the force is repulsive and the negative sign
in Eqn. (15.5) indicates that the force is attractive.
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
The Coulombs law obeys the principle of action and reaction between two charges q1
and q2. Therefore,
(15.6)
F 12 = F21
In general, we can write the expression for force between two charges as
F 12 = k
q1 q2
r12
r2
(15.7)
Notes
15.2.2 Principle of Superposition

If there are more than two charges, we can calculate the force between any two charges
using Eqn. (15.7). Suppose now that there are several charges q1, q2, q3, q4, etc. The
force exerted on q1 due to all other charges is given by Eqn. (15.7):
F 12
q4
q1 q2
= k | r 2 | r12
12
r14
q1 q3
F 13 = k | r 2 | r13
13
and
q3
r13
q1
q1 q4
F 14 = k | r 2 | r14
14
(15.8)
r12
q2
Fig. 15.4: Principle of

superposition
The resultant of all these forces, i.e., the total force F experienced by q1 is their vector
sum:
F = F12 + F13 + F14 +
(15.9)
This is known as principle of superposition.

Example 15.1 : A charge +q1 = 12C is placed at a distance of 4.0 m from another
charge +q2 = 6C, as shown in the Fig. 15.5. Where should a negative charge q3 be placed
on the line joining q1 and q2 so that the charge q3 does not experience any force?
Solution : Let q3 be placed between q1 and q2 at a distance of x metre from q1. (It can be
easily seen that on placing q3 on the left of q1 or on the right of q2 or at any position other
than the one between the line joining q1 and q2 , the resultant force can not be zero.) The
force exerted on q3 by q1 will be
F31 = k
q1 q3
r towards q1
r312 31
q3 q1
x2
The magnitude of force on q3 due to q2 is given by
F31 = k
q3 q2
F32 = k
(4 x) 2 towards q2
3.7
7
MODULE - 5
Physics
4m
Electricity and
Magnetism
x
q1
q2
q3
Fig. 15.5 : Three point charges q1 , q2 and q3 placed in a straight line
Notes
The resultant force on q3 will be zero when F31 = F32. Therefore, on substituting the
numerical values, we get
The roots of a quadratic equation

of the form
ax2 + bx + c = 0
are given by
b b 2 4ac
2a
In this case, a = 1, b = 16 and
c = 32.
x =
16 256 4 32
2
= 2.35, 13.65
x =
6q3
12q3
= k (4 x) 2
2
x
Note that 6q3k is common on both sides and cancels out. Therefore, on simplification, we
get
1
2
2 = (4 x ) 2
x
or
2(4 x) = x
x 16x + 32 = 0
On solving this, we get two values of x : 2.35 m and 13.65 m. The latter value is inadmissible
because it goes beyond q2. Therefore, the charge q3 should be placed at a distance of 2.35
m from q1.
It is a reasonable solution qualitatively also. The charge q1 is stronger than q2. Hence the
distance between q1 and q3 should be greater than that between q2 and q3.
Example 15.2 : Two charges, each of 6.0 1010 C, are separated by a distance of
2.0 m. Calculate the magnitude of Coulomb force between them.
Solution : We know that the magnitude of Coulomb force between two charges is given
by Eqn. (15.2) :
q1 . q2
r2
Given, q1 = q2 = 6.0 1010C and r = 2.0 m, Therefore on putting these values, we get
F =k
(9 10 9 N m2C 2 ) (6 .0 10 10 C)2
F =
2 2 m2
9 109 36.0 10 20
N
4
= 81 1011 N
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
+q
1. Two charges q 1 = 16C and q 2 = 9 C are

separated by a distance 12m. Determine the
magnitude of the force experienced by q1 due to
q2and also the direction of this force. What is the
direction of the force experienced by q2 due to q1?
C
.......................................................................... A
2. There are three point charges of equal magnitude
q placed at the three corners of a right angle
triangle, as shown in Fig. 15.2. AB = AC. What is
the magnitude and direction of the force exerted
on q?
Notes
+q
q
Fig. 15.2 : Three charges
placed at the three
corners of a right
angle triangle.
....................................................................................................................................
15.3 Electric Field

To explain the interaction between two charges placed at a distance, Faraday introduced
the concept of electric field. The electric field E at a point is defined as the electric force
F experienced by a positive test charge q0 placed at that point divided by the magnitude of
the test charge. Mathematically, we write
F
E = q
0
(15.10)
This is analogous to the definition of acceleration due to gravity, g = F/m0 , experienced by

mass m0 in the gravitational field F.
The electric field E is a vector quantity and has the same direction as the electric force F.
Note that the electric field is due to an external charge and not due to the test charge. The
test charge q0 should, therefore, be so small in magnitude that it does not disturb the field
due to external charge. (In practice, however, even the smallest test charge will disturb
the external field.) Strictly speaking, mathematical definition given below is more accurate :
F
E = qlim
0 0 q
0
(15.11)
In SI system, the force is in newton and the charge is in coulomb. Therefore, according to
Eqn.(15.10), the electric field has the unit newton per coulomb. The direction of E is same
as that of F. Note that the action of electric force is mediated through electric field.
Let us now examine why the test charge q0 should be infinitesimally small.
3.9
9
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
Physics
B
++ +
+
+
+ A
C+
+
+
+ ++
q
D
q > > q0
B
+
+
++
+
+ A
C +
+
+
+ ++
D q
P
+
q0
P
+
q0
q ~ q0
(b)
(a)
Fig. 15.6 : a) uniformly charged metallic sphere and a test charge, and b) redistribution of charge
on the sphere when another charge is brought near it.
Refer to Fig. 15.6. It shows a uniformly charged metallic sphere with charge q and a test
charge q0(< < q). It means that charge density per unit area is same around points A, B, C
and D. The test charge q0 must measure the force F without disturbing the charge distribution
on the sphere. Fig. 15.6 (b) shows the situation when q ~ q0. In this case, the presence of
the test charge modifies the surface charge density. As a result, the electrical force
experienced by the test charge q0 will also change, say from F to F. That is, the force in
the presence of test charge is different from that in its absence. But without q0 , the force
cannot be measured. If q0 is infinitesimally small in comparison to q, the charge distribution
on the sphere will be minimally affected and the results of measurement will have a value
very close to the true value. That is, F will be very nearly equal to F. We hope you now
appreciate the point as to why the test charge should be infinitesimally small.
Let there be a point charge q. A test charge q0 is placed at a distance r from q. The force
experienced by the test charge is given by
F= k
qq0
r2 r
(15.12)
The electric field is defined as the force per unit charge. Hence
q
(15.13)
r2 r
If q is positive, the field E will be directed away from it. If q is negative, the field E will be
directed towards it. This is shown in Fig. 15.7.
E =k
+q
Fig. 15.7 : Direction of electric field due to positive and negative charges
The principle of superposition applies to electric field also. If there are a number of charges
10
Electricity and
Magnetism
q1, q2, q3, ..., the corresponding fields at a point P according to Eqn. (15.13) are
E1 = k
q1 r
1 ,
r12
MODULE - 5
q2
r2 and E = k q3 r3
3
r22
r32
E2 = k
The total field at point P due to all charges is the vector sum of all fields. Thus,
Notes
E = E1 + E2 + E3 +
N
qi ri
E = k 2
i =1 ri
or
(15.15)
where ri is the distance between P and charge qi and ri is the unit vector directed from qi
to P. The force on a charge q in an electric field E is
F =qE
(15.16)
Example 15.3 : The electric force at some point due to a point charge q = 3.5C is
8.5104 N. Calculate the strength of electric field at that point.
Solution : From Eq. (15.16) we can write
E=
8.5 104 N
F
=
q
3.5 106 C
= 2.43 102 NC 1
Example 15.4 : Three equal positive point charges are placed at the three corners of an
equilateral triangle, as shown in Fig. 15.8. Calculate the electric field at the centroid P of
the triangle.
Solution : Suppose that a test charge q0 has been placed at the centroid P of the triangle.
The test charge will experienced force in three directions making same angle between
any two of them. The resultant of these forces at P will be zero. Hence the field at P is
zero.
C
q0
+q
A
+q
P
+q
B
Fig. 15.8 : Electric field at the centroid of an equilateral triangle due to equal charges at its
three corners is zero.
3.11
11
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics

1. A charge + Q is placed at the origin of co-ordinate system. Determine the direction of
the field at a point P located on
a) + x-axis
b) + y-axis
c) x = 4 units and y = 4 units
..........................................................................
Notes
2. The ABC is defined by AB = AC = 40 cm. And

angle at A is 30. Two charges, each of magnitude
2 106 C but opposite in sign, are placed at B
and C, as shown in Fig. 15.9. Calculate the
magnitude and direction of the field at A.
B
.........................................................................
C
+q
Fig. 15.9
3. A negative charge is located in space and the

electric field is directed towards the earth. What is the direction of the force on this
charge?
....................................................................................................................................
4. Two identical charges are placed on a plane surface separated by a distance d between
them. Where will the resultant field be zero?
....................................................................................................................................
15.3.1 Electric Field due to a Dipole

If two equal and opposite charges are separated by a small distance, the system is said to
form a dipole. The most familiar example is H2O. Fig 15.10 shows charges + q and q
separated by a small distance 2l. The product of the
2l
magnitude of charge and separation between the
charges is called dipole moment, p :
+q
q
Fig. 15.10: Two unlike charges of
equal magnitude
separated by a small
distance form a dipole.
p = q 2l
(15.17)
Its SI unit is coulomb-metre.
The dipole moment is a vector quantity. Eqn. (15.17)

gives its magnitude and its direction is from negative charge to positive charge along the
line joining the two charges (axis of the dipole). Having defined a dipole and dipole moment,
we are now in a position to calculate the electric field due to a dipole. The calculations
are particularly simple in the following cases.
CASE I : Electric field due to a dipole at an axial point : Endon position
To derive an expression for the electric field of a dipole at a point P which lies on the axis
of the dipole, refer to Fig. 15.11.This is known as end-on position. The point charges
12

q and +q at points A and B are separated
by a distance 2l. The point O is at the middle
of AB. Suppose that point P is at a distance r
from the mid point O. Then electric field at P
due to +q at B is given by
2l
+q
P
E2
E1
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
r
Fig. 15.11 : Field at point P on the dipole axis
q
E 1= k (r l )2 in the direction AP
Notes
Similarly, the electric field E2 at P due to q is given by
q
E 2 = k (r + l ) 2 in the direction PA
The resultant field E at P will be in the direction of E 1, since E1 is greater than
E2 [as (r l) is less than (r + l)]. Hence
E =
kq
(r l ) 2
kq
(r + l ) 2
1
1
= kq
2
(r + l ) 2
(r l )
(r + l )2 (r l ) 2
= kq
(r 2 l 2 ) 2
4lr
= kq (r 2 l 2 )2
=k
(2lq) 2r
(r 2 l 2 )2
(a + b)2 (a b)2 = 4ab

(a + b) (a b) = a2 b2
2pr
= k (r 2 l 2 ) 2
where dipole moment p = 2lq. Since k = 1/40 , we can rewrite it as
2p
r
E = 4 r 4 (1 l 2 / r 2 ) 2
0
If r >> l, l/r will be very small compared to 1. It can even be neglected and the expression
for electric field then simplifies to
E =
2p
40 r 3
(15.18)
3.13
13
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
It shows that electric field is in the direction of p and its magnitude is inversely proportional
to the third power of distance of the observation point from the centre of the dipole.
CASE II : Electric field due to a dipole at a point on the perpendicular bisector :
Broad-on position
Suppose that point P lies on the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the charges
shown in Fig. 15.12. Note that AB = 2l, OP = r, and AO = OB = l.
Notes
E1
E1
E1 sin
P
E2
E1 cos + E2 cos
A
q
E2
+q
(a)
E2 sin
(b)
Fig. 15.12 : a) Field at point P on the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the charges, and
b) resolution of field in rectangular components.
The angle is shown in Fig. 15.12(a). From right angled s PAO and PBO, we can write
AP = BP =
l2 + r2
The field at P due to charge + q at B in the direction of BP can be written as
q
l + r2
Similarly, the field at P due to charge at A in the direction of PA is given as
E1 = k
E2 = k
q
l + r2
2
Note that the magnitudes of E1 and E2 are equal.

Let us resolve the fields E1 and E2 parallel and perpendicular to AB. The components
parallel to AB are E1cos and E2cos , and both point in the same direction.
The components normal to AB are E1sin and E2sin and point in opposite directions.
(Fig. 15.12b) Since these component are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, they
cancel each other. Hence, the magnitude of resultant electric field at P is given by
E = E1cos + E2cos
=k
But cos =
14
l
(l + r 2 )
2
q
q
cos
2 cos + k 2
l +r
l + r2
2
. Using this expression in the above result, the electric field at P is
Electricity and
Magnetism
given by
kq
E = (l 2 + r 2 )
MODULE - 5
2l
(l + r 2 )
2
2lq
= k (l 2 + r 2 )3/ 2
2lq
= k r 3 (1 + l 2 / r 2 )3/ 2
Notes
But p = 2lq. If r 2 >> l 2, the factor l2/r2 can be neglected in comparison to unity. Hence
p
E = 4 r 3
0
(15.19)
Note that electric field due to a dipole at a point in broad-on position is inversely proportional
to the third power of the perpendicular distance between P and the line joining the charges.
If we compare Eqns. (15.18) and (15.19), we note that the electric field in both cases is
proportional to 1/r3. But there are differences in details:
The magnitude of electric field in end-on-position is twice the field in the broad-on
position.
The direction of the field in the end-on position is along the direction of dipole moment,
whereas in the broad-on position, they are oppositely directed.
15.3.2 Electric Dipole in a Uniform Field

A uniform electric field has constant magnitude and fixed direction. Such a field is produced
between the plates of a charged parallel plate capacitor. Pictorially, it is represented by
equidistant parallel lines. Let us now examine the behaviour of an electric dipole when it is
placed in a uniform electric field (Fig 15.13).
Let us choose x-axis such that the electric field
qE
+q
points along it. Suppose that the dipole axis makes
an angle with the field direction. A force qE
2l
acts on charge +q along the +x direction and an

E
y
equal force acts on charge q in the x direction.
qE
Two equal, unlike and parallel forces form a
q
couple and tend to rotate the dipole in clockwise
direction. This couple tends to align the dipole in Fig. 15.13 : A dipole in a uniform electric
the direction of the external electric field E. The
field. The forces on the dipole
magnitude of torque is given by
form a couple and tend to rotate
= Force
it.
arm of the couple

= qE y
= qE 2l sin
= pE sin
3.15
15
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
Physics
In vector form, we can express this result to
=pE
We note that
(15.20)
when = 0, the torque is zero, and
for = 90 , the torque on the dipole is maximum, equal to pE. So we may conclude
that the electric field tends to rotate the dipole and align it along its own direction.
Example 15.5 : Two charges +q and q, each of magnitude 6.0 106 C, form a
dipole. The separation between the charges is 4 1010 m. Calculate the dipole moment.
If this dipole is placed in a uniform electric field E = 3.0 102 NC1 at an angle 30 with the
field, calculate the value of torque on the dipole.
Solution : The dipole moment
p = qd
= (6.0 106C ) (4.0 1010 m)
= 24 1016 Cm.
Since torque = pE sin , we can write

= (24 1016cm) 3.0 102 NC1) sin 30
=
72
1014 Nm
2
= 36 1014 Nm
If a dipole is placed in a non-uniform electric field, the forces on the charges q and + q
will be unequal. Such as electric field will not only tend to rotate but also displace the
dipole in the direction of the field.
15.3.3 Electric Lines of Force (Field Lines)

A very convenient method for depicting the electric field (or force) is to draw lines of
force pointing in the direction of the field. The sketch of the electric field lines gives us an
idea of the magnitude and direction of the electric field. The number of field lines
passing through a unit area of a plane placed perpendicular the direction of the
field is proportional to the strength of the field. A tangent at any point on the field
lines gives the direction of the field at that point.
Note that the electric field lines are only fictitious construction to depict the field. No
such lines really exist. But the behaviour of charges in the field and the interaction
between charges can be effectively explained in terms of field lines. Some illustrative
examples of electric field lines due to point charges are shown in Fig 15.14. The field lines
of a stationary positive charge point radially in outward direction. But for stationary negative
charge, the lines start from infinity and terminate at the point charge in radially inward
direction (towards the point charge). You must understand that the electric field lines in
both cases are in all directions in the space. Only those which are in the plane containing
the charge are shown here.
16
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
+q
(a)
(b)
Fig. 15.14 : Electrical field lines of single point charges : a) The field lines of positive charge,
and b) the field lines of negative charge.
Notes
Fig 15.15(a) shows a sketch of electric field lines of two equal and similar positive charges
placed close to each other. The lines are almost radial at points very close to the positive
charges and repel each other, bending outwards. There is a point P midway between the
charges where no lines are present. The fields of the two charges at this point cancel each
other and the resultant field at this point is zero.
Fig. 15.15(b) depicts the field lines due to a dipole. The number of lines leaving the positive
charge is equal to the number of lines terminating on the negative charge.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 15.15 : Electric field lines due to a system of two point charges : a) Two positive charges at
rest, and b) The field lines due to a dipole start from the positive charge and terminate
on the negative charge.
You must remember the following properties of the electric field lines :
The field lines start from a positive charge radially outward in all directions and terminate
at infinity.
The field lines start from infinity and terminate radially on a negative charge.
For a dipole, field lines start from the positive charge and terminate on the negative
charge.
A tangent at any point on field line gives the direction of electric field at that point.
The number of field lines passing through unit area of a surface drawn perpendicular
to the field lines is proportional to the field strength on this surface.
Two field lines never cross each other.
3.17
17
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
15.4 Electric Flux and Gauss Law

Let us consider a sphere of radius r having charge +q located at its center. The magnitude
of electric field at every point on the surface of this sphere is given by
E =k
Notes
q
r2
The direction of the electric field is normal to the surface and points outward. Let us
consider a small element of area s on the spherical surface. s is a vector whose magnitude
is equal to the element of area s and its direction is perpendicular to this element (Fig.15.16).
The electric flux is defined as the scalar product of s and E :
= E . s
The total flux over the entire spherical surface is obtained by summing all such contributions:
E =
s i 0
Ei . s i
(15.21)
Since the angle between E and s is zero, the total flux through the spherical surface is
given by
E = k
q
s
r2
The sum of all elements of area over the spherical surface

is 4 r2. Hence the net flux through the spherical surface
is
E = k
s
r
q
4 r2
r2
=4kq
Fig. 15.16
On substituting for k = 1/40, we get
1
E = 4 4q
0
= q/0
(15.22)
The spherical surface of the sphere is referred to as Gaussian surface. Eqn. (15.22)
is known as Gauss law. It states that the net electric flux through a closed gaussian
surface is equal to the total charge q inside the surface divided by 0.
Gauss law is a useful tool for determining the electric field. You must also note that
gaussian surface is an imaginary mathematical surface. It may not necessarily coincide
with any real surface.
18
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Carl Friedrich Gauss

(1777 1855)
German genius in the field of physics and mathematics, Gauss
has been one of the most influential mathematicians. He
contributed in such diverse fields as optics, electricity and
magnetism, astronomy, number theory, differential geometry, and
mathematical analysis.
Notes
As child prodgy, Gauss corrected an error in his fathers

accounts when he was only three year old. In primary school, he stunned his
teacher by adding the integers 1 to 100 within a second.
Though he shun interactions with scientific community and disliked teaching,
many of his students rose to become top class mathematicians Richard
Dedekind, Berhard Riemann, Friedrich Bessel and Sophie Germain are a few
among them. Germany issued three postal stamps and a 10 mark bank note in
his honour. A crater on moon called Gauss crater, and asteroid 100 called Gaussia
have been named after him.
15.4.1 Electric Field due to a Point Charge

Let us apply Gauss law to calculate electric field due to a point charge. Draw a spherical
surface of radius r with a point charge at the centre of the sphere, as shown in Fig. 15.17.
s
+q
Fig. 15.17 : Electric field on a spherical surface due to a charge +q at its centre
The electric field E is along the radial direction pointing away from the centre and normal
to the surface of the sphere at every point. The normal to the element of area s is
parallel to E. According to Gauss law, we can write
si = q/0
E = i Ei .
Since cos = 1 and E is same on all points on the surface, we can write
E = E 4r
or
q/ 0 = E 4r
q
E = 4 r 2
0
(15.23)
3.19
19
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
If there is a second charge q0 placed at a point on the surface of the sphere, the magnitude
of force on this charge would be
F = q0 E
so that
qq0
F = 4 r 2
0
Notes
(15.24)
Do you recogmise this result? It is expression for Coulombs force between two static
point charges.
15.4.2 Electric Field due to a Long Line Charge

A line charge is in the form of a thin charged wire of infinite length with a uniform
linear charge density l (charge per
unit length). Let there be a charge +q
on the wire. We have to calculate the
electric field at a point P at a distance
r. Draw a right circular cylinder of
s
radius r with the long wire as the axis
E
of the cylinder. The cylinder is closed
Gaussian
at both ends. The surface of this
surface
cylinder is the gaussian surface and
shown in Fig. 15.18. The magnitude of
the electric field E is same at every point
on the curved surface of the cylinder
because all points are at the same
distance from the charged wire. The
electric field direction and the normal
Fig. 15.18 : Electric field due to an infinite line of
to area element s are parallel.
charges having uniform linear charge
density. The gaussian surface is a right
circular cylinder.
Let the length of the gaussian cylinder

be l. The total charge enclosed in the
cylinder is q = l l. The area of the curved surface of the cylinder is 2 rl.
For the flat surfaces at the top and bottom of the cylinder, the normals to these areas are
perpendicular to the electric field (cos 90 = 0). These surfaces, therefore, do not contribute
to the total flux. Hence
E = E. s
= E 2 rl
According to Gauss law, E = q/0. Hence
E 2 rl = q/0 = l l/0
1
r
r
Fig. 15.19 : Variation of E with r

for a line charge
20
or
E = 2 r
0
(15.25)
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
This shows that electric field varies inversely with distance. This is illustrated in
Fig. 15.19.
Electrostatic Filter
You must have seen black smoke and dirt particles coming out of a chimney of a
thermal power station or brick klin. The smoke consists of not only gases but large
quantities of small dust (coal) particles. The smoke along with the dirt is discharged
into the atmosphere. The dust particles settle down on earth and pollute the soil. The
gases contribute to global warming. These are extremely injurious to living systems
(health). It is therefore essential that the dirt is removed from smoke before it is
discharged into the atmosphere.
Notes
A very important application of electrical

discharge in gases by application of high
electric field is the construction of a device
called Electrostatic Filter or Precipitator.
The basic diagram of the device is shown here.
The central wire inside a metallic container is
maintained at a very high negative potential
(about 100 kV). The wall of the container is
connected to the positive terminal of a high
volt battery and is earthed. A weight W keeps
the wire straight in the central part. The
electric field thus created is from the wall towards the wire. The dirt and gases are
passed through the container. An electrical discharge takes place because of the
high field near the wire. Positive and negative ions and electrons are generated.
These negatively charged particles are accelerated towards the wall. They collide
with dust particles and charge them. Most of the dust particles become negatively
charged because they capture electrons or negative ions. They are attracted towards the wall of the container. The container is periodically shaken so that the
particles leave the surface and fall down at the bottom of the container. These are
taken out through the exit pipe.
The undesirable dust particles are thus removed from the gases and the clean air
goes out in the atmosphere. Most efficient systems of this kind are able to remove
about 98% of the ash and dust from the smoke.
3.21
21
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism

1. If the electric flux through a gaussian surface is zero, does it necessarily mean that
(a) the total charge inside the surface is zero?
....................................................................................................................
(b) the electric field is zero at every point on the surface?
....................................................................................................................
Notes
(c) the electric field lines entering into the surface is equal to the number going out of
the surface?
....................................................................................................................................
2.
If the electric field exceeds the value 3.0 106 NC1, there will be sparking in air.
What is the highest value of charge that a metallic sphere can hold without sparking in
the surrounding air, if the radius of the sphere is 5.0 cm?
....................................................................................................................................
3.
What is the magnitude and direction of the net force and net torque on a dipole placed
along a a) uniform electric field, and b) non-uniform field.
....................................................................................................................................
What You Have Learnt

Electric charge is produced when glass rod is rubbed with silk or rubber is rubbed with
fur.
By convention, the charge on glass rod is taken positive and that on rubber is taken
negative.
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
Coulombs law gives the magnitude and direction of force between two point charges :
F =k
q1 q2
r
r2
1
= 9.0 109 NmC.
40
The smallest unit of charge in nature is the charge on an electron :
where k =
e = 1.60 1019 C
Charge is conserved and quantised in terms of electronic charge.
The electric field E due to a charge q at a point in space is defined as the force
experienced by a unit test charge q0 :
E = F/ q0 = k
22
q
r
r2
Superposition principle can be used to obtain the force experienced by a charge due to

a group of charges. It is also applicable to electric field at a point due to a group of
charges.
Electric dipole is a system of two equal and unlike charges separated by a small
distance. It has a dipole moment | p| = qr; the direction of p is from negative charge to
positive charge along the line joining the two charges.
The electric field due to a dipole in end-on position and broad-on position is respectively
given by
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
1 2p
E = 4 3
0 r
and

E =
p
1
.
4 0 r3
Electric field lines (line of force) are only a pictorial way of depicting field.
Electric flux is the total number of electric lines of force passing through an area and
is defined as E = E . A .
Gausss law states that the total flux passing through a closed area is
1
times the
0
total charge enclosed by it.

The electric field due to a line charge is given by E = l .

20 r
Terminal Exercise
1. A + 12 C charge is at x =20 cm and a 18 C ( q) charge is at x = 29 cm on the
x-axis. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force on a charge of 18C. What
is the direction of force on 12C charge?
2. Two point Charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance of 3.0 m experience a mutual
force of 16 1015 N. Calculate the magnitude of force when q1 = q2 = q. What will
be the magnitude of force if separation distance is changed to 6.0 m?
3. There are two points A and B separated by a distance x. If two point charges + q each
are on the points A and B, the force between them is F. The point charges are now
replaced by two identical metallic spheres having the same charge + q on each. The
distance between their centers is again x only. Will the force between them change?
Give reasons to support your answer.
4. The force of repulsion between two point chargers placed 16 cm apart in vaccum is
7.5 1010 N. What will be force between them, if they are placed in a medium of
dielectric constant k = 2.5?
3.23
23
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
5. Compare the electrical force with the gravitational force between two protons
separated by a distance x. Take charge on proton as 1.60 1019 C, mass of proton as
1.67 1027 kg and Gravitational constant G = 6.67 10 11 Nm2kg2.
6. Four identical point charges +q each are placed at the four corners (one q at one
corner) of a square of side 1. Find the force experienced by a test charge q0 placed
at the center of the square.
Notes
7. When are the electric field lines parallel to each other?

8. How many electrons should be removed from a metallic sphere to give it a positive
charge = 6.4 107C.
9. Consider an electric dipole of q = 3.0 106 C and 2l = 4 1010 m. Calculate the
magnitude of dipole moment. Calculate electric field at a point r = 6 106m on the
equatorial plane.
10. A Charge q = 15 10-6 C is placed on a metallic sphere of radius R=3.0 mm.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the electric field at a point r =15 cm from
the center of the sphere. What will be the magnitude and direction of the field at the
same point if 3.0 mm sphere is replaced by 9.0 mm sphere having the same Charge.
11. A charge of +15C is located at the center of a sphere of radius 20 cm. Calculate the
electric flux through the surface of the sphere.
12. A proton is placed in a uniform electric field E = 8.0 104 NC1. Calculate the acceleration of the proton.
13. Two point charges q1 and q2 are 3.0 cm apart and (q1 + q2) = 20C. If the force of
repulsion between them is 750N, calculate q1 and q2.
Answers to Intext Questions

15.1
1. (i)Yes
(ii) Charge = 3.2 1017 C.
2. A has charge + Q. When A and B are brought in contact, charge will get distributed
equally.
(i) Yes., (ii) + Q/2
3. q = 4.8 1016
Since Ne = q, we get
N=
24
4.810 16
= 3.0 103charges
1.610 19
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
15.2
1. Q1 = 16C, Q2 = qC and r = 12m
Since
1
F = 4
0
=
q1q2
r2
Notes
(9 109 Nm 2 C 2 )(16 10 6 C) (12 6 C)

144m 2
= 9 103 N
(i) direction from q2 to q1
(ii) direction from q1 to q2
2. The force at A due to charge at B, F1 = k
q2
where AB = a
a2
Since AB = AC, the force at A due to charge at B is
F2 = k
q2
a2
R2 = F12 +F22 = 2 F 2
R = F 2 at 45
15.3
1.
(a) E along the + x axis.

(b) along the + y axis.
(c) at 45 with the x axis
2. AB = AC = 40 cm
| E1 | =
9 109 Nm 2 C 2 (2 10 6 C)
kq
= 1.125 105 NC 1
=
|
|
E
=
2
2
2
(0.40m)
r
The resultant of E1 and E2 will be parallel to BC. Hence

R2 = E12 + E22 + 2E1 E2 cos 150
= 2 E 2 + 2 E 2 cos (180-30)
= 2 E 2 2 E 2 cos 30 = 2 E 2 1+ 2 = 4.723 1010 N2C2.
Direction will be parallel to BC in the direction BC.

3.25
25
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
E1
= 75
A
30
E2
Notes
r
75
75
C
3. E is directed towards the earth. The force on ve charge will be vertically upwards.
4. The field will be zero at the mid point between the charge.
15.4
1.
(i) Yes
2.
E=
(ii) not necessarily (iii) Yes.
Q
40 r 2
Q = 4 0 r 2 E
1
= (3 106 NC1) (9 109 Nm 2 C 2 ) (25 104m2)
= 8.3 10 7 C
3. (a) F = 0, = 0
(b) F 0 = 0
Answers to Problems in Terminal Exercise

1. 240N towards negative xdirection force on +12C charge is towards + x direction.
2. q = 4 103C
5. Electric force is
6. zero.
4. 3 1010N
1036 times the gravitational force.
8. 4 1012 electrons
9. 12 1016 cm. 0.5 1015 or c1

10. 6 106 NC1 towards the centre, same field.
11. 1.7 106 m
13. 15C and 5 C.
26
12. 7.6 1012 ms2
Electric Potential and Capacitors
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
16
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND
CAPACITORS
Notes
In modules 2 and 3, you learnt about the direction of flow of fluids and thermal energy.
You may recall that the level of water in a container determines the direction in which it
flows. If the level of water in one container is higher than that in the other, water will flow
from higher level to lower level, irrespective of the quantity of water in the containers.
Temperature plays a similar role in case of flow of thermal energy from one object to
another. Thermal energy always flows from a body at higher temperature to the one at
lower temperature. Here also, the direction of flow does not depend on the quantity of
thermal energy possessed by an object.
Electric potential plays a similar role in the flow of charges from one point to another. The
positive charge always moves from a point at higher potential to a point at lower potential.
A positive test charge, when left free in an electric field, moves in the direction of the
electric field. From this behaviour of a positive test charge, you may be tempted to say that
the electric field (E) and electric potential (V) are closely related. In this lesson, you
will learn to establish a relation between these physical quantities. You will also learn
about a device called capacitor, which is used to store charge, filter alternating current and
finds wide applications in electronic circuitory as well as power transmission.
Objectives
explain the meaning of electric potential at a point and potential difference;
derive expressions for electric potential due to a point charge and a dipole;
explain the principle of capacitors and state their applications;
derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor;
obtain equivalent capacitance in grouping of capacitors;
calculate the energy stored in a capacitor; and
explain polarization of dielectric materials in an electric field.16.1

3.27
27
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
16.1 Electric Potential and Potential Difference
Notes
When a charged particle is made to move in an electrostatic field in a direction opposite to

the direction of the field, work is done by an external agency. This work is stored as
potential energy of charge in accordance with the law of conservation of energy. So we
can say that an electric charge placed at a point in an electric field has potential energy,
which is a function of its position. We can visualize the potential energy of charge in the
field as a scalar function of position and for a unit charge call it potential. It means that
different points in an electric field would be at different potentials. And if a positively
charged particle is placed in an electric field, it will tend to move from higher to lower
potential to minimize its potential energy. In the next lesson, you will learn how the concept
of potential difference leads to flow of current in electric circuits.
The electric potential at any point in an electric field is equal to the work done
against the electric force in moving a unit positive charge from outside the electric
field to that point. Electric potential is a scalar quantity, as it is related to work done.
Alessandro, Conte Volta (1745-1827)

Born at Como, Italy, Volta was a professor at Pavia for more than
20 years. A well travelled man, he was known to many famous men
of his times. He decisively proved that animal electricity observed
by Luigi Galvani in frog muscles was a general phenomenon taking
place between two dissimilar metals seperated by acidic or salt
solutions. On the basis of this observation, he invented first electro-chemical cell,
called voltaic cell. The unit of potential difference is named volt in his honour.
The potential at a point is taken positive when work is done against the field by a positive
charge but negative when work is done by the electric field in moving the unit positive
charge from infinity to the point in the field.
Consider two points A and B in an electric field (Fig. 16.1). If a test charge q0 is moved
from point A to point B along any path by an external force, the amount of work done by
the external force is given by
WAB = q0 (VB VA)
(16.1)
Thus, potential difference between points A and B will be
WAB
VAB = VB VA = q
0
(16.2)
Here VA and VB are potentials at points A and B, respectively.

A potential difference is said to exist between two points in an electric field, if work is
done against the electric force in moving a positive test charge from one point to the other.
Note that this work is independent of the path. (For this reason, the electric field is said
to be a conservative field). The SI unit of potential and potential difference is volt :
1 volt = 1 joule/1 coulomb
28

If one joule of work is done in taking a test charge
of one coulomb from one point to the other in an
electric field, the potential difference between these
points is said to be one volt. If one joule of work is
done in bringing a test charge of one coulomb from
infinity to a point in the field, the potential at that
point is one volt.
Electricity and
Magnetism
q0
4
3
2
MODULE - 5
1
q0
Fig. 16.1 : The work done in moving
a test charge from one
point to another in
an electric field is
independent of the path
followed.
Notes
Note that potential at a point is not a unique quantity

as its value depends on our choice of zero potential
energy (infinity). However, the potential difference
between two points in a stationary field will have a
unique value. Let us now learn to calculate potential at a point due to a single charge.
16.1.1 Potential at a point due to a Point Charge

Suppose we have to calculate electric potential at point P due to a single point charge +q
q
O
P
r
Infinity
rAP
rA
rB
rC
Fig. 16.2 : Work done per unit charge in moving a charge q0 from infinity to a point P in an
electric field E is the potential at that point.
situated at O (Fig. 16.2), where OP = r. The magnitude of electric field at P due to the
point charge is given by
1
q
E p = 4 2
r
0
(16.3)
Similarly, the electric field at point A will be
1
q
E A = 4 r 2
A
0
(16.4)
If points P and A are very close, the average field EAP between these points can be taken
as the geometric mean of EP and EA :
3.29
29
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
E AP =
Notes
EA Ep
1 q
1 q
2
4o rA 4o r 2
1
q
= 4 r r
0
A
(16.5)
Therefore, the magnitude of force experienced by a test charge q0over this region will be
F AP = qo EAP =
1
q q0
40 rA r
(16.6)
and the work done in moving charge q0 from A to P is given by

WAP = FAP rAP
=
1
q qo
(rA r)
40 rA r
1 1
q q0

4 0
r rA
(16.7)
where rAP is the distance between points A and P.

Similarly, work done in moving this charge from B to A will be given by
W BA =
1 1
q q0

4 0
rA rB
(16.8a)
And work done in moving the test charge from C to B will be

WCB =
1 1
q q0
r r
4 0
C
B
(16.8b)
and so on. The total work done in moving the charge from infinity to the point P will be
W =
30
1 1 1 1 1 1
1
q q0
+ + ... + ...
4 0
r rA rA rB rB rC
1 1
q q0

4 0
r
q q0
4 0 r
(16.9)
Electricity and
Magnetism
By definition, potential at a point is given by
W
q0
VP =
1 q
4 0 r
(16.10)
Note that potential is inversely proportional to

distance. It is positive or negative depending
on whether q is positive or negative.
If there are several charges of magnitudes
q1, q2, q3,, the electric potential at a point
is the scalar sum of the potentials due to
individual charges (Fig.16.3) :
V = V1 + V2 + V3+...
i =1
MODULE - 5
qi
4 0 ri
(16.11)
Notes
q3
q2
r2
r3
q1
r1
r4
r5
q4
q5
Fig. 16.3 : Potential at a point P due to a
system of charges
16.1.2 Potential at a Point due to an Electric Dipole

Let us consider an electric dipole consisting of two equal and opposite point charges q at
A and +q at B, separated by a distance 2l with centre at O. We wish to calculate potential
at a point P, whose polar co-ordinates are (r,); i.e. OP = r and BOP = , as shown in
Fig. 16.4. Here AP = r1 and BP = r2. We can easily calculate potential as P due to point
charges at A and B using Eqn.(16.10) :
V1 =
( q)
1
r
40
1
V2 =
1
q
40
r2
and
Total potential at P due to both the charges of the dipole is given by

V = V1 + V2
That is,
q 1 1
V = 4 r r
(16.12)
0 2
1
To put this result in a more convenient form, we draw normals from A and B on the line
joining O and P. From BOD, we note that OD = l cos and from OAC we can write
OC = l cos . For a small dipole (AB<<OP), from Fig. 16.4, we can take PB = PD and
3.31
31
MODULE - 5
Physics
P
Electricity and
Magnetism
PA = PC . Hence
r 1 = r + l cos
r 2 = r l cos
Using these results in Eqn (16.12), we get
r
r2
r1
V =
Notes
1
1
q
(r - l cos ) (r + l cos )
40
D
A
q
O
C
qB
Fig. 16.4 : Electric potential at

a point P due to an
electric dipole.
q (2l cos )
2 2
2
40 (r -l cos )
q 2l cos
40 r 2
where we have neglected the term

containing second power of l since l<<r.
In terms of dipole moment (p = q 2l ), we can express this result as

V=
p cos
40 r 2
(16.13)
This result shows that unlike the potential due to a point charge, the potential due to a
dipole is inversely proportional to the square of the distance.
Let us now consider its special cases.
Special Cases
Case I : When point P lies on the axial line of the dipole on the side of positive charge,
= 0 and cos =1. Then Eqn. (16.13) reduces to
VAXIS =
p
40 r 2
(16.14)
Case II : When point P lies on the axial line of the dipole but on the side of negative
charge, = 180 and cos = 1. Hence
VAXIS =
p
40 r 2
(16.15)
Case III : When point P lies on the equatorial line of the dipole (perpendicular bisector of
AB), = 90 and cos = 0. Then
V equatorial = 0
(16.16)
That is, electric potential due to a dipole is zero at every point on the equatorial line of the
32

dipole. When a dipole is kept in 3D space, the equatorial line will lie in the plane of the
paper. The potential at all points in this plane will be same, i.e. zero. Such a surface is
referred to as equipotential surface.The electric field is always perpendicular to an
equipotential surface. No work is done in moving a charge from one point to another on
the equipotential surface.
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
E
(a) Spherical equipotential surface
(b) Plane equipotential surface
Fig. 16.5 : Equipotential surfaces and electric field directions
16.1.3 Potential Energy of a System of Point Charges

The electric potential energy is the energy possessed by a system of point charges by
virtue of their being in an electric field. When
charges are infinite distance apart, they do
q3 P
not interact and their potential energy is
3
zero. If we want to assemble a charge
r13
P1
system, i.e. bring charges near each other,
q1
work will have to be done. This work is
r23
stored in the form of potential energy in the
r12
system of these charges. This is called the
electric potential energy of the charge
r3
P
r1
system. Hence, we can define potential
q2 2
energy of a system of point charges as
the total amount of work done in bringing
r2
various point charges of the system to
their respective positions from infinitely
Fig. 16.6 : Potential energy of a system
large mutual separations.
of point charges separated by
a distance
Suppose that a point charge q1 is located at

a point P1 with position vector r1 in space.
Assume that point charge q2 is at infinity.
This is to be brought to the point P2 having position vector r2 where P1P2 = r12, as shown
in Fig. 16.6. We know that electric potential at P2 due to charge q1 at P1 is
V2 =
q1
1
40 | r12 |
(16.17)
3.33
33
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
From the definition of potential, work done in bringing charge q2 from infinity to point P2 is
W = (Potential at P2) value of charge
This work is stored in the system of charges q1 and q2 in the form of electric potential
energy U. Thus,
q1 q2
U = 4 | r |
0
12
Notes
(16.18)
In case the two charges have same sign, work is done against the repulsive force to bring
them closer and hence, electric potential energy of the system increases. On the other
hand, in separating them from one another, work is done by the field. As a result, potential
energy of the system decreases. If charges are of opposite sign, i.e. one is positive and the
other is negative, the potential energy of the charge system decreases in bringing the
charges closer and increases in separating them from one another.
For a three point charge system (Fig. 16.6), Eqn. (16.18) can be written as
U =
1 q1q2 + q1q3 + q2 q3
r13
r23
40 r12
(16.19)
Proceeding in the same way, we can calculate the potential energy of a system of any
number of charges.
By combining Eqns. (16.3) and (16.13), the potential energy of a dipole in a uniform
electric field can be written as
U = pE cos = p.E
(16.20)
where p is the dipole moment in electric field E and is the angle between p and E.
16.2 Relation between Electric Field and Potential

Consider two points A and B in a uniform electric field E, separated by a small distance r.
By definition, potential difference V between A and B is equal to the work done in
moving a unit positive test charge from A to B:
V = (Force on unit positive charge) (AB)
= E. r = E(r) cos 180O
= E r
or
E =
V
r
(16.21)
The negative sign indicates that work is done against the electric field.
Hence, at any point, the electric field is equal to negative rate of change of potential with
distance (called potential gradient) at that point in the direction of field. Remember that
34

electric potential is a scalar quantity but electric potential gradient is a vector as it is
numerically equal to electric field.
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
From the above relation, for a uniform electric field, we can write
VA V B
(16.22)
d
Here VA and VB are potentials at points A and B, respectively separated by a distance d.
E =
Example 16.1 : In a 10 volt battery, how much work is done when a positively charged
particle having charge 1.6 10 19 C is moved from its negative terminal to the positive
terminal?
Notes
Solution : According to Eqn. (16.2)

VAB = WAB / qO
Since VAB= 10 V and q0 = 1.6 1019 C, we get
WAB = (10V) (1.6 1019C)
= 1.6 1018 J
Example 16.2 : A point charge q is at the origin of Cartesian co-ordinate system. The
electric potential is 400 V and the magnitude of electric field is 150 NC1 at a point x.
Calculate x and q.
Solution : The electric field
E =
V
x
On inserting the numerical values, we get

400
x
x = 2.67 m
150 =
or
Recall that electric field is given by the expression
E =
We subsitute
1 q
40 x 2
1
= 9 109 NC2 m2, E = 150 NC1 and x = 2.67 m and obtain
40
q =
(150NC 1 ) (2.67m) 2
9 109 NC 2
= 11.9 108 C
3.35
35
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism

1.
A metallic sphere of radius R has a charge +q uniformly distributed on its surface.

What is the potential at a point r ( > R) from the centre of the sphere?
..................................................................................................................................
2.
Notes
Calculate the work done when a point charge is moved in a circle of radius r around
a point charge q.
..................................................................................................................................
3.
The electric potential V is constant in a region. What can you say about the electric
field E in this region ?
..................................................................................................................................
4.
If electric field is zero at a point, will the electric potential be necessarily zero at that
point.
..................................................................................................................................
5.
Can two equipotential surfaces intersect?

..................................................................................................................................
On the basis of charge conduction, substances are broadly classified as conductors and
insulators. In solids, conduction of electricity usually takes place due to free electrons,
whereas in fluids, it is due to ions. Conductors have free charge carriers through which
electric currents can be established on applying an electric field. Metals are good conductors.
Substances having no free charge carriers are called insulators. The common insulators
are wood, ebonite, glass, quartz, mica etc. Substances which have electrical conductivity
in between those of conductors and insulators are called semiconductors. The ratio of
electrical conductivities of good conductors and good insulators is of the order of 1020. Let
us now learn how conductors behave in an electric field.
16.2.1 Behaviour of Conductors in an Electric Field

Conductors have electrons which are not bound tightly in their atoms. These are free to
move within the conductor. However, there is no net transfer of electrons (charges) from
one part of the conductor to the other in the absence of any applied electric field. The
conductor is said to be in electrostatic equilibrium.
Refer to Fig. 16.7(a) which shows a conductor placed in an external electric field E. The
free electrons are accelerated in a direction opposite to that of the electric field. This
results in build up of electrons on the surface ABCD of the conductor. The surface FGHK
becomes positively charged because of removal of electrons. These charges (-ve on surface
ABCD and +ve on surface FGHK) create their own fields, which are in a direction opposite
to E. The transfer of electrons from FGHK to ABCD continues till E becomes equal to
E1. Such a state of electrostatic equilibrium is reached usually in 1016 s. We then say that
equilibrium is reached almost instantaneously. If there is a cavity inside a conductor, the
electric field inside the cavity is zero (Fig. 16.7(b)).
These results are true for a charged conductor or when charges are induced on a neutral
conductor by an external electric field.
36

This property of a conductor is used in Electrostatic Shielding a phenomenon of
protecting a certain region of space from external electric fields. To protect delicate
instruments from external electric fields, they are enclosed in hollow conductors. That is
why in a thunder storm accompanied by lightning, it is safer to be inside a car or a bus than
outside. The metallic body of the car or bus provides electrostatic shielding from lightning.
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium exhibit the following properties :
There is no electric field inside a conductor.
The electric field outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the
conductor, irrespective of the shape of the conductor.
Any charge on the conductor resides on the surface of the conductor.

A
Notes
E
+
B
+
+
+
+
H
C
(a)
(b)
Fig.16.7 : Electrostatic shielding: (a) External electric field E pulls free electrons on the surface
ABCD. The surface FGHK, which is deficient in electrons, becomes positively charged;
the net field inside the conductor is zero. (b) If there is a cavity inside a conductor, the
field inside the cavity is zero.
16.3 Capacitance
Let us consider two conductors having equal but opposite charges +Q and Q on them.
There is a potential difference V between them. Such a system of conductors is called a
capacitor. Experimentally it is found that the potential difference is directly proportional to
charge on a conductor. As charge increases, the potential difference between them also
increases but their ratio remains constant. This ratio is termed as capacitance of the
capacitor:
C =Q/V
(16.23)
The capacitance is defined as the ratio between the charge on either of the conductors
and the potential difference between them. It is a measure of the capability of a capacitor
to store charge.
In SI system of units, capacitance is measured in farad (F). The capacitance is one farad,
if a charge of one coulomb creates a potential difference of one volt :
3.37
37
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
1 farad =
1 coulomb
1 volt
(16.24)
You may recall from the previous unit that coulomb is a very large unit of charge. It means
that farad is also a very large unit of capacitance. Usually we use capacitors of values in
microfarad or picofarad:
1 microfarad = 106 farad, written as F
1 picofarad = 1012 farad, written as pF
Notes
In an electrical circuit, a capacitor is represented by two parallel lines.
16.3.1 Capacitance of a Spherical Conductor

Suppose that a sphere of radius r is given charge q. Let the potential of the sphere be V.
Then
V =
1 q
40 r
C =
q
r
= 40r =
q / 40 r
9 109
Since C = q/V, we find that

(16.25)
This shows that capacitance of a spherical conductor is directly proportional to its radius.
In fact, it is numerically equal to its radius divided by 9 109, where radius is taken in
metre. For example, the capacitance of a sphere of radius 0.18m is
C =
A
+
+
+
+
+
16.3.2 Types of Capacitors
B
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
(a)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
(b)
Fig.16.8 : Working
principle
of a capacitor
38
0.18
109F = 20pF
9
You will come across many types of capacitors in your physics

laboratory. The power supply system of your city also uses
capacitors. These also form important components of
devices such as radio, T.V., amplifires and oscillators. A
capacitor essentially consists of two conductors, one charged
and the other usually earthed. To understand the principle of
a capacitor, let us consider an insulated metal plate A and
give it positive charge (q) till its potential (V) becomes
maximum. (Any further charge given to it would leak out.)
The capacitance of this plate is equal to q/V.
Now bring another insulated metal plate B near plate A. By
induction, negative charge is produced on the nearer face of
B and equal positive charge develops on its farther face (Fig.
16.8a). The induced negative charge tends to decrease
whereas induced positive charge tends to increase the
potential of A. If plate B is earthed (Fig.16.8b), the induced

positive charge on it, being free, flows to earth. (In reality, it is the negative charge that
flows from the earth to the plate. Positive charges in the plate are immobile.) But negative
charge will stay as it is bound to positive charge on A. Due to this induced negative charge
on B, the potential of A decreases and its capacitance increases.
Hence, we can say that capacitance of an insulated conductor can be increased by
bringing near it an uncharged earthed conductor. This is the basic principle of a
capacitor. Capacitors are used for storing large amounts of electric charge and hence
electrical energy in a small space for a small interval of time.
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
A Parallel Plate Capacitor

A parallel plate capacitor is one of the simplest capacitors in which two parallel metallic
plates, each of area A, are separated from one another by a small distance d. An insulating
medium like air, paper, mica, glass etc separates the plates. The plates are connected to
the terminals of a battery, as shown in Fig. 16.9. Suppose that these plates acquire +q and
q charge when the capacitor is fully charged. These
charges set up a uniform electric field E between the plates.
+q q
When the separation d is small compared to the size of the
plates, distortion of electric field at the boundaries of the
plates can be neglected.
If is surface charge density on either plate, the magnitude
of electric field between the plates is given by
E=
q
=
0 A
0
and the potential difference between the plates is given by
Fig. 16.9 : Working principle

of a capacitor
V = Ed
Hence, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor, whose plates are separated by d and
have air in-between them is given by
C0 =
q
q
=
qd / 0 A
V
0 A
(16.26)
d
It shows that capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is directly proportional to the area of
the plates and inversely proportional to their separation. It means that to obtain high
capacitance, area of the plates should be large and separation between them should be
small.
=
If the plates of a capacitor are separated by a dielectric material other than air or vacuum,
the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
3.39
39
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
C =
k0
A
=
d
d
where is called permittivity of the medium. Therefore, we find that capacitance of a

dielectric filled parallel plate capacitor becomes K times the capacitance with air or vacuum
as dielectric :
C = KC0
Notes
(16.27)
6.3.3 Relative Permittivity or Dielectric Constant

We can also define dielectric constant by calculating the force between the charges.
According to Coulombs law, the magnitude of force of interaction between two charges
q1 and q2 separated by a distance r in vacuum is :
FV =
1 q1 q2
40 r 2
(16.28)
where 0 is the permittivity of free space.

If these charges are held at the same distance in a material medium, the force of interaction
between them will be given by
Fm =
1 q1 q2
4 r 2
(16.29)
On combining Eqns. (16.28) and (16.29), we get
Fv
=
= r
Fm
0
(16.30)
where r (or K) is relative permittivity. It is also termed as dielectric constant of the

medium. Note that it is the ratio of permittivity of the material medium to the permittivity of
free space. We can also define the dielectric constant of a medium as the ratio of the
electrostatic force of interaction between two point charges held at certain distance apart
in air or vacuum to the force of interaction between them held at the same distance apart
in the material medium.
The dielectric constant can also be expressed as
Capacitance with dielectric between the plates

K = Capacitance with vacuum between the plates
Thus
Cm
= C
0
Cm = KC0
40
(16.31)
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
For metals, K = , for mica K 6, and for paper K = 3.6.
16.4. Grouping of Capacitors

Capacitors are very important elements of electrical and electronic circuits. We need
capacitors of a variety of capacitances for different purposes. Sometimes a capacitance
of a proper value may not be available. In such situations, grouping of capacitors helps us
to obtain desired (smaller or larger) value of capacitance with available capacitors. Two
most common capacitor groupings are :
Series grouping, and
Parallel grouping.
Notes
Let us learn about these now.
16.4.1 Parallel Grouping of Capacitors

In parallel grouping, one plate of each capacitor is connected to one terminal and the other
plate is connected to another terminal of a battery, as shown in Fig. 16.10. Let V be the
potential difference applied to the combination between points A and B. Note that in
parallel combination, potential difference across each capacitor is the same.
Therefore, charge on these will be different, say q1, q2 and q3 such that
q 1 = C1V
q1
q 2 = C2V
q 3 = C3V
(16.32)
V1
C1
Total charge on all the capacitors of the combination is :

q = q1 + q2 + q3
q2
q = (C1 + C2 + C3 + )V (16.33)
V2
Let Cp be the equivalent capacitnace in parallel combination.

Then
q = Cp V
C2
q3
V3
C3
From these relations, we get

q = Cp V = (C1 + C2 + C3 )V
In general, we can write
C p = C1 + C2 + C3 =
V
V1 = V2 = V3 = V
C
i =1
Fig. 16.10 :Capacitors joined

in parallel
(16.34)
Thus, we see that equivalent capacitance of a number of capacitors joined in parallel

is equal to the sum of the individual capacitances.
Remember that in parallel combination, all the capacitors have the same potential
3.41
41
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
difference between their plates but charge is distributed in proportion to their
capacitances. Such a combination is used for charge accumulation.
16.4.2 Series Grouping of Capacitors
Notes
In the series combination of capacitors, the first plate of the first capacitor is connected to
the electrical source. The second plate of the first capacitor is connected to the first plate
of the second capacitor. The second plate of second capacitor is connected to first plate of
the next capacitor of the combination and so on. The second plate of last capacitor of the
combination is connected to the electrical source, as shown in Fig.16.11. Let +q unit of
charge be given to the first plate of capacitor C1 from the source. Due to electrical induction,
as expalined in the principle of
V
V
capacitor, q charge appears on
V1
+q 2q
+q 3 q
+q q
the inner side of right plate of C1
and +q charge develops on the
outer side of the second plate of
C1. The +q unit of charge flows to
the first plate of C2 and so on. Thus,
C3
C
each capacitor receieves the same
2
C1
V
charge of magnitude q. As their
capacitances are different,
potential difference across these
capacitors will be
Fig.16.11 : Capacitors in series grouping. The
amount of charge on each capacitor
plate is same.
q
C3
V1
q
q
, V2 =
, V3 =
C1
C2
(16.35)
If Cs is the total capacitance of the series grouping, then

V =
and
q
Cs
V = V1 + V2 + V3
Hence
q
q
q
q
=
+
+
C1
C3
Cs
C2
or
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
C
C
C
Cs
1
2
3
For n capacitors joined in series, we can write
1
Cs
42
C
i =1
(16.36)
(16.37)
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Types of Capacitors
There are three common varieties of capacitors in commercial use. Their schematic diagrams are shown in Fig.16.12.
1.
2.
Paper capacitor: Several large thin sheets of paraffin impregnated paper or

mylar are cut in proper size (rectangular). Several sheets of metallic foils are
also cut to the same size. These are spread one over the other alternately. The
outer sheet is mylar, then over it a sheet of metal foil, again over it a sheet of
mylar and then a sheet of metal foil and so on. The entire system is then rolled
in the form of a cylinder to form a small device.
Notes
Metal plate capacitors: A large number of metals are alternately joined to two
metal rods as shown in Fig.16.12 (b). The entire plate system is immersed in
silicon oil which works as dielectric material between the plates. High voltage
capacitors are usually of this type. Variable capacitors of micro farad capacitance
are usually of this type and use air as dielectric. One set of plates is fixed and
the other set is movable. The movable plates, when rotated, change their effective
area, thereby changing the capacitance of the system. You might see such
capacitors in a radio receiver. Variable capacitance helps in tuning to different
radio stations.
metallic
Paper
metal
Paper
(a)
oil
(b)
(c)
Fig.16.12 : Different types of capacitors : a) paper capacitor, b) variable capacitor, and

c) electrolytic capacitor
3.
Electrolytic capacitor: An electrolytic capacitor is shown Fig. 16.12(c). A

metal foil is rolled in the shape of a cylinder with increasing diameter so that
there is always a space between one surface and the other. The system is
immersed in an electrolyte in the form of a solution. This solution is conducting
because of ions in the solution. A voltage is applied between the electrolyte and
the metallic foil. Because of the conducting nature of the electrolyte, a thin layer
of metal oxide, which is an insulator, is formed on the foil. The oxide layer works
as dielectric material. Since the dielectric layer is extremely thin, the system
provides a very high value of capacitance. It is important in this type of capacitor
to mark the positive and negative terminals. A wrong connection of positive
and negative terminals removes the oxide layer. (The capacitor then starts
conducting.) This type of capacitor is used in storing large amount of charge at
low voltage.
3.43
43
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
Physics
Thus, the reciprocal of equivalent capacitance of any number of capacitors connected
in series is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of individual capacitances. From the
above relation, you will agree that Cs is less than the least of C1, C2, and C3 .
Note that all the capacitors in series grouping have the same amount of charge but
the potential difference between their plates are inversely proportional to their
capacitances.It means that the capacitor with minimum capacitance of the combination
will have maximum potential difference between its plates.
Example 16.3 :The capacitance of a parallel plate air capacitor is 22.0F. The separation
between the plates is d. A dielectric slab of thickness d/2 is put in-between the plates.
Calculate the effective capacitance, if the dielectric constant K = 5.
Solution: The Capacitance of the air capacitor is given by
0 A
= 22.0 F
d
The new system can be considered as a series combination of two capacitors:
C0 =
and
C1 =
K 0 A
2K 0 A
=
= 2 KC0
d /2
d
C2 =
20 A
0 A
=
= 2C0
d
d /2
The effective capacitance C is given by
1
1
1
= C + C
C
1
2
or
C1 C2
C = C +C
1
2
2 KC0 2C0
= 2 KC + 2C
0
0
2 KC 0
= K +1
10 22 106F
6
= 36.7 F
44
Electricity and
Magnetism

1.
MODULE - 5
Write the dimensions of capacitance.

..................................................................................................................................
2.
What is the potential difference between two points separated by a distance d in a

uniform electric field E ?
..................................................................................................................................
3.
Notes
The usual quantities related with an air capacitor are C0, E0 and V0. How are these
related with C, E and V of the same capacitor filled with dielectric constant K ?
..................................................................................................................................
4.
Calculate the area of air filled capacitor plate when the separation between the plates
is 50 cm and capacitance is 1.0 F .
..................................................................................................................................
16.4.3 Energy Stored in a Capacitor

The charging of a capacitor can be visualized as if some external agent, say a battery, pulls
electrons from the positive plate of a capacitor and transfers them to the negative plate.
Some work is done in transferring this charge, which is stored in the capacitor in the form
of electrostatic potential energy. This energy is obtained from the battery (stored as chemical
energy). When this capacitor is discharged through a resistor, this energy is released in the
form of heat.
Let us assume that an uncharged capacitor, when connected to a battery, develops a
maximum charge q. The charging takes place slowly. The initial potential difference between
the capacitor plates is zero and the final potential difference is V. The average potential
difference during the entire process of charging is
0 +V
2
V
2
q
2C
The work done during charging is given by
=
W = Charge potential difference
q
1 q2
=q
=
2C
2 C
Hence potential energy
1
1 q2
1
qV =
= CV 2
(16.38)
2
2 C
2
This energy is stored in the electric field between the plates. The stored energy is directly
proportional to the capacitance. It also increases as potential difference increases. However,
U =
3.45
45
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
every capacitor can store only a limited amount of energy. An automatic discharge will
take place when the potential difference becomes more than its threshold value.
It is dangerous to touch the plates of a charged capacitor. The capacitor may get discharged
through your body resulting in an electric shock. Such a shock could be fatal for high value
capacitors when fully charged.
Notes
16.5 Dielectrics and Dielectric Polarization

We know that dielectrics are insulating materials, which transmit electric effects without
conducting. Dielectrics are of two types : non-polar and polar. We now learn about
these.
(a) Non-polar dielectrics
In the molecules of nonpolar dielectrics, the centre of positive charge coincides with the
centre of negative charge. Each molecule has zero dipole moment in its normal state.
These molecules are mostly symmetrical such as nitrogen, oxygen, benzene, methane,
CO2 , etc.
(b) Polar dielectrics
Polar dielectrics have asymmetric shape of the molecules such as water, NH3, HCl etc. In
such molecules, the centres of positive and negative charges are separated through a
definite distance and have finite permanent dipole moment.
When a non-polar dielectric is held in an external electric field, the centre of positive
charge in each molecule is pushed in the direction of E and the centre of negative charge
is displaced in the direction opposite to E. Because of external electric field, centres of
positive and negative charges in the non-polar dielectric molecules are separated. Dielectric
is then said to be polarized and a tiny dipole moment develops in each molecule. In fact,
the force due to external electric field pulling the charge centres apart balances the force
of mutual attraction between the centres (i.e. equilibrium is set) and the molecule is said to
be polarised. Induced dipole moment p acquired by the molecule may be written as
p = 0 E
where is constant of proportionality and is called atomic/molecular polarizability.
Let us now consider a non-polar slab ABCD placed in an electric field E maintained
between the plates of a capacitor. As shown in Fig.16.13, the dielectric slab gets polarised.
The nuclei of dielectric molecules are displaced towards the negative plate and electrons
towards the positive plate. Because of polarisation, an electric field Ep is produced within
the dielectric, which is opposite to E. Hence, due to the presence of a non-polar dielectric,
the field between the plates is reduced, i.e. effective electric field in a polarised dielectric
is given by
E(effective) = E - Ep
(16.39)
Thus, the potential difference between the capacitor plates is correspondingly reduced (as
V= Ed ), increasing the value of capacitance of the capacitor (as C = q/V ).
46
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
Fig.16.13 : A dielectric slab between the charged capacitor plates.
Application of Electrostatics
Electrostatics provides basis for the theory of electromagnetics, apart from useful
assistance in many fields of science and technology.
Capacitors are essential parts of most electronic and electrical circuitry. These
play a very crucial role in power transmission.
Gold leaf electroscope the simple device used for detecting charge, paved the
way for cosmic ray research.
Lightning conductor devised by Benjamin Franklin is still used to protect skyscrappers from the strokes of lightning and thunder.
The working of photocopiers, so common these days, is based on the principle of

electrostatics.

1.
Two capacitors C1= 12 mF and C2 = 4 mF are in group connections. Calculate the

effective capacitance of the system when they are connected (a) in series (b) in
parallel.
.......................................................
2.
Four capacitors are connected together as shown in Fig.16.14. Calculate the equivalent
capacitance of the system.
.......................................................
3.
An air capacitor C = 8 mF is connected to a 12V battery. Calculate

(a) the value of Q when it is fully charged?
3.47
47
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
(b) the charge on the plates, when slab

of dielectric constant K = 5 fills the
gap between the plates completely.
(c) potential difference between the
plates; and
(d) capacitance of the new capacitor
3 F
6 F
C1
C2
C3
C4
16 F
4 F
......................................................
Notes
4.
A parallel plate capacitor of

capacitance C 0 is connected to a
Fig.16.14 : Grouping of capacitors
battery and charged to a potential
difference V0. After disconnecting the battery, the gap between the plates is completely
filled with a slab of dielectric constant K.How much energy is stored in the capacitor
(a) in the first state? (b) in the second state? and (c) which one is larger and why?
.................................................................................................................................
48
The potential at any point in an electric field is equal to the work done against the
electric field in moving a unit charge from infinity to that point.
Work done in transferring a charge from one point to another in an electrostatic field
is path independent.
If one joule of work is done in bringing a test charge of one coulomb from infinity to a
point in the field, we say that potential at that point is one volt.
Electric potential due to a dipole is zero at every point on the equatorial line of the
dipole.
In an equipotential surface, every point has same electric potential.
At any point in an electric field, the negative rate of change of potential with distance
(called potential gradient) gives the field.
Electrostatic shielding is the phenomenon of protecting a region of space from electric

field.
Capacitance of a conductor depends on its shape, size and nature of medium, rather
than its material.
The capacitance of a dielectric filled parallel plate capacitor becomes K times the
capacitance with air or vacuum as dielectric.
Relative permittivity is the ratio of capacitance with dielectric between the plates to
the capacitance with air or vacuum between the plates.
In series combination of capacitors, the equivalent capacitance is less than the least of
any of the individual capacitances.
In parallel combination of capacitors, the equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of

individual capacitances.
Due to the presence of a non-polar dielectric, the field between the plates of a capacitor
is reduced.
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Terminal Exercises
1.
Calculate the potential at a point P at a distance of 30 cm from a point charge

q = 20 C
2.
Three point charges q1, q2 and q3, each of magnitude 200 C, are placed at the
corners A, B and C respectively of an equilateral triangle. The length of the side is
10cm. Calculate the potential energy of the system.
The potential difference between the plates of a capacitor separated by 3mm is
12.0 V. Calculate the magnitude of E between the plates?
Two ions having charges +e and e are 4.0 1010 m apart. Calculate the potential
energy of the system.
The plates A and B of a parallel plate capacitor have a potential difference of 15 V.
A proton (m = 1.67 1027 kg) is moved from the positive plate A to B. Calculate the
speed of the proton near plate B.
Show that dimensionally the quantities Vq and ()mv2 are equivalent. The symbols
carry the usual meaning.
Under what condition, the electric field between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor is uniform?
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
A metallic sphere of radius r has a charge +q. Calculate the work done in moving a
test charge q0 from one end of a diameter to its other end.
9.
A parallel plate air capacitor of value C0 is charged to a potential V0 between the

plates and +q0 is charge on one plate. Separation between plates is d. A dielectric of
dielectric constant K = 3 fills the space between the plates. Which of these quantities
will change and why. (i) capacitance (ii) charge (iii) potential difference and (iv) field
density?
Notes
10. Examine the following network of capacitors. The potential difference between A
and B is 16V :
C1
C2
C4
C3
C5
C1 = 2 F, C2 = 4 F, C3 = 8 F, C4 = 3 F, C5 = 3F
Calculate (a) the effective capacitance between A and B, (b) the charge on each capacitor,
and (c) the potential difference across each capacitor.
11. The value of capacitance of an air capacitor is 8F. Two dielectrics of identical size
fill the space between the plates as shown. Dielectric constants are K1 = 3.0 and
K2 = 6.0. Calculate the value of the new capacitance.
3.49
49
MODULE - 5
Physics
12345678901234
12345678901234
12345678901234
1234567890123412345678901234
12345678901234
12345678901234
12345678901234
12345678901234
12345678901234
K
K2
12345678901234
12345678901234
1
12345678901234
12345678901234
12345678901234
12345678901234
1234567890123412345678901234
Electricity and
Magnetism
12. Calculate the equivalent capacitance of the following system.
Notes
5 F
4 F
11 F
13. A 3.0 F air capacitor is charged to a potential 12.0 V. A slab of dielectric constant
K = 7 is made to fill the space. Calculate the ratio of the energies stored in the two
systems.
14. A dipole of dipole moment P = 3.5 1015 Cm is placed in a uniform electric field
E = 2.0 104 NC1. The dipole makes an angle of 60 with the field. Calculate the
(a) Potential energy of the dipole and (b) the torque on the dipole.
15. The capacitance of a parallel plate air capacitor is 12F. The separation between the
plates is 8mm. Two dielectric slabs of the same size fill the air space. Calculate the
new value of capacitance.
123456789012345
123456789012345
123456789012345
K =2
123456789012345
123456789012345
123456789012345
123456789012345
123456789012345
K =4
123456789012345
123456789012345
1

16.1
1.
The potential at r (r > R)

V
50
= 4
0 r
2.
The field around a point charge possesses spherical symmetry. Thus every point on
the surface of the sphere is equipotential. And no work is done when a charge
moves on an equipotantial surface
3.
E =
dV
Since V is constant, E is zero.
dr

We can obtain the same result using Eqn. (16.22) :
4.
No. Not necessarily. When E = 0, the potential is either constant or zero.
5.
Two equipotential surfaces never intersect. If they do so, at the point of intersection
we can draw two normals giving directions of electric field.
Notes
16.2
C
Electricity and
Magnetism
V A -V B
. Since VA = VB ,E is zero
d
E=
1.
MODULE - 5
Q
Q Q
Q
Work done
=
=
= Work done
V
Charge
Q2
N.m.
The basic unit is

A =
m0 A
s2d
C
s
C2 = A2 s2 and newton = mass acc = kg

A 2s 2
A 2s4
C
2
=
= kg m = kg m 2
Nm
s2
2
Capacitance
= A2 s4 (kg m2)1
2.
In a capacitor, E is uniform between this plates. Potential difference between the

plates
VA VB = E d.
3.
C0 , E0 , V0 for air capacitor and

C, E, V for dielectric capacitor. Then
C
V0
k = C ,k=
k= 0.
V
E
0
4.
C = 1.0 F = 1.0 106 F.

d = 50 cm = 0.5m.
C =
3.51
51
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
. Since 0 = 8.85 1012,
A=
1.0 10 6 0.5
A = 8.85 10-12
5 10 7
= 8.85 10 12
Notes
= 0.56 105 m2
16.3
1
(a) 3 mF
(b) 16 mF
3.
(a) 96mC (b) 0.480 C
4.
1
(a)
C V2
2 0 0
2. 12.2F
(c) 12 v (d) 40 mF
1 (C 0V0 ) 2
1
C0V02
(b) 2 C R =
2k
0
(c) The energy in the first case is more, because same energy is used up for sucking
in the dielectric slab.
Answers to Problems in Terminal Exercises

1.
6 105 V.
2. 1.08 104 J.
3.
4 103 Vm 1
4. 5.76 10
5.
1.4 109 ms2
10. (a)
(c)
37
F,
14
128
128
128
C,
C,
C, 24C,
7
7
7
64
32
16
V,
V,
V, 8V, 8V
7
7
7
16
F.
5
11. 36 F.
12.
13. 1 : 7
14. (a) 3.5 10
15. 32 F
52
(b)
19
11
(b) 6 1011Nm.
Electric Current
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
17
Notes
ELECTRIC CURRENT
n our daily life we use electricity for various activities. The electric lamps and tubes light
our houses, we listen music on a tape recorder or radio, see different programmes on
television, enjoy cool breeze from electric fan or cooler, and use electric pump to irrigate
fields. In fact, electricity is a unique gift of science to mankind. We can not imagine life
without electricity in the modern world. At home you might have observed that as soon as
you switch on an electrtc lamp, it starts glowing. Why does it happen? What is the function
of a switch?
In the preceding lessons of this module, you have studied about static electric charges and
forces between them. In this lesson, you will learn about electric charges in motion. You
will also learn that the rate of flow of charge through a conductor depends on the potential
difference across it. You will also study the distribution of current in circuits and Kirchhoffs
laws which govern it.
Physics is an experimental science and the progress it has made to unfold laws of nature
became possible due to our ability to verify theoretical predictions or reproduce experimental
results. This has led to continuous improvement in equipment and techniques. In this lesson
you will learn about potentiometer, which is a very versatile instrument. It can be used to
measure resistance as well as electro-motive force using null method.
Objectives
state Ohms law and distinguish between ohmic and non-ohmic resistances;
obtain equivalent resistance for a series and parallel combination of resistors;
apply Kirchhoffs rules to closed electrical circuits;
apply Wheatstone bridge equation to determine an unknown resistance; and
explain the principle of potentiometer and apply it to measure the e.m.f and
internal resistance of a cell.
3.53
53
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
Free and Bound Electrons

An atom is electrically neutral, i.e. as many negatively charged electrons revolve
around the nucleus in closed orbits as there are positively charged protons inside it.
The electrons are bound with the nucleus through Coulomb (attractive) forces.
Notes
Farther the electrons from the nucleus, weaker is the Coulomb force. The electrons
in the outermost orbit are, therefore, most loosely bound with the nucleus. These are
called valence electrons. In metallic solids, the valence electrons become free to
move when a small potential difference is applied.
17.1 Electric Current

You have studied in the previous lesson that when a potential difference is applied across
a conductor, an electric field is set up within it. The free electrons move in a direction
opposite to the field through the conductor. This constitutes an electric current.
Conventionally, the direction of current is taken as the direction in which a positive
charge moves. The electrons move in the opposite direction. To define current precisely,
let us assume that the charges are moving perpendicular to a surface of area A, as shown
in Fig. 17.1. The current is the rate of flow of charge through a surface area placed
perpendicular to the direction of flow. If charge q flows in time t, the average current
is defined as :
Iav =
q
t
(17.1)
Fig. 17.1 : Motion of charges inside a conductor of surface area A
If the rate of flow of charge varies with time, the current also varies with time. The
instantaneous current is expressed as :
I =
dq
dt
(17.2)
The electric current through a conductor is the rate of transfer of charge across
a surface placed normal to the direction of flow.
The SI unit of current is ampere. Its symbol is A :
1 coulom b
1 ampere = 1 second
(17.3)
The smaller units of current are milliampere, 1 mA = 103A, and microampere,

1A = 106A. The current can arise due to flow of negative charges (electrons), as in
54
Electric Current
metals. In a semiconductor, flow of electrons (negative charge) and holes constitutes
current. Holes are vacancies in a crystal. These are taken as positively charged particles
having the same amount of charge as that on an electron. You will study about these
particles in more detail in lesson 28.
Let us consider a conductor of cross sectional area A shown in Fig. 17.2. The volume
element for a length x is A x. If n is the number of electrons per unit volume, the
number of electrons in this volume element will be nAx. The total charge in this volume
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
vd
vd x
Fig. 17.2 : The charges move with a speed vd through a surface of area A. The number of charges
in a length x is nA vd t.
element is q = nAxe, where e is charge on the electron. If electrons drift with a speed
vd due to thermal energy, the distance travelled in time t is x = vd t. On substituting
this value of x in the expression for q, we find that total charge in the volume element
under consideration is given by
q = nAe vd t
q
= I = nAevd
t
so that
(17.4)
You will learn more about the drift velocity in sec.17.9.
17.2 Ohms Law

In 1828, Ohm studied the relation between current in a conductor and potential difference
applied across it. He expressed this relation in the form of a law, known as Ohms law.
George Simon Ohm

(1787-1854)
German physicist, George Simon Ohm is famous for the law named
after him. He arrived at the law by considering an analogy between
thermal and electrical conduction. He also contributed to theory of
sirens, interference of polarised light in crystals etc. Ohm, the
practical unit of resistance, is named in his honour.
3.55
55
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
According to Ohms law, the electric current through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across it, provided the physical conditions
such as temperature and pressure remain unchanged.
Let V be the potential difference applied across a conductor and I be the current flowing
through it. According to Ohms law,
Notes
V I
or
V = RI
V
I
=R
(17.5)
where constant of proportionality R signifies the electrical resistance offered by a conductor

to the flow of electric current. Resistance is the property of a conductor by virtue of
which it opposes the flow of current through it. The IV graph for a metallic conductor
is a straight line (Fig. 17.3(a)).
Slope =
1
R
V
(a)
V
(b)
Fig. 17.3 : Current-voltage graph for a) an ohmic device, and b) a semiconductor diode
The SI unit of resistance is ohm. It is expressed by symbol (read as omega)

1 ohm = 1 volt/1 ampere
Most of the metals obey Ohms law and the relation between voltage and current is linear.
Such resistors are called ohmic. Resistors which do not obey Ohms law are called
non-ohmic. Devices such as vacuum diode, semiconductor diode, transistors show non ohmic
character. For semiconductor diode, Ohms law does not hold good even for low values of
voltage. Fig. 17.3(b) shows a non-linear IV graph for a semiconductor diode.
Activity 17.1
Aim : To study conduction of electricity through an electrolyte.
Material Required Ammeter, Voltmeter, a jar containing copper sulphate solution, two
copper plates, a battery, plug key, connecting wires and a rheostat.
56
Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism
How to Proceed :
1.
Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig.

17.4.
2.
Plug in the key and note ammeter

and voltmeter readings.
3.
MODULE - 5
A +
Change the value of ammeter

reading by moving the sliding
contact of rheostat and note
voltmeter reading again.
Rh
+
Notes
K
P2
P1
4.
Repeat step 3 at least five times

and record ammeter and voltmeter
readings each time.
5.
Repeat the experiment by changing

(a) seperation between P1 and P2,
CuSO4
(b) plate area immersed in Fig. 17.4 : Electrical
conduction through an
electrolyte, and (c) concentration of
electrolyte
electrolyte.
6.
Plot IV graph in each case.
What do you conclude?
If IV graph is a straight line passing through

the orgin, as shown in Fig. 17.5, we say that
ionic solution behaves as an ohmic resistor.
The slope of the graph changes steeply with
change in volume of electrolyte between the
plates. It means that resistivity of an
electrolyte depends not only on its nature but
also on the area of the electrodes and the
seperation between them.
V
O
Fig. 17.5 : IV graph for an ionic solution
17.2.1 Resistance and Resistivity

Let us now study the factors which affect the resistance of a conductor. You can perform
two simple experiments. To do so, set up a circuit as shown in Fig. 17.6.
Activity 17.2
Take a long conducting wire of uniform cross
section. Cut out pieces of different lengths, say
l1, l2, l3, etc from it. This makes sure that wires
have same area of cross-section. Connect l1
between A and B and note down the current
through this wire. Let this current be I. Perform
the same experiment with wires of lengths l2 and
+
+
Rh
Fig. 17.6 : Electrical circuit to study

factors affecting resistance
of conductors
3.57
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Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
l3, one by one. Let the currents in the wires be I2 and I3 respectively. Plot a graph between
l1 and I. You will find that the graph is a straight line and longer wires allow smaller
currents to flow. That is, longer wires offer greater resistance [Fig.17.7(a)]. Mathematically,
we express this fact as
R l
(17.6)
Notes
I
(a)
(b)
Fig. 17.7 : a) The graph between I and 1/l for wires of uniform cross-section and b) the graph
between current and area of cross section for wires of same length
Activity 17.3
Take wires of the same length of a given material but having different areas of cross
section, say A1 , A2 , A3 etc. Connect the wires between A and B one by one and note down
the currents I1 , I2 , I3 etc. in each case. A plot of I and A will give a straight line. Wires of
greater cross sectional area allow greater currents to flow. You may say that wires of
larger area of cross-section offer smaller resistance [Fig. 17.7 (b)]. Mathematically, we
can write
1
A
(17.7)
On combining Eqns.(17.6) and (17.7), we can write
l
A
R
or
R =
l
A
(17.8)
where is a constant for the material at constant temperature. It is called the specific
resistance or resistivity of the material. By rearranging terms, we can write
=
58
RA
l
(17.9)
Electric Current
If l = 1m and A = 1m2, then = R ohm-metre. Thus resistivity of a material is the
resistance offered by a wire of length one metre and area of cross section one m2.
The unit of resistivity is ohm metre (m)
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity (specific conductance) and is denoted by :

=
(17.10)
Notes
Unit of conductivity is Ohm1 metre1 or mho-metre1 or Sm1.

Resistivity depends on the nature of the material rather than its dimensions, whereas the
resistance of a conductor depends on its dimensions as well as on the nature of its material.
You should now study the following examples carefully.
Example 17.1 : In our homes, the electricity is supplied at 220V. Calculate the resistance
of the bulb if the current drawn by it is 0.2A.
Solution :
R =
220 volt
V
= 0.2 amp. = 1100
I
Example 17.2 :A total of 6.0 1016 electrons pass through any cross section of a
conducting wire per second. Determine the value of current in the wire.
Solution : Total charge passing through the cross-section in one second is
Q = ne = 6.0 1016 1.6 1019 C = 9.6 103C
I =
Q
9.6 10 3 C
=
t
1s
= 9.6 103 A
= 9.6 mA
Example 17.3 : Two copper wires A and B have the same length. The diameter of A is
twice that of B. Compare their resistances.
Solution : From Eqn. (17.8) we know that
RA =
RA
RB
l
l
2 and RB =
rA
rB2
rB2
rA2
Since diameter of A = 2 diameter of B , we have rA = 2rB. Hence

Resistance of B will be four times the resistance of A.
Example 17.4 : The length of a conducting wire is 60.0 m and its radius is 0.5cm. A
potential difference of 5.0 V produces a current of 2.5 A in the wire. Calculate the resistivity
of the material of the wire.
3.59
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Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
Solution :
R =
V 5.0 V
=
= 2.0
I 2.5 A
Radius of the wire = 0.5 cm = 5.0 103 m

Area of cross section A = R2 = 3.14 (5.0 103) 2 m2 = 78.5 106 m2
Notes
2.0 78.5 10 6 m 2
= 2.6 106 m
60.0 m

1. (a) A current I is established in a copper wire of length l. If the length of the wire is
doubled, calculate the current due to the same cell.
(b) What happens to current in an identical copper wire if the area of cross section is
decreased to half of the original value?
............................................................................................................................
2. The resistivity of a wire of length l and area of cross section A is 2 108m. What
will be the resistivity of the same metallic wire of length 2l and area of cross section
2A?
....................................................................................................................................
3. A potential difference of 8 V is applied across the ends of a conducting wire of length
3m and area of cross section 2cm2. The resulting current in the wire is 0.15A. Calculate
the resistance and the resistivity of the wire.
....................................................................................................................................
4. Do all conductors obey Ohms law? Give examples to support your answer.
....................................................................................................................................
5. 5 1017 electrons pass through a cross-section of a conducting wire per second from
left to right. Determine the value and direction of current.
....................................................................................................................................
17.3 Grouping of Resistors

An electrical circuit consists of several components and devices connected together. Some
of these are batteries, resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, transistors etc. (They are
known as circuit elements.) These are classified as resistive and reactive. The most common
resistive components are resistors, keys, rheostats, resistance coils, resistance boxes and
connecting wires. The reactive components include capacitors, inductors and transformers.
In addition to many other functions performed by these elements individually or collectively,
they control the current in the circuit. In the preceding lesson you learnt how grouping of
capacitors can be used for controlling charge and voltage. Let us now discuss the role of
combination of resistors in controlling current and voltage.
60
Electric Current
Two types of groupings of resistors are in common use. These are : series grouping and
parallel grouping. We define equivalent resistance of the combination as a single
resistance which allows the same current to flow as the given combination when
the same potential difference is applied across it.
17.3.1 Series Combination
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
You may connect many resistors in series by joining them end-to-end such that the same
current passes through all the resistors. In Fig. 17.8, two resistors of resistances R1 and R2
are connected in series. The combination is connected to a battery at the ends A and D.
Suppose that current I flows through the series combination when it is connected to a
battery of voltage V. Potential differences V1 and V2 develop across R1 and R2 , respectively.
Then V1 = IR1 and V2 = IR2. But sum of V1 and V2 is equal to V, i.e.
V = V1 + V2 = I R1 + I R2
If equivalent resistance of this series combination is R, then

V = IR = I (R1 + R2)
R = R1 + R2
so that
This arrangement may be extended for any number of resistors to obtain

R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + . . .
(17.11)
That is, the equivalent resistance of a series combination of resistors is equal to the sum of
individual resistances. If we wish to apply a voltage across a resistor (say electric lamp)
less than that provided by the constant voltage supply source, we should connect another
resistor (lamp) in series with it.
R2
R1
A
V1
V2
R1
R2
()
I
V
(a)
Battery
(b)
Fig. 17.8 : a) Two resistors connected in series to a battery, and b) two lamps joined in series
connected to a dc source.
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MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
Physics
17.3.2 Parallel Combination

You may connect the resistors in parallel by joining their one end at one point and the other
ends at another point. In parallel combination, same potential difference exists across
all resistors. Fig. 17.9 shows a parallel combination of two resistors R1 and R2. Let the
combination be connected to a battery of voltage V and draw a current I from the source.
I1
I1
R1
I2
R2
R1
I2
R2
I
( )
Battery
(b)
Fig. 17.9 : a) Two resistors connected in parallel. The battery supplies the same voltage to both
resistors, and b) lamps connected in parallel to a battery.
The main current divides into two parts. Let I1 and I2 be the currents flowing through
resistors R1 and R2 , respectively. Then I1 = V/R1 and I2 = V/R2.
The main current is the sum of I1 and I2. Therefore, we can write
I = I1 + I2 =
V
V
+
R1 R2
If the equivalent resistance of combination is R, we write V = IR or I = V/R:

I =
V
V
V
=
+
R R1
R2
1
1
1
+
=
R1 R2
R
(17.12a)
or
R1 R2
R = R +R
1
2
(17.12b)
From Eqn. (17.12a) we note that reciprocal of equivalent resistance of parallel

combination is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of individual resistances. The
process may be extended for any number of resistors, so that
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
+ ...
=
R
R1 R2 R3 R4
(17.13)
Note that the equivalent resistance of parallel combination is smaller than the smallest
individual resistance. You may easily see this fact by a simple electrical circuit having a
resistor of 2 connected across a 2V battery. It will draw a current of one ampere.
When another resistor of 2 is connected in parallel, it will also draw the same current.
That is, total current drawn from the battery is 2A. Hence, resistance of the circuit is
halved. As we increase the number of resistors in parallel, the resistance of the circuit
62
Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism
decreases and the current drawn from the battery goes on increasing.
In our homes, electrical appliances such as lamps, fans, heaters etc. are connected in
parallel and each has a separate switch. Potential difference across each remains the
same and their working is not influenced by others. As we switch on bulbs and fans, the
resistance of the electrical circuit of the house decreases and the current drawn from the
mains goes on increasing (Fig.17.10).
Notes
S3
S2
MODULE - 5
S1
MAINS
H
N
Fig. 17.10 : Arrangement of appliances in our homes. These are connected in parallel so that
every appliance is connected to 220 V main supply. The total current drawn from the
mains is the sum of the currents drawn by each appliance.
Example 17.5 : For the circuit shown in Fig. 17.11, calculate the value of resistance R2,
and current I2 flowing through it.
Solution: If the equivalent resistance of parallel combination of R1 and R2 is R, then
R1 R2
10 R2
R = R + R = 10 + R
1
2
2
I = 10A
According to Ohms law,
50
= 5
R =
10
10 R2
10 + R2 = 5
50V
10
I1
I2
R1
R2
Fig. 17.11 : Two resistors in

parallel
10 R2 = 50 + 5 R2 or R2 = 10
Since R1 and R2 are equal, current will be equally divided between them. Hence, I2 = 5A
Example 17.6 : For the circuit shown in Fig. 17.12, calculate the equivalent resistance
between points a and d.
Solution : 15 and 3 resistors are connected in parallel. The equivalent resistance of
this combination is
15 3
45 5
R 1 = 15 + 3 = 18 = 2 = 2.5
Now we can regard the resistances 5, R1 = 2.5 and 7 as connected in series. Hence,
equivalent resistance between points a and d is
R = (5 + 2.5 + 7) = 14.5
3.63
63
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
15
a
b
5
Notes
7
d
Fig. 17.12: A combination of series and parallel groupings
Example 17.7 : Refer to the network shown in Fig. 17.13. Calculate the equivalent
resistance between the points (i) b and c (ii) c and d, and (iii) a and e.
5
10
a
3
30
7
3
f
Fig. 17.13 : A combination of series and parallel groupings of resistors
Solution :
(i) Three resistors (5, 10 and 30) are connected in parallel. Therefore, equivalent
resistance is given by
1
R1
or
1 1
1 6 + 3 + 1 10
+ +
=
=
5 10 30
30
30
R1 = 3
(ii) The resistors with resistances 2 and 4 are in series. The equivalent resistance
R 2 = (2 + 4) = 6
(iii) The resistances 7 and 3 are in parallel. So equivalent resistance
1
R3
1 1 3 + 7 10
=
= + =
7 3
21
21
21
= 2.1
10
Now we can treat equivalent resistance R1 and R2 to be in series. Therefore
or,
R3 =
R 4 = R1 + R2 = (3 + 6) = 9
64
Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism
Now R4 and R3 are in parallel. Therefore equivalent resistance
1
1
1
= R +R
4
3
R5
=
=
MODULE - 5
1 1
+
9 2.1
Notes
1 10
37
+
=
9 21
63
63
= 1.70
57
(iv) Finally R5 and 3 (between a and b) are in series. Hence
R
R = (1.70 + 3) = 4.79
Note : For ease and convenience, you should draw a new equivalent circuit after every
calculation.

1. There are two bulbs and a fan in your bed room. Are these connected in series or in
parallel? Why?
....................................................................................................................................
2. The electric supply in a town is usually at 220 V. Sometimes the voltage shoots upto
300 V and may harm your T V set and other gadgets. What simple precaution can be
taken to save your appliances?
....................................................................................................................................
3. Calculate the equivalent resistance between points A and B for the following circuit :
10
A
7
B
2
5
17.4 Types of Resistors

We use resistors in all electrical and electronic circuits to control the magnitude of current.
Resistors usually are of two types :
carbon resistors
wire wound resistors
In a wire wound resistor, a resistance wire (of manganin, constantan or nichrome) of
3.65
65
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
definite length, which depends on the required value of resistance, is wound two-fold over
an insulating cylinder to make it non-inductive. In carbon resistors, carbon with a suitable
binding agent is molded into a cylinder. Wire leads are attached to the cylinder for making
connections to electrical circuits. Resistors are colour coded to give their values :
R = AB 10C , D
Notes
where A, B and C are coloured stripes. The values of different colours are given in
Table 17.1. As may be noted,
first two colours indicate the first two digits of the resistance value;
third colour gives the power of ten for the multiplier of the value of the resistance;
and
fourth colour (the last one) gives the tolerance of the resistance, which is 5% for
golden colour, 10% for silver colour and 20% for body colour.
Table 17.1 : Colour codes of resistors
Colour
Number
Multiplier
Black
Brown
0
1
1
101
Red
102
Orange
103
Yellow
104
Green
105
Blue
106
Violet
107
Grey
108
White
109
Suppose that four colours on a resistor are Blue, Grey, Green and Silver. Then
The first digit will be 6 (blue)
The second digit will be 8 (Grey)
The third colour signifies multiplier 105 (Green)
The fourth colour defines tolerance = 10% (Silver)
Hence value of the resistance is
68 105 10%
= 68 105 (68 105 10/100)
= 68 105 68 104
= (6.8 0.68) M
66
Electric Current
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
17.5 Temperature Dependence of Resistance

The resistivity of a conductor depends on temperature. For most metals, the resistivity
increases with temperature and the change is linear over a limited range of temperature :
= 0 [1 + (T T0)]
(17.14)
where and 0 are the resistivities at temperatures T and T0 , respectively. The

temperatures are taken in C and T0 is the reference temperature. is called the
temperature co-efficient of resistivity. Its unit is per degree celcius.
Notes
Superconductors
Temperature dependence of resistivity led scientists to study the behaviour of
materials at very low temperatures. They observed that certain metals and their
alloys lost their resistivity completely below a certain temperature, called transition
temperature, which is specific to the material. In such materials, current, once set
up, remained, unchanged for ever without the use of an external source to maintain
it. Such materials were termed as superconductors.
It was soon realised that superconductors, if they may exist near room temperature,
will bring in revolutionary changes in technology. (These have been termed as high
temperature superconductors.) For example, energy efficient powerful
electromagnets made of superconducting coils may levitate vehicles above a magnetic
track and make a high speed transportation system possible.
Efforts are being made to develop high temperature superconductors. The work
done so far suggests that oxides of copper, barium and ytterium are showing good
possibilities. A superconductor (T2 Ba2 Ca2 Cu3O10) which can exist at 153C has
been developed. India is a front runner in this area of research.
Eqn. (17.14) can be rearranged to obtain an expression for temperature coefficient of
resistivity :
= 0 + 0 (T T0)
or
( 0 )
1
= (T T ) = T
0
0
0
where = ( 0) and T = T T0.
The resistivity versus temperature graph for a metal

like copper is shown in Fig. 17.14(a). The curve is
linear over a wide range of temperatures.
You may recall that resistance of a conductor is
proportional to its resistivity. Therefore, temperature
variation of resistance can written as :
R = R0 [1 + (T T0)]
(17.15)
The resistances corresponding to two different
T
(a)
Fig. 17.14 : Typical resistivity
temperature graph for
a metal
3.67
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MODULE - 5
Electricity and
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Physics
temperatures T1 and T2 are given by
R 1 = R0 [1 + (T1 T0)]
(17.16)
R 2 = R0 [1 + (T2 T0)]
(17.17)
and
Notes
On combining these equations, we can write an expression for temperature coefficient of

resistivity :
( R2 R1 )
1 R
= R (T T ) = R T
0 2
1
0
(17.18)
If R0 = 1 and (T2 T1) = 1C, then = ( R2 R1). Thus temperature coefficient of

resistance is numerically equal to the change in resistance of a wire of resistance
at 0 C when the temperature changes by 1 C. This property of metals is
1
used in making resistance thermometers.
T
(b)
The resistivity of alloys also increases with

increase in temperature. But the increase is very
small compared to that for metals. For alloys
such as manganin, constantan and
nichrome, the temperature coefficient of
resistivity is vanishingly small (106 C1 )and
resistivity is high. That is why these materials
are used for making resistance wires or
standard resistances.
Fig. 17.14(b) : Resistivity of

Semiconductors such as germanium and silicon
semiconductors decreases
have resistivities which lie between those of
with temperature
metals and insulators. The resistivity of

semiconductors usually decreases with increase in temperature [Fig.17.14(b)]. This gives
a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. This will be discussed in detail in the
lesson on semiconductors.
17.6 Electromotive Force (emf) and Potential Difference

EMF is the short form of electromotive force. EMF of a cell or battery equals the potential
difference between its terminals when these are not connected (open circuit) externally.
You may easily understand the difference between e.m.f. and potential difference of a
cell by performing the following activity.
Activity 17.4
Connect a cell in a circuit having a resistor R and key K. A voltmeter of very high
resistance is connected in parallel to the cell, as shown in Fig.17.15. When key K is
closed, voltmeter reading will decrease. Can you give reasons for this decrease in the
voltmeter reading? Actually when key K is open, no current flows through the loop having
cell and voltmeter: (The resistance in the circuit is infinite.) Hence the voltmeter reading
68
Electric Current
E
r
Ir
V
I
Fig. 17. 15
gives e.m.f. E of the cell, which is the potential

difference between the terminals of the cell when no
current is drawn from it. When key K is closed, current
flows outside and inside the cell. The cell introduces a
resistance r, called internal resistance of the cell.
Let current I be flowing in the circuit. Potential drop
Ir across internal resistance r due to current flow acts
opposite to the e.m.f. of the cell. Hence, the voltmeter
reading will be
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
E Ir = V
or
E = V + Ir
{17.19)
Thus while drawing current from a cell, e.m.f. of the cell is always greater than the
potential difference across external resistance, unless internal resistance is zero.
E.M.F. of a cell depends on :
the electrolyte used in the cell;
the material of the electrodes; and
the temperature of the cell.
Note that the e.m.f. of a cell does not depend on the size of the cell, i.e. on the area of
plates and distance between them. This means that if you have two cells of different sizes,
one big and one small, the e.m.f.s can be the same if the material of electrods and electrolyte
are the same. However, cells of larger size will offer higher resistance to the passage of
current through it but can be used for a longer time.
Example 17.8 : When the current drawn from a battery is 0.5A, potential difference at
the terminals is 20V. And when current drawn from it is 2.0A, its voltage reduces to 16V.
Calculate the e.m.f. and internal resistance of the battery.
Solution : Let E and r be the e.m.f. and internal resistance of battery. When current I is
drawn from it, the potential drop across internal resistance of the cell is Ir. Then we can
write
V = E Ir
For I = 0.5A and V = 20 volt, we have
20 = E 0.5 r
(i)
For I = 2.0A and V = 16 volt, we can write

16 = E 2r
(ii)
We can rewrite Eqns. (i) and (ii) as

2E r = 40
and
E 2r = 16
Solving these,we get

E = 21.3 V and r = 2.67
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Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
17.7 Kirchhoffs Rules
Notes
You now know that Ohms law gives currentvoltage relation for resistive circuits. But
when the circuit is complicated, it is difficult to know current distribution by Ohms law. In
1842, Kirchhoff formulated two rules which enable us to know the distribution of current
in complicated electrical circuits or electrical networks.
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff

(1824-1887)
The fundamental contributions of German physicist Kirchhoff
were in the fields of black body radiation and spectroscopy. But
he also contributed in many other fields. His rules that you will
study in this lesson enable us to analyse complex electric networks.
With the help of Bunsen spectrum analysis, he discovered elements Rubidium and
Cesium.
(i) Kirchhoffs First Rule (Junction Rule) : It states that the sum of all currents
directed towards a junction (point) in an electrical network is equal to the sum of all
the currents directed away from the junction.
I1
I
I2
A
I3
Fig. 17.16 : Kirchhoffs first rule : Sum of currents coming to a junction is equal to the sum of
currents going away from it.
Refer to Fig. 17.16.If we take currents approaching point A as positive and those leaving
it as negative, then we can write
I = I1 + I2 + I3
or
I (I1 + I2 + I3) = 0
(17.20)
In other words, the algebraic sum of all currents at a junction is zero.

Kirchhoffs first rule tells us that there is no accumulation of charge at any point if steady
current flows in it. The net charge coming towards a point should be equal to that going
away from it in the same time. In a way, it is an extension of continuity theorem in electrical
circuits.
(ii) Kirchhoffs Second Rule (Loop Rule) : This rule is an application of law of
conservation of energy for electrical circuits. It tells us that the algebraic sum of the
products of the currents and resistances in any closed loop of an electrical network
is equal to the algebraic sum of electromotive forces acting in the loop.
While using this rule, we start from a point on the loop and go along the loop either clockwise
70
Electric Current
or anticlockwise to reach the same point again. The product of current and resistance is
taken as positive when we traverse in the direction of current. The e.m.f is taken positive
when we traverse from negative to positive electrode through the cell. Mathematically,
we can write
IR = E
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
(17.21)
Notes
I1
E1
R1
E2
R2
I1
I2
I3
R3
I1
I2
I3
G
Fig. 17.17 : A network to illustrate Kirchhoffs second rule
Let us consider the electrical network shown in Fig. 17.17. For closed mesh ADCBA, we
can write
I1R1 I2R2 = E1 E2
Similarly, for the mesh DHGCD
I2R2 + (I1 + I2) R3 = E2
And for mesh AHGBA
I1R1 + I3 R3 = E1
At point D
I1 + I2 = I3
In more general form, Kirchhoffs second rule is stated as : The algebraic sum of all the
potential differences along a closed loop in a circuit is zero.
Example 17.9 : Consider the network shown in Fig. 17.18. Current is supplied to the
network by two batteries. Calculate the values of currents I1, I2 and I3. The directions of
the currents are as indicated by the arrows.
C
G
I3
I1
5
E1
I2
2
12V
E2
6V
F
Fig. 17.18 : Calculation of currents in a network of resistors and batteries.
3.71
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Electricity and
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Solution: Applying Kirchhoffs first rule to junction C, we get
I1 + I2 I3 = 0
(i)
Applying Kirchhoffs second rule to the closed loops ACDBA and GCDFG, we get
Notes
and
5I1 + 2I3 = 12
(ii)
3I2 + 2I3 = 6
(iii)
On combining these equations, we get

5I1 3I2 = 6
(iv)
Multiply (i) by 2 and add to (ii) to obtain

7I1 + 2I2 = 12
(v)
On multiplying Eqn. (iv) by 2 and Eqn. (v) by 3 and adding them, we get
31I1 = 48
I 1 = 1.548A
or
Putting this value of I1 in eqn. (v), we get

I 2 = 0.582A
And from (i), we get
I 3 = I1 + I2 = 2.13A
17.7.1 Wheatstone Bridge

You have learnt that a resistance can be measured by Ohms law using a voltmeter and an
ammeter in an electrical circuit. But this measurement may not be accurate for low
resistances. To overcome this difficulty, we use a wheatstone bridge. It is an arrangement
of four resistances which can be used to measure one of them in terms of the other three.
B
I2
Q
P
A
IG
I1
I3
K2
I4
D
K1
Rh
Fig. 17.19 : A wheatstone bridge.
72
Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 17.19 where

(i) P and Q are two adjustable resistances connected in arms AB and BC.
(ii)
MODULE - 5
R is an adjustable known resistance.
(iii) S is an unknown resistance to be measured.

(iv) A sensitive galvanometer G along with a key K2 is connected in the arm BD.
(v)
Notes
A battery E along with a key K1 is connected in the arm AC.
On closing the keys, in general, some current will flow through the galvanometer and you
will see a deflection in the galvanometer. It indicates that there is some potential difference
between points B and D. We now consider the following three possibilities:
(i)
Point B is at a higher potential than point D : Current will flow from B towards
D and the galvanometer will show a deflection in one direction, say right
(ii)
Point B is at a lower potential than point D : Current will flow from point D
towards B and the galvanometer will show a deflection in the opposite direction.
(iii) Both points B and D are at the same potential: In this case, no current will flow
through the galvanometer and it will show no deflection, i.e. the galvanometer is in
null condition. In this condition, the Wheatstone bridge is said to be in the state of
balance.
The points B and D will be at the same potential only when the potential drop across P is
equal to that across R. Thus
I 1P = I3 R
But
I1
and
I 4 = I3 + IG
(1 7.22)
= I2 + IG
(17.23)
Applying Kirchhoffs first rule at junctions B and D in the null condition (IG = 0), we get
I 1 = I2
and
I 3 = I4
Also potential drop across Q will be equal to that across S. Hence
(1 7.24)
I 2Q = I4S
(17.25)
Dividing Eqn. (17.22) by Eqn. (17.25), we obtain
I3 R
I1P
=
I4S
I 2Q
(17.26)
Using Eqn. (17.24), we get

P
R
Q = S
(17.27)
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This is the condition for which a Wheatstone bridge will be balanced. From Eqn. (17.27),
we find that the unknown resistance S is given by
QR
P
You can easily see that measurement of resistance by Wheatstone bridge method has the
following merits.
S =
Notes
(i) The balance condition given by Eqn. (17.27) at null position is independent of
the applied voltage V. In other words, even if you change the e.m.f of the cell, the
balance condition will not change.
(ii) The measurement of resistance does not depend on the accuracy of calibration
of the galvanometer. Galvanometer is used only as a null indicator (current detector).
The main factor affecting the accuracy of measurement by Wheatstone bridge is its
sensitivity with which the changes in the null condition can be detected. It has been found
that the bridge has the greatest sensitivity when the resistances in all the arms are nearly
equal.
Example 17.9: Calculate the value of R shown
in Fig.17.20. when there is no current in 50
resistor.
50
Solution: This is Wheatstone bridge where

galvanometer has been replaced by 50 resistor.
The bridge is balanced because there is no current
in 50 resistor. Hence,
20
40
=
10
R
r
R =
10
20
40
D
Fig. 17.20 : When there is no
current through 50
resistor, the bridge is
balanced.
40 10
= 20
20

1. Refere to figure below. Calculate the value of currents in the arms AB, AD and BD.
B
6
A
12
I2
I1
I I1
I
I1 I2
I I1 +I2
D
+
12V
74
Electric Current
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
2. Examine the following circuit containing resistors and batteries. Calculate the current Magnetism
.................................................................................................
I1
A
B
2
24V
I3
Notes
12V
I2
F
I1, I2 and I3.
17.8 Potentiometer
You now know how to measure e.m.f. of a source or potential difference across a circuit
element using a voltmeter. (An ideal voltmeter should have infinite resistance so that it
does not draw any current when connected across a source of e.m.f.) Practically it is not
possible to manufacture a voltmeter which will not draw any current. To overcome this
difficulty, we use a potentiometer, which draws no current from it. It employs a null method.
The potentiometer can also be used for measurement of internal resistance of a cell, the
current flowing in a circuit and comparison of resistances.
17.8.1 Description of a Potentiometer

A potentiometer consists of a wooden board on which a number of resistance wires (usually
ten) of uniform cross-sectional area are stretched parallel to each other. The wire is of
maganin or nichrome. These wires are joined in series by thick copper strips. In this way,
these wires together act as a single wire of length equal to the sum of the lengths of all the
wires. The end terminals of the wires are provided with connecting screws.
A metre scale is fixed on the wooden board parallel to wires. A jockey (a sliding contact
maker) is provided with the arrangement. It makes a knife edge contact at any desired
point on a wire. Jockey has a pointer which moves over the scale. It determines the
position of the knife edge contact. In Fig. 17.21 a ten wire potentiometer is shown. A and
B are ends of the wire. K is a jockey and S is a scale. Jockey slides over a rod CD.
A
B
C
Fig. 17.21 : An illustrative diagram of a potentiometer
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Electricity and
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17.8.2 Measurements with a Potentiometer

Let us suppose that a steady source of e.m.f. E (say an accumulator) is connected across
a uniform wire AB of length l. Positive terminal of the accumulator is connected at end A
(Fig.17.22). A steady current I flows through the wire. The potential difference across AB
is given by
Notes
VAB = RI
+
E =kl
or
E
k =
l
E
l1
l
Y
G
+
V
For length l1 of wire, potential drop

is given by
V1= kl1 =
l1
R = rl
and
( )
If r is the resistance per unit length

of the wire, and k is the potential
drop across unit length of the wire,
then
K1
Y
B
G
Fig. 17.22 : Potentiometer circuit to measure

potential difference between the terminals of a cell.
(17.28)
Thus potential falls linearly with distance along the wire from the positive to the negative end.
We wish to measure an unknown voltage V. The positive terminal of the cell is connected
to end A of the wire and negative terminal through a galvanometer to the jockey having
variable contact Y. Note that for V > E, it will not be possible to obtain a null point. So we
use a standard cell of emf E (> V), as shown in Fig.17.22. To check this, insert keys K and
K1 and tap at ends A and B. The galvanometer should show deflection in opposite directions.
If so, all is well with the circuit.
Insert key K1 and start moving jockey from A towards B. Suppose that at position Y
potential drop across the length AY of the wire is less than voltage V. The current in the
loop AY XA due to voltage V exceeds the current due to potential difference across AY.
Hence galvanometer shows some deflection in one direction. Then jockey is moved away,
say to Y such that potential drop across AY is greater than the voltage V. If galvanometer
shows deflection in the other direction, the voltage drop across AY is greater than that
across AY. Therefore, the jockey is moved slowly between Y and Y. A stage is reached,
say at point Y, where potential drop across AY is equal to voltage V. Then points X and Y
will be at the same potential and hence the galvanometer will not show any deflection, i.e.
null point is achieved. If l1 is the length between A and Y, then
V = kl1 =
76
El1
l
(17.29)
Electric Current
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Thus, the unknown voltage V is measured when no current is drawn

The measurements with potentiometer have following advantages :
When the potentiometer is balanced, no current is drawn from the circuit on which the
measurement is being made.
It produces no change in conditions in a circuit to which it is connected.
Notes
It makes use of null method for the measurement and the galvanometer used need not
be calibrated.
17.8.3 Comparison of E.M.Fs of two Cells

You have learnt to measure the e.m.f. of a cell using a potentiometer. We shall now extend
the same technique for comparison of e.m.fs of two cells. Let us take, for example, a
Daniel cell and a Leclanche cell and let E1 and E2 be their respective e.m.fs.
Refer to circuit diagram shown in Fig.17.23. The cell of e.m.f. E1 is connected in the
circuit through terminals 1 and 3 of key K1. The balance point is obtained by moving the
jockey on the potentiometer wire as explained earlier. Note that e.m.f of cell E should be
greater than the emfs of E1 and E2 seperately. (Otherwise, balance point will not be
obtained.) Let the balance point on potentiometer be at point Y1 and length AY1 = l1. The
cell of e.m.f. E2 is connected in the circuit through terminals 2 and 3 of the key K2. Suppose
balance is obtained at point Y2 and length AY2 = l2.
K
( )
+
Rh
Y2 Y 1
( )
E1
+
2
E2
K1
3
( )
K2
Fig. 17.23 : Circuit diagram for comparison of e.m.fs of two cells E1 and E2.
Applying potentiometer principle, we can write

E 1 = kl1 and
E2 = kl2
where k is the potential gradient along the wire AB. Hence
E1
E2
l1
= l
2
(17.30)
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Notes
Physics
17.8.4 Determination of Internal Resistance of a Cell

You have learnt that cells always offer resistance to the flow of current through them,
which is often very small. This resistance is called the internal resistance of the cell and
depends on the size of the cell, i.e. the area of the plates immersed in the liquid, the
distance between the plates and strength of electrolyte used in the cell.
Let us now learn how to measure internal resistance of a cell using a potentiometer. Refer
to Fig. 17.24, which shows the circuit diagram for measuring internal resistance r of a
cell of emf E1. A resistance box R with a key K1 is connected in parallel with the cell. The
primary circuit has a standard cell, a rheostat and a one way key K. As soon as key K is
closed, a current I begins to flow through the wire AB. The key K1 is kept open and on
moving the jockey, a balance is obtained with the cell E1 at point, say Y1. Let AY1 = l1. Then
we can write
E 1 = kl1
(17.31a)
K
( )
E
Rh
Y2 Y 1
+ E1
G
( )
K1
R.B
R
Fig. 17.24 : Measurement of the internal resistance r of a cell
Now key K1 is closed. This introduces a resistance across the cell. A current, say I1,
flows in the loop E1RK1E1 due to cell E . Using Ohms law, we can write
I1 =
E1
R+r
where r is internal resistance of the cell. It means that terminal potential difference V1 of
the cell will be less than E1 by an amount I1r. The value of V1 is
V 1 = I1R =
E1
R
R+r
Then, potential difference V1 is balanced on the potentiometer wire without change in

current I. Let the balance point be at point Y2 such that AY2 = l2. Then
V 1 = kl2
Using Eqns. (17.31a,b) we get
l1
E1
R+r
=
=
l2
V1
R
78
(17.31b)
Electric Current
or
l1
r = R l 1
2
(17.32)
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
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Thus by knowing R1, l1 and l2 , the value of r can be easily calculated.

Example 17.10 : Length of a potentiometer wire is 5 m. It is connected with a battery of
fixed e.m.f. Null point is obtained for the Daniel cell at 100 cm. If the length of the wire is
kept 7 m, what will be the position of null point?
Notes
Solution: Let e.m.f. of battery be E volt. The potential gradient for 5 m length is
k1 =
E
Vm1
5
When the length of potentiometer wire is 7 m, potential gradient is

k2 =
E
Vm1
7
Now, if null point is obtained at length l2, then

E1 = k 2 l 2 =
E
l2
7
Here same cell is used in two arrangements. Hence
E
E
= l2
5
7
l 2 = 7 / 5 = 1.4m
17.9 Drift Velocity of Electrons

Let us now understand the microscopic picture of electrical conduction in a metal. The
model presented here is simple but its strength lies in the fact that it conforms to Ohms
law.
We assume that a metallic solid consists of
atoms arranged in a regular fashion. Each
atom usually contributes free electrons, also
called conduction electrons. These electrons
are free to move in the metal in a random
manner, almost the same way as atoms or
molecules of a gas move about freely in the
a container. It is for this reason that
sometimes conduction electrons are referred
to as electron gas. The average speed of
conduction electrons is about 106ms1.
We know that no current flows through a
conductor in the absence of an electric field,
because the average velocity of free
electrons is zero. On an average, the number
Electron
E
Fig. 17.25 : Motion of electrons in a conductor placed in an electric
field.
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Notes
Physics
of electrons moving in +x direction is same as number of electrons moving in x direction.
There is no net flow of charge in any direction.
The conduction electrons frequently collide with the atoms in the solid. The free electrons
drift slowly in a direction opposite to the direction of the applied electric field. The average
drift velocity is of the order of 10 4ms1. This is very small compared to the average speed
of free electrons between two successive collisions (106ms1). On applying an electric
field, the conduction electrons get accelerated. The excess energy gained by the electrons
is lost during collisions with the atoms. The atoms gain energy and vibrate more vigorously.
The conductor gets heated up. Fig. 17.25 shows how the motion of electrons is modified
when an electric field is applied is applied.
Let us now obtain an expression for the drift velocity of conduction electrons. Let e and m
be the charge and mass respectively of an electron. If E is the electric field, the force on
the electron is eE. Hence acceleration experienced by the electron is given by
a =
eE
m
If is the average time between collisions, we can write the expression for velocity of
drifting electrons in terms of electric field as
vd =
eE
On combining this result with Eqn. (17.4), we obtain the expression for current :
I = neAvd
= neA
eE
Ane2 E
Since electric field is negative spatial gradient of potential E =

we can rewrite
r
the expression for current as
I = +
ne 2 A V
m l
V
m l
= 2
=R
I ne A
Eqn. (17.34) implies that conduction current obeys Ohms law.
80
(17.33)
(17.34)
Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism
On combining this result with Eqn. (17.9), we get

=
MODULE - 5
1
m
= 2
ne
(17.35)
17.10 Power Consumed in an Electrical Circuit

Let us examine the circuit in Fig. 17.26 where a battery is connected to an external
resistor R . The positive charges (so to say) flow in the direction of the current in the
resistor and from negative to positive terminal inside the battery. The potential difference
between two points gives kinetic energy to the charges. These moving charges collide
with the atoms (ions) in the resistor and thus lose a part of their kinetic energy. This energy
increases with the temperature of the resistor. The loss of energy by moving charges is
made up at the expense of chemical energy of the battery.
R
Notes
+
Fig. 17.26 : A circuit containing a battery and a resistor. The power consumed depends on the
potential difference between the points a and b, the current through the resistor.
The rate of loss of potential energy by moving charge Q in going through the resistor is
U
Q
=V
= VI
t
t
(17. 36)
where I is the current in the circuit and V is potential difference between the ends of the
resistor.
It is assumed that the resistance of the connecting wires is negligible. The total loss is in
the resistor R only. Rate of loss of energy is defined as power :
P = VI
Since V = IR, we can write
P = I 2R = V 2/R
(17.37)
The SI unit of power is watt (W).

The electrical power lost in a conductor as heat is called joule heat. The heat produced is
proportional to : (i) square of current (I), (ii) resistance of conductor (R), and (iii) time for
which current is passed (t).
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Physics
The statement Q = I 2 Rt, is called Joules law for heating effect of current.
Example: 17.11 : A 60W lamp is connected to 220V electricity supply in your home.
Calculate the power consumed by it, the resistance of its filament and the current through
it.
Notes
Solution : We know that
I = P/V
=
60W 3
= A = 0.27A
220V 11
Resistance of the lamp

R =
V
I
220V
3/11A
220 11
= 807
3
The lamp consumes 60J of energy per second. It will consume 60 Wh energy in one hour
and 60 24 = 1440 Wh energy in one day.
Energy consumed per day = 1.440 kWh
In common mans language, it is known as 1.4 unit of energy.

1. When current drawn from a cell increases, the potential difference between the cell
electrodes decreases. Why?
....................................................................................................................................
2. A metallic wire has a resistance of 30 at 20 C and 30.16 at 40 C. Calculate the
temperature coefficient of resistance.
....................................................................................................................................
3. The e.m.f of a cell is 5.0 V and R in the circuit is 4.5. If the potential difference
between the points a and b is 3.0 V, calculate the internal resistance r of the cell.
r
4. In a potentiometer circuit, balance point is obtained at 45 cm from end A when an

unknown e.m.f is measured. The balance point shifts to 30 cm from this end when a
cell of 1.02 V is put in the circuit. Standard cell E always supplies a constant current.
Calculate the value of unknown e.m.f.
82
Electric Current
MODULE - 5
....................................................................................................................................
Electricity and
Magnetism
5. A potentiometer circuit is used to compare the e m.f. of two cells E1 and E2. The
balance point is obtained at lengths 30 cm and 45 cm, respectively for E1 and E2. What
is the e.m.f of E1, if E2 is 3.0 V?
Notes
....................................................................................................................................
6. A current of 0.30 A flows through a resistance of 500. How much power is lost in
the resistor?
....................................................................................................................................
7. You have two electric lamps. The printed specifications on them are 40W, 220V and
100W, 220 V. Calculate the current and resistance of each lamp when put in a circuit
of 220 V supply line.
....................................................................................................................................

Drift velocity is the average velocity with which electrons move opposite to the field
when an electric field exists in a conductor.
Electric current through any cross-sectional area is the rate of transfer of charge
from one side to other side of the area. Unit of current is ampere and is denoted by A.
Ohms law states that the current flowing through a conductor is proportional to the
potential difference when physical conditions like pressure and temperature remain
unchanged.
Ratio V/I is called resistance and is denoted by R. Unit of resistance is ohm (denoted
by )
Resistivity (or specific resistance) of a material equals the resistance of a wire of the
material of one metre length and one m2 area of cross section. Unit of resistivity is
ohm metre.
For a series combination of resistors, the equivalent resistance is sum of resistances

of all resistors.
For a parallel combination of resistors, inverse of equivalent resistance is equal to the

sum of inverses of all the resistances.
Kirchhoffs rules help us to study systematically the complicated electrical circuits.

The first rule states that the sum of all the currents directed towards a point in an
electrical network is equal to the sum of all currents directed away from the point.
Rule II : The algebraic sum of all potential differences along a closed loop in an
electrical network is zero.
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Physics
The Wheatstone bridge circuit is used to measure accurately an unknown resistance

(S) by comparing it with known resistances (P, Q and R). In the balance condition,
P/Q = R/S.
Notes
The e.m.f. of a cell is equal to the potential difference between its terminals when a
circuit is not connected to it.
A potentiometer measures voltages without drawing current. Therefore, it can be

used to measure e.m.f. of a source that has appreciable internal resistance.
Drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is given by vd =
Power consumed in an electrical circuit through Joule heating is given by

p = VI = I 2R =
eE
.
m
V2
.
R
Terminal Exercises
1. Explain the drift of free electrons in a metallic conductor under external electric field.
Derive an expression for drift velocity.
2. Define electric current and discuss Ohms law.
3. Define resistivity of a conductor. How does the resistance of a wire depend on the
resistivity of its material, its length and area of cross-section?
4. Define electrical conductivity. Write its unit. How does electrical conductivity depend
on free electron concentration of the conductor?
5. Explain the difference between ohmic and non-ohmic resistances. Give some examples
of non-ohmic resistances.
6. What is the effect of temperature on the resistivity of
a material? Why does electrical conductivity of a metal
decrease with increase in temperature?
G Golden
7. The colours on the resistor shown here are red, orange,

green and gold as read from left to right. How much is the resistance according to
colour code?
8. Three resistors of resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected (i) in series, and (ii) in
parallel. Calculate the equivalent resistance of combination in each case.
9. What is the difference between emf and potential difference between the electrodes
of a cell. Derive relation between the two.
10. State Kirchhoffs rules governing the currents and electromotive forces in an electrical
network?
84
Electric Current
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
11. Give theory of Wheatsones bridge method for measuring resistances.

12. Discuss the theory of potentiometer.
13. How will you measure unknown potential difference with the help of a potentiometer?
14. Describe potentiometer method of comparing e.m.f. of two cells.
Notes
15. How will you determine internal resistance of a cell with the help of a potentiometer?
What factors are responsible for internal resistance of a cell ?
16. A wire of length 1 m and radius 0.1 mm has a resistance of 100. Calculate the
resistivity of the material.
17. Consider a wire of length 4m and cross-sectional area 1mm2 carrying a current of 2A.
If each cubic meter of the material contains 1029 free electrons, calculate the average
time taken by an electron to cross the length of the wire.
18. Suppose you have three resistors, each of value 30. List all the different resistances
that you can obtain by combining them.
19. The potential difference between the terminals of a battery of e.m.f. 6.0V and internal
resistance 1 drops to 5.8V when connected across
3
an external resistor. Find the resistance of the external
10
resistor.
6
20. For the circuit shown here, calculate the value of

current I and equivalent resistance R.
V = 12V
21. Examine the following network containing a lamp, a

capacitor and a battery. The lamp is lighted when
connected directly to the battery. What happens to it
in this circuit when the switch is closed.
lamp
C
K
22. The following Wheatstones bridge is balanced.

Calculate
(a)
the value of equivalent resistance R in the circuit,

and
(b) the current in the arms AB and DC.
Ansewers to Intext Questions
r = 1
r B
r
C
r
5V
17.1
1. (a) The current reduces to half as resistance of the wire is doubled.
(b) The current is doubled as resistance is halved.
2. Resistivity is a property of the material of wire. It will not change with change in
length and area of cross-section.
= 2 108 m
3.85
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MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
3. R =
8
800
V
=
=
= 53.3
I 0.15 15
Pl
800
3
800 2 10 4
=
R = A 15 =
= 35.5 104 m.
15 3
2 10 4
Notes
4. No. Only metallic conductor obey Ohms law upto a certain limit. Semiconductors and
electrolytes do not obey Ohms law.
5. I =
q n | e | 5 1017 1.6 10 19
=
=
A = 0.8 103A = 0.8 mA
t
1
The direction of current is opposite to the direction of flow of electrons, i.e., from right
to left.
17.2
1. In parallel. They may draw different currents needed for their operation and are
operated separately using different switches.
2. We use a voltage stablizer
R2 R3
3. R = R1 + R + R + R4
2
3
=2+
10
+7
3
= 12. 3
17.3
1. Applying Kirchhoffs second rule on loop ABCDA, we get
2I1 + 4I1 + 3I3 = 24
6I1 + 3I3 = 24
...(1)
2I1 + I3 = 8
....(1)
Similarly, for loop DCBFD, we can write

3I3 + 6I2 = 12
2I2 I3 = 4
...(2)
Also applying Kirchoffs first rule at junction D we get

I2 + I3 = I1
Substituting in (1) we get
2I2 + 3I3 = 8
2I2 I3 = 4
4I3 = 4
I3 = 1A
86
Electric Current
Substituting in (2)
2.
2I2 = 5
I2 = 2.5 A
P 6 1
= =
Q 12 2
and
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
R 3 1
= =
S 6 2
Notes
P
R
=
Q
S
bridge is balanced
Hence VB = VD and I2 = 0
I1 =
V 12 2
= = A
I 18 3
and
I I1 =
12 4
= A
9 3
17.4
1. V = E Ir as I increases V decreases.
2. R20 = R0 (1 + 20 )
R40 = R0 ( 1+ 40)
R40 1 + 40
=
R20 1 + 20
1 + 40 30.16
0.16
=
=1+
1 + 20
30
30
1+
20
0.16
=1+
1 + 20
30
20
0.16
=
1 + 20
30
On cross-multiplication, we get 600 = 0.16 + 3.2
3. I =
0.16
= 2.67 10 4 K 1
600
V
3
30 2
=
=
= A
R 4.5 45 3
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2
V = Ir 3 = 5 r
3
r=
Notes
4.
5.
23
= 3
2
E2 l 2
1.02 30
3
=
=
E1 = 0.51 = 1.53V
E1 l1
E1
45
2
E2 l 2
=
E1 l1
E1 2
=
3 3
E1 = 2 V
6.
P = IV
= 3 0.3 500
= 45 WaH.
7.
I=
P
40
2
I1 =
= A
V
220 11
and
I2 =
100 5
= A
220 11
V2
40
2 V2
220 220
I
=
=
A
R1 =
= 1210
R=
1
P
220 11
P
40
and R2 =
220 220
= 484
100
Answers to Problems in Terminal Excercises

16.
3.14 106 m.
18.
(i) All resistance in series; equivalent resistance 90
17. 32 ms.
(ii) All resistances in parallel; equivalent resistance 10

(iii) One resistance in series with two others which are connected in parallel; equivalent
resistance 45
(iv) Two resistances in series and one resistance in parallel to them; equivalent
resistance 20.
88
19.
29
22.
(a) R = r = 1
20. I = 1A, R = 12
(b) I = 2.5A
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
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18
MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC
EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
Notes
In lesson 15, you learnt how charged rods attract each other or small bits of paper. You
might have also played with magnets the substances having the property of attracting
small bits of iron. But did you ever think of some relation between electricity and magnetism?
Such a relationship was discovered by Oersted in 1820. Now we know, for sure, how
intimately magnetism and electricity are related.
In this lesson, you will learn the behaviour of magnets and their uses as also the magnetic
effects of electric current. The behaviour of current carrying conductors and moving
charges in a magnetic field are also discussed. On the basis of these principles, we will
discuss the working of electric devices like motors and measuring devices like an ammeter,
a voltmeter and a galvanometer.
Objectives
define magnetic field and state its SI unit;
list the elements of earths magnetic field and write the relation between them;
describe the magnetic effect of electric current : Oersteds experiment;
state Biot-Savarts law and explain its applications;
explain Amperes circuital law and its application;
describe the motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field;
derive an expression for the force experienced by a current carrying conductor

placed in a uniform magnetic field;
derive an expression for the force between two infinitely long current carrying
conductors placed parallel to each other; and
explain the working principle of a galvanometer, an ammeter and a voltmeter.
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18.1 Magnets and their Properties

The phenomenon of magnetism was known to Greeks as early as 600 B.C. They observed
that some stones called magnetite (Fe3O4) attracted iron pieces. The pieces of naturally
occurring magnetite are called natural magnets. Natural magnets are weak, but materials
like iron, nickel, cobalt may be converted into strong permanent magents. All magnets
natural or artificial have same properties. You must be familiar with basic properties of
magnets. However, for completeness, we recapitulate these.
Notes
(i)
Directive Property : A small bar magnet, when suspended freely on its center of
mass so as to rotate about a vertical axis, always stays in approximately geographical
north-south direction.
(ii) Attractive Property : A magnet attracts small pieces of magnetic materials like
iron, nickel and cobalt. The force of attraction is maximum at points near the ends of
the magnet. These points are called poles of the magnet. In a freely suspended
magnet, the pole which points towards the geographical north is called is north pole
and the one which points towards the geographical south is called south pole. Do
directive and attractive properties suggest that our earth also acts like a magnet?
Yes, it does.
(iii) Unlike poles of two magnets attract each other and like poles repel (Fig.18.1).
(iv) The poles of a magnet are inseparable, i.e. the simplest specimen providing magnetic
field is a magnetic dipole.
(v)
When a magnet is brought close to a piece of iron, the nearer end of the piece of iron
acquires opposite polarity and the farther end acquires same polarity. This phenomenon
is called magnetic induction.
S
N
S
Fig. 18.1 : Unlike poles of two magnets attract each other and like poles repel.
18.1.1
Magnetic Field Lines
Interactions between magnets or a magnet and a piece of iron essentially represent action
at a distance. This can be understood in terms of magnetic field. A very convenient method
to visualize the direction and magnitude of a field is to draw the field lines :
90
The direction of magnetic field vector B at any point is given by the tangent to the field
line at that point.
The number of field lines that pass through unit area of a surface held perpendicular to
the lines is proportional to the strength of magnetic field in that region. Thus, the
magnetic field B is large where the field lines are closer together and smaller where
they are far apart.
S1
S2
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Electricity and
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Notes
Fig 18.2: Magnetic field lines passing through two parallel surfaces
Fig 18.2 shows a certain number of field lines passing through parallel surfaces S1 and
S2. The surface area of S1 is same as that of S2 but the number of field lines passing
through S1 is greater than those passing through S2. Hence, the number of lines per
unit area passing through S1 is greater than that through S2. We can, therefore, say
that the magnetic field in the region around P is stronger than that around Q.
Outside the magnet, the field lines run from north pole to south pole and inside it, these
run from south pole to north pole forming closed curves (Fig. 18.3).
Two magnetic field lines can never cross each other.
Fig. 18.3 : Magnetic field lines of a bar magnet

1.
You are given a magnet. How will you locate its north pole?
..................................................................................................................................
2.
You are provided two identical looking iron bars. One of these is a magnet. Using just
these two, how will you identify which of the two is a magnet.
..................................................................................................................................
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3.
You are given a thread and two bar magnets. Describe a method by which you can
identify the polarities of the two magnets.
..................................................................................................................................
Magnetic field of the Earth

Notes
The directive property of magnets could be explained by considering that the earth acts
as a magnet, i.e., as if a large bar magnet is placed inside the earth. The south pole of
this magnet is considered near the geographical north pole and the magnetic north pole
near the geographical south pole. RR1 is the rotation axis of earth and MM1 is the
magnetic axis of the earth.
xis
ca h
i
t
ne rt
ag ea R
M the M
Geographical axis
of
of earth
NG
SM
Magnetic equator
Geographical equator
SG NM
M1
R1
Fig. 18.4 : Magnetic field of the earth
Activity 18.1
Let us perform a thought experiment with a magnetic needle. (You can actually perform
the experiment with a globe containing a bar magnet along its axis of rotation with north
pole of the magnet pointing south.) Suspend the needle freely in such a manner that it
can rotate in horizontal as well as vertical planes. If the needle is near the equator on
earths surface, it rests in horizontal plane. Suppose this needle is taken to places in the
northern hemisphere. The needle rotates in the vertical plane and the north pole dips
towards the earth, as we move towards geographical north pole. Finally at a point very
near to Hudson bay in Canada, the north pole of the needle will point vertically downward.
This place, located at 6 east of north, is considered to be the south pole of the
earths magnet. This place is about 650 km away from the earths geographical
north pole. If we take the same magnetic needle to places in the southern
hemisphere, the south pole of the needle will dip downward and point vertically
92

downward at a point 650 km west of the geographical south. This point could be
considered as the N pole of the earths magnet. From this we conclude that the
magnetic axis of the earth does not coincide with the geographical axis.
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Electricity and
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An important aspect of earths magnetic field is that it does not remain constant; its
magnitude and direction change with time.
Elements of the Earths Magnetic Field

Three measurable quantities are used to describe the magnetic field of earth. These are
called elements of earths magnetic field :
Notes
(a) Inclination or dip ();

(b) Declination (); and
(c) Horizontal component of the earths field (BM).
(a) Inclination or Dip

If you suspend a magnetic needle freely at a place,
you will observe that the needle does not rest in
the horizontal plane. It will point in the direction of
the resultant intensity of earths field.
Georaphical meridian
tic
Magne n
a
i
merid
P
F
Fig. 18.5 shows the plane PCDE, which is the

magnetic meridian at the point P (i.e. the vertical
plane passing through the north and south poles of
B
the earths magnet) on the surface of the earth
C
and PABC is the geographic meridian (i.e. the
vertical plane passing through the geographical D
north and south poles of the earth). Suppose that Fig. 18.5: Elements of earths
magnetic field
PR represents the magnitude and direction of the
earths magnetic field at the point P. Note that PR makes an angle with the horizontal
direction. This angle is known as inclination or dip at P on the surface of the earth.
The angle which the earths magnetic field makes with the horizontal direction in the
magnetic meridian is called the dip or inclination.
(b) Declination
Refer to Fig 18.5 again. The plane PCDE contains the magnetic field vector (PR) of
the earth. The angle between the planes PCDE and PABC is called the declination at
the point P. It is shown as angle .
The angle which the megnetic meridian at a place makes with the geographical
meridian is called the declination at that place.
(c) Horizontal component
Fig. 18.5 shows that PR is the resultant magnetic field at the point P. PH represents the
horizontal component and PF the vertical component of the earths magnetic field in
magnitude and direction. Let the magnetic field at the point P be B. The horizontal
component
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B H = B cos
(18.1)
BV = B sin
(18.2)
and the vertical component
By squarring and adding Eqns. (18.1) and (18.2), we get
BH2 + BV2 = B2 cos2 + B2 sin2 = B2
Notes
(18.3)
On dividing Eqn. (18.2) by Eqn. (18.1), we have
BV
BH = tan
(18.4)
18.2 Electricity and Magnetism : Basic Concepts

You now know that flow of electrons in a conductor due to a potential difference across it
constitutes electric current. The current flowing in a conductor is seen to exert a force on
a free magnetic needle placed in a region around it. A magnetic needle is also affected by
a magnet and hence we say that a current carrying conductor has a magnetic field around
it. The magnetic field B is visualized by magnetic field lines. You will learn about these and
some more terms such as magnetic permeability later in this lesson.
18.2.1 Magnetic Field around an Electric Current

Let us do a simple experiment.
Activity 18.2
Take a 1.5 volt battery, a wire about 1 m in length, a campass needle and a match box.
Wind 10-15 turns of the electric wire on its base. Under the windings, place a campass
needle, as shown in Fig. 18.6. Place the match box on the table so as to have the wires
running along the north south direction. Connect the free ends of the wire to the battery.
What happens to the needle? You will observe that needle shows deflection. This means
that there is a magnetic field in and around the coil. The deflection will reverse if you
reverse the direction of current by changing the terminals of the battery. When there is no
Compass needle
Match box
+
Cell
Fig. 18.6 : Demonstration of magnetic field due to electric current
94

current in the wire, the compass needle points in the north south direction (Fig. 18.7 a, b
& c). When a magnetic needle is brought close to a vertical current carrying wire, the
magnetic field lines are concentric circles around the wire, as shown in Fig 18.7 (d).
( )
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
( )
+
S
(a) No current, No deflection
Notes
N
S
(b) Current towards north deflection of north
pole towards west
+
+
( )
S
N
(c) When direction of current is reversed,
direction of deflection is reversed
(d) Circular field lines around a straight

current carrying conductor
Fig. 18.7 : Magnetic field around a current carrying conductor
In 1820 Hans Christian Oersted, Professor of Physics at Copenhaegen in Denmark

performed similar experiments and established that there is a magnetic field around a
current carrying conductor.
18.3 Biot-Savarts Law

Biot-Savarts law gives a quantitative relationship between current in conductor and the
resulting magnetic field at a point in the space around it. Each part of a current carrying
conductor contributes to magnetic field around it. The net value of B at a point is thus the
combined effect of all the individual parts of the conductor. As shown in Fig. 18.8, the net
magnetic field due to any current carrying conductor is the vector sum of the contributions
due to the current in each infinitesimal element of length l .
Experiments show that the field B due to an element l depends on
current flowing through the conductor, I;

length of the element l ;
inversely proportional to the square of the distance of observation point P from
the element l ; and
the angle between the element and the line joing the element to the observation
point.
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Thus, we can write
| B0 |
I l sin
r2
0 I d l sin
4
r2
(18.5)
where 0 is permeability of vacuum. Its value

is 4 10 7 WA 1 m 1 . The value of
permeability of air is also nearly equal to 0
Notes
P
If the conductor is placed in a medium other

than air, the value of the field is altered and is
given by B = B0 . Here represents the
permeabilty of the medium.
Direction of B : Magnetic field at a point is a

vector quantity. The direction of B may be
Fig. 18.8 : Magnetic field at P due to a
determined by applying the right hand grip rule.
current element l
To apply this rule, let us consider the direction
of the field produced in some simple cases. As
shown in the Fig. 18.9 (a), grasp the wire in your right hand so that the thumb points in the
direction of the current. Then the curled fingers of the hand will point in the direction of the
magnetic field. To represent the magnetic field on paper, let us consider that current is
flowing into the plane of the paper. Then according to the right hand rule, the field lines
shall be in the plane of the paper (Fig.18.9 b).
I
+
(a)
(b)
Fig. 18.9 : Direction of magnetic field : a) Right hand rule : thumb in the direction of current,
field lines in the direction of curling fingers, and b) when current is in the plane of
paper, the field lines shall be in the plane of paper, according to the right hand rule.
18.3.1 Applications of Biot-Savarts Law

You now know that Biot-Savarts law gives the magnitude of the magnetic field. Let us
now apply it to find the field around conductors of different shapes. Note that to calculate
the net field due to different segments of the conductor, we have to add up the field
contributions due to each one of them. We first consider a circular coil carrying current
and calculate magnetic field at its centre.
96

(a) Magnetic field at the centre of a circular coil carrying current : Refer to Fig.18.10.
It shows a circular coil of radius r carrying current I. To calculate magnetic field at its
centre O, we first consider a small current element l of the circular coil. Note that the
angle between current element l and r is 90. From Eqn. (18.5) we know that the field at
the centre O due to l is
|B| =
=
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
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0 l
I
sin 90
4 r 2
0
l
I 2
4 r
r
O
Notes
(as sin 90 = 1)
l
I
Fig. 18.10: Circular coil carrying current
The direction of B is normal to the plane of the coil. Since the field due to every element
of the circular coil will be in the same direction, the resultant is obtained by adding all the
contributions at the centre of the loop. Therefore
B = B =
0 I
I
l = 0 2 . 2r
2
4 r
4 r
Hence, magnetic field at the centre of a coil of radius r carrying current I is given by
0
(18.6)
B = 2r I
In case there is more than one loop of wire (say there are n turns), the field is given by
B =
0 nI
2r
You can check the direction of the net field using the rule given in Fig. 18.7. You can use
right hand rule in any segment of the coil and will obtain the same result. (Another simple
quick rule to identify the direction of magnetic field due to a current carrying coil is the so
called End-rule, illustrated in Fig. 18.11 (a, b).
(a)
(b)
()
Fig 18.11: Direction of magnetic field : End-rule
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When an observer looking at the circular coil at its either end finds the current to be
flowing in the clockwise sense, the face of the coil behaves like the south pole of the
equivalent magnet, i.e., B is directed inwards. On the other hand, if the current is seen to
flow in the anticlockwise sense, the face of the coil behaves like the north pole of the
equivalent magnet or the field is directed out of that end.
Notes
1.
What can you say about the field developed by

(i) a stationary electron ?
(ii) a moving electron ?
..................................................................................................................................
2.
Electrons in a conductor are in constant motion due to thermal energy. Why do they
not show magnetism till such time that a potential difference is applied across it ?
..................................................................................................................................
3.
A current is flowing in a long wire. It is first shaped as a circular coil of one turn, and
then into a coil of two turns of smaller radius. Will the magnetic field at the centre coil
change? If so, how much ?
..................................................................................................................................
18.4 Amperes Circuital Law

Amperes circuital law provides another way of calculating
magnetic field around a current carrying conductor in some
simple situations.
Amperes circuital law states that the line integral of the
magnetic field B around a closed loop is 0 times the total
current, I. Mathematically, we write
B . dl = 0I
(18.7)
I
Note that this is independent of the size or shape of the

closed loop.
Fig. 18.12 : Amperes circuital law
98
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Electricity and
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Andre Marie Ampere

(1775 1836)
French Physicist, mathematician and chemist, Ampere was a
child prodigy. He mastered advanced mathematics at the age of
12. A mix of experimental skills and theoretical acumen, Ampere
performed rigorous experiments and presented his results in the
form of a theory of electrodynamics, which provides
mathematical formulation of electricity and its magnetic effects. Unit of current is
named in his honour. Lost in his work and ideas, he seldom cared for honours and
awards. Once he forgot an invitation by emperor Nepoleon to dine with him. His
gravestone bears the epitaph : Tendun felix (Happy at last), which suggests that he
had to face a very hard and unhappy life. But it never lowered his spirit of creativity.
Notes
18.4.1 Applications of Amperes Circuital Law

We now apply Amperes circuital law to obtain
magnetic field in two simple situations.
(a) Magnetic field due to an infinitely long
current carrying conductor
O r
dl
B
Refer to Fig. 18.13. It shows an infinitely long current

carrying conductor POQ carrying current I. Consider
a circular loop of radius r around it in the plane as
shown. Then
B.dl = B 2r
I
Q
By applying Amperes circuital law, we can write
B 2r = o I
Fig. 18.13: Infinitely long current
carrying conductor
or
B =
0 I
2r
(18.8)
This gives the magnetic field around an infinitely long straight current carrying conductor.
Solenoids and toroids are widely used in motors, generators, toys, fan-windings, transformers,
electromagnets etc. They are used to provide uniform magnetic field. When we need
large fields, soft iron is placed inside the coil.
(b) Magnetic field due to a solenoid
A solenoid is a straight coil having a large number of
loops set in a straight line with a common axis, as
shown in Fig. 18.14. We know that a current I flowing
through a wire, sets up a magnetic field around it.
Suppose that the length of the solenoid is l and it
has N number of turns. To calculate the magnetic
field inside the solenoid along its axis (Fig 18.14), we
+
Fig. 18.14 : A solenoid
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can treat it to be a section of a toroidal solenoid of a very large radius. Thus :
|B| = 0 nI
The direction of the field is along the axis of the solenoid. A straight solenoid is finite.
Therefore, |B| = 0 nI should be correct well inside the solenoid, near its centre.
For solenoids of small radius, the magnitude of B at the ends is given by
Notes
|B| =
0 nI
2
(18.9)
The solenoid behaves like a bar magnet and the magnetic field is as shown in Fig. 18.15.
ing
arry n
c
s
n
tur ent dow
curr
N
N-Pole
(a)
(b)
S-Pole
turns carrying
current up
Turns Carrying
Current up
Turns Carrying
Current down
Fig. 18.15: Solenoid behaves like a bar magnet : a) Magnetic field due to a bar magnet, and
b) magnetic field due to a current carrying solenoid
Example 18.1 : A 50 cm long solenoid has 3 layers of windings of 250 turns each. The
radius of the lowest layer is 2cm. If the current through it is 4.0 A, calculate the magnitude
of B (a) near the centre of the solenoid on and about the axis; (b) near the ends on its
axis; and (c) outside the solenoid near the middle.
Solution :
a) At the centre or near it
B = 0 nI
3 250
4
0.5
= 16 1500 107 T
= 4 107
= 24 104 T
b) At the ends
1
B
= 12 104 T
2 centre
c) Outside the solenoid the field is zero.
B ends =
100

Example 18.2 Calculate the distance from a long straight wire carrying a current of 12A
at which the magnetic field will be equal to 3 105 T.
0 I
2r
r=
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
0 I
2B
Solution :
B=
2 10 7 12
r=
= 0.25 m
3 10 5
Notes

1.
A drawing of the lines of force of a magnetic field provides information on

a) direction of field only
b) magnitude of field only
c) both the direction and magnitude of the field
d) the force of the field
..................................................................................................................................
2.
What is common between Biot-Savarts law and Amperes circuital law ?

..................................................................................................................................
3.
In the following drawing of lines of force of a non-unifrom magnetic field, at which

piont is the field (i) uniform, (ii) weakest, (iii) strongest?
Q
A
B
Fig. 18.16 : A typical magnetic field
4.
A 10 cm long solenoid is meant to have a magnetic field 0.002T inside it, when a
current of 3A flows through it. Calculate the required no. of turns.
..................................................................................................................................
18.5 Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field

When a charged body moves in a magnetic field, it experiences a force. Such a force
experienced by a moving charge is called the Lorentz force. The Lorentz force on a
particle with a charge +q moving with a velocity v in a magnetic field B is given by
F = q (v )
or
|F| = q v B sin
(18.10)
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Notes
Physics
where is the angle between the directions of v and B. The direction of F is given by
Flemings left hand rule.
Flemings left hand rule states that if we stretch the
fore finger, the central finger and the thumb of our left
hand at right angles to each other and hold them in
such a way that the fore finger points in the direction
of magnetic field and the central finger points in the
direction of motion of positively charged particle, then
the thumb will point in the direction of the Lorentz force
(Fig. 18.17).
I
F
Some important points to note
F is a mechanical force resulting in a pull or a push.
The direction of force is given by Flemings left

hand rule.
In case of negative charges, the central finger should point opposite to the direction of
its motion.
If the charge stops, the force becomes zero instantly.
Force is zero when charges move along the field B.
Force is maximum when charges move perpendicular to the field : F = qvB
Fig. 18.17 : Flemings left

hand rule
18.5.1 Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in a Uniform

Magnetic Field
The concept of Lorentz force can be easily extended to current carrying conductors placed
in uniform magnetic field B. Suppose that the magnetic field is parallel to the plane of
paper and a conductor of length l carrying current I is placed normal to the field.
Suppose further that the current is flowing downward with a drift velocity vd and hence
each free electron constituting the current experiences a Lorentz force F = e vd. B
If there are N free electrons in the conductor, the net force on it is given by
F = N e vd B = nA l evd B
(18.11)
where n denotes the number of free electrons per unit volume. But neAvd = I. Hence
F = I l B
(18.12)
If conductor makes an angle with B , then |F| = I l B sin.
B
B
I
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 18.18: a) Uniform magnetic field, b) field due to current carrying inductor, and c) force on
a current carrying conductor
102
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Electricity and
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The direction of the force is again given by Flemings left hand rule.
Eqn. (18.12) can be used to define the unit of magnetic field in terms of the force experiencd
by a current carrying conductor. By rearranging terms, we can write
F
Il
Since F is taken in newton, I in ampere and l in metre, the unit of B will be NA1 m1.
It is called tesla (T).
B=
Notes
18.5.2 Force Between two Parallel Wires Carrying Current

You now know that every current carrying conductor is surrounded by a magnetic field. It
means that it will exert force on a nearby current carrying conductor. The force between
two current carrying conductors placed parallel to each other is mutual and magnetic in
origin. A current carrying wire has no net electric charge, and hence cannot interact
electrically with another such wire.
I1
I2
I1
I2
r
(a)
r
(b)
Fig. 18.19: Experimental demonstration of force between two parallel wires carrying current
Fig 18.19 shows two parallel wires separated by distance r and carrying currents I1 and I2,
0 I1
respectively. The magnetic field due to one wire at a distance r from it is B1 =
.
2r
0 I 2
Similarly, the field due to second wire at a distance r from it will be B2 =
.
2r
These fields are perpendicular to the length of the wires and therefore the force on a
length l, of the other current carrying conductor is given by
F=BIl=
0 I1
I l
2r 2
or force per unit length
0 I1 I 2
F
=
l
2r
(18.13)
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The forces are attractive when the currents are in the same direction and repulsive when
they are in opposite directions.
Eqn (18.13) can be used to define the unit of current. If I1 = I2 = 1A, l = 1m and r = 1m,
then
0
= 2 107 N
2
Thus, if two parallel wires carrying equal currents and placed 1 m apart in vacuum
or air experience a mutual force of 2 107 Nm1, the current in each wire is said to
be one ampere.
or force per unit le
F=
Notes
18.5.3 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Field

We can now think of various situations in which a moving charged particle or a current
carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences Lorentz force. The work done by a
force on a body depends on its component in the direction of motion of the body. When the
force on a charged particle in a magnetic field is perpendicular to its direction of motion, no
work is said to be done. Hence the particle keeps the same speed and kinetic energy
which it had while moving in the field, even though it is deflected. On the other hand, the
speed and energy of a charged particle in an electrical field is always affected due to the
force by the field on the particle. A charged particle moving perpendicular to a magnetic
field follows a circular path (Fig. 18.20) because it experience a force at right angles to the
direction of motion at every position.
To know the radius R of the circular path of the charged particle, we note that the magnetic
2/R) that keeps it moving in
force q B provides the particle with the centripetal force (m
a circle. So we can write
m 2
R
On rearrangement, we get
q B=
R=
m
qB
(18.14)
B
R
The radius of the path traced by a charged particle

in a uniform magnetic field is directly proportional
to its momentum (mv) and inversely proportional to
its charge and the magnetic field. It means that
greater the momentum, larger the circle, and
stronger the field, the smaller the circle. The time
period of rotation of the particle in a circular path is
given by
T =
104
2R
2 m
= Bq
Fig. 18.20: Path of a charged

particle in a uniform
magnetic field
(18.14 a)
nit length

Note that the time period is independent of velocity of the particle and radius of the orbit.
It which means that once the particle is in the magnetic field, it would go round and round
in a circle of the same radius. If m, B, q, remain constant, the time period does not chnage
even if v and R are changed.
Now think, what happens to R and T if a) field B is made stronger; b) field B is made
weaker; c) field B ceases to exist; d) direction of B is changed; d) the particle is made to
enter the magnetic field at a higher speed; f) the particle enters at an angle to B; and g) the
charged particle loses its charge.
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
Example 18.3 : Refer to Fig. 18.21 and calculate the force between wires carrying
current 10A and 15A, if their length is 5m. What is the nature of this force ?
Solution : When currents flow in two long parallel wires in the same direction, the wires
attract each other and the force of attraction is given by
10A
15A
0 I1 I 2
F
2 10 7 10 15
=
=
= 104 Nm1
l
2r
3
F = 5 104 N
30 cm
The force is attractive in nature.
Fig. 18.21
Example 18.4 : An electron with velocity 3 107 ms1 describes a circular path in a
uniform magnetic field of 0.2T, perpendicular to it. Calculate the radius of the path.
Solution :
We know that
m
R = Bq
Here, me = 9 1031 kg, e = 1.6 1019 C, v = 3 107 ms1 and B = 0.2T. Hence
9 10 31 3 107
R=
0.2 1.6 10 19
= 0.85 103 m
= 8.5 104 m
Intext Question 18.4

1.
A stream of protons is moving parallel to a stream of electrons but in the opposite

direction. What is the nature of force between them ?
..................................................................................................................................
2.
Both electrical and magnetic fields can deflect an electron. What is the difference
between them?
..................................................................................................................................
3.105
105
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
3.
A body is suspended from a vertical spring. What shall be the effect on the position of
the body when a current is made to pass through the spring.
..................................................................................................................................
18.6 Current loop as a Dipole

Notes
From Eqn. (18,6) you will recall that the field at the centre of a coil is given by
B =
0 I
2r
On multiplying the numerator and denominator by 2r2, we can rewrite it as

B =
0 2M
0 2 I A
0 2 I . r 2
=
=
3
3
4 r 3
4r
4r
where A is area of coil and M is magnetic moment. This shows that a current carrying coil
behaves like a magnetic dipole having north and south poles. One face of the loop behaves
as north pole while the other behaves as south pole.
Let us now undertake a simple activity.
Activity 18.3
Suspend a bar magnet by a thread between pole pieces of a horse shoe magnate, as
shown in Fig 18.22.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 18.22 : A bar magnet suspended between a horse shoe magnet
What will happen when the bar magnet shown in Fig. 18.24(a) is displaced slightly
sideways? Since like poles repel, the bar magnet experiences a torque and tends to turn
106

through 180 and get aligned, as shown in Fig. 18.22 (b). Since a current loop behaves as
a magnet, it will align in an external field in the same way.
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
You have already studied the following equations in the lesson on electrostatics. The electric
field of a dipole at a far point on its axis is given by
1
2P
E = 4
x3
0
(18.15 b)
Notes
The magnetic field due to a current carrying coil is given by
B=
0 2 NIA
0 2M
=
3
4
4 x3
x
(18.15 c)
where M is the magnetic dipole moment.

A comparison between these expressions leads us to the following analogies :
A current loop behaves as a magnetic dipole with magnetic moment

M = NIA
(18.15 (d)
Like the poles of a magnetic dipole, the two faces of a current loop are inseparable.
A magnetic dipole in a uniform magnetic field behaves the same way as an electric
dipole in a uniform electric field.
A magnetic dipole also has a magnetic field around it similar to the electric field around
an electric dipole.
Thus magnetic field due to a magnetic dipole at an axial point is given by
0 2M
4 x3
whereas the field at an equatorial point is given by
B=
B=
0 M
4 x3
(18.16)
(18.17)
Magnetism in Matter
Based on the behaviour of materials in magnetic field, we can divide them broadly
into three categories : (i) Diamagnetic materials are feebly repelled by a magnet.
(ii) Paramagnetic materials are feebly attracted by a magnet. (iii) Ferromagnetic
materials are very strongly attracted by a magnet. Substances like iron, nickel and
cobalt are ferromagnetic. Let us study ferromagnetic behaviour of materials in some
details.
Ferromagnetic materials, when placed even in a weak magnetic field, become magnets,
because their atoms act as permanent magnetic dipoles. The atomic dipoles tend to
align parallel to each other in an external field. These dipoles are not independent of
3.107
107
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
Physics
each other. Any dipole strongly feels the presence of a neighboring dipole. A correct
explanation of this interaction can be given only on the basis of quantum mechanics.
However, we can qualitatively understand the ferromagnetic character along the following
lines.
A ferromagnetic substance contains small regions called domains. All magnetic dipoles
in a domain are fully aligned. The magnetization of domains is maximum. But the
domains are randomly oriented. As a result, the total magnetic moment of the sample
is zero. When we apply an external magnetic field, the domains slightly rotate and
align themselves in the direction of the field giving rise to resultant magnetic moment.
The process can be easily understood with the help of a simple diagram shown in
Fig.18.23.
B=0
(a)
B>0
(b)
B >> 0
(c)
B >>> 0
(d)
Fig. 18.23 : Domains in a ferromagnetic substance
Table 18.1 : Ferromagnetic

substances and their curie
temperatures
Substances
Curie
temperature
Tc (K)
Iron
1043
Nickel
631
Cobalt
1394
Gadolinium
317
Fe2O3
893
Fig. 18.23 (a) shows ten domains. For simplicity we take a two dimensional example.
All the domains are so directed that the total magnetization of the sample is zero.
Fig. 18.23 (b) shows the state after the application of an external magnetic field. The
boundaries of the domains (Domain Walls) reorganise in such a way that the size of
the domain having magnetic moment in the direction of the field becomes larger at
the cost of others. On increasing the strength of external field, the size of favorable
domains increases, and the orientation of the domain changes slightly resulting in
greater magnetization (Fig. 18.23 (c)). Under the action of very strong applied field,
almost the entire volume behaves like a single domain giving rise to saturated
magnetization. When the external field is removed, the sample retains net
magnetization. The domain in ferromagnetic samples can be easily seen with the
help of high power microscope.
When the temperature of a ferromagnetic substance is raised beyond a certain critical
value, the substance becomes paramagnetic. This critical temperature is known as
Curie temperature Tc.
Example 18.5 : The smallest value of magnetic moment is called the Bohr Magneton
eh . It is a fundamental constant. Calculate its value.
B =
4m
Solution
(1.6 10 19 C) (6.6 10 34 Js)

eh
=
B =
4 3.14 (9 10 31 kg)
4m
= 9.34 1024 J T1
108
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
18.6.1 Torque on a Current Loop

A loop of current carrying wire placed in a uniform magnetic field (B) experiences no net
force but a torque acts on it. This torque tends to rotate the loop to bring its plane
perpendicular to the field direction. This is the principle that underlines the operation of all
electric motors, meters etc.
Let us examine the force on each side of a rectangular current carrying loop where plane
is parallel to a uniform magnetic field B. (Fig. 18.24 (a).)
Notes
c
c
B
a
b
B
d
d
I
I
(a)
(b)
Fig. 18.24 : Force on the sides of a rectangular loop when (a) the loop is parallel to the field,
and (b) the coil is perpendicular to the field.
The sides ad and bc of the loop are parallel to B. So no force will act on them. Sides ab
and cd are however, perpendicular to B, and these experience maximum force. We can
easily find the direction of the force on ab and cd.
In fact, | Fab | =| Fcd | and these act in opposite directions. Therefore, there is no net force
on the loop. Since Fab and Fcd do not act along the same line, they exert a torque on the
loop that tends to turn it. This holds good for a current loop of any shape in a magnetic
field.
In case the plane of the loop were perpendicular to the magnetic field, there would neither
be a net force nor a net torque on it (see Fig 18.26 (b)).
Torque = force perpendicular distance between the force
= B IL. b sin
Refer to Fig. 18.25 which shows a loop PQRS carrying current I. is the angle between
the magnetic field B and the normal to the plane of the coil n. The torque is then
= NBIL b sin
where N is the number of turns of the coil. We can rewrite it as
| | = NBI A sin
(18.18)
where A is area of the coil = L x b

| | = |B| | M | sin
(18.19)
where M = NIA is known as the magnetic moment of the current carrying coil.
Thus, we see that the torque depends on B, A, I, N and
3.109
109
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
F = BIL
b
P
I
Notes
F = BIL
Fig. 18.25 : Torque on the current carrying loop
If a uniform rotation of the loop is desired in a magnetic field, we need to have a constant
torque. The couple would be approximately constant if the plane of the coil were always
along or parallel to the magnetic field. This is achieved by making the pole pieces of the
magnet curved and placing a soft iron core at the centre so as to give a radial field.
The soft iron core placed inside the loop would also make the magnetic field stronger and
uniform resulting in greater torque (Fig. 18.26).
Fig. 18.26: Constant torque on a coil in a radial field
18.6.2 Galvanometer
From what you have learnt so far, you can think of an instrument to detect current in any
circuit. A device doing precisely this is called a galvanometer, which works on the principle
that a current carrying coil, when placed in a magnetic field, experiences a torque.
A galvanometer consists
of a coil wound on a
non-magnetic frame. A
soft iron cylinder is
placed inside the coil.
The assembly is
supported on two pivots
attached to springs with
a pointer. This is placed
between the pole pieces
of a horse shoe magnet
providing radial field
(see Fig. 18.27).
To understand the
working of a moving coil
galvanometer, we recall
that when a current is
Fig. 18.27 : A moving coil galvanometer
passed through the coil,
it will rotate due to the torque acting on it. The spring sets up a restoring force and hence,
a restoring torque. If is the angle of twist and k is the restoring torque per unit twist or
110

torsional contant, we can write NBIA sin = k . For = 90, sin = 1. So, in the instant
case, we can write
NBIA = k
or
INBA
=
k
That is,
where
I=
k
NBA
(18.20)
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
k
is called galvanometer constant. From this we conclude that
NBA
I
That is, deflection produced in a galvanometer is proportional to the current flowing through
it provided N, B A and k are constant. The ratio /I is known as current sensitivity of the
galvanometer. It is defined as the deflection of the coil per unit current. The more the
current stronger the torque and the coil turns more. Galvanometer can be constructed to
respond to very small currents (of the order of 0.1A).
Sensitivity of a galvanometer : In order to have a more sensitive galvanometer,
N should be large;
B should be large, uniform and radial;
area of the coil should be large; and
tortional constant should be small.
The values of N and A cannot be increased beyond a certain limit. Large values of N and A
will increase the electrical and inertial resistance and the size of the galvanometer. B can be
increased using a strong horse shoe magnet and by mounting the coil on a soft iron core. The
value of k can be decreased by the use of materials such as quartz or phospher bronze.
18.6.3 An Ammeter and a Voltmeter

(a) Ammeter : An Ammeter is a suitably shunted galvanometer. Its scale is calibrated to
give the value of current in the circuit. To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter, a low
resistance wire is connected in parallel with the galvanometer. The resistance of the shunt
depends on the range of the ammeter and can be calculated as follows :
Let G be resistance of the galvanometer and N be the number of scale divisions in the
galvanometer. Let k denote figure of merit or current for one scale deflection in the
galvanometer. Then current which produces full scale deflection in the galvanometer is
Ig = Nk
Let I be the maximum current to be measured by the galvanometer.
3.111
111
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
Refer to Fig. 18.28. The voltage between points A and B is given by
VAB = Ig G = (I Ig) S
Ig G
so that
S= I I
g
(18.21)
where S is the shunt resistance.

S
Notes
Is = I Ig
Ig
Is
Fig. 18.28 : A shunted galvanometer acts as an ammeter
As G and S are in parallel, the effective resistance R of the ammeter is given by
R=
GS
.
G+S
As the shunt resistance is small, the combined resistance of the galvanometer and the
shunt is very low and hence, ammeter resistance is lower than that of the galvanometer.
An ideal ammeter has almost negligible resistance. That is why when it is connected in
series in a circuit, all the current passes through it without any observable drop.
(b) Voltmeter : A voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference between two
points in a circuit. We can convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter by connecting a high
resistance in series with the galvanometer coil, as shown in Fig 18.29. The value of the
resistance depends on the range of voltmeter and can be calculated as follows :
Voltmeter
A
Ig
Fig. 18.28 : Galvanometer as a voltmeter
A high resistance, say R is connected in series with the galvanometer coil. If the potential
difference across AB is V volt, then total resistance of the voltmeter will be G + R. From
Ohms law, we can write
Ig (G + R) = V
or
112
V
G+R= I
g
R=
V
G
Ig
(18.22)

This means that if a resistance R is connected in series with the coil of the galvanometer,
it works as a voltmeter of range 0-V volts.
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Now the same scale of the galvanometer which was recording the maximum potential
Ig G before conversion will record the potential V after conversion into voltmeter. The
scale can be calibrated accordingly. The resistance of the voltmeter is higher than the
resistance of galvanometer. Effective resistance of the voltmeter, is given by
RV = R + G
Notes
The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinite. It is connected in parallel to the points

across which potential drop is to be measured in a circuit. It will not draw any current. But
the galvanometer coil deflects. Seems impossible! Think about it.
Example 18.6 : A circular coil of 30 turns and radius 8.0 cm, carrying a current of 6.0 A
is suspended vertically in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 1.0 T. The field
lines make an angle of 90 with the normal to the coil. Calculate the magnitude of the
counter torque that must be applied to prevent the coil from turning.
Solution : Here, N= 30, I = 6.0 A, B = 1.0 T, = 90, r = 8.0 cm = 8 102 m.
Area (A) of the coil = r2 =
22
(8 102)2 = 2.01 102 m2
7
Torque = N I B A sin
= 30 6 1: 0 (2.01 102) sin90
= 30 6 (2.01 102)
= 3.61 Nm
Example 18.7 : A galvanometer with a coil of resistance 12.0 shows a full scale
deflection for a current of 2.5 mA. How will you convert it into (a) an ammeter of range
0 2A, and (b)voltmeter of range 0 10 volt ?
Solution : (a) Here, G = 12.0 , Ig = 2.5 mA = 2.5 103 A, and I = 2A.
From Eqn. (18.21), we have
IgG
S= II
g
2.5 10 3 12
=
2 2.5 10 3
= 15 103
So, for converting the galvanometer into an ammeter for reading 0 2V, a shunt of
15 103 resistance should be connected parallel to the coil.
(b)For conversion into voltmeter, let R be the resistance to be connected in series.
3.113
113
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
V
R= I G
g
10
= 2.5 10 3 12 = 4000 12
= 3988
Notes
Thus, a resistance of 3988 should be connected in series to convert the galvanometer

into voltmeter.

1.
What is radial magnetic field ?

..................................................................................................................................
2.
What is the main function of a soft iron core in a moving coil galvanometer ?
..................................................................................................................................
3.
Which one has the lowest resistance - ammeter, voltmeter or galvanometer? Explain.
.........................................................................................................................
4.
A galvanometer having a coil of resistance 20 needs 20 mA current for full scale

deflection. In order to pass a maximum current of 3A through the galvanometer, what
resistance should be added and how ?
..................................................................................................................................
What you have learnt

Every magnet has two poles. These are inseparable.
The term magnetic dipole may imply (i) a magnet with dipole moment M = ml (ii) a
current carrying coil with dipole moment M = NIA
Magnetic field at the axis of a magnetic dipole is given by B =

equatorial line by B =
0 2M
and on the
4 x3
0 2M
.
4 x3
A magnetic dipole behaves the same way in a uniform magnetic field as an electric
dipole does in a uniform electric field, i.e., it experience no net force but a torque
= M B.
114
Earth has a magnetic field which can be completely described in terms of three basic
quantities called elements of earths magnetic field :

angle of inclination,
angle of declination,and
horizontal component of earths field.
Every current carrying conductor develops a magnetic field around it. The magnetic
field is given by Biot-Savarts Law :
I dl sin
| dB | = 0
4 r 2
Unit of magnetic field is tesla.
0 I
Field at the centre of a flat coil carrying current is given by |B| =
.
2r
Amperes circuital law gives the magnitude of the magnetic field around a conductor
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
B . dl = 0 I
The Lorentz force on a moving charge q is F = q (
B) and its direction is given by
Flemings left hand rule.

The mechanical force on a wire of length L and carrying a current of I in a magnetic
field B is F = B I L .
Mutual force per unit length between parallel straight conductors carrying currents I1
F 0 I1I 2
and I2 is given by
.
=
2r
L
m
A charged particle traces a circular path of radius R =
.
Bq
A current loop behaves like a magnetic dipole.
A current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque given by
= N B I A sin
= N B I A, (if = 90)
Galvanometer is used to detect electric current in a circuit.
An ammeter is a shunted galvanometer and voltmeter is a galvanometer with a high

resistance in series. Current is measured by an ammeter and potential difference by
a voltmeter.
Terminal Exercises
1.
A small piece of the material is brought near a magnet. Complete the following by
filling up the blanks by writing Yes or No.
Material
Repulsion
weak
strong
Attraction
weak
strong
Diamagnetic
Paramagnetic
Ferromagnetic
3.115
115
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
2.
You have to keep two identical bar magnets packed together in a box. How will you
pack and why?
N S
N S
Notes
OR
3.
The magnetic force between two poles is 80 units. The separation between the poles
is doubled. What is the force betweem them?
4.
The length of a bar magnet is 10 cm and the area of cross-section is 1.0 cm2. The
magnetization I = 102 A/m. Calculate the pole strength.
5.
Two identical bar magnets are placed on the same line end to end with north pole
facing north pole. Draw the lines of force, if no other field is present.
6.
The points, where the magnetic field of a magnet is equal and opposite to the horizontal
component of magnetic field of the earth, are called neutral points
(a) Locate the neutral points when the bar magnet is placed in magnetic meridian
with north pole pointing north.
(b) Locate the neutral points when a bar magnet is placed in magnetic meridian with
north pole pointing south.
7.
If a bar magnet of length 10 cm is cut into two equal pieces each of length 5 cm then
what is the pole strength of the new bar magnet compare to that of the old one.
8.
A 10 cm long bar magnet has a pole strength 10 A.m. Calculate the magnetic field at
a point on the axis at a distance of 30 cm from the centre of the bar magnet.
9.
How will you show that a current carrying conductor has a magnetic field arround
it? How will you find its magnitude and direction at a particular place ?
10. A force acts upon a charged particle moving in a magnetic field, but this force does
not change the speed of the particle, Why ?
11.
At any instant a charged particle is moving parallel to a long, straight current carrying
wire. Does it experience any force ?
12. A current of 10 ampere is flowing through a wire. It is kept perpendicular to a

magnetic field of 5T. Calculate the force on its 1/10 m length.
13. A long straight wire carries a current of 12 amperes. Calculate the intensity of the
magnetic field at a distance of 48 cm from it.
14. Two parallel wire, each 3m long, are situated at a distance of 0.05 m from each
other. A current of 5A flows in each of the wires in the same direction. Calculate the
force acting on the wires. Comment on its nature ?
15. The magnetic field at the centre of a 50cm long solenoid is 4.0 102 NA1 m1
when a current of 8.0A flows through it, calculate the number of turns in the solenoid.
16. Of the two identical galvanometer one is to be converted into an ammeter and the
116

other into a milliammeter. Which of the shunts will be of a larger resistance ?
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
17. The resistance of a galvanometer is 20 ohms and gives a full scale deflection for
0.005A. Calculate the value of shunt required to change it into an ammeter to measure
1A. What is the resistance of the ammeter ?
18. An electron is moving in a circular orbit of radius 5 1011 mat the rate of 7.0 1015
revolutions per second. Calculate the magnetic fields B at the centre of the orbit.
19. Calculate the magnetic field at the centre of a flat circular coil containing 200 turns,
of radius 0.16m and carrying a current of 4.8 ampere.
Notes
20. Refer to Fig. 18.30 and calculate the magnetic field at A, B and C.
B
1m
B
1m
A
I
2m
C
Fig. 18.30

18.1
1. Suspend the magnet with a thread at its centre of mass. Let it come to equilibrium.
The end of the magnet which points towards geographical north is its north pole.
2. Bring the ends of any two bars closer together. If there is attraction between them,
one of the bars is a magnet and the other is an iron bar. Now lay down one of these
bars on the table and strock along its length with the other. If uniform force is
experienced, the bar in hand is a magnet and that on the table is iron piece. If nonuniform force is experienced, reverse is the case.
3. Suspending one of the bar magnets with thread, we can find its south pole. Then the
end of the second magnet, which is repelled by the first, is its south pole.
18.2
1. (i)electrical (ii) magnetic as well as electrical.
2. A conductor in equilibrium is neutral i.e. it has no net electrical current. Due to their
random motion, thermal electrons cancel the magnetic fields produced by them.
3. In first case length of wire l1 = 2 r In second case length of wire l2 = (2 r2)2.
But l1 = l2
2r = 4r2
r2 =
r
2
3.117
117
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
Using |B| =
|B 1| =
0 nI
2r
0 I
,
2r
|B2| =
2 0 I
0 .2 . I
=
=4B
r
r
2
2
That is, the magnetic B at the centre of a coil with two turns is four times stronger
than the field in first case.
Notes
18.3
1. c
2. Both laws specify magnetic field due to current carrying conductors.
3. (i) B, (ii) A, (iii) C.
n
10 7 n
.0002 107
4. B = 0 I 4
3A = 0.002 or n =
= 50 turns
l
0.1m
12
18.4
1.
The nature of the force will be attractive because the stream of protons is equivalent
to electrons in the opposite direction.
2. The force exerted by a magnetic field on a moving charge is perpendicular to the

motion of the charge and the work done by the force on the charge is zero. So the KE
of the charge does not change. In an electric field, the deflection is in the direction of
the field. Hence the field accelerates it in the direction of field lines.
3. The direction of current in each turn of the spring is the same. Since parallel currents
in the same direction exert force of attraction, the turns will come closer and the body
shall be lifted upward, whatever be the direction of the current in the spring.
18.5
1. Radial magnetic field is one in which plane of the coil remains parallel to it.
2. This increases the strength of magnetic field due to the crowding of magnetic lines of
force through the soft iron core, which in turn increases the sensitivity of the
galvanometer.
3. Ammeter has the lowest resistance whereas voltmeter has the highest resistance. In
an ammeter a low resistance is connected in parallel to the galvanometer coil whereas
in a voltmeter, a high resistance is connected in series with it.
4. A low resistance Rs should be connected in parallel to the coil :
20 20 10 3
R s= I I =
= 0.13
3 20 10 3
g
G Ig
118
Answers To Problems in Terminal Exercise

1. 102 Tm1
7. same.
8. 2.3 106T
12. 5 N
13. 5 N
14. attractive force of 104 Nm1
15.
625
turns.
18. 4.48 T
17. 0.1.
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
19. 1.2 mT
20. BA = 2 107 T, BB = 107 T and BC = 107 T.
3.119
119
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
19
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING
CURRENT
Notes
lectricity is the most convenient form of energy available to us. It lights our houses,
E
runs trains, operates communication devices and makes our lives comfortable. The list of
electrical appliances that we use in our homes is very long. Have you ever thought as to
how is electricity produced?
Hydro-electricity is produced by a generator which is run by a turbine using the energy of
water. In a coal, gas or nuclear fuel power station, the turbine uses steam to run the
generator. Electricity reaches our homes through cables from the town substation. Have
you ever visited an electric sub-station? What are the big machines installed there? These
machines are called transformers. Generators and transformers are the devices, which
basically make electricity easily available to us. These devices are based on the principle
of electromagnetic induction.
In this lesson you will study electromagnetic induction, laws governing it and the devices
based on it. You will also study the construction and working of electric generators,
transformers and their role in providing electric power to us.
Objectives
explain the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction with simple experiments;
explain Faradays and Lenzs laws of electromagnetic induction;
describe the phenomena of self-induction and mutual induction;
describe the working of ac and dc generators;
derive relationship between voltage and current in ac circuits containing a

(i) resistor, (ii) inductor, and or (iii) capacitor;
120
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
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Electricity and
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analyse series LCR circuits; and
explain the working of transformers and ways to improve their efficiency.
19.1 Electromagnetic Induction

In the previous lesson you have learnt that a steady current in a wire produces a steady
magnetic field. Faraday initially (and mistakenly) thought that a steady magnetic field
could produce electric current . Some of his investigations on magnetically induced currents
used an arrangement similar to the one shown in
Fig.19.1. A current in the coil on the left produces a
magnetic field concentrated in the iron ring. The coil
+
G
on the right is connected to a galvanometer G, which
S
can indicate the presence of an induced current in
that circuit. It is observed that there is no deflection
Fig. 19.1: Two coils are wrapped in G for a steady current flow but when the switch S
around an iron ring. in the left circuit is closed, the galvanometer shows
The galvanometer G deflection for a moment. Similarly, when switch S is
deflects for a moment opened, momentary deflection is recorded but in
when the switch is opposite direction. It means that current is induced
opened or closed.
only when the magnetic field due to the current in the
circuit on the left changes.
Notes
y
y
Fig. 19.2 : a) A current is induced in the coil if the magnet moves towards the coil, and
b) the induced current has opposite direction if the magnet moves away from the coil.
The importance of a change can also be demonstrated by the arrangement shown in

Fig.19.2. If the magnet is at rest relative to the coil, no current is induced in the coil. But
when the magnet is moved towards the coil, current is induced in the direction indicated in
3.121
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Notes
Physics
Fig. 19.2a. Similarly, if the magnet is moved away from the coil, the a current is induced in
the opposite direction, as shown in Fig.19.2b. Note that in both cases, the magnetic field
changes in the neighbourhood of the coil. An induced current is also observed to flow
through the coil, if this is moved relative to the magnet. The presence of such currents in
a circuit implies the existence of an induced electromotive force (emf) across the free
ends of the coil, i.e., x and y.
This phenomenon in which a magnetic field induces an emf is termed as electromagnetic
induction. Faradays genius recognised the significance of this work and followed it up.
The quantitative description of this phenomenon is known as Faradays law of
electromagnetic induction. We will discuss it now.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
British experimental scientist Michael Faraday is a classical
example of a person who became great by shear hardwork,
perseverance, love for science and humanity. He started his
carrier as an apprentice with a book binder, but utilized the
opportunity to read science books that he received for binding.
He sent his notes to Sir Humphry Davy, who immediately
recognised the talent in the young man and appointed him his
permanent assistant in the Royal Institute.
Sir Humphry Davy once admitted that the greatest discovery of his life was Michael
Faraday. And he was right because Faraday made basic discoveries which led to the
electrical age. It is because of his discoveries that electrical generators, transformers,
electrical motors, and electolysis became possible.
19.1.1 Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction

The relationship between the changing magnetic field and the induced emf is expressed in
terms of magnetic flux B linked with the surface of the coil. You will now ask: What is
magnetic flux? To define magnetic flux B refer to Fig. 19.3a, which shows a typical
infinitesimal element of area ds, into which the given surface can be considered to be
divided. The direction of ds is normal to the surface at that point. By analogy with
electrostatics, we can define the magnetic flux dB for the area element ds as
d B = B.ds
(19.1a)
The magnetic flux for the entire surface is obtained by summing such contributions over
the surface. Thus,
d B = B .ds
122
(19.1b)
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Electricity and
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B
n
(b)
(a)
Fig. 19.3: a) The magnetic flux for an infinitesimal area ds is given by d

B = B.ds, and b) The
magnetic flux for a surface is proportional to the number of lines intersecting the
surface.
Notes
The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb), where 1 Wb = 1 Tm2.

In analogy with electric lines and as shown in Fig.19.3b, the number of magnetic lines
intersecting a surface is proportional to the magnetic flux through the surface.
Faradays law states that an emf is induced across a loop of wire when the magnetic
flux linked with the surface bound by the loop changes with time. The magnitude of
induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux. Mathematically,
we can write
|| =
d B
dt
(19.3)
From this we note that weber (Wb), the unit of magnetic flux and volt (V), the unit of emf
are related as 1V = 1Wb s1.
Now consider that an emf is induced in a closely wound coil. Each turn in such a coil
behaves approximately as a single loop, and we can apply Faradays law to determine the
emf induced in each turn. Since the turns are in series, the total induced emf r in a coil
will be equal to the sum of the emfs induced in each turn. We suppose that the coil is so
closely wound that the magnetic flux linking each turn of the coil has the same value at a
given instant. Then the same emf is induced in each turn, and the total induced emf for
a coil with N turns is given by
d B
r = N = N
dt
(19.4)
where B is the magnetic flux linked with a single turn of the coil.
Let us now apply Faradays law to some concrete situations.
Example 19.1 : The axis of a 75 turn circular coil of radius 35mm is parallel to a
uniform magnetic field. The magnitude of the field changes at a constant rate from
25mT to 50 mT in 250 millisecond. Determine the magnitude of induced emf in the coil in
this time interval.
Solution : Since the magnetic field is uniform and parallel to the axis of the coil, the flux
linking each turn is given by
3.123
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Electricity and
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B = BR2
where R is radius of a turn. Using Eq. (19.4), we note that the induced emf in the coil is
given by
r = N
Notes
B2 B1
d B
dB
d ( B R 2 )
=N
= N R2
= N R2
t
dt
dt
dt
Hence, the magnitude of the emf induced in the coil is

| r|= 75 (0.035m)2 (0.10Ts1) = 0.030V = 30mV
This example explains the concept of emf induced by a time changing magnetic field.
Example 19.2 : Consider a long solenoid with a cross-sectional area 8cm2 (Fig. 19.4a
and 19.4b). A time dependent current in its windings creates a magnetic field B(t) = B0 sin
2vt. Here B0 is constant, equal to 1.2 T. and v, the frequency of the magnetic field, is 50
Hz. If the ring resistance R = 1.0, calculate the emf and the current induced in a ring of
radius r concentric with the axis of the solenoid.
Solution : We are told that magnetic flux
B = B0 sin 2vtA
since normal to the cross sectional area of the solenoid is in the direction of magnetic field.
ring
solenoid
ring
Bin
solenoid
Bout = 0
Bin = B0 sin 2vt
(b)
a) A long solenoid and a concentric ring outside it, and b) cross-sectional view of the
solenoid and concentric ring.
(a)
Fig.19.4 :
Hence ||
d B
= 2vAB0 cos2vt.
dt
= 2 . (50s1 ) (8 104m2) (1.2 T)cos2vt

= 0.3 cos 2vt volts
= 0.3 cos 100t V
The current in the ring is I = /R. Therefore
I =
(0.3cos100t ) V
(1.0)
= +0.3 cos 100 t A
124
Electricity and
Magnetism

1.
MODULE - 5
A 1000 turn coil has a radius of 5 cm. Calculate the emf developed across the coil if
the magnetic field through the coil is reduced from 10 T to 0 in (a) 1s (b) 1ms.
..................................................................................................................................
The magnetic flux linking each loop of a 250-turn coil is given by B (t) = A + Dt2,
where A = 3 Wb and D = 15 Wbs2 are constants. Show that a) the magnitude of the
induced emf in the coil is given by = (2ND)t, and b) evaluate the emf induced in the
coil at t = 0s and t = 3.0s.
2.
Notes
..................................................................................................................................
The perpendicular to the plane of a conducting loop makes a fixed angle with a
spatially uniform magnetic field. If the loop has area S and the magnitude of the field
changes at a rate dB/dt, show that the magnitude of the induced emf in the loop is
given by = (dB/dt) S cos. For what orientation(s) of the loop will be a) maximum
and b) minimum?
3.
..................................................................................................................................
19.1.2 Lenzs Law

Consider a bar magnet approaching a conducting ring (Fig.19.5a). To apply Faradays law
to this system, we first choose a positive direction with respect to the ring. Let us take the
direction from O to Z as positive. (Any other choice is fine, as long as we are consistent.)
For this configuration, the positive normal for the area of the ring is in the z-direction and
the magnetic flux is negative. As the distance between the conducting ring and the N-pole
of the bar magnet decreases, more and more field lines go though the ring, making the flux
more and more negative. Thus dB/dt is negative. By Faradays law, is positive relative
to our chosen direction. The current I is directed as shown.
Y
v
O
V
Z
X
(a)
(b)
Fig.19.5: a) A bar magnet approaching a metal ring, and b) the magnetic field of
the induced current opposes the approaching bar magnet.
The current induced in the ring creates a secondary magnetic field in it. This induced
magnetic field can be taken as produced by a bar magnet, as shown in Fig.19.5 (b). Recall
3.125
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Electricity and
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Notes
Physics
that induced magnetic field repels or opposes the original magnetic field. This opposition is
a consequence of the law of conservation of energy, and is formalized as Lenzs law.
When a current is induced in a conductor, the direction of the current will be such
that its magnetic effect opposes the change that induced it.
The key word in the statement is oppose-it tells us that we are not going to get something
for nothing. When the bar magnet is pushed towards the ring, the current induced in the
ring creates a magnetic field that opposes the change in flux. The magnetic field produced
by the induced current repels the incoming magnet. If we wish to push the magnet towards
the ring, we will have to do work on the magnet. This work shows up as electrical energy
in the ring. Lenzs law thus follows from the law of conservation of energy. We can
express the combined form of Faradays and Lenzs laws as
d
=
(19.5)
dt
The negative sign signifies opposition to the cause.
As an application of Lenzs law, let us reconsider the coil shown in Example 19.2. Suppose
that its axis is chosen in vertical direction and the magnetic field is directed along it in
upward direction. To an observer located directly above the coil, what would be the sense
of the induced emf? It will be clockwise because only then the magnetic field due to it
(directed downward by the right-hand rule) will oppose the changing magnetic flux. You
should learn to apply Lenzs law before proceeding further. Try the following exercise.

1.
The bar magnet in Fig.19.6 moves to the right.

What is the sense of the induced current in the
stationary loop A? In loop B?
.......................................................................
2.
A cross-section of an ideal solenoid is shown in

Fig.19.7. The magnitude of a uniform magnetic
field is increasing inside the solenoid and B = 0
outside the solenoid. In which conducting loops
is there an induced current? What is the sense
of the current in each case?
.......................................................................
3.
S
N
Fig. 19.6
A
Loop E
B
Solenoid
Loop A
Loop D
A bar magnet, with its axis aligned along the

Fig. 19.7
axis of a copper ring, is moved along its length
toward the ring. Is there an induced current in the ring? Is there an induced electric
field in the ring? Is there a magnetic force on the bar magnet? Explain.
..................................................................................................................................
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Electricity and
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19.2 Inductance
When current in a circuit changes, a changing magnetic field is produced around it. If a
part of this field passes through the circuit itself, current is induced in it. Now suppose that
another circuit is brought in the neighbourhood of this circuit. Then the magnetic field
through that circuit also changes, inducing an emf across it. Thus, induced emfs can appear
in these circuits in two ways:
By changing current in a coil, the magnetic flux linked with each turn of the coil
changes and hence an induced emf appears across that coil. This property is called
self-induction.
for a pair of coils situated close to each other such that the flux associated with one
coil is linked through the other, a changing current in one coil induces an emf in the
other. In this case, we speak of mutual induction of the pair of coils.
Notes
19.2.1 Self-Inductance
Let us consider a loop of a conducting material carrying electric current. The current
produces a magnetic field B. The magnetic field gives rise to magnetic flux. The total
magnetic flux linking the loop is
d = B. ds
In the absence of any external source of magnetic flux (for example, an adjacent coil
carrying a current), the Biot-Savarts law tells us that the magnetic field and hence flux
will be proportional to the current (I) in the loop, i.e.
I or
= LI
(19.6)
where L is called self-inductance of the coil. The circuit elements which oppose change in
current are called inductors. These are in general, in the form of coils of varied shapes
. If the coil is wrapped around an
and sizes. The symbol for an inductor is
iron core so as to enhance its magnetic effect, it is symbolised by putting two lines above
. The inductance of an indicator depends on its geometry.
it, as shown here
(a) Faradays Law in terms of Self-Inductance: So far you have learnt that if current
in a loop changes, the magnetic flux linked through it also changes and gives rise to self
induced emf between the ends. In accordance with Lenzs law, the self-induced emf
opposes the change that produces it.
To express the combined form of Faradays and Lenzs Laws of induction in terms of L,
we combine Eqns. (19.5) and (19.6) to obtain
=
d
dt
= L
dI
dt
I 2 I1
= L
(19.7a)
(19.7b)
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Electricity and
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Physics
where I1 and I2 respectively denote the initial and final values of current at t = 0 and t = .
Using Eqn. (19.7b), we can define the unit of self-inductance:
unit of emf
units of L =
units of dI / dt
volt
Notes
ampere / second
= ohm-second
An ohm-second is called a henry, (abbreviated H). For most applications, henry is a rather
large unit, and we often use millihenry, mH (103 H) and microhenry H (106H) as more
convenient measures.
The self-induced emf is also called the back emf. Eqn.(19.7a) tells us that the back emf
in an inductor depends on the rate of change of current in it and opposes the change in
current. Moreover, since an infinite emf is not possible, from Eq.(19.7b) we can say that
an instantaneous change in the inductor current cannot occur. Thus, we conclude that
current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously.
The inductance of an inductor depends on its geometry. In principle, we can calculate the
self-inductance of any circuit, but in practice it is difficult except for devices with simple
geometry. A solenoid is one such device used widely in electrical circuits as inductor. Let
us calculate the self-inductance of a solenoid.
(b) Self-inductance of a solenoid : Consider a long solenoid of cross-sectional area A
and length l, which consists of N turns of wire. To find its inductance, we must relate the
current in the solenoid to the magnetic flux through it. In the preceding lesson, you used
Amperes law to determine magnetic field of a long solenoid:
|B| = 0nI
where n = N/l denotes is the number of turns per unit length and I is the current through
the solenoid.
The total flux through N turns of the solenoid is
0 N 2 AI
= N |B| A =
l
(19.8)
0 N 2 A
=
L =
I
l
(19.9)
and self-inductance of the solenoid is
Using this expression, you can calculate self-inductance and back emf for a typical solenoid
to get an idea of their magnitudes.
128
Electricity and
Magnetism

1.
MODULE - 5
A solenoid 1m long and 20cm in diameter contains 10,000 turns of wire. A current of
2.5A flowing in it is reduced steadily to zero in 1.0ms. Calculate the magnitude of
back emf of the inductor while the current is being reduced.
........................................................................
2.
A certain length ( l ) of wire, folded into two parallel,

adjacent strands of length l /2, is wound on to a
cylindrical insulator to form a type of wire-wound
non-inductive resistor (Fig.19.8). Why is this
configuration called non-inductive?
....................................................................
....................................................................
3.
What rate of change of current in a 9.7 mH

solenoid will produce a self-induced emf of 35mV?
Notes
Fig.19.8: Wire wound on a

cylindrical insulator
..................................................................................................................................
19.2.2 LR Circuits
Suppose that a solenoid is connected to a battery through a switch (Fig.19.9). Beginning at
t = 0, when the switch is closed, the battery causes charges to move in the circuit. A
solenoid has inductance (L) and resistance (R), and each of these influence the current in
the circuit. The inductive and resistive effects of a solenoid are shown schematically in
Fig.19.10. The inductance (L) is shown in series with the resistance (R). For simplicity, we
assume that total resistance in the circuit, including the internal resistance of the battery, is
represented by R. Similarly, L includes the self-inductance of the connecting wires. A
L
Fig.19.9: LR Circuit
circuit such as that shown in Fig.19.9, containing resistance and inductance in series, is
called an LR circuit.
The role of the inductance in any circuit can be understood qualitatively. As the current
i(t) in the circuit increases (from i = 0 at t = 0), a self-induced emf = L di/dt is
produced in the inductance whose sense is opposite to the sense of the increasing current.
This opposition to the increase in current prevents the current from rising abruptly.
3.129
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Electricity and
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Notes
Physics
If there been no inductance in the circuit, the current
would have jumped immediately to the maximum value
defined by 0/R. But due to an inductance coil in the
circuit, the current rises gradually and reaches a steady
state value of 0/R as t . The time taken by the
current to reach about two-third of its steady state value
is equal to by L/R, which is called the inductive time
constant of the circuit. Significant changes in current
in an LR circuit cannot occur on time scales much
shorter that L/R. The plot of the current with time is
shown in Fig. 19.10.
I
0/R
t
Fig.19.10 : Variation of current with time in a
LRcirucit.
You can see that greater the value of L, the larger is the back emf, and longer it takes the
current to build up. (This role of an inductance in an electrical circuit is somewhat similar
to that of mass in mechanical systems.) That is why while switching off circuits cortaining
large inductors, you should the mindful of back emf. The spark seen while turning off a
switch connected to an electrical appliance such as a fan, computer, geyser or an iron,
essentially arises due to back emf.

1.
A light bulb connected to a battery and a switch comes to full brightness almost
instantaneously when the switch is closed. However, if a large inductance is in series
with the bulb, several seconds may pass before the bulb achieves full brightness.
Explain why.
..................................................................................................................................
2.
In an LR circuit, the current reaches 48mA in 2.2 ms after the switch is closed. After
sometime the current reaches it steady state value of 72mA. If the resistance in the
circuit is 68, calculate the value of the inductance.
..................................................................................................................................
19.2.3 Mutual Inductance

When current changes in a coil, a changing
magnetic flux develops around it, which may
induce emf across an adjoining coil. As we see
in Fig. (19.11), the magnetic flux linking each turn
of coil B is due to the magnetic field of the current
in coil A.
Fig. 19.11 : Mulual inductance of a

pair of coils
Therefore, a changing current in each coil induces an emf in the other coil, i.e.
i.e.,
130
2 1 I1 2 = MI1
(19.10)

where M is called the mutual inductance of the pair of coils. Also back emf induced across
the second coil
e2 =
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
d
dt
= M
I2 I1
dI
= M
t
dt
(19.11)
Notes
where the curent in coil A changes from I1 to I2 in t seconds.

The mutual inductance depends only on the geometry of the two coils, if no magnetic
materials are nearby. The SI unit of mutual inductance is also henry (H), the same as the
unit of self-inductance.
Example 19.3 : A coil in one circuit is close to another coil in a separate circuit. The
mutual inductance of the combination is 340 mH. During a 15 ms time interval, the current
in coil 1 changes steadily from 28mA to 57 mA and the current in coil 2 changes steadily
from 36 mA to 16 mA. Determine the emf induced in each coil by the changing current in
the other coil.
Solution : During the 15ms time interval, the currents in the coils change at the constant
rates of
57mA 23mA
di1
=
= 2.3 As1
15ms
dt
16mA 36mA
di2
=
= 1.3 As1
15ms
dt
From Eq. (19.11), we note that the magnitudes of the induced emfs are
1 = (340mH) (2.3As1) = 0.78 V
2 = (340mH) (1.3As1) = 0.44 V
Remember that the minus signs in Eq. (19.11) refer to the sense of each induced emf.
One of the most important applicances based on the phenomenon of mutual inductance is
transformer. You will learn about it later in this lesson. Some commonly used devices
based on self-inductance are the choke coil and the ignition coil. We will discuss about
these devices briefly. Later, you will also learn that a combination of inductor and capitator
acts as a basic oscillator. Once the capacitor is charged, the charge in this arrangement
oscillates between its two plates through the inductor.
3.131
131
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism

1.
Consider the sense of the mutually induced emfs in Fig.19.11, according to an observer
located to the right of the coils. (a) At an instant when the current i1 is increasing,
what is the sense of emf across the second coil? (b) At an instant when i2 is decreasing,
what is the sense of emf across the first coil?
..................................................................................................................................
Notes
2.
Suppose that one of the coils in Fig.19.11 is rotated so that the axes of the coils are
perpendicular to each other. Would the mutual inductance remain the same, increase
or decrease? Explain.
..................................................................................................................................
19.3 Alternating currents and Voltages

When a battery is connected to a resistor, charge flows through the resistor in one direction
only. If we want to reverse the direction of the current, we have to interchange the battery
connections. However, the magnitude of the current will remain constant. Such a current
is called direct current. But a current whose magnitude changes continuously and direction
changes periodically, is said to be an alternating current (Fig. 19.12).
i
dc
t
ac
Fig. 19.12 : dc and ac current waveforms
In general, alternating voltage and currents are mathematically expressed as
and
V = Vm cos t
(19.12a)
I = Im cos t
(19.12b)
Vm and Im are known as the peak values of the alternating voltage and current respectively.
In addition, we also define the root mean square (rms) values of V and I as
Vrms =
132
Vm
= 0.707 Vm
2
(19.13a)
Irms
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Im
=
= 0.707 Im
2
(19.13b)
The relation between V and I depends on the circuit elements present in the circuit. Let us
now study a.c. circuits containing (i) a resistor (ii) a capacitor, and (iii) an inductor only
George Westinghouse
(1846-1914)
Notes
If ac prevails over dc all over the world today, it is due to the vision
and efforts of George Westinghouse. He was an American inventor
and enterpreneur having about 400 patents to his credit. His first
invention was made when he was only fifteen year old. He invented air brakes and
automatic railway signals, which made railway traffic safe.
When Yugoslav inventor Nicole Tesla (1856-1943) presented the idea of rotating
magnetic field, George Westinghouse immediately grasped the importance of his
discovery. He invited Tesla to join him on very lucrative terms and started his electric
company. The company shot into fame when he used the energy of Niagra falls to
produce electricity and used it to light up a town situated at a distance of 20km.
19.3.1 AC Source Connected to a Resistor

Refer to Fig. 19. 13 which shows a resistor in an ac circuit. The instantaneous value of the
current is given by the instantaneous value of the potential difference across the resistor
divided by the resistance.
Vm cos t
Fig. 19.13 : An ac circuit containing a resistor
I =
V
R
Vm cos t
R
(19.14a)
The quantity Vm/R has units of volt per ohm,(i.e., ampere). It represents the maximum
value of the current in the circuit. The current changes direction with time, and so we use
positive and negative values of the current to represent the two possible current directions.
Substituting Im, the maximum current in the circuit, for Vm/R in Eq. (19.14a), we get
I = Im cos t
(19.14b)
Fig.19.14 shows the time variation of the potential difference between the ends of a resistor
and the current in the resistor. Note that the potential difference and current are in phase
3.133
133
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Electricity and
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Physics
i.e., the peaks and valleys occur at the same time.
V(V)
I(A)
V0
I0B
t(s)
t(s)
Notes
I0
V0
T
4
T
2
3T
4
Fig. 19.14 : Time variation of current and voltage in a purely resistive circuit
In India, we have Vm = 310V and v = 50 Hz. Therefore for R = 10 , we get

V = 310 cos (2 50t)
and
I =
310
cos (100t)
10
= 31 cos (100t)A
Since V and I are proportional to cos (100t), the average current is zero over an integral
number of cycles.
The average power P = I 2 Rdeveloped in the resistor is not zero, because square of
instantaneous value of current is always positive. As I 2, varies periodically between zero
and I 2, we can determine the average power, Pav, for single cycle:
I2 + 0
Pav = (I 2 R)av = R(I2 )av = R m
2
2
I
Pav = R m = R I 2 rm s
2
(19.15)
Note that the same power would be produced by a constant dc current of value (Im 2 )
in the resistor. It would also result if we were to connect the resistor to a potential difference
having a constant value of Vm 2 volt. The quantities Im 2 and Vm 2 are called the
rms values of the current and potential difference. The term rms is short for root-meansquare, which means the square root of the mean value of the square of the quantity of
interest. For an electric outlet in an Indian home where Vm = 310V, the rms value of the
potential difference is
Vrms = Vm
134
2 ~ 220V

This is the value generally quoted for the potential difference. Note that when potential
difference is 220 V, the peak value of a.c voltage is 310V and that is why it is so fatal.
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism

1.
In a light bulb connected to an ac source the instantaneous current is zero two times
in each cycle of the current. Why does the bulb not go off during these times of zero
current?
Notes
..................................................................................................................................
2.
An electric iron having a resistance 25 is connected to a 220V, 50 Hz household

outlet. Determine the average current over the whole cycle, peak current,
instantaneous current and the rms current in it.
..................................................................................................................................
3.
Why is it necessary to calculate root mean square values of ac current and voltage.
..................................................................................................................................
I
~
Fig.19.15 : Capacitor in an ac
circuit
19.3.2 AC Source Connected to a

Capacitor
Fig.19.15 shows a capacitor connected to an ac
source. From the definition of capacitance, it
follows that the instantaneous charge on the
capacitor equals the instantaneous potential
difference across it multiplied by the capacitance
(q = CV). Thus, we can write
q = CVm cos t
(19.16)
Since I = dq/dt, we can write

I = CVm sin t
(19.17)
Time variation of V and I in a capacitive circuit is shown in Fig.19.16.

I(A)
V(V)
I0
V0
O
V0
I(A)
t(s)
t(s)
I0
T
3T
T
T
4
2
4
Fig.19.16: Variation in V and I with time in a capacitive circuit
5T
4
Unlike a resistor, the current I and potential difference V for a capacitor are not in phase.
The first peak of the current-time plot occurs one quarter of a cycle before the first peak
3.135
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MODULE - 5
Electricity and
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Physics
in the potential difference-time plot. Hence we say that the capacitor current leads
capacitor potential difference by one quarter of a period. One quarter of a period
corresponds to a phase difference of /2 or 90. Accordingly, we also say that the potential
difference lags the current by 90.
Rewriting Eq. (19.17) as
I =
Notes
Vm
sin t
1/(C )
(19.18)
and comparing Eqs. (19.14a) and (19.18), we note that (1/C) must have units of resistance.
The quantity 1/C is called the capacitive reactance, and is denoted by the symbol XC :
XC =
1
C
1
2vC
(19.19)
Capacitive reactance is a measure of the extent to which the capacitor limits the ac
current in the circuit. It depends on capacitance and the frequency of the generator. The
capacitive reactance decreases with increase in frequency and capacitance. Resistance
and capacitive reactance are similar in the sense that both measure limitations to ac current.
But unlike resistance, capacitive reactance depends on the frequency of the ac (Fig.19.17).
The concept of capacitive reactance allows us to introduce an equation analogous to the
equation I = V/R :
Vrms
Irms = X
C
(19.20)
The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor

is the product of the instantaneous capacitor current
and the potential difference :
XC()
P = VI
= CV 2 sin t cos t
1
= CV 2 sin 2t
2
v(Hz)
(19.21)
Fig.19.17 : Frequency variation of

capacitive reactance
The sign of P determines the direction of energy

flow with time. When P is positive, energy is stored in the capacitor. When P is negative,
energy is released by the capacitor. Graphical representations of V, I, and P are shown in
Fig.19.18. Note that whereas both the current and the potential difference vary with angular
frequency w, the power varies with angular frequency 2w. The average power is zero.
The electric energy stored in the capacitor during a charging cycle is completely recovered
when the capacitor is discharged. On an average, there is no energy stored or lost in the
capacitor in a cycle.
136
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
I
P
V
3/2 2
5/2
7/2
Notes
Fig.19.18 : Time variation of V, I and P
Example 19.5 : A 100 F capacitor is connected to a 50Hz ac generator having a peak

amplitude of 220V. Calculate the current that will be recorded by an rms ac ammeter
connected in series with the capacitor.
Solution : The capacitive reactance of a capacitor is given by
XC =
1
1
=
= 31.8
1
2 (50 rads )(100 10 6 F)
C
Assuming that ammeter does not influence the value of current because of its low resistance,
the instantaneous current in the capacitor is given by
V
220
cos t
I = X cos t =
31.8
C
= (6.92 cos t) A
The rms value of current is
Irms =
Im
2
6.92
2
= 4.91A
Now answer the following questions.

1.
Explain why current in a capacitor connected to an ac generator increases with

capacitance.
..................................................................................................................................
2.
A capacitor is connected to an ac generator having a fixed peak value (Vm) but

variable frequency. Will you expect the current to increase as the frequency decreases?
..................................................................................................................................
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Electricity and
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Physics
3.
Will average power delivered to a capacitor by an ac generator to be zero? Justify your

answer.
..................................................................................................................................
4.
Why do capacitive reactances become small in high frequency circuits, such as those
in a TV set?
..................................................................................................................................
Notes
19.3.3 AC Source Connected to an Inductor

We now consider an ideal (zero-resistance)
inductor connected to an ac source. (Fig. 19.19).
If V is the potential difference across the inductor,
we can write
V(t) = L
~
V(t) = Vm cos t
Fig.19.19 :
An ac generator connected to an inductor
dI(t)
= Vm cos t
dt
(19.22)
To integrate Eqn. (19.22) with time, we rewrite it

as
Vm
cost dt .
L
Since integral of cos x is sin x, we get
dI =
I(t) =
Vm
sin t + constant
L
(19.23a)
When t = 0, I = 0. Hence constant of integration becomes zero. Thus
Vm
sin t
(19.23b)
L
To compare V (t) and I(t) let us take Vm = 220V, = 2(50) rads1, and L = 1H. Then
I(t) =
V(t) = 220 cos (2 50t) volt

I(t) =
V(V)
220
sin (2 50t) = 0.701 sin (2 50t) ampere
2.50
I (A)
V0
Im
t(s)
t(s)
Im
V0
I(A)
T/4
T/2
3T/4
Fig. 19.20 : Time variation of the potential differeence across an inductor and the
currentflowing through it. These are not in phase
Fig.19.20. Shows time variation of V and I The inductor current and potential difference
across it are not in phase. In fact the potential difference peaks one-quarter cycle before
the current. We say that incase of an inductor current lags the potential difference by /2
138

rad (or 90). This is what we would expect from Lenzs law. Another way of seeing this is
to rewrite Eq. (19.23b) as
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Vm
cos t
2
L
Because V = Vm cos t, the phase difference (/2) for I means that current lags village
by /2. This is in contrast to the current in a capacitor, which leads the potential difference.
For an inductor, the current lags the potential difference.
I=
The quantity L in Eq.(19.23b) has units of resistance and is called inductive reactance.
It is denoted by symbol XL :
X L = L = 2 vL
Notes
(19.24)
Like capacitive reactance, the inductive reactance, XL, is expressed in ohm. Inductive
reactance is a measure of the extent to which the inductor limits ac current in the circuit.
It depends on the inductance and the frequency of the generator. Inductive reactance
increases, if either frequency or inductance increases. (This is just the opposite of capacitive
reactance.) In the limit frequency goes to zero, the inductive reactance goes to zero. But
recall that as 0, capcative reactance tends to infinity (see Table 19.1). Because
inductive effects vanish for a dc source, such as a battery, zero inductive reactance for
zero frequency is consistent with the behaviour of an inductor connected to a dc source.
The frequency variation of XL is shown in Fig. 19.21.
XL()
v(HZ)
Fig.19.21 :
The reactance of an inductor (XL = 2

vL) as a function of frequency. The inductive
reactance increases as the frequency increases.
Table 19.1: Frequency response of passive circuit elements
Circuit
element
Opposition to
flow of current
Value at
low-frequency
Value at
high-frequency
Resistor
Capacitor
XC =
Inductor
XL = L
1
C
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Electricity and
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The concept of inductive reactance allows us to introduce an inductor analog in the equation
I = V/R involving resistance R :
Vrms
Irms = X
L
(19.25)
The instantaneous power delivered to the inductor is given by

P = VI
Notes
Vm2
V2
sin t cos t = m sin 2 t
L
2L
(19.26)
Graphical representations of V, I and P for an inductor are shown in Fig. 19.21. Although
both the current and the potential difference vary with angular frequency, the power varies
with twice the angular frequency. The average power delivered over a whole cycle is
zero. Energy is alternately stored and released as the magnetic field alternately grows and
windles. decays
P
Pm
Vm
Im
I
t(s)
0
Im
Vm
Pm
Fig. 19.21: Time variation of potential difference, current and power in an inductive circuit
Example 19.6 : An air cored solenoid has a length of 25cm and diameter of 2.5cm, and
contains 1000 closely wound turns. The resistance of the coil is measured to be 1.00.
Compare the inductive reactance at 100Hz with the resistance of the coil.
Solution : The inductance of a solenoid, whose length is large compared to its diameter, is
given by
L =
0 N 2 a 2
l
where N denotes number of turns, a is radius, and l is length of the solenoid. On substituting
the given values, we get
L =
140
(4 10 7 ) Hm 1 (1000) 2 (0.0125) 2 m 2
0.25m

= 2.47 103 H
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
The inductive reactance at a frequency of 100Hz is

X L = L
rad
= 2 100
(2.47 103) H
s
= 1.55
Thus, inductive reactance of this solenoid at 100Hz is comparable to the intrinsic (ohmic)
resistance R. In a circuit diagram, it would be shown as
Notes
L = 2.47 H and R = 1.00
You may now like to test your understanding of these ideas.

1.
Describe the role of Lenzs law when an ideal inductor is connected to an ac generator.
..................................................................................................................................
2.
In section 19.3.1, self-inductance was characterised as electrical inertia. Using this

as a guide, why would you expect current in an inductor connected to an ac generator
to decrease as the self-inductance increases?
..................................................................................................................................
19.3.4 Series LCR Circuit

Refer to Fig. 19.22. It shows a circuit having an inductor L, a capacitor C and a resistor R
in series with an ac source, providing instantaneous emf E = Em sin t. The current through
all the three circuit elements is the same in amplitude and phase but potential differences
L
C
R
~
E = Em cos t
Fig. 19.22 : A series LCR circuit
across each of them, as discussed earlier, are not in the same phase. Note that
(i) The potential difference across the resistor VR = I0R and it will be in-phase with
current.
3.141
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Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
Physics
(ii) Amplitude of P.D. across the capacitor VC = I0 XC and
it lags behind the current by an angle /2 and (iii)
amplitude of P.D. across the inductor VL = I0XL and it
leads the current by an angle /2.
Due to different phases, we can not add voltages
algebraically to obtain the resultant peak voltage across the
circuit. To add up these voltages, we draw a phasor diagram
showing proper phase relationship of the three voltages
(Fig.19.23). The diagram clearly shows that voltages across
the inductor and capacitor are in opposite phase and hence
net voltage across the reactive components is (VL VC).
The resultant peak voltage across the circuit is therefore
given by
E0 =
=
E0
I0 =
or
VL
(VLVC)
E0
VR
VC
Fig. 19.23 : Phasor diagram
of voltages across
LCR.
(VL VC )2 + VR2
I 02 ( X L X C ) 2 + R 2
( X L X C )2 + R2
The opposition to flow of current offered by a LCR circuit is called its impedance. The
impedance of the circuit is given by
E rms
E0
= I = ( X L X C )2 + R 2 =
Z=
I rms
0
2
2vL
+R
2vC
(19.27)
Hence, the rms current across an LCR circuit is given by

XL
Erms
Z
Also from Fig.19.23 it is clear that in LCR circuit, the emf
leads (or lags) the current by an angle , given by
Irms
(XLXC)
tan =
VL VC
X L I0 X C I0
XL XC
=
=
(19.28)
VR
RI 0
R
XC
Fig. 19.24 :
Phasor diagram
for Z
This means that R, XL, XC and Z can also be represented

on a phasor diagram similar to voltage (Fig.19.24).
Resonance
You now know that inductive reactance (XL) increases and capacitive reactance (XC)
decreases with increase in frequency of the applied ac source. Moreover, these are out of
phase. Therefore, there may be a certain frequency vr for which XL = XC :
142
Electricity and
Magnetism
1
2 vrL = 2v C
r
i.e.
vr =
MODULE - 5
1
2 LC
(19.29)
This frequency is called resonance frequency and at this frequency, impedance has
minimum value : min = R. The circuit now becomes purely resistive. Voltage across the
capacitor and the inductor, being equal in magnitude, annul each other. Since a resonant
circuit is purely resistive, the net voltage is in phase with current ( = 0) and maximum
current flows through the circuit. The circuit is said to be in resonance with applied ac.
The graphs given in Fig.19.25 show the variation of peak value of current in an LCR
circuit with the variation of the frequency of the applied source. The resonance frequency
of a given LCR circuit is independent of resistance. But as shown in Fig.19.25, the peak
value of current increases as resistance decreases.
Notes
Im (A)
1.0
R = 100
R = 200
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.5
(rad s1)
2.0
Fig.19.25 : Variation of peak current in a LCR circuit with frequency for (i) R = 100 , and
(ii) R = 200
The phenomenon of resonance in LCR circuits is utilised to tune our radio/TV receivers to
the frequencies transmitted by different stations. The tuner has an inductor and a variable
capacitor. We can change the natural frequency of the L-C circuit by changing the
capacitance of the capacitor. When natural frequency of the tuner circuit matches the
frequency of the transmitter, the intercepting radio waves induce maximum current in our
receiving antenna and we say that particular radio/TV station is tuned to it.
Power in a LCR Circuit
You know that a capacitor connected to an ac source reversibly stores and releases
electric energy. There is no net energy delivered by the source. Similarly, an inductor
connected to an ac source reversibly stores and releases magnetic energy. There is no net
energy delivered by the source. However, an ac generator delivers a net amount of energy
when connected to a resistor. Hence, when a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor are
connected in series with an ac source, it is still only the resistor that causes net energy
transfer. We can confirm this by calculating the power delivered by the source, which
3.143
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MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
could be a generator.
The instantaneous power is the product of the voltage and the current drawn from the
source. Therefore, we can write
P = VI
On substituting for V and I, we get
Vm
P = Vm cos t cos (t + )
Z
Notes
Vm2 2cos t cos (t + )

=
,
Z
2
Vm2
[cos + cos (t + )]
2
2Z
(19.30)
The phase angle and angular frequency play important role in the power delivered by
the source. If the impedance Z is large at a particular angular frequency, the power will be
small at all times. This result is consistent with the idea that impedance measures how the
combination of elements impedes (or limits) ac current. Since the average value of the
second term over one cycle is zero, the average power delivered by the source to the
circuit is given by
Average Power =
Vm2
cos
2Z
(19.31)
Vm
Vm
.
cos = Vrms Irms cos
2
2Z
(19.32)
cos is called power factor and is given by
cos =
R
=
Z
R
R + ( X L X C )2
2
(19.33)
The power factor delimits the maximum average power per cycle provided by the generator.
In a purely resistive circuit (or in a resonating circuit where XL = XC), Z = R, so that
R
= 1. That is, when = 0, the average power dissipated per cycle is maximum:
R
Pm = Vrms Irms.
cos =
On the other hand, in a purely reactive circuit, i.e., when R = 0, cos = 0 or = 900 and the
average power dissipated per cycle P = 0. That is, the current in a pure inductor or pure
capacitor is maintained without any loss of power. Such a current, therefore, is called
wattless current.
144
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
19.4 Power Generator

One of the most important sources of electrical power is called generator. A generator is
a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy with the help of
magnetic field. No other source of electric power can produce as large amounts of
electric power as the generator. A conductor or a set of conductors is rotated in a magnetic
field and voltage is developed across the rotating conductor due to electromagnetic induction.
The energy for the rotation of the conductors can be supplied by water, coal, diesel or gas
or even nuclear fuel. Accordingly, we have hydro-generators, thermal generators, and
nuclear reactors, respectively.
Notes
There are two types of generators

alternating current generator or A.C. generator also called alternators.
direct current generator or D.C. generator or dynamo.
Both these generators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
19.4.1 A.C. Generator or Alternator

A generator basically consists of a loop of wire rotating in a magnetic field. Refer to
Fig.19.26. It shows a rectangular loop of wire placed in a uniform magnetic field. As the
loop is rotated along a horizontal axis, the magnetic flux through the loop changes. To see
this, recall that the magnetic flux through the loop, as shown in Fig. 19.26, is given by
A
(t) = B. n
H
n
B
A
D
Fig. 19.26 : A loop of wire rotating in a magnetic field.
is a unit vector normal to the plane of the loop of area A. If the

where B is the field, n
angle between the field direction and the loop at any instant is denoted by , (t) can be
written as
(t) = AB cos
When we rotate the loop with a constant angular velocity , the angle changes as
= t
(19.34)
(t) = AB cos t
Now, using Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, we can calculate the emf induced
in the loop :
(t) =
d
= AB sin t
dt
(19.35)
3.145
145
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
The emf induced across a coil with N number of turns is given by
(t) = N AB sin t
(19.35a)
= 0 sin t
That is, when a rectangular coil rotates in a uniform magnetic field, the induced emf is sinusoidal.
An A.C. generator consists of four main parts (see in Fig.19.27 : (i) Armature, (ii) Field
magnet, (iii) Slip-rings, (iv) Brushes.
Notes
An armature is a coil of large number of turns of insulated copper wire wound on a

cylindrical soft iron drum. It is capable of rotation at right angles to the magnetic field on a
rotor shaft passing through it along the axis of the drum. This drum of soft iron serves two
purpose : it supports the coil, and increases magnetic induction through the coil. A field
magnet is provides to produce a uniform and permanent radial magnetic field between its
pole pieces.
Slip Rings provide alternating current
generated in armature to flow in the device
connected across them through brushs.
These are two metal rings to which the
two ends of the armatures are connected.
These rings are fixed to the shaft. They
are insulated from the shaft as well as from
each other. Brushes are two flexible metal
or carbon rods [B1 and B2 (Fig. 19.27)],
which are fixed and constantly in touch
with revolving rings. It is with the help of
these brushes that the current is passed
on from the armature and rings to the main
wires which supply the current to the outer
circuit.
Fig.19.27 : Schematics of an ac generator
The principle of working of an ac generator is illustrated in Fig.19.28.

t=0
H
C
B
t = T/2
C
t = T/4
H
t = 3T/4
H
D
D
BC
A
CN
t=T
B
t=4
t=2
3t = 4
Fig. 19.28 : Working principle of an ac generator
146

Suppose the armature coil AHCD rotates in the anticlockwise direction. As it rotates, the
magnetic flux linked with it changes and the current is induced in the coil. The direction of
the induced current is given by Flemings right hand rule. Considering the armature to be
in the vertical position and its rotation in anticlockwise direction, the wire AH moves
downward and DC moves upwards, the direction of induced emf is from H to A and D to
C i.e., in the coil it flows along DCHA. In the external circuit the current flows along
B1 R B2 as shown in Fig.19.28(a). This direction of current remains the same during the
first half turn of the armature. However, during the second half revolution (Fig.19.28(b)),
the wire AH moves upwards while the wires CD moves downwards. The current flows in
the direction AHCD in the armature coil i.e., the direction of induced current in the coil is
reversed. In the external circuit direction is B2 RB1. Therefore, the direction of the induced
emf and the current changes after every half revolution in the external circuit also. Hence,
the current thus produced alternates in each cycle (Fig. 19.28(c)).
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
The arrangement of slip rings and brushes creates problems of insulation and sparking
when large output powers are involved. Therefore, in most practical generators, the field
is rotated and the armature (coil) is kept stationary. In such a generator, armature coils are
fixed permanently around the inner circumference of the housing of the generator while
the field coil pole pieces are rotated on a shaft within the stationary armature.
19.4.2 Dynamo (DC Generator)

A dynamo is a machine in which mechanical energy is changed into electrical energy
in the form of direct current. You must have seen a dynamo attached to a bicycle for
lighting purpose. In automobiles, dynamo has a dual function for lighting and charging the
battery. The essential parts of dynamo are (i) field magnet, (ii) armature, (iii) commutator
split rings and (iv) brushes.
Armatures and field magnets differ in dynamo and alternator. In the dynamo, the
field magnets are stationary and the armature rotates while in an alternator, armature
is stationary (stator) and the field magnet (rotor) rotates.
In a dynamo, ac waveform or the sine wave produced by an a.c. generator is converted
into d.c. form by the split ring commutator. Each half of the commuter is connected
permanently to one end of the loop and the commutator rotates with the loop. Each brush
presses against one segment of the commutator. The brushes remain stationary while the
commutator rotates. The brushes press against opposite segments of the commutator and
every time the voltage reverses polarity, the split rings change position. This means that
one brush always remains positive while the other becomes negative, and a d.c. fluctuating
voltage is obtained across the brushes.
A dynamo has almost the same parts as an ac dynamo but it differs from the latter in one
respect: In place of slip ring , we put two split rings R1 and R2 which are the two half of the
same ring, as shown in Fig.19.29(a). The ends of the armature coil are connected to these
rings and the ring rotates with the armature and changes the contact with the brushes B1
and B2. This part of the dynamo is known as commutator.
3.147
147
Notes
When the coil is rotated in the

clockwise direction, the current
produced in the armature is a.c. but the
commutator changes it into d.c. in the
outer circuit. In the first half cycle,
Fig.19.29(a), current flows along
DCHA. The current in the external
circuit flows along B1 L B2. In the
second half, Fig.19.29(b), current in the
armature is reversed and flows along
AHCD and as the ring R1 comes into
contact with B1 to B2. Thus, current in
the external circuit always flows in the
same direction. The current produced
in the outer circuit is graphically
represented in Fig.19.29(c) as the coil
is rotated from the vertical position,
perpendicular to the magnetic lines of
force. The current generated by such
a simple d.c. dynamo is unidirectional
but its value varies considerably and
even falls to zero twice during each
rotation of the coil.
B1
R1
R2
R2
(a)
B1
B2
B2
R1
(b)
e.m.f.
and current
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
e.m.f. at brushes
2x
Angle
of rotation
e.m.f. of coil
(c)
e.m.f.
and current
MODULE - 5
2x
3x
4x
Angle of rotation
(e.m.f. in 2-coil D.C. Dynamo)
(d)
e.m.f.
and current
One way of overcoming this variation

would be to use two coils, mutually at
right angles, and to divide the
Resultant
commutator ring into four sections,
connected to the ends of the coils. In
such a case, both these coils produce
O
Angle of rotation
emf of the same type but they differ in
(e)
phase by /2. The resultant current or
emf is obtained by superposition of the
Fig. 19.29 : A dc generator
two, as shown in Fig. 19.29(d). In this
way, the fluctuations are cosiderally reduced. Similarly, in order to get a steady current,
we use a large number of coils, each consisting of good many turns. The commutator ring
is divided into as many segments as the number of ends of coils, so that the coils work
independently and send current into the outer circuit. The resultant current obtained is
shown in Fig.19.29(e) which is practically parallel to the time axes.

1.
Distinguish between an ac and dc generator.

..................................................................................................................................
2.
Name the essential parts of a generator?

..................................................................................................................................
148

3.
Why do we use a commutator in a dc generator?
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
..................................................................................................................................
4.
Where do you find the use of dynamo in daily life?

..................................................................................................................................
Low Voltage and Load Shedding
Notes
For normal operation of any electrical device, proper voltage is essential. If the
voltage supplied by the electric supply company is less than the desired value, we
face the problem of low voltage. In fact, low voltage is not as harmful to the appliance
as the high voltage. However, due to low voltage, most of the appliances do not
work properly. To overcome this, use voltage stabilizers. If the low voltage is within
the range of the stabilizer, you will get constant voltage. You can use CVT (constant
voltage transformers) also to get constant voltage.
As you know, the electricity generated at a power station is transmitted at high
voltage to city substation. At the substation, voltage is reduced using a step down
transformer. In order to avoid the danger of burning off the transformers, the supply
undertakings try to keep the load on the transformer within the specified rating. If
the transformer through which you receive the voltage is heavily loaded (more than
the specified value), the supplier will either shed the load by cutting the supply from
the power source, or request the consumers to decrease the load by switching off
the (heating or cooling) applicances of higher wattages. This process is known as
load shedding.
In case of load shedding, you can use inverters. Inverters are low frequency oscillator
circuits which convert direct current from battery to alternating current of desired
value and frequency (230V and 50Hz).
19.5 Transformer
Transformer is a device that changes (increases or decreases) the magnitude of alternating
voltage or current based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. A transformer
has at least two windings of insulated copper wire linked by a common magnetic flux but
the windings are electrically insulated from one another. The transformer windings
connected to a supply source, which may be an ac main or the output of a generator, is
called primary winding. The transformer winding connected to the load RL is called the
secondary winding. In the secondary winding, emf is induced when a.c. is applied to the
primary. The primary and secondary windings, though electrically isolated from each other,
are magnetically coupled with each other.
Basically, a transformer is a device which transfers electric energy (or power) from
primary windings to secondary windings. The primary converts the changing electrical
energy into magnetic energy. The secondary converts the magnetic energy back into
electric energy.
3.149
149
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
Physics
An ideal transformer is one in which
the resistance of the primary and secondary coils is zero;
there is no flux leakage so that the same magnetic flux is linked with each turn of the
primary and secondary coils; and
there is no energy loss in the core.
Fig. 19.30 illustrates the configuration of a typical transformer. It consists of two coils,
called primary and secondary, wound on a core (transformer). The coils, made of insulated
copper wire, are wound around a ring of iron made of isolated laminated sheets instead of
a solid core. The laminations minimize eddy currents in iron. Energy loss in a transformer
can be reduced by using the laminations of soft iron for the core and thick high conductivity
wires for the primary and secondary windings.
Soft iron core
Secondary
Primary
Fig.19.30 : A schematic representation of a transformer
We now discuss the working of a transformer in the following two cases:

(a) Secondary an open circuit : Suppose the current in the primary changes the flux
through the core at the rate d/dt. Then the induced (back) emf in the primary with Np
turns is given by
d
E p = Np
dt
and the induced emf in the secondary widings of NS turns is
E s = Ns
dt
Np
Ep
=
(19.36)
Ns
Es
(b) Secondary not an open circuit : Suppose a load resistance RL is connected across
the secondary, so that the secondary current is IS and primary current is IP. If there is no
energy loss from the system, we can write
or
Power input = Power output
150
Electricity and
Magnetism
Ep Ip = Es Is
Ip
Np
Es
=
=
Ep
Is
N s = k.
or
so that
MODULE - 5
(19.37)
Thus when the induced emf becomes k times the applied emf, the induced current is
1
k
times the original current. In other words, what is gained in voltage is lost in current.
Notes
19.5.1 Types of transformers

There are basically two types of transformers.
(i) A step-up transformer increases the voltage (decreases the current) in secondary
windings. In such transformers (Fig.19.31a) the number of turns in secondary is more
than the number of turns in primary.
S
Output
Output
(a)
(b)
Fig. 19.31 : Iron cored a) step-up, and b) stepdown transformers
(ii) A step-down transformer decreases the voltage (increases the current) in the
secondary windings. In such transformers (Fig 19.31b), the number of turns in secondary
is less than the number of turns in the primary.
19.5.2 Efficiency of Transformers

While discussing the theory of the transformers we considered an ideal transformer in
which there is no power loss. But in practice, some energy is always converted into heat
in the core and the windings of the transformer. As a result, the electrical energy output
across the secondary is less than the electrical energy input. The efficiency of a transformer
is given by
=
Energy output
100%
Energy input
Power output
100%
Power input
The efficiency of a transformer is less than 100%.

In a transformer the energy losses result from
3.151
151
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
(a) Resistive heating in copper coils - cooper loss,
(b) Eddy current losses in form of heating of iron core - Eddy current loss.
(c) Magnetization heating of the core during repeated reversal of magnetization - hysteresis
loss.
(d) Flux leakage from the core.
Notes
Electrical Power Transmission

You have learnt how electricity is generated using ac or dc generators. You must
have come across small units of generating sets in shops, offices and cinema halls.
When power goes off, the mains is switched over to generator. In commercial use,
generators which produce power of million of watts at about 15kV (kilo volt) is
common. These generating plants may be hundreds of kilometers away from your
town. Very large mechanical power (kinetic energy) is, therefore, necessary to rotate
the rotor which produces magnetic field inside enormously large coils. The rotors are
rotated by the turbines. These turbines are driven by different sources of energy.
To minimise loss of energy, power is transmitted at low current in the transmission
lines. For this power companies step up voltage using transformers. At a power
plant, potential difference is raised to about 330kV. This is accompanied by small
current. At the consumer end of the transmission lines, the potential difference is
lowered using step down transformers.
You may now like to know how high potential difference used to transmit electrical
power over long distances minimises current. We explain this with an example.
Suppose electrical power P has to be delivered at a potential difference V by supply
lines of total resistance R. The current I = P/V and the loss in the lines
is I 2R = P2R/V 2. It means that greater V ensures smaller loss. In fact, doubling V
quarters the loss.
Electrical power is, thus, transmitted more economically at high potential difference.
But this creates insulation problems and raises installation cost. In a 400kV supergrid,
currents of 2500 A are typical and the power loss is about 200kW per kilometer of
cable, i.e., 0.02% (percent) loss per kilometer. The ease and efficiency with which
alternating potential differences are stepped-up and stepped-down in a transformer
and the fact that alternators produces much higher potential difference than d.c.
generators (25kV compared with several thousand volts), are the main considerations
influencing the use of high alternating rather than direct potential in most situations.
However, due to poor efficiency and power thefts, as a nation, we lose about}
Rs. 50,000 crore annually.
152

Example 19.7 : What is the efficiency of a transformer in which the 1880 W of primary
power provides for 1730 W of secondary power?
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Solution : Given Ppri= 1880W and Psec = 1730W. Hence

Efficiency = Psec 100
Ppri
1730 W
100 = 92%
1880 W
Notes
Thus, the transformer is 92% efficient.
Example 19.8 : A transformer has 100 turns in its primary winding and 500 turns in its
secondary windings. If the primary voltage and current are respectively 120V and 3A,
what are the secondary voltage and current?
Solution : Given N1 = 100, N2 = 500, V1 = 120V and I1 = 3A
V2 =
N2
500turns
V1 =
120 V = 600V
N1
100turns
I2 =
N1
1 0 0 tu rn s
I1 =
3 A = 0 .6 A
N2
5 0 0 tu rn s

1.
Can a transformer work on dc? Justify your answer.

..................................................................................................................................
2.
Why does step-up transformer have more turns in the secondary than in the primary?
..................................................................................................................................
3.
Is the secondary to primary current ratio same as the secondary to primary voltage
ratio in a transformer?
..................................................................................................................................
4.
Toy trains often use a transformer to supply power for the trains and controls. Is this
transformer step-up or step-down?
..................................................................................................................................
3.153
153
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
What you have learnt

A current is induced in a coil of wire if magnetic flux linking the surface of the coil
changes. This is known as the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.
The induced emf in a single loop is given by Faradays law:
Notes
e=
d B
dt
where B is the magnetic flux linking the loop.

According to Lenzs Law, the induced emf opposes the cause which produces it.
If the current changes in a coil, a self-induced emf exists across it.
For a long, tightly wound solenoid of length l , cross - sectional area A, having N
number of turns, the selfinductance is given by
L=
0 N 2 A
l
Current in an LR circuit takes some time to attain maximum value.
The changing currents in two nearby coils induce emf mutually.
In an LC circuit, the charge on the capacitor and the current in the circuit oscillate
sinusoidally with the angular frequency 0 given by
0 =
1
LC
In an ac circuit, the voltage across the source is given by V = Vm cos t and current
I = Im cos (t + )
In a purely resistive ac circuit, the voltage and current are in phase.
I m2 R
The average power in such a circuit is Pav =
2
154
In a purely capacitive ac circuit, the current leads the voltage by 900. The average
power in such a circuit is zero.
In a purely inductive ac circuit, the current lags the voltage by 900. The average
power in such a circuit is zero.
Vm
Vm
In a series LCR circuit, Im =
=
,
2
Z
[ R + ( X L X C ) 2 ]
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
where Z is the impedance of circuit : Z = [R2 + (XL XC)2]

For XL XC = 0, an ac circuit is purely resistive and the maximum current Im = Vm/R.

The circuit is said to be in resonance at o = 1/ LC .
2
rms
The average power Pav = Vrms. Irms = I
A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It works on the principle
of electromagnetic induction.
A transformer is a static electrical device which converts an alternating high voltage

to low alternating voltage and vice versa.
The transformers are of two types: Step-up to increase the voltage, and Step-down :
to decrease the voltage.
The secondary to primary voltage ratio is in the same proportion as the secondary to
primary turns ratio i.e.
Notes
R.
Vs
Ns
=
Np
Vp
Main sources of power losses in a transformer are heating up of the windings and
eddy current
For transmission of power from a power station to our homes, transformers and
transmission lines are used.
Terminal Exercises
1.
Each loop in a 250-turn coil has face area S = 9.0 102 m2. (a) What is the rate of
change of the flux linking each turn of the coil if the induced emf in the coil is 7.5V?
(b) If the flux is due to a uniform magnetic field at 450 from the axis of the coil,
calculate the rate of change of the field to induce that emf.
2.
(a) In Fig.19.32 what is the direction of the induced current in the loop when the area
of the loop is decreased by pulling on it with the forces labelled F? B is directed into
the page and perpendicular to it.
(b) What is the direction of the induced current in the smaller loop of Fig.19.31b when
a clockwise current as seen from the left is suddenly established in the larger loop, by
a battery not shown?
3.155
155
MODULE - 5
Physics
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
Fig. 19.32
3.
(a) If the number of turns in a solenoid is doubled, by what amount will its selfinductance change?
(b) Patrol in a vehicles engine is ignited when a high voltage applied to a spark plug
causes a spark to jump between two conductors of the plug. This high voltage is
provided by an ignition coil, which is an arrangement of two coils wound tightly one
on top of the other. Current from the vehicles battery flows through the coil with
fewer turns. This current is interrupted periodically by a switch. The sudden change
in current induces a large emf in the coil with more turns, and this emf drives the
spark. A typical ignition coil draws a current of 3.0 A and supplies an emf of 24kV to
the spark plugs. If the current in the coil is interrupted every 0.10ms, what is the
mutual inductance of the ignition coil?
4.
(a) Why is the rms value of an ac current always less than its peak value?
(b) The current in a 2.5F capacitor connector to an ac source is given by
I = 4.71 sin 377t A
Calculate the maximum voltage across the capacitor.
5.
(a) Calculate the capacitive reactance (for C = 2 F) and the inductive reactance
(for L = 2 mH) at (i) 25Hz and (ii) 50Hz.
(b) Calculate the maximum and rms currents in a 22 H inductor connected to a 5V
(rms) 100MHz generator.
6.
A series LCR circuit with R = 580, L = 31mH, and C =47 nF is driven by an ac

source. The amplitude and angular frequency of the source are 65 V and 33 krad/s.
Determine (a) the reactance of the capacitor, (b) the reactance of the inductor, (c)
the impedance of the circuit, (d) the phase difference between the voltage across the
source and the current, and (e) the current amplitude. Does current lead behind or lag
the voltage across the source?
7.
What is electromagnetic induction? Explain Faradays laws of electromagnetic

induction.
8.
State Lenzs law. Show that Lenzs law is a consequence of law of conservation of
energy.
9.
What is self-induction? Explain the physical significance of self-inductance.
10. Distinguish between the self-inductance and mutual-inductance. On what factors do

they depend?
11. How much e.m.f. will be induced in a 10H inductor in which the current changes
from 10A to 7A in 9 102s?
156

12. Explain why the reactance of a capacitor decreases with increasing frequency,
whereas the reactance of an inductor increases with increasing frequency?
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
13. What is impedance of an LCR series circuit? Derive an expression for power dissipated
in a.c. LCR circuit.
14. Suppose the frequency of a generator is increased from 60Hz to 120Hz. What effect
would this have on output voltage?
15. A motor and a generator basically perform opposite functions. Yet some one makes a
statement that a motor really acts as a motor and a generator at the same time? Is
this really true?
Notes
16. A light bulb in series with an A.C. generator and the primary winding of a transformer
glows dimly when the secondary leads are connected to a load, such as a resistor, the
bulb in the primary winding will brighten, why?
17. If the terminals of a battery are connected to the primary winding of transformer,
why will a steady potential differences not appear across the secondary windings.
18. The power supply for a picture tube in a colour television (TV) set typically requires
15,000V A.C. How can this potential difference be provided if only 230V are available
at a household electric outlet?
19. Would two coils acts as transformer without an iron core? If so, why not omit the
core to save money?
20. An ac source has a 10-volt out-put. A particular circuit requires only a 2V A.C. input.
How would you accomplish this? Explain.
21. A person has a single transformer with 50 turns on one part of the core and 500 turns
on the other. Is this a step-up or a step-down transformer? Explain.
22. Some transformers have various terminals or taps on the secondary so that
connecting to different tap puts different functions of the total number of secondary
windings into a circuit? What is the advantage of this?
23. A transformer in an electric welding machine draws 3A from a 240V A.C. power line
and delivers 400A. What is the potential difference across the secondary of the
transformer?
24. A 240-V, 400W electric mixer is connected to a 120-V power line through a transformer.
What is the ratio of turns in the transformer? and How much current is drawn from
the power line?
25. The primary of a step-up transformer having 125 turns is connected to a house lighting
circuit of 220 Vac. If the secondary is to deliver 15,000 volts, how many turns must it
have?
26. The secondary of a step-down transformer has 25 turns of wire and primary is
connected to a 220V ac. line. If the secondary is to deliver 2.5 volt at the out-put
terminals, how many turns should the primary have?
27. The primary of a step-down transformer has 600 turns and is connected to a 120V ac
line. If the secondary is to supply 5 volts at its terminal and electron current of 3.5A,
3.157
157
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
find the number of turns in the secondary and the electron current in the primary?
28. A step-up transformer with 352 turns in the primary is connected to a 220V ac line.
The secondary delivers 10,000 volts at its terminal and a current of 40 milliampere.
(a) How many turns are in the secondary?
(b) What is the current in the primary?
(c) What power is drawn from the line?
Notes

19.1
1. N = 1000, r = 5 102m and B1 = 10T
a) For t = 1s,
|e| = N
( B2 B1 ) 2
r
t
10 2510
= 10
1
= 25V
= 25 3.14 = 78.50V
b) For t = 1ms
103 10 2510
|e| =
103
= 78.5 103V
2. Since = A + Dt2, e1 =
d
= 2Dt
dt
e = Ne1 = 2N Dt
= 2 250 15t = 7500t
For t = 0, e1 = 0 and hence e = 0V
For t = 3s, e = 22500V
3. = B.S = BS cos
|e| = N
158
d
dt
B2 = 0T
|e| = NS
(a)
dB
cos Q is constt
dt
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
|e| is max.
when cos = 1, = 0, i.e., The coil is normal to the field.

(b)
|e| is min.
when = 90, i.e. coil surface is parallel to the field.
Notes
19.2
1. As we look on the coil from magnet side Anticlockwise for both A and B.
2. In all the loops except loop E there is a change in magnetic flux. For each of them the
induced current will be anticlockwise
3. Yes, there is an induced current in the ring. The bar magnet is acted upon by a repulsive
force due to the induced current in the ring.
19.3
1. e= L
dI
N 2 A ( I 2 I1 )
=
dt
t
l
4 10 7 10 2 (2.5 0)
1 10 3
= 106 V
2. Because, current in the two parallel strands flow in opposite directions and oppose the
self induced currents and thus minimize the induction effects.
3. 3.5 103 = 9.7 103
dI
dt
dI
3.5
=
= 0.36A s1
dt
9.7
19.4
1. Because, the inductor creates an inertia to the growth of current by inducing a back
emf
2. 2.2 103 =
L
R
L = 2.2 68 103H
= 150mH
3.159
159
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
Physics
19.5
1. (a)If i1 is increasing, the flux emerging out of the first coil is also increasing. Therefore,
the induced current in the second coil will oppose this flux by a current flowing in
clockwise sense as seen by O. Therefore B will be positive and A negative.
(b)If i2 is decreasing, flux emerging out of the first coil is decreasing. To increase it the
Notes
induced current should flow in out anticlockwise sense leaving C at positive potential
and D at negative.
2. No, the mutual inductance will decrease. Because, when the two coils are at right
angles coupling of flux from one coil to another coil will be the least.
19.6
1. It actually does but we can not detect it, because the frequency of our domestic ac is
50Hz. Our eye can not detect changes that take place faster than 15 times a second.
Erms
220 V
2. (i) Irms =
=
= 8.8A.
25
R
(ii) Peak value of current Im =
2 Irms = 1.4 8.8 = 12.32 A.
Instantaneous current = I0 sin 2vt

= 12.32 sin 100t
(iii) Average value of current over integral number of cycles will be zero.
3. Since an ac current varies sinusoidally, its average value over a complete cycle is zero
but rms value is finite.
19.7
1. Capacitive reactance XC =
1
. As C increases XC decreases and I increases.
2vC
2. A charged capacitor takes some time in getting discharged. As frequency of source

increases it starts charging the capacitor before it is completely discharged. Thus the
maximum charge on capacitor and hence maximum current flowing through the
capacitor increases though Vm is constant.
3. Because the energy stored in the capacitor during a charging half cycle is completely
recovered during discharging half cycle. As a result energy stored in the capacitor per
cycle is zero.
1
as v increases XC decreases. This is so because
2vC
on capacitor plates now more charge accumulates.
4. Capacitative reactance XC =
160
MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
19.8
1. In accordance with Lenzs law a back emf is induced across the inductor when ac is
passed through it. The back emf e = L
2. Irms =
dI
.
dt
Vrms
X L frequency increases, XL (= 2 vL) increases, hence Irms decreases.
19.9
Notes
1. (i) The a.c. generator has slip rings whereas the d.c. generator has a split rings
commutator.
(ii) a.c. generator produces current voltage in sinusoidal form but d.c. generator
produces current flowing in one direction all through.
2. Four essential parts of a generator are armature, field magnet, slip rings and brushes.
3. The commutator converts a.c. wave form to d.c. wave form.
4. Attached to the bicycle for lighting purpose.
19.10
1. No, because the working of a transformer depends on the principle of electromagnetic
induction, which requires time varying current.
2. Because the ratio of the voltage in primary and secondary coils is proportional to the
ratio of number of their turns.
3. No, they are reciprocal to each other.
4. Step-down transformer.
Answers To Problems in Terminal Exercise

1. (a) 3 102 Wb s
4. (b) 5 10 2 V
5. (a) (i)
1
104
(b) (i) 0.1

6. (a) 6.7 102
(e) 0.16 A
11. 333.3V
24. 1 : 2 ,
10
A.
3
26. 2200 turns
28. (a) 16000 lurns, (b)
(b) 0.47 T s 1
(ii)
1
104
2
(ii) 0.2
(b) 99 (c) 813.9
(f) Current lags
23. 1.8A.
(d)
4 rad
25. 8522 turns
27. 25 turns,
1
A.
7
20
A (c) 400W
11
3.161
161

PHYSICS
STUDENTS ASSIGNMENT 5
Maximum Marks: 50
Time : 1 Hours
INSTRUCTIONS
Answer All the questions on a seperate sheet of paper
Give the following information on your answer sheet:

Name
Enrolment Number
Subject
Assignment Number
Address
Get your assignment checked by the subject teacher at your study centre so that you get positive
feedback about your performance.
Do not send your assignment to NIOS

1.
Two point charges 10 MC and 5 MC are kept certain distance apart, along X-axis. If electrostatic
force on 10 MC charge is 90 N along +X axis, then what will be the magnitude and direction of electrostatic
force on 5 MC charge?
(1)
2.
At large distances from an electric dipole, how does the field strength vary with distance?
(1)
3.
What is the shape of an equipotential surface around a point charge?
(1)
4.
A copper wire is stretched to double its lenghth. What will be the effect on its specific resistance?(1)
5.
Write the sequence of colour bands on a carbon resistor whose value is 4752 47 10% .
(1)
6.
What is the value of angle of dip at the magnetic equator?
(1)
7.
A wire held vertical in front of an observer is carrying around in the upward direction. With respect to
the observer, what will be the direction of the magnetic field at a point behind the wire?
(1)
8.
Resonant frequency -f a series LCR circuit is 1000 Hz. What will be the nature of the circuit at a
frequency of 1200 Hz?
(1)
9.
Calculate electric field strength midway between two point charges 10 MC and 10 MC kept 2 cm
apart in vacuum.
(2)
10. A cell of e.m.f 2.0 volt and internal resistance of 4 . Calculate the terminal potential difference of the
cell.
(2)
162
11. For the circuit show here, calculate power dissipation in 6 resistor.
(2)
12
6
4
6 volt
12. Explain the principle of operation of a step-up transformer with regard to turns ratio.
(3)
13. State kirchloffs laws and use them to find values of I1, I2, and I3 shown in the given network:
(4)
8V
I1
F
I2
I3
E
12V
12
14. State Gauss theorem in electrostatics. Use it to find field due to a line harge of linear charge density .
at a distance from it.
15. (a) Show that when two capacitors of capacitance C1 and C2 are joined in series, their net capacitance
1 1 1
is given by C where c = c + c .
1
2
(b) Find the value of capacitance that must be put in series with a 12 MF capacitor to get a net
capacitance of 3 MF.
(2 + 2)
16. State priot savarts law and use it to find magnetic field at the centre of a circular loop haring N turns of
radius R each and carrying current I.
17. Obtain an expression for tongue experienced by the coil of a galvanometer when current I is passed
through it? What purpose does radial magnetic field serve in a moving coil galvanometer?
18. State Faradays laws of electronagnetic induction and Lenzs law. An air coil is connected in series with
a bulb and a battery of suitable e.m.f. What will happen to the brightness of the bulb when an iron rod
is inserted in the coil?
(4)
19. What is a dielectric? How does it behave in an electrostatic field? How is introduction of a dielectric
slab between the plates of an air-filled parallel plate capacitor able to increase its capacitance? Explain
with suitable labelled diagrams.
(5)
20. A series LCR circuit with R = 80 , L = 100 mtt and C = 25MF is driven by an ac source of
3.163
163
e.m.f = 100 sin (1000t) volt. Find

(a) Xl, Xc and Z.
(b) rms current in the circuit
(c) power dissipation in the circuit
(d) resonant frequency
(e) impedance of the circuit at resonance
Ans :
1. 90N along + axis.
2. E
1
r3
3. Spherical, with point at its centre

4. Specific resistance will remain unchanged
5. Yellow, violet, black, silver
6. Zero
7. To the left of the observer.
8. Inductive
9. 1.8 109 NC-1
10. V = Ir, I =
so, V = 1.6 volt

R+r
11. Current in the circuit, I =
2
ampere
3
8
2
P = I R = ( 6 ) watt = watts
3
3

2
13. I1 = 0.5A, I2 = 1.0A, I3 = 0;5A
14. = 2 r
0
15. (b) 4MF

20. (a) Xl = 100 Xc = L10 , Z = 100
(b) Irm.s = 0.707 ampere
(c) 40 w
(d)
100 Hz
(e) 80 ohm
164
(5)
MODULE - VI
OPTICS AND OPTICAL
INSTRUMENTS
20. Reflection and Refraction of Light
21. Dispersion and Scattering of Light
22. Wave Phenomena of Light
23. Optical Instruments
MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
Instruments
20
REFLECTION AND
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Notes
Light makes us to see things and is responsible for our visual contact with our immediate
environment. It enables us to admire and adore various beautiful manifestations of mother
nature in flowers, plants, birds, animals, and other forms of life. Can you imagine how
much shall we be deprived if we were visually impaired? Could we appreciate the brilliance
of a diamond or the majesty of a rainbow? Have you ever thought how light makes us
see? How does it travel from the sun and stars to the earth and what is it made of? Such
questions have engaged human intelligence since the very beginning. You will learn about
some phenomena which provide answers to such questions.
Look at light entering a room through a small opening in a wall. You will note the motion of
dust particles, which essentially provide simple evidence that light travels in a straight line.
An arrow headed straight line represents the direction of propagation of light and is called
a ray; a collection of rays is called a beam. The ray treatment of light constitutes
geometrical optics. In lesson 22, you will learn that light behaves as a wave. But a wave
of short wavelength can be well opproximated by the ray treatment. When a ray of light
falls on a mirror, its direction changes. This process is called reflection. But when a ray of
light falls at the boundary of two dissimilar surfaces, it bends. This process is known as
refraction. You will learn about reflection from mirrors and refraction from lenses in this
lesson. You will also learn about total internal reflection. These phenomena find a number
of useful applications in daily life from automobiles and health care to communication.
Objectives
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
explain reflection at curved surfaces and establish the relationship between the
focal length and radius of curvature of spherical mirrors;
state sign convention for spherical surfaces;
derive the relation between the object distance, the image distance and the focal
length of a mirror as well as a spherical refractive surface;
state the laws of refraction;

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explain total internal reflection and its applications in everyday life; and
derive an expression for the focal length of a combination of lenses in contact.
20.1 Reflection of Light from Spherical Surfaces

Notes
In your earlier classes, you have learnt the laws of reflection at a plane surface. Let us recall
these laws :
Law 1 The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface
at the point of incidence always lie in the same plane.
Law 2 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection :
i = r
B
A
normal
ay
tr
en
cid
in
M1
ted
lf ec
re
y
ra
M2
Fig. 20.1 : Reflection of light from

a plane surface
These are illustrated in Fig. 20.1. Though initially

stated for plane surfaces, these laws are also
true for spherical mirrors. This is because a
spherical mirror can be regarded as made up of
a large number of extremely small plane mirrors.
A well-polished spoon is a familiar example of a
spherical mirror. Have you seen the image of
your face in it? Fig. 20.2(a) and 20.2 (b) show
two main types of spherical mirrors.
norm
al
P
F
Principal
axis
Q
M
(a)
(b)
Fig. 20.2 : Spherical mirrors : a) a convex mirror, and b) a concave mirror
Note that the reflecting surface of a convex mirror curves outwards while that of a concave
mirror curves inwards. We now define a few important terms used for spherical mirrors.
The centre of the sphere, of which the mirror is a part, is called the centre of curvature
of the mirror and the radius of this sphere defines its radius of curvature. The middle
point O of the reflecting surface of the mirror is called its pole. The straight line passing
through C and O is said to be the principal axis of the mirror. The circular outline (or
166

periphery) of the mirror is called its aperture and the angle (MCM ) which the aperture
subtends at C is called the angular aperture of the mirror. Aperture is a measure of the
size of the mirror.
A beam of light incident on a spherical mirror parallel to the principal axis converges to or
appears to diverge from a common point after reflection. This point is known as principal
focus of the mirror. The distance between the pole and the principal focus gives the focal
length of the mirror. A plane passing through the focus perpendicular to the principal axis
is called the focal plane.
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Notes
We will consider only small aperture mirrors and rays close to the principal axis, called paraxial
rays. (The rays away from the principal axis are called marginal or parapheral rays.)

1.
Answer the following questions :

(a) Which mirror has the largest radius of curvature : plane, concave or convex?
(b) Will the focal length of a spherical mirror change when immersed in water?
(c) What is the nature of the image formed by a plane or a convex mirror?
(d) Why does a spherical mirror have only one focal point?
..................................................................................................................................
2.
Draw diagrams for concave mirrors of radii 5cm, 7cm and 10cm with common centre
of curvature. Calculate the focal length for each mirror. Draw a ray parallel to the
common principal axis and draw reflected rays for each mirror.
..................................................................................................................................
3.
The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is 30cm. What will be its focal length if
(i) the inside surface is silvered? (ii) outside surface is silvered?
..................................................................................................................................
4.
Why are dish antennas curved?

..................................................................................................................................
20.1.2 Ray Diagrams for Image Formation

Let us again refer to Fig. 20.2(a) and 20.2(b). You will note that
the ray of light through centre of curvature retraces its path.
the ray of light parallel to the principal axis, on reflection, passes through the
focus; and
the ray of light through F is reflected parallel to the principal axis.
To locate an image, any two of these three rays can be chosen. The images are of two
types : real and virtual.
Real image of an object is formed when reflected rays actually intersect. These images
are inverted and can be projected on a screen. They are formed on the same side as the
object in front of the mirror (Fig. 20.3(a)).
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Virtual image of an object is formed by reflected rays that appear to diverge from the
mirror. Such images are always erect and virual; these cannot be projected on a screen.
They are formed behind the mirror (Fig. 20.3(b)).
M
M
A
Notes
A
F
B B
C
B
(a)
C
OB = v
OB = u
BF
O
(b)
M
Fig. 20.3 : Image formed by a) concave mirror, and b) convex mirror
20.1.3 Sign Convention

We follow the sign convention based on the cartesian coordinate system. While using this
convention, the following points should be kept in mind:
1. All distances are measured from the pole
(O) of the mirror. The object is always
placed on the left so that the incident ray
is always taken as travelling from left
to right.
Object
(+ve height)
(ve distance)
(+ve distance)
image
(ve height)
Fig. 20.4 : Sign convention
Y
2. All the distances on the left of O are taken

as negative and those on the right of O as
positive.
3. The distances measured above and normal
to the principal axis are taken as positive
and the downward distances as negative.
The radius of curvature and the focal length
of a concave mirror are negative and those
for a convex mirror are positive.

In optics it is customary to denote
object distance by v. You should
not confuse it with velocity.
20.2 Derivation of Mirror Formula

We now look for a relation between the
object distance (u), the image distance (v)
and the local length f of a spherical mirror.
We make use of simple geometry to arrive
at a relation, which surprisingly is applicable
in all situations. Refer to Fig. 20.5,which
shows an object AB placed in front of a
concave mirror. The mirror produces an
image AB.
AX and AY are two rays from the point A on
the object AB, M is the concave mirror while
XA and YA are the reflected rays.
168
M
X
A
f
v
u
Fig. 20.5 : Image formation by a concave
mirror: mirror formula
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Using sign conventions, we can write

object distance, OB = u,
focal length, OF = f,
image distance, OB = v,
and
radius of curvature OC = 2f
Notes
Consider ABF and FOY. These are similar triangles. We can, therefore, write
AB
FB
=
OY
OF
(20.1)
Similarly, from similar triangles XOF and BAF, we have
XO
OF
=
AB
FB
(20.2)
But AB = XO, as AX is parallel to the principal axis. Also AB= OY. Since left hand sides
of Eqns. (20.1) and (20.2) are equal, we equate their right hand sides. Hence, we have
FB
OF
=
OF
FB
(20.3)
Putting the values in terms of u, v and f in Eqn. (20.3), we can write
f
u ( f )
=
v ( f )
f
u + f
f
f
= v + f
On cross multiplication, we get

uv uf vf + f 2 = f 2
or
uv = uf + vf
Dividing throughout by uvf, we get the desired relation between the focal length and the
object and image distances :
1 1
1
= +
v u
f
(20.4)
We next introduce another important term magnification. This indicates the ratio of the
size of image to that of the object :
size of the image

h2
m = size of the object = h
1
But
AB
v
=
AB
u
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m =
v
h2
=
u
h1
(20.5)
Since a real image is inverted, we can write

m =
Notes
AB
v
=
AB
u
(20.5b)
To solve numerical problems, remember the following steps :.

1. For any spherical mirror, use the mirror formula:
1
1 1
=
+
f
v
u
2. Substitute the numerical values of the given quantities with proper signs.
3. Do not give any sign to the quantity to be determined; it will automatically be obtained
with the relevant sign.
4. Remember that the linear magnification is negative for a real image and positive for a
virtual image.
5. It is always better to draw a figure before starting the (numerical) work.

1.
A person standing near a mirror finds his head look smaller and his hips larger. How
is this mirror made?
..................................................................................................................................
2.
Why are the shaving mirrors concave while the rear view mirrors convex? Draw ray
diagrams to support your answer.
..................................................................................................................................
3.
As the position of an object in front of a concave mirror of focal length 25cm is

varied, the position of the image also changes. Plot the image distance as a function
of the object distance letting the latter change from x to + x. When is the image
real? Where is it virtual? Draw a rough sketch in each case.
..................................................................................................................................
4.
Give two situations in which a concave mirror can form a magnified image of an
object placed in front of it. Illustrate your answer by a ray diagram.
..................................................................................................................................
5.
An object 2.6cm high is 24cm from a concave mirror whose radius of curvature is
16cm. Determine (i) the location of its image, and (ii) size and nature of the image.
..................................................................................................................................
170

6.
A concave mirror forms a real image four times as tall as the object placed 15cm
from it. Find the position of the image and the radius of curvature of the mirror.
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7.
A convex mirror of radius of curvature 20cm forms an image which is half the size of
the object. Locate the position of the object and its image.
..................................................................................................................................
8.
Notes
A monkey gazes in a polished spherical ball of 10cm radius. If his eye is 20cm from
the surface, where will the image of his eye form?
..................................................................................................................................
20.3 Refraction of Light

When light passes obliquely from a rarer medium (air) to a denser medium (water, glass),
there is a change in its direction of propagation. This bending of light at the boundary of
two dissimilar media is called refraction.
When a ray of light is refracted at an interface, it obeys the following two laws :
Law I : The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface at the point of
incidence always lie in the same plane.
Law II : The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction
is constant for a given pair of media. It is independent of the angle of incidence when light
propagates from a rarer to a denser medium. Moreover, for a light of given colour, the
ratio depends only on the pair of media.
This law was pronounced by the Dutch scientist Willebrord van Roijen Snell and in his
honour is often referred to as Snells law. According to Snells law
sin i
sin r = 12
where 12 is a constant, called the refractive index of second medium with respect to the
first medium, and determines how much bending would take place at the interface separating
the two media. It may also be expressed as the ratio of the velocity of light in the first
medium to the velocity of light in the second medium
12 =
c1
c2
Refractive indices of a few typical substances are given in Table 20.1.Note that these values
are with respect to air or vacuum. The medium having larger refractive index is optically
denser medium while the one having smaller refractive index is called rarer medium. So water
is denser than air but rarer than glass. Similarly, crown glass is denser than ordinary glass but
rarer than flint glass.
Table 20.1 : Refractive indices of

some
common
materials
Medium
Vacuum/air
Water
1.33
Ordinary glass
1.50
Crown glass
1.52
Dense flint glass
1.65
Diamond
2.42
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If we consider refraction from air to a medium like glass, which is optically denser than
air[Fig. 20.6 (a)], then r is less than i. On the other hand, if the ray passes from water
to air, r is greater than i [Fig. 20.6(b)]. That is, the refracted ray bends towards the
normal on the airglass interface and bends away from the normal on waterair interface.
normal
normal
Notes
in
d
ci
t
en
y
ra
air
glass
water
air
r
(a)
(b)
Fig. 20.6 : a) Refraction on airglass interface, and b) refraction on waterair interface
Willebrord Van Roijen Snell

(1580 1626)
Willebrord Snell was born in 1580 in Lieden. He began to study
mathematics at a very young age. He entered the University of
Leiden and initially studied law. But, soon he turned his attention
towards mathematics and started teaching at the university by
the time he was 20. In 1613, Snell succeded his father as
Professor of Mathematics.
He did some important work in mathematics, including the method of calculating the
approximate value of by polygon. His method of using 96 sided polygon gives the
correct value of up to seven places while the classical method only gave this value
upto two correct places. Snell also published some books including his work on comets.
However, his biggest contribution to science was his discovery of the laws of
refraction. However, he did not publish his work on refraction. It became known
only in 1703, seventy seven years after his death, when Huygens published his
results in Dioptrics.
20.3.1 Reversibility of light

Refer to Fig. 20.6(b) again. It illustrates the principle of reversibility. It appears as if the
ray of light is retracing its path. It is not always necessary that the light travels from air to
a denser medium. In fact, there can be any combination of transparent media. Suppose,
light is incident at a water-glass interface. Then, by applying Snells law, we have
172
sin iw
sin ig = wg
(20.6)
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Now, let us consider separate air-glass and air-water interfaces. By Snells law, we can
write
Notes
sin ia
sin ig = ag
and
sin ia
sin iw = aw
On combining these results, we get
ag sin ig = aw sin iw
(20.7)
This can be rewritten as
sin iw
ag
=
sin ig
aw
(20.8)
On comparing Eqns. (20.6) and (20.8), we get

wg =
ag
aw
(20.9)
This result shows than when light travels from water to glass, the refractive index
of glass with respect to water can be expressed in terms of the refractive indics
of glass and water with respect to air.
Example 20.1 : A ray of light is incident at an angle of 30o at a water-glass interface.
Calculate the angle of refraction. Given ag = 1.5, aw = 1.3.
Solution : From Eqn. (20.8), we have
sin iw
ag
=
sin ig
aw
sin 300
1.5
sin ig = 1.3
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1.3
1
sin ig =

2
1.5
= 0.4446
i g = 25o41
or
or
Notes
Example 20.2 : Calculate the speed of light in water if its refractive index with respect
to air is 4/3. Speed of light in vacuum = 3 108 ms1.
=
v =
or
c
v
(3 108 ms 1 )
4/3
3 108 3
4
= 2.25 108 ms1
Example 20.3 : The refractive indices of glass and water are 1.52 and 1.33 respectively.
Calculate the refractive index of glass with respect to water.
Solution : Using Eqn. (20.9), we can write
wg =
ag
aw
1.52
= 1.14
1.33

1.
What would be the lateral displacement when a light beam is incident normally on a
glass slab?
..................................................................................................................................
2.
Trace the path of light if it is incident on a semicircular glass slab towards its centre
when i < ic and i > ic.
..................................................................................................................................
3.
How and why does the Earths atmosphere alter the apparant shape of the Sun and
Moon when they are near the horizon?
..................................................................................................................................
4.
Why do stars twinkle?

..................................................................................................................................
5.
Why does a vessel filled with water appear to be shallower (less deep) than when
without water? Draw a neat ray diagram for it.
..................................................................................................................................
174

6.
Calculate the angle of refraction of light incident on water surface at an angle of 52.
Take = 4/3.
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20.4 Total Internal Reflection
Notes
Activity 20.1
Take a stick, cover it with cycle grease and then dip it in water or take a narrow glass
bottle, like that used for keeping Homeopathic medicines, and dip it in water. You will
observe that the stick or the bottle shine almost like silver. Do you know the reason? This
strange effect is due to a special case of refraction. We know that when a ray of light
travels from an optically denser to an optically rarer medium, say from glass to air or from
water to air, the refracted ray bends away from the normal. This means that the angle of
refraction is greater than the angle of incidence. What happens to the refracted ray when
the angle of incidence is increased? The bending of refracted ray also increases. However,
the maximum value of the angle of refraction can be 90o. The angle of incidence in the
denser medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer medium, air in this case,
equals 90 is called the critical angle, iC. The refracted ray then moves along the
boundary separating the two media. If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical
angle, the incident ray will be reflected back in the same medium, as shown in Fig. 20.7(c).
Such a reflection is called Total Internal Reflection and the incident ray is said to be
totally internally reflected. For total internal reflection to take place, the following two
conditions must be satisfied.
Light must travel from an optically denser to an optically rarer medium.
The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle
for the two media.
The glass tube in water in Activity 20.1 appeared silvery as total internal reflection took
place from its surface.
An expression for the critical angle in terms of the refractive index may be obtained
readily, using Snells law. For refraction at the glass-air interface, we can write
sin i
= ga
sin r
R
r
air
glass
O
i
(a)
90
air
glass
air
glass
ic
ic
(b)
(c)
Fig. 20.7 : Refraction of light as it travels from glass to air for a) i < ic , b) i = ic and
c) i > ic
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Putting r = 90 for i = ic, we have
sin ic
ga
sin 90o =
or
Notes
Hence
Table 20.2 : Critical angles for
a few substances
Substance
Critical
angle
1.33
48.75
Crown glass
1.52
41.14o
2.42
Diamond
Dense flint
glass
Example 20.4 : Refractive index of glass is 1.52. Calculate the critical angle for glass
air interface.
= 1/sin ic
sin ic = 1/ =
24.41
1.65
37.31
ag = 1 = 1
ga
sin ic
The critical angles for a few substances are given in Table 20.2
Water
sin ic = ga
1
1.52
ic = 42
Much of the shine in transparent substances is due to total internal reflection. Can you
now explain why diamonds sparkle so much? This is because the critical angle is quite
small and most of the light entering the crystal undergoes multiple internal reflections
before it finally emerges out of it.
In ordinary reflection, the reflected beam is always weaker than the incident beam, even
if the reflecting surface is highly polished. This is due to the fact that some light is always
transmitted or absorbed. But in the case of total internal reflection, cent percent (100%)
light is reflected at a transparent boundary.
20.4.1 Applications of Refraction and Total Internal Reflection

There are many manifestations of these phenomena in real life situations. We will consider
only a few of them.
(a) Mirage : Mirage is an optical illusion which is observed in deserts or on tarred roads
in hot summer days. This, you might have observed, creates an illusion of water, which
actually is not there.
Due to excessive heat, the road gets very hot and the air in contact with it also gets heated
up. The densities and the refractive indices of the layers immediately above the road are
lower than those of the cooler higher layers. Since there is no abrupt change in medium
(see Fig. 20.9), a ray of light from a distant object, such as a tree, bends more and more as
it passes through these layers. And when it falls on a layer at an angle greater than the
critical angle for the two consecutive layers, total internal reflection occurs. This produces
an inverted image of the tree giving an illusion of reflection from a pool of water.
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Cold air
Warm air
Road
Hot air
Notes
Fig. 20.8 : Formation of mirage
Totally Reflecting Prisms : A prism with right angled isosceles trianglur base or a totally
reflecting prism with angles of 90o, 45o and 45o is a very useful device for reflecting light.
Refer to Fig. 20.9(a). The symmetry of the prism allows light to be incident on O at an
angle of 45, which is greater than the critical angle for glass i.e. 42o. As a result, light
suffers total internal reflection and is deviated by 90.
Incident ray
o
P 45
45
90
45o
45o
o
45
N
O
45o 90
45o
P
O
45
Fig. 20.9 : Totally reflecting prisms
Choosing another face for the incident rays, it will be seen (Fig. 20.9(b)) that the ray gets
deviated through 1800 by two successive total internal reflections taking place at O and O .
low (cladding)
Optical Fibres
High (core)
Fig. 20.10 : Multiple reflection in an optical fibre
An optical fibre is a hair-thin structure of glass or quartz. It has an inner core which is
covered by a thin layer (called cladding) of a material of slightly lower refractive index.
For example, the refractive index of the core is about 1.7 and that of the cladding is 1.5.
This arrangement ensures total internal reflection. You can easily understand it, if you
recall the conditions for total internal reflection.
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Notes
Physics
When light is incident on one end of the fibre at a small angle, it undergoes multiple total
internal reflections along the fibre (Fig. 20.10). The light finally emerges with undiminished
intensity at the other end. Even if the fibre is bent, this process is not affected. Today
optical fibres are used in a big way. A flexible light pipe using optical fibres may be used in
the examination of inaccessible parts of the body e.g. laproscopic examination of stomach,
urinary bladder etc. Other medical applications of optical fibres are in neurosurgery and
study of bronchi. Besides medical applications, optical fibres have brought revolutionary
changes in the way we communicate now. Each fibre can carry as many as 10,000 telephone
messages without much loss of intensity, to far off places. That is why millions of people
across continents can interact simultaneously on a fibre optic network.

1.
Why cant total internal reflection take place if the ray is travelling from a rarer to a
denser medium?
..................................................................................................................................
2.
Critical angle for glass is 42o. Would this value change if a piece of glass is immersed
in water? Give reason for your answer.
..................................................................................................................................
3.
Show, with the help a ray diagram how, a ray of light may be deviated through 90o
using a i) plane mirror, and ii) totally reflecting prism. Why is the intensity of light
greater in the second case?
..................................................................................................................................
4.
A liquid in a container is 25cm deep. What is its apparant depth when viewed from
above, if the refractive index of the liquid is 1.25? What is the critical angle for the
liquid?
..................................................................................................................................
20.5 Refraction at a Spherical Surface

We can study formation of images of objects placed around spherical surfaces such as
glass marbles (Kanchas), water drops, glass bottle, etc. For measuring distances from
spherical refracing surfaces, we use the same sign convention as applicable for spherical
mirrors. Refer to Fig. 20.11.
SPS is a convex refracting surface separating two media, air and glass. C is its centre of
curvature. P is a point on SPS almost symmetrically placed. You may call it the pole. CP
is then the principal axis. O is a point object. OA is an incident ray and AB is the refracted
ray. Another ray OP falls on the surface normally and goes undeviated after refraction.
PC and AB appear to come from I. Hence I is the virtual image of O.
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S
A
MODULE - 6
B
r
Glass
h
Notes
C
S
Fig. 20.11 : Refraction at a spherical surface
Let OAN = i, the angle of incidence and CAB = r, the angle of refraction. Using the
proper sign convention, we can write
PO = u ; PI = v ; PC = + R
Let , , and be the angles subtended by OA, IA and CA, respectively with the principal
axis and h the height of the normal dropped from A on the principal axis. In OCA and
ICA, we have
and
i =+
(i is exterior angle)
(20.10)
r =+
(r is exterior angle)
(20.11)
From Snells law, we recall that
sin i
sin r =
where is the refractive index of the glass surface with respect to air. For a surface of
small aperture, P will be close to A and so i and r will be very small (sin i ~ i, sin r ~ r). The
above equation, therefore, gives
i = r
(20.12)
Substituting the values of i and r in Eqn. (20.12) from Eqns. (20.10) and (20.11) respectively,
we get
+ = ( + )
or
= ( 1)
(20.13)
As , and are very small, we can take tan ~ , and tan ~ , and tan ~ . Now
referring to OAM in Fig. 20.11, we can write
tan =
h
AM
AP
=
=
MO
PO
u
(if M is very near to P)
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and
Notes
tan =
h
AM
AM
=
=
MI
PI
v
tan =
h
AM
AM
=
=
MC
PC
R
Substituting for , and in Eqn. (20.13), we get
h
h
h
= ( 1)
v
u
R
or
1
1
=
R
v
u
(20.14)
This important relationship correlates the object and image distances to the refractive
index and the radius of curvature of the refracting surface.
20.5.1 Reflection through lenses

A lens is a thin piece of transparent material (usually glass) having two surfaces, one or
both of which are curved (mostly spherical). You have read in your earlier classes that
lenses are mainly of two types, namely, convex lens and concave lens. Each of them is
sub-divided into three types as shown in Fig. 20.12. Thus, you can have plano-convex and
plano-concave lenses too.
Basic Nomenclature
Thin lens : If the thickness of a
lens is negligible in comparison to
the radii of curvature of its curved
surfaces, the lens is referred to
as a thin lens. We will deal with
thin lenses only.
(a) Bi-convex
Plano-convex
Concavo convex
Principal axis is the line joining

the centres of curvature of two
surfaces of the lens.
Optical centre is the point at the
centere of the lens situated on the
principal axis. The rays passing
through the optical centre do not
deviate.
(b) Biconcave
plano- Convex concavo

concave
Fig. 20.12 : Types of lenses
Principal focus is the point at which rays parallel and close to the principal axis converge
to or appear to diverge. It is denoted by F (Fig. 20.13) Rays of light can pass through a lens
in either direction. So every lens has two principal focii, one on its either side.
180

Focal length is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus. In Fig.
20.13, OF is focal length (f). As per the sign convention, OF is positive for a convex lens
and negative for a concave lens.
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Focal plane is the plane passing through the focus of a lens perpendicular to its principal
axis.
Notes
Principal
Axis
f
Fig. 20.13 : Foci of a) convex, and b) concave lenses
20.5.2 Lens Makers Formula and Magnification

You can now guess that the focal length must be related to the radius of curvature and the
refractive index of the material of the lens. Suppose that a thin convex lens L is held on an
optical bench (Fig. 20.14). Let the refractive index of the material of the lens with respect
to air be and the radii of curvatures of its two surfaces be R1 and R2 , respectively. Let
a point object be situated on the principal axis at P. C1 and C2 are the centres of curvature
of the curved surfaces 1 and 2, respectively.
1
I
N1
1
1
B
N2
Q
2
O
C2
R2
u
I'
R1
v1
v =u'
Since the lens used is actually

thin, points A and B may be
considered very close to point a
and hence C1A is taken equal to
C1Q and C2B as C2Q.
L
Fig. 20.14 : Point image of a point object for by a thin double convex lens
A ray from P strikes surface 1 at A. C1 N1 is normal to surface 1 at the point A. The ray
PA travels from the rarer medium (air) to the denser medium (glass), and bends towards
the normal to proceed in the direction AB. The ray AB would meet the principal axis C2C1
at the point I in the absence of the surface 2. Similarly, another ray from P passing
through the optical centre O passes through the Point I . I is thus the virtual image of the
object P.
Then object distance OP = u and image distance OI = v1 (say). Using Eqn. (20.14) we
can write
1
1
=
R1
v1 u
(20.15)
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Notes
Physics
Due to the presence of surface 2, the ray AB strikes it at B. C2N2 is the normal to it at point
B. As the ray AB is travelling from a denser medium (glass) to a rarer medium (air), it
bends away from the normal C2N2 and proceeds in the direction BI and meets another ray
from P at I. Thus I is image of the object P formed by the lens. It means that image
distance OI = v.
Considering point object O, its virtual image is I (due to surface 1) and the final image is
I. I is the virtual object for surface 2 and I is the final image. Then for the virtual object
I and the final image I, we have, object distance OI = u = v1 and image distance
OI = v.
On applying Eqn. (20.12) and cosidering that the ray AB is passing from glass to air, we
have
(1/ ) 1
(1/ ) 1
+
=
v
v1
R2
or,
1
1
1
=
R2
v v1
Multiping both sides by , we get
1
1
=
v v1
R2
Adding Eqns. (20.15) and (20.16), we have
(20.16)
1
1
1 1
= ( 1)
u
v
R1 R2
(20.17)
It u = , that is the object is at infinity, the incoming rays are parallel and after refraction
will converge at the focus (v = f ). Then Eqn. (20.17) reduces to
1
= ( 1)
f
1
1

R1 R2
(20.18)
This is called lens makers formula.

From Eqns. (20.17) and (20.18), we can conclude that
The focal length of a lens depends on the radii of curvature of spherical surfaces.
Focal length of a lens of larger radii of curvature will be more.
Focal length of a lens is smaller if the refractive index of its material is high.
In case a lens is dipped in water or any other transparent medium, the value of changes
and you can actually work out that focal length will increase. However, if the density of
the medium is more than that of the material of the lens, say carbon disulphide, the rays
may even diverge.
182
20.6 Formation of Images by Lenses
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The following properties of the rays are used in the formation of images by lenses:
A ray of light through the optical centre of the lens passes undeviated.
A parallel ray, after refraction, passes through the principal focus.
A ray of light through F or F is rendered parallel to the principal axis after refraction.
Notes
Any two of these rays can be chosen for drawing ray diagrams.
The lens formula
1
1
1
=
suggests the dependence of the image distance (v) on the
f
v
u
object distance (u) and the focal length (f ) of the lens.

The magnification of a lens is defined as the ratio of the height of the image formed
by the lens to the height of the object and is denoted by m :
m =
I
v
=
O
u
where I is height of the image and O the height of the object.

Example 20.5 : The radii of curvature of a double convex lens are 15cm and 30cm,
respectively. Calculate its focal length. Also, calculate the focal length when it is immersed
in a liquid of refractive index 1.65. Take of glass = 1.5.
Solution : From Eqn. (20.18) we recall that
1
= ( 1)
f
1
1

R1 R2
Here R1= + 15cm, and R2 = 30cm. On substituting the given data, we get
1
1
1
= (1.5 1)
f
15 30
f = 20 cm
When the lens is immersed in a liquid, will be replaced by lg:

lg =
=
ag
al
1.5
10
=
1.65 11
Therefore
1
1
1
=
(
1)
lg
fl
R1 R2
1
10 1
= 1
11 15 30
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1
110
f = 110cm
=
As f is negative, the lens indeed behaves like a concave lens.
Notes
20.7 Power of a Lens

A practical application of lenses is in the correction of the defects of vision. You may be
using spectacles or seen other learners, parents and persons using spectacles. However,
when asked about the power of their lens, they simply quote a positive or negative number.
What does this number signify? This number is the power of a lens in dioptre. The power
of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in metre:
P =
1
f
The S1 unit of power of a lens is m1. Dioptre is only a commercial unit generally used by
opticians. The power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative.
Note that greater power implies smaller focal length. Using lens makers formula, we can
relate power of a lens to its radii of curvature:
1
1

R1 R2
1
= ( 1)
f
1
1
P = ( 1) R R
1
2
Example 20.6 : Calculate the radius of curvature of a biconvex lens with both surfaces
of equal radii, to be made from glass ( = 1.54), in order to get a power of +2.75 dioptre.
1
1
Solution :
P = ( 1) R R
1
2
or
P = +2.75 dioptre
= 1.54
R1 = R
and
R2 = R
Substuting the given values in lens makers formula, we get

2
2.75 = (0.54)
R
R =
0.54 2
2.75
= 0.39 m
= 39 cm
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20.8 Combination of Lenses

Refer to Fig. 20.15. Two thin convex lenses A and B having focal lengths f1 and f2,
respectively have been kept in contact with each other. O is a point object placed on the
A
Notes
I
O
I1
v1
Fig. 20.15 : Two thin convex lenses in contact
common principal axis of the lenses.

Note that lens A forms the image of object O at I1. This image serves as the virtual
object for lens B and the final image is thus formed at I. If v be the object distance and v1
the image distance for the lens A, then using the lens formula, we can write
1
1
1
=
f1
u
v1
(20.19)
If v is the final image distance for the lens B, we have
1
1
1
=
f2
v1
v
(20.20)
Note that in writing the above expression, we have taken v1 as the object distance for the
thin lens B.
Adding Eqns. (20.19) and (20.20), we get
1
1
1
1
=
+
f2
u
v
f1
(20.21)
If the combination of lenses is replaced by a single lens of focal length F such that it forms
the image of O at the same position I, then this lens is said to be equivalent to both the
lenses. It is also called the equivalent lens for the combination. For the equivalent lens,
we can write
1
1
1
=
F
v
u
(20.22)
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where
1
1
1
=
+
.
F
f2
f1
Notes
(20.23)
If P is power of the equivalent lens and P1 and P2 are respectively the powers of individual
lenses, then
P = P1 + P2
(20.24)
Note that Eqns.(20.23) and (20.24) derived by assuming two thin convex lenses in contact
also hold good for any combination of two thin lenses in contact (the two lenses may both
be convex, or concave or one may be concave and the other convex).
Example 20.7 : Two thin convex lenses of focal lengths 20cm and 40cm are in contact
with each other. Calculate the focal length and the power of the equivalent lens.
Solution : The formula for the focal length of the combination
1
1
1
= f + f gives
F
1
2
1
1
1
=
+
F
20
40
=
or
3
40
F =
40
= 13.3cm = 0.133cm
3
P =
1
1
=
= +7.5 dioptre.
F
0.133
Power of the equivalent lens is

1.
On what factors does the focal length of a lens depend?

..................................................................................................................................
2.
A lens, whose radii of curvature are different, is used to form the image of an object
placed on its axis. If the face of the lens facing the object is reversed, will the position
of the image change?
..................................................................................................................................
3.
The refractive index of the material of an equi-double convex lens is 1.5. Prove that
the focal length is equal to the radius of curvature.
..................................................................................................................................
4.
What type of a lens is formed by an air bubble inside water?

..................................................................................................................................
186

5.
A lens when immersed in a transparent liquid becomes invisible. Under what condition
does this happen?
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..................................................................................................................................
6.
Calculate the focal length and the power of a lens if the radii of curvature of its two
surfaces are +20cm and 25cm ( = 1.5).
..................................................................................................................................
7.
Notes
Is it possible for two lenses in contact to produce zero power?

..................................................................................................................................
8.
A convex lens of focal length 40cm is kept in contact with a concave lens of focal
length 20cm. Calculate the focal length and the power of the combination.
..................................................................................................................................
Defects in image formation

Lenses and mirrors are widely used in our daily life. It has been observed that they
do not produce a point image of a point object. This can be seen by holding a lens
against the Sun and observing its image on a paper. You will note that it is not exactly
circular. Mirrors too do not produce a perfect image. The defects in the image formation
are known as aberrations. The aberrations depend on (i) the quality of lens or
mirror and (ii) the type of light used.
Two major aberrations observed in lenses and mirrors, are (a) spherical aberration
and (b) chromatic aberration. These aberration produce serious defects in the
images formed by the cameras, telescopes and miscroscopes etc.
Spherical Aberration
This is a monochromatic defect in image formation which arises due to the sphericity
and aperture of the refracting or reflecting surfaces. The paraxial rays and the marginal
rays form images at different points Ip and Im respectively (Fig. 20.16)
C
E
Im
(a)
Ip Im
Ip
(b)
Fig. 20.16 : Spherical aberration in a) spherical mirror, and b) lens. Ip is image formed by the
paraxial rays and Im that formed by the marginal rays.
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The spherical aberration in both mirrors and lenses can be reduced by allowing
only the paraxial rays to be incident on the surface. It is done by using stops.
Alternatively, the paraxial rays may be cut-off by covering the central portion, thus
allowing only the marginal or parapheral rays to form the image. However, the use
of stops reduces the brightness of the image.
A much appreciated method is the use of elliptical or parabolic mirrors.
Notes
The other methods to minimize spherical aberration in lenses are : use of plano
convex lenses or using a suitable combination of a convex and a concave lens.
Chromatic Aberration in Lenses

A convex lens may be taken as equivalent to two small-angled prisms placed base to
base and the concave lens as equivalent to such prisms placed vertex to vertex.
Thus, a polychromatic beam incident on a lens will get dispersed. The parallel beam
will be focused at different coloured focii. This defect of the image formed by spherical
lenses is called chromatic aberration. It occurs due to the dispersion of a
polychromatic incident beam (Fig. 20.17. Obviously the red colour is focused farther
from the lens while the blue colour is focused nearer the lens (in a concave lens the
focusing of the red and blue colours takes place in the same manner but on the
opposite side of it).
Fr
Fr
Fv
Fv
(a)
(b)
Fig. 20.17: Chromatic aberration
To remove this defect we combine a convergent lens of suitable material and focal
length when combined with a divergent lens of suitable focal length and material.
Such a lens combination is called an achromatic doublet . The focal length of the
concave lens can be found from the necessary condition for achromatism given by
1
2
+
f1
f2 = 0

Real image is formed when reflected rays actually intersect after reflection. It can be
projected on a screen.
The focal length is half of the radius of curvature.

f =
188
R
2

The object and image distances are related to magnification as
m =
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v
u
Refraction of light results in change in the speed of light when it travels from one
medium to another. This causes the rays of light to bend towards or away from the
normal.
The refractive index determines the extent of bending of light at the interface of
two media.
Snells law is mathematically expressed as
Notes
sin i
= 12
sin r
where i is the angle of incidence in media 1 and r is the angle of refraction in media 2.
Total internal reflection is a special case of refraction wherein light travelling from a
denser to a rarer media is incident at an angle greater than the critical angle:
=
1
sin iC
Any transparent media bounded by two spherical surfaces or one spherical and one
plane surface forms a lens.
Images by lenses depend on the local length and the distance of the object from it.
Convex lenses are converging while concave lenses are diverging.
1
1
1
= ( 1) R R
f
1
2
m=
v
u
and
1 1 1
=
f v u
are simple relationships between the focal length (f), the refractive index, the radii of
curvatures (R1, R2), the object distance (u) and the image distance (v).
Power of a lens indicates how diverging or converging it is:
P =
1
f
Power is expressed in dioptre. (or m1 in SI units)

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The focal length F of an equivalent lens when two their lenses of focal lengths f1 and
f2 one kept in contact is given by
1
1
1
=
+
f1
f2
F
Notes
Terminal Exercises
1. List the uses of concave and convex mirrors.
2. What is the nature and position of image formed when the object is at (i) infinity (ii) 2
f (iii) f in case of concave mirror and convex mirror.
3. List the factors on which lateral displacement of an incident ray depends as it suffers
refraction through a parallel-sided glass slab? Why is the lateral displacement larger if
angle of incidence is greater. Show this with the help of a ray diagram.
4. State conditions for total internal reflection of light to take place.
5. How is +1.5 dioptre different from 1.5 dioptre? Define dioptre.
6. Why does the intensity of light become less due to refraction?
7. A lamp is 4m from a wall. Calculate the focal length of a concave mirror which forms
a five times magnified image of the lamp on the wall. How far from the wall must the
mirror be placed?
8. A dentists concave mirror has a radius of curvature of 30cm. How far must it be
placed from a cavity in order to give a virtual image magnified five times?
9. A needle placed 45cm from a lens forms an image on a screen placed 90cm on the
other side of the lens. Identify the type of the lens and determine its focal length. What
is the size of the image, if the size of the needle is 5.0cm?
10. An object of size 3.0cm is placed 14cm in front of a concave lens of focal length 21
cm. Describe the nature of the image by the lens. What happens if the object is moved
farther from the lens?
11. An object is placed at a distance of 100cm from a double convex lens which forms a
real image at a distance of 20cm. The radii of curvature of the surfaces of a lens are
25cm and 12.5 cm respectively. Calculate the refractive index of the material of the
lens.
12. A ray of light is travelling from diamond to glass. Calculate the value of the critical
190

angle for the ray, if the refractive index of glass is 1.51 and that of diamond 2.47.
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13. A small object is placed at a distance of 15cm from two coaxial thin convex lenses in
contact. If the focal length of each lens is 20cm. Calculate the focal length and the
power of the combination and the distance between the object and its image.
Notes

20.1
1. (a) plane mirror (its radius of curvature is infinitely large).
(b) No. The focal length of a spherical mirror is half of its radius of curvature
(f ~ R/2) and has nothing to do with the medium in which it is immersed.
(c) Virtual
(d) This is because the rays parallel to the principal axis converge at the focal point F;
and the rays starting from F, after reflection from the mirror, become parallel to
the principal axis. Thus, F serves both as the first and the second focal point.
2. Focal lengths : 2.5cm, 3.5cm, 5cm.
P3
F3
P1
P2
F2
F1
5cm
7cm
10cm
35cm
2.5cm
5cm
3. f = 15cm; f = +15cm.
4. The dish antennas are curved so that the incident parallel rays can be focussed on the
receiver.
20.2
1. The upper part of the mirror must be convex and its lower part concave.
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2. Objects placed close to a concave mirror give an enlarged image. Convex mirrors
give a diminished erect image and have a larger field of view.
A'
Notes
Q
P
B'
A
B F
A'
B'
(a) Image formed by concave mirror
(b) Image formed by convex mirror
3. for |u| > f, we get real image; u = 2f is a special case when an object kept as the
centre of curvature of the mirror forms a real image at this point itself (v = 2f ). For
u < f, we get virtual image.
45
4. When (i) u < f, and (ii) f < u < 2f.

A
Q
P
B
B F
Q
P
A
C
A
F
B 2F
B
5. (i) 12cm in front of mirror, real and inverted, (ii) 0.8cm

6. v = 60cm, R = 24cm
8. v = 4cm
192
7. u = 10cm, v = +5cm
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20.3
1. No lateral displacement.
Notes
2.
r > i when i < i
Total internal reflection where i > ic
3. The density of air and hence its refractive index decrease as we go higher in altitude.
As a result, the light rays from the Sun, when it is below the horizon, pass from the
rarer to the denser medium and bend towards the normal, till they are received by the
eye of the observer. This causes the shape to appear elongated.
4. Due to the change in density of the different layers of air in the atmosphere, changes
continuously. Therefore, the refractive index of air varies at different levels of
atmosphere. This along with air currents causes twinkling of stars.
5. Due to refraction point P appears at P .
P
P
6. 36.20
20.4
1. Total internal reflection cannot take place if the ray travels from a rarer to a denser
medium as the angle of refraction will always be less than the angle of incidence.
2. Yes the critical angle will change as
ag =
g =
1
sin ic
ag
aw
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45
45
3.
The intensity in the second case is more due to total internal reflection.
Notes
4. 20cm, ic = sin1 0.8
20.5
2. No. Changing the position of R1 and R2 in the lens makers formula does not affect
the value of f. So the image will be formed in the same position.
3. Substitute R1 = R; R2 = R and = 1.5 in the lens makers formula. You will get
f = R.
4. Concave lens. But it is shaped like a convex lens.
5. This happens when the refractive index of the material of the lens is the same as that
of the liquid.
6. f = 22.2 cm and P = 4.5 dioptre
7. Yes, by placing a convex and a concave lens of equal focal length in contact.
8. 40cm, 2.5 dioptre

7. f = 0.83, 5m.
8. 12cm
9. f = 30cm, size of image = 10cm, converging lens

10. The image is erect, virtual and diminished in size, and located at 8.4cm from the lens
on the same side as the object. As the object is moved away from the lens, the virtual
image moves towards the focus of the lens but never beyond and progressively
diminshes in size.
11. = 1.5
13. 10cm, 10 dioptre, 45 cm.
194
12. 37.7
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21
DISPERSION AND SCATTERING
OF LIGHT
I n the previous lesson you have learnt about reflection, refraction and total internal
reflection of light. You have also learnt about image formation by mirrors and lenses and
their uses in daily life. When a narrow beam of ordinary light is refracted by a prism, we
see colour bands. This phenomenon has to be other than reflection or refraction. The
splitting of white light into its constituent colours or wavelengths by a medium is
called dispersion. In this lesson, you will study about this phenomenon. A beautiful
manifestation of this phenomenon in nature is in the form of rainbow. You will also learn in
this lesson about the phenomenon of scattering of light, which gives sky its blue colour and
the sun red colour at sunrise and sunset.
Objectives
explain dispersion of light;
derive relation between the angle of deviation (), angle of prism (A) and refractive
index of the material of the prism ();
relate the refractive index with wavelength and explain dispersion through a
prism;
explain formation of primary and secondary rainbows; and
explain scattering of light and list its applications.
21.1 Dispersion of Light

Natural phenomena like rings around planets (halos) and formation of rainbow etc. cannot
be explained by the rectilinear propagation of light. To understand such events, light is
considered as having wave nature. (You will learn about it in the next lesson.) As you
know, light waves are transverse electromagnetic waves which propagate with speed
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Notes
Physics
3 108 ms1 in vacuum. Of the wide range of electromagnetic spectrum, the visible light
forms only a small part. Sunlight consists of seven different wavelengths corresponding to
seven colours. Thus, colours may be identified with their wavelengths. You have already
learnt that the speed and wavelength of waves change when they travel from one
medium to another. The speed of light waves and their corresponding wavelengths also
change with the change in the medium. The speed of a wave having a certain wavelength
becomes less than its speed in free space when it enters an optically denser medium.
The refractive index has been defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the
speed of light in the medium. It means that the refractive index of a given medium will be
different for waves having wavelengths 3.8 107 m and 5.8 107 m because these
waves travel with different speeds in the same medium. This variation of the refractive
index of a material with wavelength is known as dispersion. This phenomenon is
different from refraction. In free space and even in air, the speeds of all waves of the
visible light are the same. So, they are not separated. (Such a medium is called a nondispersive medium.) But in an optically denser medium, the component wavelengths (colours)
travel with different speeds and therefore get separated. Such a medium is called dispersive
medium. Does this suggest that light will exhibit dispersion whenever it passes through an
optically denser medium. Let us learn about it now.
21.1.1 Dispersion through a Prism

The separation of colours by a medium is not a sufficient condition to observe dispersion
of light. These colours must be widely separated and should not mix up again after emerging
from the dispersing medium. A glass slab (Fig. 21.1) is not suitable for observing dispersion
as the rays of the emergent beam are very close and parallel to the incident beam
incident
beam
Newton used a prism to demonstrate dispersion of light.

Refer to Fig. 21.2. White light from a slit falls on the
face AB of the prism and light emerging from face AC
is seen to split into different colours. Coloured patches
Glass slab
can be seen on a screen. The face AC increases the
separation between the rays refracted at the face AB.
The incident white light PQ thus splits up into its
component seven colours : Violet, indigo, blue, green,
yellow, orange and red (VIBGYOR). The wavelengths
Emergent
V R travelling with different speeds are refracted through
beam
Fig. 21.1 : Passage of light through different angles and are thus separated. This splitting
of white light into component colours is known as
a glass slab
dispersion. MR and MV correspond to the red and
violet light respectively. These colours on the screen produce the spectrum.
The bending of the original beam PQN along MR and MV etc. is known as deviation. The
angle between the emergent ray and the incident ray is known as the angle of deviation.
Thus v and r represent the angles of deviation for violet light and red light, respectively.
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A
N
M
Q
r v
R
Y
V
screen
C
Fig. 21.2 : Dispersion of light by a prism
Read the following example carefully to fix the ideas on variation of the refractive index
with the wavelength of light.
Example 21.1: A beam of light of average wavelength 600nm, on entering a glass
prism, splits into three coloured beams of wavelengths 384 nm, 589 nm and 760 nm
respectively. Determine the refractive indices of the material of the prism for these
wavelengths.
Solution : The refractive index of the material of the prism is given by
=
c
v
where c is speed of light in vacuum, and v is speed of light in the medium (prism).
Since velocity of a wave is product of frequency and wavelength, we can write
c = va
and
v = vm
where a and m are the wavelengths in air and medium respectively and v is the frequency
of light waves. Thus
=
v a
a
=
v m
m
For 384 nm wavelength, the refractive index is

1 =
600 10 9 m
= 1.56
384 10 9 m
2 =
600 10 9 m
= 1.02
58.9 10 9 m
For wave length of 589 nm :
and for 760nm wavelength :

600 10 9 m
= 0.8
3 =
760 10 9 m
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We have seen that the refractive index of a material depends on
the nature of the material, and
the wavelength of light.
An interesting outcome of the above example is that the variation in wavelength
Notes
( = 21) produces variation in the refractive index ( = 21). The ratio
is
known as the spectral dispersive power of the material of prism .
21.1.2 The Angle of Deviation

We would now establish the relation between the angle of incidence i, the angle of deviation
and the angle of prism A. Let us consider that a monochromatic beam of light PQ is
incident on the face AB of the principal section of the prism ABC [Fig.21.3]. On refraction,
it goes along QR inside the prism and emerges along RS from face AC. Let A BAC
be the refracting angle of the prism. We draw normals NQ and MR on the faces AB and
AC, respectively and produce them backward to meet at O. Then you can easily convince
yourself that NQP = i, MRS = e, RQO = r1, and QRO = r2 are the angle of
incidence, the angle of emergence and the angle of refraction at the faces AB and AC,
respectively. The angle between the emergent ray RS and the incident ray PQ at D is
known as the angle of deviation ().
Since MDR = , As it is the external angle of the triangle QDR, we can write
= DQR + DRQ
= (i r1) + (e r2)
= (i + e) (r1 + r2)
or
(21.1)
A
M
D
i
r1
r2
e
R
P
B
Fig. 21.3 : Refraction through a prism
You may recall that the sum of the internal angles of a quadrilateral is equal to 360. In the
quadrilateral AQOR, AQO = ARO = 900, since NQ and MR are normals on faces AB
and AC, respectively. Therefore
QAR + QOR = 1800
or
198
A + QOR = 1800
(21.2)

But in QOR
or
50
45
r1 + r2 + QOR = 1800
(21.3)
On comparing Eqns. (21.2) and (21.3), we have

r1 + r2 = A
(21.4)
Combining this result with Eqn. (21.1), we have

= (i + e) A
or
Optics and Optical

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55
OQR + QRO + QOR = 1800
MODULE - 6
i + e = A +
(21.5)
40
35
30
30 40 50 60 70
i
Fig. 21.4 :Plot between angle of
incidence i and angle
of deviation
Angle of Minimum Deviation

If we vary the angle of incidence i, the angle of deviation also changes; it becomes
minimum for a certain value of i and again starts increasing as i increases further (Fig.
21.4). The minimum value of the angle of deviation is called angle of minimum deviation
(m). It depends on the material of the prism and the wavelength of light used. In fact, one
angle of deviation may be obtained corresponding to two values of the angles of incidence.
Using the principle of reversibility of light, we find that the second value of angle of
incidence corresponds to the angle of emergence (e). In the minimum deviation position,
there is only one value of the angle of incidence. So we have
e = i
Using this fact in Eqn.(21.5) and replacing by m, we have
i =
+ m
2
(21.6)
Applying the principle of reversibility of light rays and under the condition e = i, we
can write
r1 = r2 = r , say
On substituting this result in Eqn. (21.4), we get

r =
(21.7)
The light beam inside the prism, under the condition of minimum deviation, passes
symmetrically through the prism and is parallel to its base. The refractive index of the
material of the prism is therefore given by
A + m
sin
2
sin i
=
=
A
sin r
sin
2
(21.8)
The refractive index can be calculated using Eqn.(21.8) for a monochromatic or a

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polychromatic beam of light. The value of m is different for different colours. It gives a
unique value of the angle of incidence and the emergent beam is brightest for this incidence.
For a prism of small angle A, keeping i and r small, we can write
sin i = i, sin r = r, and sin e = e
Hence
Notes
Also
sin i
i
=
sin r1
r1 or i = r1
sin e
e
=
sin r2
r2
or
e = r2
Therefore,
i + e = (r1 + r2)
Using this result in Eqns. (26.4) and (26.5), we get
A = A +
or
= ( 1)A
(21.9)
We know that depends on the wavelength of light. So deviation will also depend on the
wavelength of light. That is why V is different from R. Since the velocity of the red light
is more than that of the violet light in glass, the deviation of the red light would be less as
compared to that of the violet light.
V > R.
This implies that V > R. This change in the refractive index of the material with the
wavelength of light is responsible for dispersion phenomenon.
21.1.3 Angular Dispersion and Dispersive Power

The difference between the angles of deviation for any two wavelengths (colours) is
known as the angular dispersion for those wavelengths. The angular dispersion between
the red and violet wavelengths is V R. In the visible part of the spectrum, the wavelength
of the yellow colour is nearly the average wavelength of the spectrum. The deviation for
this colour Y may, therefore, be taken as the average of all deviations.
The ratio of the angular dispersion to the mean deviation is taken as the dispersive
power () of the material of the prism :
=
V R
Y
We can express this result in terms of the refractive indices using Eqn. (21.9) :
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( V 1) A ( R 1)A
=
( V 1)A
V R
= 1 =
1
Y
(21.10)
Example 21.2 : The refracting angle of a prism is 30 and its refractive index is 1.6.
Calculate the deviation caused by the prism.
= ( 1) A
On substituting the given data, we get
0.6
1o
= (1.6 1)
=
= 0.3o = 18
2
2
Example 21.3 : For a prism of angle A, the angle of minimum deviation is A/2. Calculate
its refractive index, when a monochromatic light is used. Given A = 60o
Solution : The refractive index is given by
A + m
sin
2
=
sin ( A / 2)
Now m = A/2 so that

3
3
A + A/2
sin A
sin A
sin
4
2
=
=
=
=
A
A
sin ( A / 2)
sin
sin
2
2
2 = 1.4

1.
Most ordinary gases do not show dispersion with visible light. Why?
..................................................................................................................................
2.
With your knowledge about the relative values of for the component colours of
white light, state which colour is deviated more from its original direction?
..................................................................................................................................
3.
Does dispersion depend on the size and angle of the prism?

..................................................................................................................................
4.
Calculate the refractive index of an equilateral prism if the angle of minimum deviation
is equal to the angle of the prism.
..................................................................................................................................
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Notes
Rainbow formation
Dispersion of sunlight through suspanded water drops in air produces a spectracular
effect in nature in the form of rainbow on a rainy day. With Sun at our back, we
can see a brighter and another fainter rainbow. The brighter one is called the
primary rainbow and the other one is said to be secondary rainbow. Sometimes
we see only one rainbow. The bows are in the form of coloured arcs whose
common centre lies at the line joining the Sun and our eye. Rainbow can also be
seen in a fountain of water in the evening or morning when the sun rays are
incident on the water drops at a definite angle.
Primary Rainbow
The primary rainbow is formed by two refractions and a single internal reflection
of sunlight in a water drop. (See Fig. 21.5(a)). Descartes explained that rainbow
is seen through the rays which have suffered minimum deviation. Parallel rays
from the Sun suffering deviation of 137.29 or making an angle of 42.31 at the
eye with the incident ray, after emerging from the water drop, produce bright
shining colours in the bow. Dispersion by water causes different colours (red to
violet) to make their own arcs which lie within a cone of 43o for red and 41o. for
violet rays on the outer and inner sides of the bow (Fig. 21.5 (b)).
Incid
ent s
un
water drop
light
Sunlight
R
V
A
O
4231
water drop
13729
e C
Direction of incident light
41 43
Direction of incident beam

(b)
(a)
Fig. 21.5 : (a) A ray suffering two refractions and one internal reflection in a drop of water. Mean
angle of minimum deviation is 13729, and (b) dispersion by a water drop.
Secondary Rainbow
The secondary rainbow is formed by two
refractions and two internal reflections
of light on the water drop. The angles of
minimum deviations for red and violet
colours are 231. and 234. respectively,
so they subtend a cone of 51. for the red
and 54. for the violet colour. From
Fig.21.6 it is clear that the red colour will
be on the inner and the violet colour on
the outer side of the bow.
V
R
R
V
Sun l
ight
V
R
51
Dire
54
ctio
n of
the i
ncid
ent
beam
Fig. 21.6 : Formation of the secondary rainbow
202

The simultaneous appearance of the primary and secondary rainbows is shown in
Fig.21.7. The space between the two bows is relatively dark. Note that the secondary
rainbow lies above the primary bow.
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secondary
rainbow
Sun-light
MODULE - 6
R
R
R
Primary
rainbow
R
V
40 42 52 55
Ground
Observer
Fig. 21.7 : Simultaneous formation of the primary and secondary rainbow.
21.2 Scattering of Light in Atmosphere

On a clear day when we look at the sky, it appears
blue. But the clouds appear white. Similarly, production
of brilliant colours when sunlight passes through jewels
and crystals also attracts our attention. You may like
to know : How and why does it happen? These
phenomena can be explained in terms of scattering
of light. A solution of dust or particle-free benzene
exposed to sunlight gives brilliant blue colour when
looked sideways.
Bulb enclosure
slit
white light
eye
scattered
blue light
21.2.1 Scattering of Light
milk particles
This phenomenon involves interaction of radiation with

matter. Tiny dust particles are present in Earths
atmosphere. When sunlight falls on them, it gets
diffused in all directions. That is why light reaches
even those nooks and corners where it normally is not
able to reach straight from the source.
milk mixed water
glass jar
Fig. 21.8 : The scattering of light

from milk particles
Let us perform a simple activity.
Activity 21.1
Take a glass jar or a trough, fill it with water and add a little milk to it. Now allow a narrow
beam of light from a white bulb to fall on it. Observe the light at 90o. You will see a bluish
beam through water. This experiment shows that after scattering, the wavelenghts of light
become a peculiarly different in a given direction (Fig. 21.14).
The phenomenon of scattering is a two step process : absorption of light by the scattering
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particle and then instant re-emission by it in all possible directions. Thus, this phenomenon
is different from reflection. The scattered light does not obey the laws of reflection. It is
important to note that the size of the particle must be less than the wavelength of light
incident on it. A bigger sized particle will scatter all the wavelengths equally. The intensity
of scattered light is given by Rayleighs law of scattering. According to this law, the
intensity of scattered light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of its
wavelength:
I
1
4
Here I is intensity and is wavelength of the scattered light. Thus, when white light is
incident on the scattering particle, the blue light is scattered the most and the red light is
scattered the least.
Example 21.4 : Waves of wavelength 3934, 5890 and 6867 are found in the
scattered beam when sunlight is incident on a thin layer of chimeny smoke. Which of
these is scattered more intensely?
Solution : The intensity of scattered light is given by
I
1
4
Since 3934 is the smallest wavelength, it will be scattered most intensely.

On the basis of scattering of light, we can explain why sky appears blue, clouds appear
white and the sun appears red at sunrise as well as at sunset.
C.V. Raman
(1888 1970)
Chandra Shekhar Venkat Raman is the only Indian national to receive
Nobel prize (1930) in physics till date. His love for physics was so
intense that he resigned his job of an officer in Indian finance
department and accepted the post of Palit Professor of Physics at
the Department of Physics, Calcutta University. His main
contributions are : Raman effect on scattering of light, molecular
diffraction of light, mechanical theory of bowed strings, diffraction
of X-rays, theory of musical instruments and physics of crystals.
As Director of Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and later as the founder Director
of Raman Research Institute, he did yeomans to Indian science and put it on firm
footings in pre-independence period.
(A) Blue Colour of the Sky
We know that scattering of light by air molecules, water droplets or dust particles present
in the atmosphere can be explained in accordance with Rayleighs law. The shorter
wavelengths are scattered more than the longer wavelengths. Thus, the blue light is scattered
almost six times more intensely than the red light as the wavelength of the blue light is
roughly 0.7 times that of the red. The scattered light becomes rich in the shorter
204

wavelengths of violet, blue and green colours. On further scattering, the violet light does
not reach observes eye as the eye is comparatively less sensitive to violet than blue and other
wavelengths in its neighbourhood. So, when we look at the sky far away from the sun, it
appears blue.
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Example 21.5 : What will be the colour of the sky for an astronant in a spaceship flying
at a high attitude.
Solution : At a high attitude, in the absence of dust particle and air molecules, the
sunlight is not scattered. So, the sky will appear black.
(B) White colour of the clouds
The clouds are formed by the assembly of small water drops whose size becomes more
than the average wavelength of the visible light (5000). These droplets scatter all the
wavelengths with almost equal intensity. The resultant scattered light is therefore white.
So, a thin layer of clouds appears white. What about dense clouds?
(C) Red colour of the Sun at Sunrise and Sunset
We are now able to understand the red colour of the Sun at sunrise and sunset. In the
morning and evening when the Sun is near the horizon, light has to travel a greater distance
through the atmosphere. The violet and blue wavelengths are scattered by dust particles
and air molecules at an angle of about 90o. The sunlight thus becomes devoid of shorter
wavelengths and the longer wavelength of red colour reaches the observer (Fig. 21.9). So
the Sun appears to us as red.
N
Sun at noon
E
Blue scattered less
Atmospheric particles
Observer
Earth
Sun at sunset
Near horizon
Blue scattered most
Fig. 21.9 : Red colour of the sun at sunset and sunrise (blue is scattered away).
At noon, the Sun is overhead and its distance from the observer is comparatively less. The
blue colour is also scattered less. This results in the Sun appearing white, as a matter of
fact, crimson.

1.
Why dense clouds appear black?
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..................................................................................................................................
2.
Why does the sky appear deep blue after rains on a clear day?
..................................................................................................................................
3.
Can you suggest an experiment to demonstrate the red colour of the Sun at sunrise
and sunset?
..................................................................................................................................
Notes
4.
The photographs taken from a satellite show the sky dark. Why?
..................................................................................................................................

Light of single wavelength or colour is said to be monochromatic but sunlight, which

has several colours or wavelengths, is polychromatic.
The splitting of light into its constituent wavelengths on entering an optically denser
medium is called dispersion.
A prism is used to produce dispersed light, which when taken on the screen, forms the
spectrum.
The angle of deviation is minimum if the angles of incidence and emergence become
equal. In this situation, the beam is most intense for that colour.
The angle of deviation and refractive index for a small-angled prism are connected by
the ralation = (1)A.
The rainbow is formed by dispersion of sunlight by raindrops at definite angles for

each colour so that the condition of minimum deviation is satisfied.
Rainbows are of two types : primary and secondary. The outer side of the primary
rainbow is red but the inner side is violet. The remaining colours lie in between to
follow the order (VIBGYOR). The scheme of colours gets reversed in the secondary
rainbow.
The blue colour of the sky, the white colour of clouds and the reddish colour of the Sun
at sunrise and sunset are due to scattering of light. The intensity of1 scattered light is
inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength I 4 . This is called
Rayleighs law. So the blue colour is scattered more than the red.
Terminal Exercise
1. For a prism, show that i + e = A + .
2. Would you prefer small-angled or a large-angled prism to produce dispersion. Why?
3. Under what condition is the deviation caused by a prism directly proportional to its
refractive index?
206

4. Explain why the sea water appears blue at high seas.
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5. The angle of minimum deviation for a 600 glass prism is 390. Calculate the refractive
index of glass.
6. The deviation produced for red, yellow and violet colours by a crown glass are 2.84o,
3.28o and 3.72o respectively. Calculate the dispersive power of the glass material.
7. Calculate the dispersive power for flint glass for the following data : C = 1.6444,
D= 1.6520 and F= 1.6637, where C, D & F are the Fraunhofer nomenclatures.
8. A lens can be viewed as a combination of two prisms placed with their bases together.
Can we observe dispersion using a lens. Justify your answer.
9. Human eye has a convex lens. Do we observe dispersion with unaided eye?

21.1
1. The velocity of propagation of waves of different wavelengths of visible light is almost
the same in most ordinary gases. Hence, they do not disperse visible light. Their refractive
index is also very close to 1.
2. Violet, because r > v and the velocity of the red light is more than that of the violet
light inside an optically denser medium.
3. No
sin 60
4. = sin 30 =
3 = 1.732
21.2
1. It absorbs sunlight
2. It becomes clear of dust particles and bigger water molecules. The scattering now
takes place strictly according to Rayleighs law.
3. We can take sodium thiosulphate solution in a round bottom flask and add a small
quality of sulphuric acid. On illuminating this solution with a high power bulb, we can
see a scenario similar to the colour of the sun at sunrise and sunset.
4. At very high altitudes no centres (particles) of scattering of sunlight are present. So
the sky appears dark.

5. 1.5
6. 0.27
7. 0.03
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22
Notes
WAVE PHENOMENA AND LIGHT

n the preceding two lessons of this module, you studied about reflection, refraction,
Idispersion
and scattering of light. To understand these, we used the fact that light travels
in a straight line. However, this concept failed to explain redistribution of energy when
two light waves were superposed or their bending around corners. These observed
phenomena could be explained only on the basis of wave nature of light. Christian Huygens,
who was a contemporary of Newton, postulated that light is a wave and the wave theory
of light was established beyond doubt through experimental observations on interference
and diffraction. In this lesson, you will also learn about polarisation, which conclusively
proved that light is a wave and transverse in nature.
Objectives
state Huygens principle and apply it to explain wave propagation;
explain the phenomena of interference and diffraction of light;
explain diffraction of light by a single-slit; and
show that polarisation of light established its wave nature; and
derive Brewsters law.
22.1 Huygens Principle

Huygens postulated that light is a wave, which
travels through a hypothetical medium called ether.
This hypothetical medium has the strange property
of occupying all space, including vacuum! The
vibrations from the source of light propagate in
the form of waves and the energy carried by them
is distributed equally in all directions.
The concept of wavefront is central
Huygensprinciple. Let us first understand what
208
Ray
Fig. 22.1: Circular wavefronts on the

surface of water
Wave Phenomena and Light
a wavefront is with the help of a simple activity.
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Optics and Optical
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22.1 Activity
Take a wide based trough full of water and drop a small piece of stone in it. What do you
observe? You will see that circular ripples due to the up and down motion of water molecules
spread out from the point where the stone touched the water surface. If you look carefully
at these ripples, you will notice that each point on the circumference of any of these
ripples is in the same state of motion i.e., each point on the circumference of a ripple
oscillates with the same amplitude and in the same phase. In other words, we can say that
the circumference of a ripple is the locus of the points vibrating in the same phase
at a given instant and is known as the wavefront. Therefore, the circular water ripples
spreading out from the point of disturbance on the water surface represent a circular
wavefront. Obviously, the distance of every point on a wavefront is the same from the
point of disturbance, i.e., the source of waves.
Notes
For a point source emitting light in an isotropic medium, the locus of the points where all
waves are in the same phase, will be a sphere. Thus, a point source of light emits spherical
wavefronts. (In two dimensions, as on the water surface, the wavefronts appear circular.)
Similarly, a line source of light emits cylindrical wavefronts. The line perpendicular to
the wavefront at a point represents the direction of motion of the wavefront at that
point. This line is called the ray of light and a collection of such rays is called a
beam of light. When the source of light is at a large distance, any small portion of the
wavefront can be considered to be a plane wavefront.
The Huygensprinciple states that
Each point on a wavefront becomes a source of secondary disturbance which spreads

out in the medium.
The position of wavefront at any later instant may be obtained by drawing a forward
common envelop to all these secondary wavelets at that instant.
In an isotropic medium, the energy carried by waves is transmitted equally in all

directions.
If the initial shape, position, the direction of motion and the speed of the wavefront is
known, its position at a later instant can be ascertained by geometrical construction.
Note that the wavefront does not travel in the backward direction.
To visualise Huygens construction, you may imagine a point source at the centre of a
hollow sphere. The outer surface of this sphere acts as a primary wavefront. If this
sphere is enclosed by another hollow sphere of larger radius, the outer surface of the
second hollow sphere will act as a secondary wavefront. (The nearest mechanical analogue
of such an arrangement is a football.) If the second sphere is further enclosed by another
sphere of still bigger radius, the surface of the outermost (third) sphere becomes secondary
wavefront and the middle (second) sphere acts as the primary wavefront. In two dimensions,
the primary and secondary wavefronts appear as concentric circles.
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Physics
22.1.1 Propagation of Waves
Now let us use Huygens principle to describe the propagation

of light waves in the form of propagation of wavefronts. Fig.
22.2 shows the shape and location of a plane wavefront AB at a
a
the time t = 0. You should note that the line AB lies in a plane
perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Dots represented by a,
b
b, c, on the wavefront AB are the sources of secondary b
wavelets. All these sources emit secondary wavelets at the
c
c
same time and they all travel with the same speed along the
direction of motion of the wavefront AB. In Fig. 22.2, the
d
d
circular arcs represent the wavelets emitted from a, b, c,
taking each point as center. These wavelets have been
t=T
obtained by drawing arcs of radius, r = vt, where v is the t = 0
velocity of the wavefront and t is the time at which we wish
D
B
to obtain the wavefront, The tangent, CD, to all these wavelets Fig. 22.2: Construction of a
represents the new wavefront at time t = T.
plane wave front
Let us take another example of Huygens construction
for an expanding circular wavefront. Refer to Fig.
22.3, which indicates a circular wavefront, centred
at O, at time t = 0. Position A, B, C represent
point sources on this wavefront. Now to draw the
wavefront at a later time t = T, what would you do?
You should draw arcs from the points A, B, C , of
radius equal to the speed of the expanding wavefront
multiplied by T. These arcs will represent secondary
wavelets. The tangents drawn to these arcs will
determine the shape and location of the expanding
circular wavefront at time T.
A'
A vT
F t = 0B
F'
B'
E O C
D
E'
C'
D'
Fig. 22.3: Construction of
circular wavefront
using Huygens
principle
We hope you have now understood the technique of Huygens construction. Now, you
may like to know the physical significance of Huygens construction. By determining
the shape and location of a wavefront at a subsequent instant of time with the help of its
shape and location at an earlier instant, we are essentially describing the propagation of
the wavefront. Therefore, Huygens construction enables us to describe wave motion.

1.
What is the relative orientation of a wavefront and the direction of propagation of the
wave?
..................................................................................................................................
2.
A source of secondary disturbance is emitting wavelets at an instant t = 0 s. Calculate

the ratio of the radii of wavelets at t = 3s and t = 6s.
..................................................................................................................................
210
22.2 Interference of Light
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Let us first perform a simple activity:
Activity 22.2
Prepare a soap solution by adding some detergent powder to water. Dip a wire loop into
the soap solution and shake it. When you take out the wire loop, you will find a thin film on
it. Bring this soap film near a light bulb and position yourself along the direction of the
reflected light from the film. You will observe beautiful colours. Do you know the reason?
To answer this question, we have to understand the phenomenon of interference of
light. In simple terms, interference of light refers to redistribution of energy due to
superposition of light waves from two coherent sources. The phenomenon of interference
of light was first observed experimentally by Thomas Young in 1802 in his famous two-slit
experiment. This experimental observation played a significant role in establishing the
wave theory of light. The basic theoretical principle involved in the phenomenon of
interference as well as diffraction of light is the superposition principle.
Notes
22.2.1 Youngs Double Slit Experiment

Youngs experimental set up is shown schematically in Fig. 22.4. In his experiment, sunlight
was allowed to pass through a pin hole S and then, at some distance away, through two
pin holes S1 and S2 equidistant from S and close to each other. According to Huygens
wave theory of light, spherical wavefronts would spread out from the pin hole S which get
divided into two wavefronts by S1 and S2. If S is illuminated by a monocromatic source of
light, such as sodium, these act as coherent sources and in-phase waves of equal amplitude
from these sources superpose as they move beyond S1S 2. As a consequence of
superposition (of the two sets of identical waves from S1 and S2), redistribution of energy
takes place and a pattern consisting of alternate bright and dark fringes is produced on the
screen such as placed at C. Let us now learn the explanation of the observed fringe
pattern in the Youngs interference experiment.
Fig. 22.4: Schematic arrangement of Youngs

double-slit experiment
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Notes
Physics
Euygene Thomas Young

(1773-1829)
Born on 16 June, 1773, Euygene Thomas Young will always
be known for his study on the human ear, the human eye,
how it focuses and on astigmatism. His research on colour
blindness led him to the three component theory of colour
vision. Working on human ears and eyes, he dedicated
much time to the speed of sound and light. He knew that
if two sound waves of equal intensity reached the ear
180 out of phase, they cancelled out each others effect
and no sound was heard. It occurred to him that a similar interference effect
should be observed with two light beams, if light consisted of waves. This led
Young to devise an experiment, now commonly referred to as the Youngs
double-slit experiment.
In his later years, Young devoted most of his time deciphering the Egyptian
hieroglyphics found on the Rosetta stone discovered in the Nile Delta in 1799.
s 1 superposition principle that
(a) Constructive Interference: You may recall from the
some points on the screen C will have maximum displacement (or amplitude) because the
crests due to one set of waves coincide with the crests due
s 2 to another set of waves. In
other words, at this point, the waves arrive in-phase and hence the total amplitude is much
higher than the amplitude of individual waves. The same holds true for the points where
the troughs due to one set of waves coincide with the troughs due to another set. Such
points will appear bright because the intensity of light wave is proportional to the square
of the amplitude. Superposition of waves at these points leads to what is known as
constructive interference.
(b) Destructive Interference: The points where the crests due to one set of waves
coincide with the troughs due to the other set and vice-versa, the total amplitude is zero.
It is so because the waves reach these points completely out of phase. Such points appear
dark on the screen. These points correspond to destructive interference.
(c) Intensity of fringes: To analyse the interference pattern, we calculate the intensity
of the bright and dark fringes in the
interference pattern for harmonic
waves. Refer to Fig. 22.5, which
is schematic representation of the
S1
geometry of Youngs experiment.
The phenomenon of interference S
S2
arises due to superposition of two
harmonic waves of same
frequency and amplitude but
Fig. 22.5: Geometry of Youngs double slit experiment
212

differing in phase. Let the phase difference between these two waves be . We can
write y1 and y2, the displacements at a fixed point P due to the two waves, as
MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
Instruments
y 1 = a sin t
and
y2 =
a sin (t + )
where signifies the phase difference between these waves. Note that we have not
included the spatial term because we are considering a fixed point in space.
Notes
According to the principle of superposition of waves, the resultant displacement is given

by
y = y 1 + y2
= a sin t + a sin (t + )
= a [sin t + sin (t + )]
= 2a sin (t +
= A sin (t +
) cos
2
2
)
2
where amplitude of the resultant wave is given by

A = 2a cos (/2).
The intensity of the resultant wave at point P can be expressed as
I
A2
4a2 cos2 (/2 )
(22.1)
To see the dependence of intensity on the phase difference between the two waves, let
us consider the following two cases.
Case 1: When the phase difference, = 0, 2, 4, , 2n
I = 4a2 cos2 0
= 4a2
Case 2: When, = , 3, 5, , (2n +1)
I = 4a2 cos2 (/2)
=0
From these results we can conclude that when phase difference between superposing
waves is an integral multiple of 2, the two waves arrive at the screen in-phase and the
resultant intensity (or the brightness) at those points is more than that due to individual
waves (which is equal to 4a2). On the other hand, when phase difference between the
two superposing waves is an odd multiple of , the two superposing waves arrive at the
screen out of phase. Such points have zero intensity and appear to be dark on the
screen.
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Physics
(d) Phase Difference and Path Difference
It is obvious from the above discussion that to know whether a point on the screen will be
bright or dark, we need to know the phase difference between the waves arriving at that
point. The phase difference can be expressed in terms of the path difference between the
waves during their journey from the sources to a point on the observation screen. You
may recall that waves starting from S1 and S2 are in phase. Thus, whatever phase difference
arises between them at the point P is because of the different paths travelled by them
upto observation point from S1 and S2. From Fig. 22.5, we can write the path difference
as
= S2 P S1 P
We know that path difference of one wavelength is equivalent to a phase difference of
2. Thus, the relation between the phase difference and the path difference is

=
(22.2)
2
From Eqn. (22.1) we note that bright fringes (corresponding to constructive interference)
are observed when the phase difference is 2n. Using this in Eqn. (22.2) we find that the
path difference for observing bright fringes is

() bright = 2n = n; n = 0, 1, 2,
2
(22.3)
Similarly, for dark fringes, we get

()dark = (/2) (2n+1)
= (2n + 1)
; n = 0, 1, 2,
2
(22.4)
Having obtained expressions for the bright and dark fringes in terms of the path difference
and the wavelength of the light used, let us now relate path difference with the geometry
of the experiment, i.e., relate with the distance D between the source and the screen,
separation between the pin holes (d) and the location of the point P on the screen. From
Fig. 22.5 we note that
= S2 P S1 P = S2 A = d sin
Assuming to be small, we can write
sin tan
and
sin = x / D
Therefore, the expression for path difference can be rewritten as

= d sin = x
214
d
D
(22.5)
Optics and Optical

Instruments
On substituting Eqn. (22.5) in Eqns. (22.2) and (22.3), we get
d
(x )
= n
D n bright
(x n) bright =
or
MODULE - 6
nD
; n = 0, 1, 2, ...
d
(22.6)
Notes
d
1
(x n) dark = (n + )
D
2
and
1 D
)
; n = 0, 1, 2, ...
(22.7)
2 d
Eqns. (22.6) and (22.7) specify the positions of the bright and dark fringes on the screen.
(e) Fringe width
You may now ask: How wide is a bright or a dark fringe? To answer this question, we
first determine the location of two consecutive bright (or dark) fringes. Let us first do it
for bright fringes. For third and second bright fringes, from Eqn. (22.6), we can write
(x n) dark = (n +
or
(x 3) bright = 3
and
(x 2) bright = 2
D
d
D
d
Therefore, fringe width, is given by

= (x3)bright (x2)bright =
(22.8)
d
You should convince yourself that the fringe width of an interference pattern remains the
same for any two consecutive value of n. Note that fringe width is directly proportional to
linear power of wavelength and distance between the source plane and screen and inversely
proportional to the distance between the slits. In actual practice, fringes are so fine that
we use a magnifying glass to see them.
I
4a2
2a2
5 4 3 2
2 3 4 5 6 7
Fig. 22.6: Intensity distribution in an interference pattern
Next let us learn about the intensity of bright and dark fringes in the interference pattern.
We know that when two light waves arrive at a point on the screen out of phase, we get
dark fringes. You may ask : Does this phenomenon not violate the law of conservation of
215
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Notes
Physics
energy because energy carried by two light waves seem to be destroyed? It is not so; the
energy conservation principle is not violated in the interference pattern. Actually, the
energy which disappears at the dark fringes reappears at the bright fringes. You may note
from Eqn. (22.1) that the intensity of the bright fringes is four times the intensity due to an
individual wave. Therefore, in an interference fringe pattern, shown in Fig. (22.6), the
energy is redistributed and it varies between 4a2 and zero. Each beam, acting
independently, will contribute a2 and hence, in the absence of interference, the screen will
be uniformly illuminated with intensity 2a2 due to the light coming from two identical
sources. This is the average intensity shown by the broken line in Fig. 22.6.
You have seen that the observed interference pattern in the Youngs experiment can be
understood qualitatively as well as quantitatively with the help of wave theory of light. To
be sure that you have good understanding, answer the following intext questions.

1.
On what factors does the resultant displacement at any point in the region of
superposition of two waves depend?
..................................................................................................................................
2.
In Youngs experiment, how is the constructive interference produced on the screen?

..................................................................................................................................
3.
If we replace the pinholes S1 and S2 by two incandescent light bulbs, can we still
observe the bright and dark fringes on the screen?
..................................................................................................................................
4.
What are coherent sources? Can our eyes not act as coherent sources?
..................................................................................................................................
22.3 Diffraction of Light

In earlier lessons, you were told that rectilinear propagation is one of the characteristics
of light. The most obvious manifestation of the rectilinear propagation of light is in the
formation of shadow. But, if you study formation of shadows carefully, you will find that,
as such, these are not sharp at the edges. For example, the law of rectilinear propagation
is violated when the light passes through a very narrow aperture or falls on an obstacle of
very small dimensions. At the edges of the aperture or the obstacle, light bends into the
shadow region and does not propagate along a straight line. This bending of light around
the edges of an obstacle is known as diffraction.
Before discussing the phenomenon of diffraction of light in detail, you may like to observe
diffraction of light yourself. Here is a simple situation. Look at the street light at night and
almost close your eyes. What do you see? The light will appear to streak out from the
216

lamp/tube. This happens due to the diffraction (bending) of light round the corners of
your eyelids.
MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
Instruments
Another way to observe diffraction is to use a handkerchief. Hold it close to your eyes
and look at the Sun or a lamp. You will observe circular fringes, which form due to
diffraction of light by small apertures formed by crissed-crossed threads.
In the above situations, the dimensions of the diffracting obstacle/aperture are very small.
To observe diffraction, either of the following conditions must be satisfied:
Notes
a) The size of the obstacle or the aperture should be of the order of the wavelength
of the incident wave.
b) The separation between the obstacle or aperture and the screen should be
considerably larger (a few thousand times) than the size of the obstacle or aperture.
On the basis of the above observations, it is easy to understand why we normally do not
observe diffraction of light and why light appears to travel in a straight line. You know
that the wavelength of light is of the order of 106 m. Therefore, to observe diffraction
of light, we need to have obstacles or aperture having dimensions of this order!
22.3.1 Diffraction at a Single Slit

Let us see how diffraction pattern appears for a simple opening like a single slit. Refer to
Fig. 22.7. It shows the experimental arrangement for producing diffraction pattern. S is a
monochromatic source of light. It is placed on the focal plane of a converging lens so that
a plane wavefront is incident on a narrow slit. Another converging lens focusses light
from different portions of the slit on the observation screen.
P
S
L1
Diffracting Screen
P0
L2
Observation Screen
Fig. 22.7: Schematic representation of single slit dtiffraction
The salient features of the actual diffraction pattern produced by a single vertical slit
from a point source as shown in Fig. 22.8 are :
A horizontal streak of light along a line normal to the length of the slit.
The horizontal pattern is a series of bright spots.
The spot at the centre is the brightest. On either side of this spot, we observe a few
more symmetrically situated bright spots of diminishing intensity. The central spot is
called principal maxima and other spots are called secondary maxima.
The width of the central spot is twice the width of other spots.
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Notes
3 2
2 3
Fig. 22.8 : Observed differation pattern single of slit
To understand the theoretical basis of these results, we note that according to Huygens
wave theory, plane wavefronts are incident on the barrier containing the slit. As these
wavefronts fall on the barrier, only that part of the wavefront passes through the slit
which is incident on it. This part of the wavefront continues to propagate to the right of
the barrier. However, the shape of the wavefront does not remain plane beyond the slit.
Refer to Fig. 22.9 which shows that each point of the aperture such as QPR ... Q form
a series of coherent sources of secondary wavelets. In the central part of the wavefront
to the right of the barrier, the wavelet emitted from the point P, say, spreads because of
the presence of wavelets on its both sides emitted from the points such as Q and R. Since
the shape of the wavefront is determined by the tangent to these wavelets, the central
part of the wavefront remains plane as it propagates. But for the wavelets emitted from
points Q and Q near the edges of the slit, there are no wavelets beyond the edges with
which these may superpose. Since the superposition helps to maintain the shape of the
wavefront as plane, the absence of such superposing wavelets for the wavelets emitted
from the points near the edges allows them to deviate from their plain shape. In other
words, the wavelets at the edges tend to spread out. As a result, the plane wavefront
incident on a thin aperture of finite size, after passing through it does not remain plane.
Q
P
R
Q'
Barrier
containing
the slit
Incident Plane
different wavefronts
Wavefront
Fig. 22.9: Huygens construction for diffraction of light from a narrow slit
218
P1
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Optics and Optical
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1
2
50
100
Notes
/2
Barrier
containing slit
Observation
screen
Fig. 22.10: Schematic representation of single slit diffraction
To understa d the intensity distribution of the single-slit diffraction pattern, we determine

the nature of the superposition of waves reaching the screen. In order to apply Huygens
principle, let us divide the width a of the slit into, say, 100 equal parts. Each of these can
be considered as a sources of secondary wavelets. The wavelets emanating from these
points spread out into the region to the right of the slit. Since the plane wavefront is
incident on the slit, initially all points on it are in phase. Therefore, the wavelets emitted by
these points are all in phase at the time of leaving the slit. Now let us consider the effect
of the superposition of these wavelets at point O on the screen. The symmetry of the Fig.
22.10 suggests that the wavelets emitted from source of 1 and 100 will reach O in phase.
It is so because both the wavelets travel equal path length. When they started their
journey from the respective points on the slit, they were in phase. Hence they arrive at O
in phase and superpose in such a manner as to give resultant amplitude much more than
that due to the individual wavelets from the source 1 and 100. Similarly, for each wavelet
from source 2 to 50, we have a corresponding wavelet from the source 99 to 51 which
will produce constructive interference causing enhancement in intensity at the center O.
Thus the point O will appear bright on the screen.
Now let us consider an off-axis point P on the observation screen. Suppose that point P is
such that the path difference between the extreme points i.e. sources 1 and 100 is equal
to . Thus the path difference between the wavelets from source 1 and 51 will be nearly
equal to (/2).
You may recall from the interference of light that the waves coming from the sources 1
and 51 will arrive at P out of phase and give rise to destructive interference. Similarly,
wavelets from the sources 2 and 52 and all such pair of wavelets will give rise to destructive
interference at the point P. Therefore, we will have minimum intensity at point P. Similarly,
we will get minimum intensity for other points for which the path difference between the
source edges is equal to 2. We can imagine that the slit is divided into four equal points
and we can, by similar pairing of 1 and 26, 2 and 27, ... show that first and second quarters
have a path difference of /2 and cancel each other. Third and fourth quarters cancel
each other by the same argument so that the resultant intensity will be minimum, and so
on. We can therefore conclude that when the path difference between the extreme
waves diffracted by the extreme points in a particular direction is an integral multiple
of , the resultant diffracted intensity in that direction will be zero.
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Physics
Let us now find intensity at a point P which lies between the points P and P1 and the
path difference between waves diffracted from extreme points is 3/2. We divide the
wavefront at the slit into 3 equal parts. In such a situation, secondary wavelets from the
corresponding sources of two parts will have a path difference of /2 when they reach
the point P and cancel each other. However, wavelets from the third portion of the
wavefront will all contribute constructively (presuming that practically the path difference
for wavelets from this part is zero) and produce brightness at P . Since only one third of
the wavefront contributes towards the intensity at P as compared to O, where the
whole wavefront contributes, the intensity at P is considerably less than that of the
intensity at O. The point P and all other similar points constitute secondary maxima.
However, you must note here that this is only a qualitative and simplified explanation of
the diffraction at a single slit. You will study more rigorous analysis of this phenomena
when you pursue higher studies in physics.

1.
Does the phenomenon of diffraction show that the light does not travel along a straight
line path?
..................................................................................................................................
2.
Distinguish between interference and diffraction of light.

..................................................................................................................................
3.
Why are the intensity of the principal maximum and the secondary maxima of a
single slit diffraction not the same?
..................................................................................................................................
22.4 Polarisation of Light

In the previous two sections of this lesson, you learnt about the phenomena of interference
and diffraction of light. While discussing these phenomena, we did not bother to know the
nature of light waves; whether these were longitudinal or transverse. However, polarisation
of light conclusively established that light is a transverse wave.
To understand the phenomenon of polarisation, you can perform a simple activity.
A
A
B
S1
(a)
Activity 22.3
S2
O
S2
S1
(b)
Fig. 22.11 : Transverse wave on a rope passing through a) two vertical slits, and b) one vertical
and one horizontal slit
220

Take two card boards having narrow vertical slits S1 and S2 and hold them parallel to each
other. Pass a length of a string through the two slits, fix its one end and hold the other in
your hand. Now move your hand up and down and sideways to generate waves in all
directions. You will see that the waves passing through the vertical slit S1 will also pass
through S2 , as shown in Fig. 22.11(a). Repeat the experiment by making the slit S2 horizontal.
You will see no waves beyond S2. It means that waves passing through S1 cannot pass
through the horizontal slit S2. This is because the vibrations in the wave are in a plane at
right angles to the slits S2, as shown in Fig. 22.11(b).
MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
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Notes
This activity can be repeated for light by placing a source of light at O and replacing the
slits by two polaroids. You will see light in case(a) only. This shows that light has vibrations
confined to a plane. It is said to be linearly polarised or plane polarised after passing
through the first polaroid (Fig. 22.12).
y
Unpolarised
light
P
A
x
R
Fig. 22.12 : Schematics of the apparatus for observing polarisation of light
When an unpolarised light falls on glass, water or any other transparent material, the
reflected light is, in general, partially plane polarised. Fig. 22.13 shows unpolarised light
AO incident on a glass plate. The reflected light is shown by OR and the transmitted wave
by OT. When the light is incident at polarising angle, the polarisation is complete. At this
angle, the reflected and transmitted rays are at right angles to each other.
The polarising angle depends on the refractive index of the material of glass plate on
which the (unpolarised) beam of light is incident. The relation between r and ip is obtained
by using Snells law (refer Fig. 22.13):
=
sin i p
sin r
sin i p
sin(90 i p )
sin i p
cos i p
== tan ip.
R
A
ip ip
O
90 ip
ip
(90 ip )
T
Fig. 22.13 : Polarisation of reflected and refracted light
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Physics
This is known as Brewsters law. It implies that polarising angle ip depends on the refractive
index of the material. For air water interface, ip = 53. It means that when the sun is 37
above the horizontal, the light reflected from a calm pond or lake will be completely
linearly polarised. Brewsters law has many applications in daily life. Glare caused by the
light reflected from a smooth surface can be reduced by using polarising materials called
polaroids, which are made from tiny crystals of quinine iodosulphate; all lined up in the
same direction in a sheet of nitro cellulose. Such crystals (called dichoric) transmit light in
one specific plane and absorb those in a perpendicular plan. Thus, polaroid coatings on
sunglasses reduce glare by absorbing a component of the polarized light. Polaroid discs
are used in photography as filters in front of camera lens and facilitate details which
would otherwise be hidden by glare. Polarimeters are used in sugar industry for quality
control.

1.
Polarisation of light is the surest evidence that light is a transverse wave. Justify.
..................................................................................................................................
2.
Is it correct to say that the direction of motion of a wave may not lie in the plane of
polarisation?
..................................................................................................................................
3.
Suppose a beam of unpolarised light is incident on a set of two polaroids. If you

want to block light completely with the help of these polaroids, what should be the
angle between the transmission axes of these polaroids?
..................................................................................................................................
4.
Do sound waves in air exhibit polarization?

..................................................................................................................................
222
According to the Huygens wave theory, light propagates in the form of wavefronts.
The locus of all particles of the medium vibrating in the same phase at any instant of
time is called the wavefront
If two light sources emit light waves of the same frequency, same amplitude and
move along the same path maintaining a constant phase difference between them,
they are said to be coherent.
When waves from two coherent sources superpose, a redistribution of energy takes
place at different points. This is called the interference of light.
For constructive interference, phase difference = 2n and for destructive

interference, phase difference = (2n + 1).

The bending of light near the corners of an obstacle or aperture is called diffraction
of light.
The phenomenon in which vibrations of light get confined in a particular plane containing
the direction of propagation is called polarisation of light.
Terminal Exercise
MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
Instruments
Notes
1. Explain in brief the theories describing the nature of light.

2. What is a wavefront? What is the direction of a beam of light with respect to the
associated wavefront? State the Huygens principle and explain the propagation of
light waves.
3. Obtain the laws of reflection on the basis of Huygens wave theory.
4. What is the principle of superposition of waves? Explain the interference of light.
5. Describe Youngs double slit experiment to produce interference. Deduce an expression
for the width of the interference fringes.
6. What would happen to the interference pattern obtained in the Youngs double slit
experiment when
(i) one of the slits is closed;
(ii) the experiment is performed in water instead of air;
(iii) the source of yellow light is used in place of the green light source;
(iv) the separation between the two slits is gradually increased;
(v) white light is used in place of a monochromatic light;
(vi) the separation between the slits and the screen is increased;
(vii) two slits are slightly moved closer; and
(viii) each slit width is increased.
7. In Youngs experimental set-up, the slit separation is 2 mm and the distance between
the slits and the observation screen is 100 cm. Calculate the path difference between
the waves arriving at a point 5 cm away from the point where the line dividing the
slits touches the screen.
8. With the help of Huygens construction, explain the phenomenon of diffraction.
9. How would you demonstrate that the light waves are transverse in nature?
10. Distinguish between the polarized and unpolarized lights.
11. State and explain Brewsters law.
12. The polarising angle for a medium is 60o. Calculate the refractive index.
13. For a material of refractive index 1.42, calculate the polarising angle for a beam of
unpolarised light incident on it.
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22.1
1. Perpendicular to each other ( = /2)
Notes
2.
22.2
1. On the amplitude of the waves and the phase difference between them.
2. When the phase difference between the two superposing beams is an integral multiple
of 2, we obtain constructive interference.
3. No, it is so because two independent sources of light will emit light waves with
different wavelengths, amplitudes and the two set of waves will not have constant
phase relationship. Such sources of light are called incoherent sources. For observing
interference of light, the sources of light must be coherent. When the light waves are
coming from two incoherent sources, the points on the screen where two crests or
two trough superpose at one instant to produce brightness may receive, at the other
instant, the crest of the wave from one source and trough from the other and produce
darkness. Thus, the whole screen will appear uniformly illuminated if the pinholes S1
and S2 are replaced by two incandescent light bulbs.
4. Coherent sources should emit waves
(a) of same frequency and wavelength,
(b) in phase or having constant phase difference, and
(c) same amplitude and period.
Moreover, these should be close. Our eyes may not meet this criterion.
22.3
1. Yes
2. Interference is the superposition of secondary waves emanating from two different
secondary sources whereas diffraction is the superposition of secondary waves
emanating from different portions of the same wavefronts.
3. Due to the increasing path difference between wavelets.
22.4
1. No. Because, in a longitudinal wave, the direction of vibrations is the same as the
direction of motion of the wave.
2. No.
3. 90 or 270
4. No.

7. 0.1 mm
224
12. 1.73
13.54
Optical Instruments
MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
Instruments
23
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Notes
We get most of the information about the surrounding world through our eyes. But as
you know, an unaided eye has limitations; objects which are too far like stars, planets etc.
appear so small that we are unable to see their details. Similarly, objects which are too
small, e.g. pollen grains, bacteria, viruses etc. remain invisible to the unaided eyes. Moreover,
our eyes do not keep a permanent record of what they see, except what is retained by our
memory. You may therefore ask the question: How can we see very minute and very
distant objects? The special devices meant for this purpose are called optical instruments.
In this lesson you will study about two important optical instruments, namely, a microscope
and a telescope. As you must be knowing, a microscope magnifies small objects while a
telescope is used to see distant objects. The design of these appliances depends on the
requirement. (The knowledge of image formation by the mirrors and lenses, which you
have acquired in Lesson 20, will help you understand the working of these optical
instruments.) The utility of a microscope is determined by its magnifying power and resolving
power. For a telescope, the keyword is resolving power. You must have read about
Hubbles space telescope, which is being used by scientists to get details of far off galaxies
and search for a life-sustaining planet beyond our solar system.
Objectives
explain the working principle of simple and compound microscopes;
derive an expression for the magnifying power of a microscope;
distinguish between linear and angular magnifications;
explain the working principle of refracting and reflecting telescopes; and
calculate the resolving powers of an eye, a telescope and a microscope.
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Physics
23.1 Microscope
In Lesson 20 you have learnt about image formation by mirrors and lenses. If you take a
convex lens and hold it above this page, you will see images of the alphabets/words. If
you move the lens and bring it closer and closer to the page, the alphabets printed on it will
start looking enlarged. This is because their enlarged, virtual and errect image is being
formed by the lens. That is, it is essentially acting as a magnifying glass or simple microscope.
You may have seen a doctor, examining measels on the body of a child or a dentist using
it to examine a cavity in a tooth. Watch makers and jewellers use it to magnify small
components of watches and fine jewellery work. You can take a convex lens and try to
focus sunlight on a small piece of paper. You will see that after some time, the piece of
paper start burning. A convex lens can, therefore start a fire. That is why it is dangerous
to leave empty glass bottles in the woods. The sunlight falling on the glass bottles may get
focused on dry leaves in the woods and set them on fire. Sometimes, these result in wild
fires, which destroy large parts of a forest and/or habitation. Such fires are quite common
in Australia, Indonesia and U.S.
As a simple microscope, a convex lens is satisfactory for magnifying small nearby objects
upto about twenty times their original size. For large magnification, a compound microscope
is used, which is a combination of basically two lenses. In a physics laboratory, a magnifying
glass is used to read vernier scales attached to a travelling microscope and a spectrometer.
While studying simple and compound microscopes, we come across scientific terms like
(i) near point, (ii) least distance of distinct vision, (iii) angular magnification or magnifying
power, (iv) normal adjustment etc. Let us first define these.
(i)
Near point is the distance from the eye for which the image of an object placed
there is formed (by eye lens) on the retina. The near point varies from person to
person and with the age of an individual. At a young age (say below 10 years), the
near point may be as close as 7-8 cm. In the old age, the near point shifts to larger
values, say 100-200 cm or even more. That is why young children tend to keep their
books so close whereas the aged persons keep a book or newspaper far away from
the eye.
(ii)
Least distance of distinct vision is the distance upto which the human eye can
see the object clearly without any strain on it. For a normal human eye, this distance
is generally taken to be 25 cm.
(iii) Angular magnification is the ratio of the angle subtended by the image at the eye
(when the microscope is used) to the angle subtended by the object at the unaided
eye when the object is placed at the least distance of distinct vision. It is also called
the magnifying power of the microscope.
(iv) Normal Adjustment: When the image is formed at infinity, least strain is exerted
on the eye for getting it focused on the retina. This is known as normal adjustment.
(v)
Linear magnification is the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object.
(vi) Visual angle is the angle subtended by the object at human eye.
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23.1.1 A Simple Microscope

When a convex lens of short focal length is used to see magnified image of a small object,
it is called a simple microscope.
We know that when an object is placed between the optical center and the focus of a
convex lens, its image is virtual, erect, and magnified and on the same side as the object.
In practice, such a lens is held close to eye and the distance of the object is adjusted till a
clear image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision. This is illustrated in Fig. 23.1,
which shows an object AB placed between F and O. Its virtual image AB is formed on
the same side as the object. The position of the object is so adjusted that the image is
formed at the least distance of distinct vision (D).
Notes
Magnifying power of a simple microscope

Magnifying power of an optical instrument is the ratio of the angle subtended by the
image at the eye to the angle subtented by the object seen directly, when both lie at the
least distance of distinct vision or the near point. It is also called angular magnification and
is denoted by M. Referring to Fig. 23.1(a) and (b), the angular magnification of simple
O1
D
(a)
B
Q
f
D
(b)
Fig.23.1 : Angular magnification of a magnifying glass
AOB
= . In practice, the angles and are small.
AOB
Therefore, you can replace these by their tangents, i.e. write
microscope is given by M =
M =
tan
tan
From s A'OB' and AOB, we can write tan =
(23.1)
AB
A 'B '
=
and
A' O
D
227
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Optics and Optical
Instruments
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tan =
AB
AB
=
. On putting these values of tan and tan in Eqn. (23.1), we get
D
AO
M =
Notes
AB
D
AB
AB
=
AB
D
Since s AOB and AOB in Fig 23.1(b) are similar, we can write
AB
AO
=
AB
AO
Following the standard sign convention, we note that
(23.2)
A O = D
and
AO = u
Hence, from Eqn. (23.2), we obtain
AB
D
=
(23.3)
AB
u
If f is the focal length of the lens acting as a simple microscope, then using the lens
1 1 1
formula = and noting that v = D, u = u and f = f, we get
v u f
1
1
1
= f
D
u
1
1
1
+
=
f
u
D
Multiplying both the sides by D, and rearranging term, you can write
or
D
D
=1+ f
u
(23.4)
D
AB
=1+ f
AB
or
D
M =1+ f
(23.5)
From this result we note that lesser the focal length of the convex lens, greater is the
value of the angular or magnifying power of the simple microscope.
Normal Adjustment : In this case, the image is formed at infinity. The magnifying
power of the microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the image at the
eye to the angle subtended by the object at the unaided eye when the object is placed at
D. Fig 23.2(a) shows that the object is placed at the least distance of distinct vision D.
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A
O
O1
Notes
(a)
B
(b)
Fig.23.2 : Image formation for normal adjustment
The angles subtended by the object and the image at the unaided eye are and ,
respectively. The magnifying power is defined as
In practice, the angles and are small, and, as before, replacing these by their tangents,
we get
M =
M =
i.e.
AB
= AO
=
or
tan
tan
AB
AO1
D
AO1
= f
AO
D
M = f
(23.6)
You may note that in the normal adjustment, the viewing of the image is more comfortable.
To help you fix your ideas, we now give a solved example. Read it carefully.
Example 23.1: Calculate the magnifying power of a simple microscope having a focal
length of 2.5 cm.
Solution : For a simple microscope, the magnifying power is given by [Eqn. (23.5)] :
D
M =1+ f
Putting D = 25 cm and f = 2.5cm, we get
229
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Instruments
M =1+
25
= 1 + 10 = 11
2.5
23.1.2 A Compound Microscope
Notes
A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses. A lens of short aperture and
short focal length faces the object and is called the objective. Another lens of short focal
length but large aperture facing the eye is called the eye piece. The objective and eye
piece are placed coaxially at the two ends of a tube.
When the object is placed between F and 2F of the objective, its a real, inverted and
magnified image is formed beyond 2F on the other side of the objective. This image acts
as an object for the eye lens, which then acts as a simple microscope. The eye lens is so
adjusted that the image lies between its focus and the optical center so as to form a
magnified image at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye lens.
Magnifying Power of a compound microscope
Magnifying power of a compound microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended
by the final image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object at unaided eye, when
both are placed at the least distance of distinct vision. It is denoted by M. By referring to
Fig. 23.3, we can write
Since the angles and are small, these can be replaced by their tangents, so that
M =
M =
tan
tan
O1
D
(a)
eye piece
B
2F0
ue
objective
A F0 A''
A'
O1 F0
O2
FE
u0
v0
B''
B'
Ve = D
Fig.23.3 : Image formation by a compound microscope when the final image is formed at the
least distance of distinct vision.
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Optical Instruments
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Instruments
AB AB
M =
D D
M =
AB
AB
MODULE - 6
AB AB
.
AB
AB
From similar s ABO2 and ABO2, we can write
Notes
A O 2
D
AB
= AO = u
AB
2
e
Also from similar sABO1 and ABO, we have

AB
AB
Note that me =
vo
= u
o
AB
AB
defines magnification produced by eye lens and mo =
denotes
AB
AB
magnification produced by the objective lens. Hence
D vo
M = u . u = me mo
e
o
(23.7)
From Lesson 20, you may recall the lens formula. For eye lens, we can write
1
1
1
=
fe
ue
ve
Multiply on both sides by ve to get
v
ve ve
= e
fe
ve ue
ve
ve
=
1
ue
fe
Since fe is positive and ve = D as per sign convention, we can write
ve
D
me = u = 1 +
e
fe
(23.8)
vo
D
M = u 1+ f
o
e
In practice, the focal length of an objective of a microscope is very small and object AB is
placed just outside the focus of objective. That is
u o f0
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Since the focal length of the eye lens is also small, the distance of the image AB from the
object lens is nearly equal to the length of the microscope tube i.e.
vo L
Hence, the relation for the magnifying power in terms of parameters related to the
microscope may be written as
Notes
D
L
M = f 1+ f
0
e
(23.10)
Magnifying power in normal adjustment : In this case the image is formed at infinity.
As discussed earlier, the magnifying power of the compound microscope may be written
as
M = mo me
vo D
= u f
o e
ue
B
2F0
F0, Fe
A'
F0
O1
O2
Fe
B'
B"
A"
Fig. 23.4 : Compound microscope in normal adjustment
You may now like to go through a numerical example.

Example 23.2 : A microscope has an objective of focal length 2 cm, an eye piece of
focal length 5 cm and the distance between the centers of two lens is 20 cm. If the image
is formed 30 cm away from the eye piece, find the magnification of the microscope.
Solution : For the objective, fo= 2 cm and fe = 5 cm. For the eyepiece, ve = 30 cm and
fe = 5 cm. We can calculate ve using the relation
1
1
=
ue
ve
1
fe
20 cm
On solving, you will easily obtain u e =
30
cm
7
A
A F
o
For the objective lens

vo =
232
ue
30
20
7
A
Fe
ve = 30 cm
Optical Instruments
110
cm
7
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Optics and Optical
Instruments
Using the formula
1
fo
1
1
=
vo
uo
Notes
we have
1
2
1
1
=
u
110/7
o
or
uo =
110
cm
48
The magnifying power of the objective
110 / 7
48
vo
=
=
110 / 48
7
uo
mo =
The magnification due to the eyepiece is
mo =
30 /1
ve
=
=7
30 / 7
ue
Therefore, the magnification of the microscope is given by

M =
=
(mo) (me )
48
(7) = 48
7

1.
What is the nature of images formed by a (i) simple microscope (ii) Compound
microscope?
..................................................................................................................................
2.
Differentiate between the magnifying power and magnification?

..................................................................................................................................
3.
The magnifying power of a simple microscope is 11. What is its focal length?
..................................................................................................................................
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Physics
4.
Suppose you have two lenses of focal lengths 100 cm and 4 cm respectively. Which
one would you choose as the eyepiece of your compound microscope and why?
..................................................................................................................................
5.
Notes
Why should both the objective and the eyepiece of a compound microscope have
short focal lengths?
..................................................................................................................................
23.2 Telescopes
Telescopes are used to see distant objects such as celestial and terrestrial bodies. Some
of these objects may not be visible to the unaided eye. The visual angle subtended by the
distant objects at the eye is so small that the object cannot be perceived. The use of a
telescope increases the visual angle and brings the image nearer to the eye. Mainly two
types of telescopes are in common use : refracting telescope and reflecting telescope.
We now discuss these.
23.2.1 Refracting Telescope

The refracting telescopes are also of two types :
Astronomical telescopes are used to observe heavenly or astronomical bodies.
Terrestrial telescopes are used to see distant objects on the earth. So it is necessary
to see an erect image. Even Galilean telescope is used to see objects distinctly on the
surface of earth.
An astronomical telescope produces a virtual and erect image. As heavenly bodies are
round, the inverted image does not affect the observation. This telescope consists of a
two lens system. The lens facing the object has a large aperture and large focal length
(fo). It is called the objective. The other lens, which is towards the eye, is called the eye
lens. It has a small aperture and short focal length (fe). The objective and eye-piece are
mounted coaxially in two metallic tubes.
The objective forms a real and inverted image of the distant object in its focal plane. The
position of the lens is so adjusted that the final image is formed at infinity. (This adjustment
is called normal adjustment.) The position of the eyepiece can also be adjusted so that the
final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision.
(a) When the final image is formed at infinity (Normal adjustment), the paraxial rays
coming from a heavenly object are parallel to each other and they make an angle with
the principal axis. These rays after passing through the objective, form a real and inverted
image in the focal plane of objective. In this case, the position of the eyepiece is so
234
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adjusted that the final image is formed at infinity.

paraxial rays
O1
O2
Notes
B
fe
f0
Fig 23.6 : Working principle of an astronomical telescope
Magnifying power of a telescope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the
image at the eye as seen through the telescope to the angle subtended by the object at
objective when both the object and the image lie at infinity. It is also called angular
magnification and is denoted by M. By definition,
M =
Since and are small, they can be replaced by their tangents. Therefore,
M =
tan
tan
AB/AO2
AO1
= AB/AO = AO
1
2
fo
= f
e
(23.11)
It follows that the magnifying power of a telescope in normal adjustment will be large if
the objective is of large focal length and the eyepiece is of short focal length. The length
of telescope in normal adjustment is (fo + fe)
(b) When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision, the
paraxial rays coming from a heavenly object make an angle with the principal axis.
After passing through the objective, they meet on the other side of it and form a real and
inverted image AB. The position of the eyepiece is so adjusted that it finally forms the
image at the least distance of distinct vision.
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Instruments
fo
O1
ue
O2
B
B
Notes
D
Fig 23.7 : Image formed by a telescope at D
Magnifying power: It is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the
image formed at D to the angle subtended by the object lying at infinity:
M =
tan
tan
AB/AO2
AO1
= AB/AO = AO
1
2
fo
ue
Since
1
1
1
=
for the eyepiece, we can write
ue
ve
fe
1
ue
1
1
ve
fe
or
(23.12)
1
fe
fe
1
ve
fo
f o fe
=
1
ue
f e ve
M =
(23.13)
Applying the new cartesian sign convention fo = + fo , ve = D, fe = +fe , we can write

M =
fo fe
1+
fe D
(23.14)
The negative sign of magnifying power of the telescope suggests that the final image is
inverted and real. The above expression tells that the magnifying power of a telescope is
larger when adjusted at the least distance of distinct vision to the telescope when focused
for normal adjustment.
236
Optical Instruments
Example 23.3: The focal length of the objective of an astronomical telescope is 75 cm
and that of the eyepiece is 5 cm. If the final image is formed at the least distance of
distinct vision from the eye, calculate the magnifying power of the telescope.
MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
Instruments
Solution:
Here fo= 75 cm,
fe = 5 cm, D = 25 cm
M =
Notes
5
75
fo fe
1+ = 18
1+ D =
5 25
fe
23.2.2 Reflecting telescope

A reflecting telescope is used to see distant stars and possesses large light-gathering
power in order to obtain a bright image of even a faint star deep in space. The objective
is made of a concave mirror, having large aperture and large focal length. This concave
mirror, being parabolic in shape, is free from spherical aberration.
Before the reflected rays of light meet to form a real, inverted and diminished image of a
distant star at the focal plane of concave mirror, they are intercepted and reflected by a
plane Mirror M1M2 inclined at an angle of 45 to the principal axis of the concave mirror.
This plane mirror deviates the rays and the
real image is formed in front of the eye piece,
which is at right angle to the principal axis of
concave mirror. The function of the eyepiece
M2
is to form a magnified, virtual image of the
K
star enabling eye to see it distinctly.
M1
convex
If fo is the focal length of the concave

mirror and fe is the focal length of eye piece,
the magnifying power of the reflecting
telescope is given by
objective
eyepiece
M=
Fig 23.8 : Newtonion Reflector
fo
fe
Further, if D is the diameter of the objective

and d is the diameter of the pupil of the
eye, the brightness ratio is given by
Secondary
mirror
Objective
mirror
Fig 23.9 : Cassegrain reflector
B = D /d
The other form of the reflecting telescope

is shown in Fig 23.9. It was designed by
Eye-piece
Cassegrain. In this case the objective has
a small opening at its center. The rays from
the distant star, after striking the concave
mirror, are made to intercept at A2 and the
237

it was discovered by chance, it opened flood gates for new physics. It finds wide use in
industry, agriculture and medical care. Let us learn about it now.
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
26.3.1 Discovery
The story of discovery of radioactivity is very interesting. In 1896, French physicist A.H.
Becquerel was working on the phenomenon of fluorescence (in which some substances
emit visible light when they are exposed to ultra-violet radiations). In one of the drawers of
his desk, he had kept a collection of various minerals, besides several unopened boxes of
photographic plates. Somehow, the collection of minerals remained untouched for a
considerable period of time. One day Becquerel used one of the boxes of photographic
plates to photograph something. When he developed the plates, he was disappointed to
find that they were badly fogged as if previously exposed to light. He tried the other boxes
of photographic plates and found them also in the same poor condition. He could not
understand as to why plates were fogged because all the boxes were sealed and the plates
inside were wrapped with thick black paper.
Notes,
Becquerel was puzzled and investigated the situation further. He found that uranium placed
in his drawer had done the damage and concluded that there must be some new type of
penetrating radiation originating from the uranium salt. This radiation was named Becquerel
rays and the phenomenon of emission of this radiation was named radioactivity. The
elements exhibiting this phenomenon were called radioactive elements.
Soon after this discovery, and based on an exhaustive study, Madame Marie Curie alongwith
her husband Pierre Curie, isolated an element from uranium ore by a painstaking method
known as chemical fractionating. This new element, which was a million times richer in
the mysterious rays than uranium, was given the name radium. Another radioactive element
discovered by Madam Curie was named polonium in honour of her native country-Poland.
26.3.2 Nature of Radiations

In 1899, Lord Rutherford, a British physicist, analysed the Becquerel rays emitted by
radioactive elements. He established the existence of two distinct components :
-particles and -rays. The existence of third radiation gamma rays was established
by P. Villars.
We know that nuclei of all atoms contain positively
charged protons, which repel each other strongly
due to electrostatic repulsion. To overcome this
repulsion, neutrons in the nuclei act as glue. But in
case of heavier nuclei, this electrostatic repulsion
is so strong that even the addition of neutrons is not
able to keep the nuclei stable. To achieve stability,
such nuclei disintegrate spontaneously by emitting
and particles along with -rays as shown in
Fig 26.4. So, we can say that in natural radioactivity,
, and -rays are emitted.
The emitted radiation is called the radioactive
radioactive
substance
Fig. 26.4 : Emission of , and

radiations
3.293
293
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
Notes,
Physics
radiation and the process of disintegration (break-up) of atomic nuclei (by emitting ,
and -rays) is called radioactive decay. Sometimes, the break-up can be induced by
bombarding stable nuclei with other light particles (like neutron and protons). It is then
called artificial radio-activity.
The characteristic features of this phenomenon are that it is spontaneous and in the case
of or emission, a new nucleus belonging to a new element is formed. That is, one
element gets converted into another element. This is thus a nuclear disintegration
phenomenon and suggests the posibility of mutation of new nuclei. Let us first study the
characteristic properties of , , and radiations.
(i) -particles
Alpha particles are helium nuclei ( 42 He ) and consist of two protons and two neutrons.
Detailed studies of these particles revealed the following properties :
Being charged particles, they get deflected in electric and magnetic fields.
They produce fluorescence in substances like zinc sulphide and barium platino cyanide,
affect a photographic plate, can induce radioactivity in certain elements and produce
nuclear reactions.
They have great ionizing power. A single particle in its journey through a gas can
ionize thousands of gas atoms before being absorbed.
They have little penetration power through solid substances, and get scattered by thin
foils of metals. They can be stopped by 0.02 mm thick aluminum sheet.
The energies of particles emitted from a radioactive substance is a characteristic of

the emitting nucleus. This corresponds to a variation in their velocity from
1.4 107ms1 to 2.05 107ms1.
(ii) -particles
-Particles can be both positively and negatively charged. They originate in the nucleus in
the process of conversion of a neutron into a proton, and vice versa. Further studies of particles have revealed the following properties.
294
Being charged particles, they get deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
They produce fluorescence in materials like zinc-sulphide and barium plationcynide;

and affect photographic plates.
They can ionize gas atoms but to a much smaller extent than the -particles.
Negatively charged -particles can pass through a few mm of aluminium sheets.

They are about 100 times more penetrating than -particles.
Average energies of negative -particles vary between 2 MeV and 3MeV. Due to
their small mass, their velocities vary in range from 0.33c to 0.988c, where c is velocity
of light.
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
(iii) -rays
-rays are electromagnetic waves of high frequency, and as such highly energetic. They
are characterized with the following properties :
They do not get deflected by electric or magnetic fields. They travel with velocity of
light in free space.
Their penetration power is more than that of and -particles; -rays can penetrate
through several centimeters of iron and lead sheets.
They have ionizing power that is smaller compared to that of and -particles.
They can produce fluorescence in materials and affect a photographic plate.
They knock out electrons from the metal surfaces on which they fall and heat up the
surface. Hard -rays (i.e. high energy -rays) are used in radio therapy of malignant
cells.
Notes,
Marie Curie
(18671934)
Marie Curie shared the 1903 Nobel prize in physics with A. Henri
Becquerel and her husband Pierre Curie for her studies in the
field of radioactivity. She was the first person in the world to
receive two Nobel prizes; the other Nobel prize she received
was in chemistry in 1911. Later her daughter Joliot also won the
Nobel prize in chemistry for her discovery of artificial radioactivity.
26.3.3 Radioactive Decay

In any radioactive decay, spontaneous emission consists of either a single -particle or a
-particle. The emission of an -particle from a radioactive nucleus (called parent nucleus)
changes it into a new nucleus (new element is called daughter nucleus) with its atomic
number decreased by two and its mass number decreased by four. Similarly, emission of a
particle changes the parent nucleus into a daughter nucleus with its atomic number
increased by unity (if it is emission) but its mass number remains unchanged. The
emission of -rays does not change the atomic number or the mass number of the parent
nucleus and hence no new nucleus is formed.
Note that in any nuclear disintegration, the charge number (Z) and the mass number (A)
are always conserved. Thus for any radioactive nucleus, denoted by X, the nuclear
transformations may be written as :
A
Z
decay
4
2
He +A4
Z2 Y
(-particle)
A
Z
decay
0
1
e +AZ1 Y
(-particle)
3.295
295
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Atoms and Nuclei

( AZ X )*
decay
A
Z
X +
The asterisk over the symbol of element implies that it is in an excited state.
26.3.4 Law of Radioactive Decay

Notes,
We rewrite Eqn. (26.4) as
dN (t )
= dt
N (t )
On integration, we get
ln N(t) = t +k.
At t = 0, N(t) = N0
k = ln N0
Hence
ln N(t) ln N0 = t
N (t )
or ln N = t
0
On taking antilog, we
obtain the required result:
N(t) = N0 exp ( t)
We now know that if we have a given amount of radioisotope, it will gradually decrease
with time due to disintegrations. The law describing radioactive decay is very simple. The
rate of radioactive disintegration is independent of external factors such temperature,
pressure etc. and depends only on the law of chance. It states that the number of
radioactive atoms disintegrating per second is proportional to the number of
radioactive atoms present at that instant of time. This is called law of radioactive
decay.
Let N0 be the number of radioactive atoms, at t = 0, and N (t) be the number of radioactive
atoms at time t. If dN denotes the number of atoms that decay in time dt, then (N dN)
signifies the number of radioactive atoms at time (t + dt). Hence, rate of decay
dN (t )
N,
dt
or
dN (t )
= N(t)
dt
(26.4)
where denotes decay constant, which is characteristic of the radioactive substance

undergoing decay. The negative sign signifies that the number of nuclei decreases with
time. This relation can be rearranged as
1 dN (t )
= N (t ) dt
(26.5)
Thus, decay constant (

) may be defined as the ratio of the instantaneous rate of
disintegration to the number of radioactive atoms present at that instant.
The law of decay is sometimes also expressed in exponential form and is also called the
law of exponential decay. To obtain the exponential form, we integrate Eq. (26.4) with
respect to time :
N(t) = N0exp(t)
(26.6)
The most important conclusion from this law is that N will become zero only when t = .
Thus, no radioactive element will disappear completely even after a very long time.
The radioactive decay law clearly shows that even if the number of atoms N0 for different
radioactive elements is same initially, at a later time they will have different values of N(t)
due to different values of their decay constants (). They will thus show different rates of
disintegration. This is determined by their half-life (T1/2) and average lives (Ta).
296
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
Units of Disintegration
The decay constant is measured in units of per second. The activity of a radioactive
substance at any instant of time is measured by its rate of disintegration. Its SI unit
has been named becquerel :
1 becquerel = 1 disintegration per second.
Notes,
Another unit of the decay constant is curie.

1 curie = 3.7 1010 disintegrations per second.
which is the rate of disintegration of radium (Ra) measured per second per gram.
Yet another unit is rutherford (rd) :
1 rd = 106 disintegrations per second.
26.3.5 Half Life (T1/2)
N0
The half life (T1/2) of any radioactive element

is defined as the time in which the number of
parent radioactive atoms decreases to half of 1 N0
2
the initial number.
1
By definition, at t = T1/2, N = N0/2. Therefore, 4 0

1
using Eqn. (26.6), we can write
N0
8
N0/2 = N0 exp ( T1/2)

or
T 1/2 = loge2
T1/2
2T1/2
3T1/2 4T1/2
Fig. 26.5 : Radioactive decay

curve
or
T 1/2 =
log e 2
2.303 log10 2
2.303 0.3010
0.693
Thus, half-life of any radioactive substance is inversely proportional to its decay constant
(radioactive
and is a characteristic property of the radioactive nucleus. The half-life of 14
6 C
will
be
reduced
to 0.5 g in
carbon) is 5730 years. This means that one gram of 14
6 C
5730 years. This number will be further reduced to
0.5
= 0.25 g in another 5730 years.
2
3.297
297
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
Notes,
Physics
i.e. in a total period of 11460 years. Refer to Fig. 26.5 to see how a radioactive sample
decays with time.
Example 26.4 : An animal fossil obtained in the Mohanjodaro excavation shows an
activity of 9 decays per minute per gram of carbon. Estimate the age of the Indus Vally
Civilisation. Given the activity of 14C in a living specimen of similar animal is 15 decays per
minute per gram, and half life of 14C is 5730 years.
Solution : 14C is radioactive isotope of carbon. It remains in fixed percentage in the living
species. However, on death, the percentage of 14C starts decreasing due to radioactive
decay. Using radioactive decay law, we can write
N(t) = N0 exp (t)
so that
N/N0 = exp (t)
or
9/15 = exp (t)
or
loge (9/15) = t
or
15
loge = t
9
which gives
t = 1/ [loge (15/9)]
Here T1/2 = 0.693/ = 5730 years. Therefore,

t = 2.303 (5730/0.693) [log1015 log109]
Hence
t = 4224.47 years.
Thus, the specimen containing carbon 14 existed 4224.47 years ago. Hence the estimated
age of Indus valley civilsation is 4225 years.

1.
How can you say that radioactivity is a nuclear disintegration phenomenon?

..................................................................................................................................
2.
Compare the ionizing and penetration powers of , and - radiations.

..................................................................................................................................
3.
Apply the law of conservation of charge and mass numbers to determine the values
of a and b in the following decay - equations :
(i) ZXA = 2He4 + aYb +
(ii) ZX4 = 1e0 + aYb +
..................................................................................................................................
298
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
4.
The half-life of a radioactive substance is 5 years. In how much time, 10g of this
substance will reduce to 2.5g?
..................................................................................................................................
Applications of Radioactivity
Notes,
Radioactivity finds many applications in our every day life. Some of these are given
below.
(i)
In medicine : In the treatment of cancer (radiotherapy), a radio-active cobalt

source which emits x-rays is used to destroy cancerous cells. The decay of a
single radioactive atom can be registered by an instrument placed at a remote
location outside a container wall. This high sensitivity is utilized in tracer technique
as an important tool in medical diagnostics, like the detection of ulcer in any part
of the body. A few radioactive atoms of some harmless element
24
11
Na ) are
injected into the body of a patient. Their movement can then be recorded. The
affected part absorbs the radioactive atoms whose flow is, therefore, stopped
and the diseased part of the body is easily located.
(ii) In agriculture : By exposing the seeds to controlled radiation, we are able to
improve the quality and yield of crops, fruits and vegetables. Radiating these
before their storage helps in saving from decay.
(iii) In geology : In estimating the age of old fossils. The normal activity of living
carbon containing matter is found to be about 15 decays per minute for every
gram of carbon. This activity arises from the small proportion of radioactive
carbon 14 present in the atmosphere with the ordinary carbon 12. This isotope
(14C) is taken by plants from the atmosphere and is present in animals that eat
plants. Thus, about one part in 108 radioactive carbon is present in all living
beings (all animals and plants). When the organism is dead, its interaction with
the atmosphere (i.e. absorption, which maintains the above equilibrium) ceases
and its activity begins to fall. From this, the age of the specimen can be
approximately estimated. This is called carbon-dating and is the principle of
determining the age of old fossils by archeologists.
The same technique has been used in estimating the age of earth from the
measurements of relative amounts of 238U and 206Pb in geological specimens
containing uranium ore. Assume that the specimen of ore contained only uranium
and no lead at the time of birth of the earth. With the passage of time, uranium
decayed into lead. The amount of lead present in any specimen will therefore
indicate its age. The present age of the earth, using this method, has been
estimated to be about 4 billion years.
(iv) In industry : -radiations are used to find the flaws (or imperfections) in the
inner structure of heavy machinery. For example, if there is an air bubble inside,
the penetration of -rays will be more at that point.
3.299
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Atoms and Nuclei

The nucleus in an atom contains positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons.
The number of protons inside the nucleus of an atom of any element gives the atomic
number of the element.
The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called its
mass number.
The atoms having same atomic number but different mass numbers are called isotopes.
The atoms with same mass number but different atomic numbers are called isobars.
The atoms with same number of neutrons are called isotones.
The nucleons inside the nucleus of every atom are bound together by strong attractive
nuclear forces which are short-range and charge-independent.
The mass of a nucleus is found to be less than the sum of the masses of its nucleons.
This difference in mass is called mass-defect. It is a measure of the binding energy.
The size (volume) of the nucleus depends on its mass number.
The spontaneous emission of -particle or -particle followed by -emission from any

nucleus is called radioactivity.
The -particles have been identified as helium nuclei, while -particles have been
identified as fast moving electrons. The -rays are electromagnetic waves of extremely
short wavelength.
According to the law of radioactive decay, the number of radioactive atoms disintegrating
per second is proportional to the number of radioactive atoms present at that instant.
The half life of a radioactive substance is the time during which the number of radioactive
atoms reduce to half of its original number.
The law of exponential decay is N(t) = N0 exp (t).
Notes,
Terminal Exercise
1. When does a radioactive sample disintegrate?
2. Differentiate between isotopes and isobars.
3. Explain the characteristics of binding energy per nucleon versus mass number curve.
4. What is the nature of nuclear force? Give its characteristics.
5. Explain how decay constant is related to half-life of a radioactive substance.
300
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Atoms and Nuclei
6. Define the following terms:

(i) Atomic number; (ii) Mass number; (iii) Mass defect;
(iv) Binding energy of nucleons; (v) Half-life;
(vi) Average life;
(vii) Decay constant.
Notes,
7. State the law of radioactive decay.

8. What is carbon dating? What is its importance?
9. Calculate the number of neutrons, protons and electrons in the following atoms.
23
(i) 11
Na ; (ii) 12 H ; (iii)
238
92
35
U ; (iv) 17
Cl ;
10. Calculate the mass defect and binding energy of nucleons for the following nuclei.
(i) 42 He ; (ii) 37 Li ; (iii) 14
;
7 N
Given, 1 u = 1.660566 1027kg = 931 MeV, Mass of a proton = 1.007276 u. Mass of
a neutron = 1.008665 u, Mass of 2He4 atom = 4.00260 u, Mass of 37 Li atom = 7.01601 u,
Mass of 14
7 N atom = 14.00307 u.
11. Using the present day abundance of the two main uranium isotopes and assuming that
the abundance ratio could never have been greater than unity, estimate the maximum
possible age of the earths crust. Given that the present day ratio of 238U and 235U is
137.8 : 1; Half life of 238U is = 4.5 109 year; and that of 235U is 7.13 108 years.
1
12. If the activity of a redioactive sample drops to
th of its initial value in 1 hour and 20
16
minutes, Calculate the half-life.

26.1
1.
Isotopes
12
6
1
1
C and
14
6
Isobars
H and 12 H & 13 H
16
8
35
17
206
82
O & 18
8 O
37
Cl & 17
Cl
Pb &
238
92
U&
207
82
Pb
239
92
76
32
2
1
76
Ge & 34
Se
40
18
76
32
Isotones
A & 40
20 Ca
76
Ge & 34
Se
H & 32 He
14
6
23
11
18
C&8O
24
Na & 12 Mg
28
3
1
H & 32 He
27
13
Al & 14 Si
7
3
7
Li & 4 Be
27
13
Al & 14 Si
28
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2. (i) heavier; (ii) mass; (iii) nucleons; (iv) 14; (v) 14
(vi) atomic.
3. Atomic number.
26.2
1. m = 1.041358 u; 969.5 MeV.
Notes,
2. 2.4 1015m.
26.3
1. Nuclear disintegration usually involves or emission which results in change of
atomic and mass numbers of the parent element. With the emission of and particles,
the heavier nuclei shed some of their mass resulting in comparatively lighter nuclei.
Hence, it is a nuclear disintegration phenomenon.
2. Ionizing power of
>>
Penetration power of
<<
3. i) a = Z 2 and b = A 4
ii) a = Z + 1 and b = A.
4. Two half life times are required one for reduction from 10 to 5 grams and the other
from 5 to 2.5 grams, i.e.. 10 years.

9. (i) 12, 11, 11
(ii) 1, 1, 1
10. (i) 0.034, 28MeV
(ii) 0.044, 37.86 MeV (iii) 0.10854, 101MeV
11. 6 109 years

12. 20 min
302
(iii) 146, 92, 921
(iv) 18, 17, 17
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
27
NUCLEAR FISSION AND
FUSION
Notes
W e all know that the sun supports life on the earth by continuously providing energy. It
has been doing so for the last several billion years and will continue to do so for billions of
years to come. What is the source of this huge amount of energy emitted by the sun? This
question fascinated human mind always. But now we reliably know that the energy in the
core of sun is produced by fusion of hydrogen nucli into helium at very high temperatures.
This is also true of other stars. Imitation of these conditions in a fusion reactor is being
highlighted as the ultimate source of all our energy requirements in coming years.
Similarly, you most have read about energy security and the role of nuclear energy to
produce electricity in our nuclear reactors at Tarapore, Kota, Kaiga, Narora, Kalpakkam
and Kakrapara. Similarly, you may have read in newspapers that on August 6, 1945, an
atom bomb dropped over Hiroshima, a large city of Japan, destroyed the entire city almost
completely in a span of a few seconds and lacs of lives were lost. It released an energy
equivalent to that released by the explosion of a 20,000 ton TNT (tri nitro toluene) bomb
and was completely new in human history. Since then, more powerful (atomic, hydrogen
and neutron) bombs have been made whose destructive power is equivalent to several
Mega tons of TNT. The super powers are said to have stockpiled a large number of such
bombs. The destructive power of their stock is so enormous that they can destroy the
entire earth several times over. The physical process responsible for such colossal amount
of energy is nuclear fission. You will now learn about these processes.
Objectives
After studying this lesson, you should be able to
state conservation laws for nuclear reactions;
explain the terms nuclear chain reaction, controlled and uncontrolled fission
chain reactions;
describe working of a nuclear reactor; and
explain the mechanism of production of energy in stars.

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27.1 Chemical and Nuclear Reactions

27.1.1 Chemical Reaction
Notes
We know that all substances are made up of atoms. In lesson 26, you learnt that electrons
in the outermost orbit govern the chemical properties of an element. That is, atoms combine
with other atoms or molecules (a group of atoms) and rearrange their valence electrons
This is accompanied by reduction in their potential energy.
The formation of a new compound molecule due to rearrangement of valence
electrons in interacting atoms and molecules with the release or absorption of energy
is called a chemical reaction. In this process, the nucleus is not affected at all. Even
the electrons in the inner orbits remain unaffected.
An example of a chemical reaction is the interaction of carbon atoms with oxygen molecules
to produce carbon dioxide :
C + O2 CO2 + 4.08 eV
(27.1)
In this chemical reaction, 4.08 eV energy is released for each reacting carbon
atom. It is called the binding energy (B.E) of CO2 molecule. Reactions which result in
release of energy are said to be exothermic. Chemical reactions which require energy to
be supplied to be initiated are endothermic. For example, if 4.08 eV of energy is given to
a CO2 molecule under suitable conditions, it will break up into its constituents:
CO2 + 4.08eV C + O2
(27.2)
As shown in Eq. (27.1), 4.08 eV energy leaves the system to form CO2 gas. Therefore,
the mass of CO2 molecule will be less than the total mass of C and O2 by a mass equivalent
of 4.08 eV. The loss of mass m can be calculated using the relation E = mc2 :
m =
4.081.60210 19
= 7.26 1036kg
91016
(27.3)
Such a small change in mass cannot be detected and we say that the mass is conserved in
chemical reactions, though slight change of mass does occur.
The important points to be noted in chemical reactions are
Energies of the order of 10 eV are involved.
Change of mass is of the order of 1035 kg, which is extremely small and we say that
the mass is conserved.
The total number of atoms of each type on the right hand side of the chemical equation
is always equal to the total number of atoms of each type on the left hand side.
27.1.2 Nuclear Reactions

In nuclear reactions, the nuclei, not electrons, of the reactants interact with each other.
They result in the formation of new elements. This process is also called transmutation of
nuclei. From the previous lesson, you may recall that in nuclear reactions energies of the
order of MeV are involved.
304

We know that the entire positive charge of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus, whose
size is of the order of 1015m. The nucleus is surrounded by electrons revolving in certain
specified orbits. These create a strong electrostatic potential barrier (also called the Coulomb
barrier) as shown in Fig. 27.1. The Coulomb barrier is about 3 MeV for carbon nuclei and
20 MeV for lead nuclei. It means that a charged projectile aimed at a nucleus will experience
strong repulsion by the Coulomb barrier of the target nucleus. If the kinetic energy of
projectile is not large enough to penetrate the barrier, it will come back without producing
any nuclear reaction. For a proton to enter a carbon nucleus and produce transmutation,
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
Notes
proton potential
energy
Coulomb
barrier
V=0
neutron potential
energy
nucleus
Fig. 27.1 : Proton and neutron potential energies near a nucleus
its energy should be more than 3MeV or so. It is because of the large amounts of energy
involved in nuclear reactions that we do not observe these reactions in everyday life at
ordinary temperatures and pressures.
The phenomenon of nuclear transmutation or nuclear reaction was discovered by Lord
Rutherford in the year 1919. He bombarded nitrogen gas with high energy -particles of
energy 7.7 M eV obtained from a polonium source. He observed that nitrogen transformed
into oxygen. This change was accomponied by high energy protons :
4 He + 14 N 17O + 1H
2
17
8
1
(27.5)
The oxygen nuclei and protons carry away 6.5 MeV. Clearly this reaction can occur if
1.2 MeV energy is supplied from outside. Therefore, it is an endothermic nuclear reaction.
When aluminium is bombarded by 7.7 M eV alpha particles from polonium, the following
nuclear reaction takes place and 10.7 MeV energy is released:
27 Al + 4He 30Si + 1H
13
2
14
1
(27.6)
Here we see that more energy is released than the input energy; it is an exothermic
reaction. Note that there is a gain of nearly 3 MeV energy per reaction, which is
approximately 700,000 times the energy released in burning of one carbon atom. But this
reaction cant be used for production of energy because out of 125,000 incident
alpha particles only one succeeds in producing the reaction. Hence on the whole,
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Notes
Physics
there is much more energy spent than produced.
Nuclear reactions can also be produced by protons, deuterons, neutrons and other light
nuclei. Of these, neutrons are the best projectiles for producing nuclear reactions;
being neutral particles, they do not experience Coulomb repulsion.. Thus even thermal
neutrons (i.e. neutrons having energy 0.0253 eV) can penetrate the target nucleus and
produce a nuclear reaction.
Some typical examples of nuclear reactions produced by protons, deutrons and neutrons
are:
Li + 11H 32 He + 24 He
(27.7)
10
5
B+ 12 H 3 24 He
(27.8)
10
5
B+ n 73 Li + 42 He
(27.9)
6
3
Like chemical reactions, nuclear reactions also follow conservation laws.We state these
now.
27.1.3 Conservation Laws for Nuclear Reactions

The sum of the mass numbers of the reactants is equal to the sum of mass numbers
of the products. In Eqn. (27.7), mass number 7 = 3 + 4 = 6 + 1 is conserved.
The sum of atomic numbers of the reactants is equal to the sum of atomic numbers
of the products. In Eqn. (27.7), atomic number 4 = 3 + 1 = 2 + 2 is conserved.
Nuclear reactions follow the law of conservation of energy. We know that mass
is concentrated form of energy. Therefore the sum of input kinetic energy plus
the mass of the reactants is equal to the output kinetic energy plus the mass of
the products.
Nuclear reactions follow the law of conservation of momentum, which results in

distribution of kinetic energy among various product nuclei.
Now, answer the following questions.

1.
Complete the following equations of nuclear reaction.

(a)
19
9
F + 11H 16
8 O +?
27 Al + 1 n ?+ 4He
(b) 13
0
2
234 Th 234Pa +?
(c) 90
91
63
2
64
(d) 29 Cu + 1 D 30 Zn + ?
306

2.
Atoms and Nuclei
Calculate the energy released in the nuclear reaction given below

10
5
B+
2
1
4
D 3 2 He + Q
( )
2
4
Given that m(10B) = 10.01294 u; m 1 D = 2.014103 u, and m(2 He) = 4.002604 u.
3.
MODULE - 7
Notes
14 N nucleus, on bombarding with alpha particles, produces 17 O . Write down the

8
7
reaction equation and calculate the energy released.
( )
( )
14
17
Given that: m 7 N = 14.003014 u; m 8 O = 16.999138 u; m 42 H e = 4.002604
( )
1
u; m 1 H = 1.007825 u and energy of particle = 7.7MeV.
..................................................................................................................................
27.2 Nuclear Fission

The story of discovery of fision is very fascinating. In the year 1938, Enrico Fermi, Otto
Hahn and others irradiated uranium nuclei with slow neutrons to produce transuranic
elements (having Z greater than 92), which do not occur in nature. When incident neutrons
were captured by the uranium nuclei, the neutron-proton ratio increased. In reducing this
ratio, it was expected that uranium would become active. That is a neutron would
essentially behave as if it has changed into a proton resulting in the release of a -particle
and some energy according to the equation:
238 U + 1 n
92
0
239 Np + 0 e + Q
1
93
(27.10)
In this process, a new transuranic element having atomic number 93 was expected to be
produced. In fact, Fermi and his co-researchers observed activities with half-lives
different from any of the known values for heavy elements in the vicinity of uranium.
From those observations, they concluded that transuranic elements had been produced.
And to identify the element, they carried out chemical analysis but failed.
In the same year, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strausmann carried out a series of experiments and
established that barium, an element of intermediate mass number, rather than a transuranic
element, was one of the products of the reaction and it was accomponied by release of
nearly 200 MeV of energy. This result the product of slow neutron bombardment of
uranium was barium was completely unexpected and defied all knowledge of nuclear
physics of that time. These findings were reported in Nature in Dec. 1938.
Initially, Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch explained these results on the basis of liquid drop
model of nucleus and named this process nuclear fission using the analogy with biological
cell division. Later on, Bohr and Wheeler calculated the amount of energy released in the
process, confirming the physical basis of this model.
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Atoms and Nuclei
Enrico Fermi
(1901 1954)
Enrico Fermi, the Italy born physicist, was responsible for peaceful
uses of nuclear energy for mankind. He demonstrated that nuclear
Notes
transformations may occur in any element exposed to stream of

neutrons. He achieved self-sustained nuclear fission chain reaction
in 1942.
Fermi was only 25 years old when he formulated the FermiDirac statistics, applicable
to particles having half integral spin values (called fermions). At the time of his
premature death, he was engrossed in theoretical studies of cosmic radiations.
27.2.1 Mechanism of Nuclear Fission

In the year 1939, Bohr and Wheeler developed the theory of fission using the analogy
between nuclear forces and the forces which bind molecules in a liquid. They predicted
that
235
92
235
U was more fissile than 92
U . Refer to Fig. 27.2. If shows the schematics of
nuclear fission of
235
92
235
92
U by thermal neutrons according to the equation.
92
1
U + 10 n 141
36 Ba + 36 Kr + 30 n + Q
(27.11)
time
Fig. 27.2 : Nuclear-fission of a nucleus according to the liquid drop model
The emitted neutrons have energy of the order of a few MeV, and Q 200MeV.
Note that a fission event occurs within 1017s of neutron capture and fission neutrons are
emitted within about 1014s of the event. Moreover, the fission fragments are of unequal
mass; one being 1.5 to 2 times heavier than the other. Also, Eqn. (27.11) gives only one of
the more than 40 different modes in which a
235
92
U nucleus can fission. It means that about
235
80 different nuclei of intermediate masses are produced in the fission of 92
U . The heavier
fragments lie in the mass range 125150 with the a maximum around 140, whereas the lighter
fragments lie in the range 80 110 with a maximum around 95. The number of neutrons
emitted is either two or three and the average number of neutrons produced per fission of 235U
is 2.54
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Atoms and Nuclei
Notes
Fig. 27.3 : Nuclear fission
Bohr and Wheeler treated the nucleus as a charged spherically symmetric liquid drop in
its equilibrium (lowest energy) state. According to them, when a nucleus captures a
thermal neutron, the binding energy (BE) of this neutron, which is 6.8 MeV per atomic
mass unit for 235 U , is released. This energy excites the nucleus and distorts its shape.
While the force of surface tension tries to restore the original shape, the Coulomb force
tends to distort it further. As a result, it oscillates between spherical and dumb bell shapes,
as shown in Fig.27.2, depending on the energy of excitation. When the energy gained by
the nucleus is large, the amplitude of these oscillatious pushes the nuclens into dumb bell
shape. When the distance between the two charge centres exceeds a critical value,
electrostatic repulsion between them overcomes nuclear surface tension and pushes the
nucleus into two parts resulting in fission.
235
A substance like 92
U which undergoes fission by thermal neutrons is called a fissile
233
233
239
material. Other fissile materials are 90
Th , 92
U and 93
Pu . You may note that all these
nuclei have odd mass number and even atomic number.
We can estimate the amount of energy released in the fission of

mass defect as follows:
235
92
U by calculating the
Table 27.1 Energy Generated in a Nuclear Reaction

Reactants
235
Mass
Products
141
56
235.0439 u
Ba
140.9139 u
Kr
91.8973 u
3 Vn
3.025995 u
92
36
1.008665 u
Total mass
236.052565 u
Mass defect
0.21537u
Energy released
0.21537 931 ~ 200 MeV
Mass
Total mass
235.837195 u
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Physics
27.2.2 Nuclear Chain Reaction

You have now learnt that when a neutron is
Notes
235
92
U , it splits into two fragments

and 2-3 neutrons are emitted. These are
capable of causing further fissions. This
immediately presented the exciting possibility
of maintaining a fission chain reaction in which
each fission event removes one neutron and
Fig. 27.4 : Nuclear Chain reaction
replaces that by more than two. When the rate
of production of neutrons equals the rate of
loss of neutrons, the reaction is said to be self-sustained. The device designed to maintain
a self-sustained and controlled chain reaction is called a nuclear reactor.
captured by
Nuclear reactors are usually classified according to the purpose for which they are used.
So a nuclear power reactor is used to produce electricity and a research reactor is used to
produce radioisotopes for medical purposes, carrying out experiments for refinements or
applied research. We also categorise nuclear reactors as fast and thermal, depending on
the energy of neutrons causing fission. In India, we have thermal power reactors at Tarapore,
Narora, Kota, Kaiga, etc. At Kalpakkam, we are developing a fast breeder research
reactor.
You will now learn about a nuclear reactor in brief.
27.3 Nuclear Reactor

Ever since the first nuclear reactor was constructed by Fermi and his co-workers at the
university of Chicago USA, a large number of reactors have been built the world over
primarily to meet demand for energy. Some countries generate as much as 70% of their
total energy from nuclear reactors. In India, the contributions of nuclear energy is only
about 2%, but efforts are on to increase this share. In absolute terms, we are generating
about 20,000 MWe from nuclear reactors.
Nuclear reactors have huge complex structures and great care has to be exercised in
designing them. The basic principle of a nuclear power plant is very simple and analogous
to any power plant. The heat liberated in fission is used to produce steam at high pressure
and high temperature by circulating a coolant, say water, around the fuel. (In a coal fired
station, coal is burnt to produce steam. Since one fission event generates about 7 105
times more energy than that produced in burning one atom of carbon, we can cut down on
emission of greenhouse gases substantially by switching over to nuclear energy. However,
there are some complex social and political issues with global dimensions that will ultimately
decide our ultimate nuclear energy options.)
The steam runs a turbinegenerator system to produce electricity. (In research reactors,
the heat is discharged into a river or sea. You many have heard about Bhahha Atomic
Research Centre at Trombay, Mumbai or Indira Gandhi Atomic Research Centre at
Kalpakkam. The heat generated by the research reactors at these centres is discharged
into the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal, respectively.)
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Atoms and Nuclei
Hot liquid
Control rods
Heat exchanger
Steam
Shielding
Electric
Turbine generator
Notes
Pump
Condenser
Uranium containers
Cool liquid
Pump
Power reactor
Fig. 27.5 : Schematic diagram of a nuclear reactor
The general features of a reactor are illustrated in Fig. 27.5. All nuclear reactors consist of:
A reactor core, where fission takes place resulting in release of energy. It has fuel
rods (embedded in a modertor in a thermal reactors), and control rods to maintain the
chain reaction at the desired level. Coolant is circulated to remove the heat generated
in fission. Usually, heavy water or ordinary water are used as coolants and cadmium or
boron are used for control rods.
A reflector is put next to the core to stop neutron leakage from the core.
The whole assembly is placed inside a vessel, called pressure vessel. Usually, a few
inches thick stainless steel is used for this purpose.
A thick shield is provided to protect the scientists and other personnel working around
the reactor from radiations coming from the reactor core. It is usually in the form of a
thick concrete wall.
The entire structure is placed inside a reactor building. It is air tight and is maintained
at a pressure slightly less than the atomospheric pressure so that no air leaks out of the
building.
The heat generated inside the reactor core of a reactor due to fision is removed by circulating
a coolant. The heated coolant is made to give up its heat to a secondary fluid, usually
water in a heat exchanger. This generates steam, which is used to drive turbine-generator
system to produce electricity in a power plant and discharged into a river/lake/sea in a
research reactor.

1.
Why does a
238
92
U nucleus become active after absorbing a neutron?
..................................................................................................................................
3.311
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Atoms and Nuclei

2.
Out of
238
92
U,
141
Ba,
239
Pu, and
12
6
C , which nucleus is fissile?
..................................................................................................................................
3.
How much energy is released when
235
U undergoes nuclear fission?
92
Notes
..................................................................................................................................
27.3 Nuclear Fusion

You now know that uranium nucleus can be made to split into lighter nuclei resulting in
release of huge amount of energy. You may now ask: Can we combine lighter nuclei to
produce energy? To discover answer to this question, refer to the binding energy per
nucleon (BE/A) curve (Fig.26.2). You will note that binding energy per nucleon increases
as we go from hydrogen to helium . It means that helium is more stable than hydrogen.
Consider the following reaction:
D + 1D 2He + Q
2
You can easily calculate the B.E of reactants and products:

Total B.E of reactants, BE1 = 2 2.22 = 4.44MeV
Total B.E of products, BE2 = 28.295 MeV
Table 27.2 : Binding Energy per
nucleon (BE/A) of
some light nuclei
Nucleon
BE/A(in MeV)
1.11
2.827
He
2.573
He
7.074
Li
5.332
6.541
Li
Q = (BE2 BE1) ~ 24MeV

Note that the energy released per nucleon in this reaction is 24/4=6 MeV, which is
nearly seven times the energy released per nucleon (200/238 = 0.83 MeV) in a nuclear
fission event.
The process in which two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus is called
nuclear fusion.
Fusion process presents itself as a more viable energy option. However, the process of
fusion is more difficult to achieve than nuclear fission because both the deuterons are
positively charged. When we try to bring them together to fuse into one nucleus, they repel
each other very strongly and the reaction is ordinarily impossible.
To achieve this reaction, the deuterons have to be heated to nearly 10 million kelvin so that
they acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome repulsion before they collide to fuse
into helium nucleus. But the problems associated with maintaining such high temperatures
continuously and containing the reactants together has not yet been solved fully. The
controlled thermonuclear reaction necessary for harnessing this source of energy is however
not far now.
Almost inexhaustible amount of deuterium (heavy hydrogen) is present in the ocean. Once
we begin to harness this source, our energy problem should be solved for ever. We will get
312
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Atoms and Nuclei
an endless supply of cheap electricity without any pollution. This is because one gram of
deuterium (heavy hydrogen) yields about 100,000 kW h of energy.
27.3.1 Energy in the Sun and Stars

The stars like our sun are very massive objects. They have been continuously emitting
tremendous amount of energy for the last billions of years.
Notes
Such a huge amount of energy cannot be obtained by burning conventional fuels like coal.
Nuclear fission can also not be the source of this energy, because heavy elements do not
exist in the sun in large quantity. The sun mainly consists of hydrogen and helium gases.
Then you may like to know: What is the source of energy in the sun? This question has
engaged human intellect for long. As a child, you must have gazed the sky when you
learnt the rhyme: Twinkle twinkle litter star, How I wonder what you are!
You may know that the huge mass of the sun produces extremely strong gravitational
field, which compresses its constituent gases by enormous pressure resulting in the rise of
temperature to millions of kelvin at its centre. It has been estimated that the temperature
at the centre of the sun is 20 million kelvin. At such high temperatures and pressures, gas
molecules travel at high speeds and collide setting in thermonuclear reaction and resulting
in the release of large amount of energy.
Bethe proposed that fusion of hydrogen into helium is responsible for the energy produced
in stars:
4 11 H
4
2
He + 2 +1oe + Q
The overall result here is: four hydrogen nuclei fuse into a helium nucleus with the release
of two positrons (electron-like microscope particles of the same mass but positive charge)
and 26.8 MeV energy. The tremendous amount of energy released in a thermo-nuclear
reaction is the source of energy in stars. The quantity of hydrogen in the sun is sufficient
to keep it shining for nearly 8 billion years more.

1.
200 MeV energy is released in fission of one
235
92
U5 nucleus and 26.8 MeV energy is
released in fusion of 4 protons. Which process releases more energy per unit mass?
..................................................................................................................................
2.
Consider the following reactions:

(a) 11 H +
7
3
Li
4
2
He + Q .
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313
MODULE - 7
Physics
Atoms and Nuclei
2
1
(b)
H +
2
1
3
1
H +
1
1
H + 4MeV.
Calculate Q in the first reaction and mass of tritium in the second reaction.
Given m ( 12 H ) = 2.014103u, m ( 42 H ) = 4.002604u, m ( 1 H ) = 1.007825u and

1
m ( 3 Li ) = 7.015982u.
7
Notes
.........................................................................................................................
27.4 Nuclear Energy

We need energy for all economic activities in life. The amount of energy consumed per
capita is a measure of advancement of a nation. According to a recent UNESCO report
(2007), we are consuming about 40% more than what mother earth can generate in the
form of food, water and energy. In fact, the human society has been continuously striving
for energy security and looking for newer sources of energy. Due to over use, conventional
sources of energy are depleting very fast and may exhaust completely in the next one
hundred years. The nuclear energy is perhaps an important option for meeting our future
energy needs through peaceful applications. Let us discuss these now.
27.4.1 Peaceful Applications

The most important peaceful application of nuclear energy is in the generation of electricity.
One of the main advantages of nuclear power plant is that the fuel is not required to be fed
into it continuously like the gas or coal in a thermal power plant. Further, it does not
pollute the environment to the extent discharge of smoke or ash from fossil
fuel/power plants do. The fuel once loaded in a reactor runs for nearly 6 months at a
stretch. Because of this nuclear power plants have been used to power huge ships and
submarines.
However, spent fuel of a reactor is highly radioactive because a large number of radioisotopes are present in it. India has developed its own facility to treat spent fuel and
extract it from those radio-isotopes which find uses in agriculture, medicine, industry
and research. To avoid the spread of radioactive radiations from the radioactive wastes,
the radioactive wastes are generally embedded deep inside salt mines in heavy steel cases.
Yet, it has evoked considerable controversy due to its destructive potential which was
displayed on August 6, 1945, when an atom bomb was dropped on Hiroshima (Japan)
killed hundred thousand people in a very short time. Subsequently, even more powerful
hydrogen and nitrogen bombs have been developed. These can destroy this beautiful planet
many times over.
314
Nuclear Power in India
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
The possibility of harnessing nuclear power for civil use was recognised by Dr H.J.
Bhabha soon after India got independence. He outlined a three stage development
plan for meeting countrys nuclear power needs. These are :
Employ pressurised Heavy Water Reaction (PHWR) fuelled by natural uranium
Notes
to generate electricity and produce plutonium as a by-product.
Set up fast breeder reactors burning the plutonium to breed U-233 from thorium.
Develop the second stage and produce a surplus of fissile material.
Nuclear power has been produced in India through 14 small and one mid-sized nuclear
power reactors in commercial operation, eight under construction and more planned.
As of now, nuclear power contributes nearly 2 1010 kW h of electricity 3% of
total power capacity available.
Government policy is to have 20 GWe of nuclear capacity operating by 2020 and
25% nuclear contribution is foreseen by 2050.

1.
What type of reactors are used in India for power generation?

..................................................................................................................................
2.
How much
235
92
U undergoes fission in an atomic bomb which releases energy equivalent
to 20,000 tons of TNT. (Given that 1 g of TNT gives out 1000 calorie of heat).
..................................................................................................................................
27.4.2 Hazards of Nuclear Radiations and Safety Measures

The living and non-living things around us constitute our environment. In this
environment, a delicate balance has existed for millions of years between the flora,
fauna, acquatic and human life. This balance is now being threatened. One of the
factors disturbing this balance is the ever increasing pollution in our environment.
Out of the various types of pollutants present in our environment, the one which has
very serious long term biological effects are the nuclear radiations. Earlier these
were present only because of natural sources like the radioactive minerals and cosmic
rays, but now their presence is increasing day by day due to man-made sources. The
major present day man-made sources of nuclear radiations are the nuclear tests,
nuclear installations like the nuclear research facilities, nuclear reactors, and radio
isotopes in treating diseases.
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Physics
Atoms and Nuclei

Nuclear radiations dissociate complex molecules of living tissues through ionisation
and kill the cells. They induce cancerous growth, cause sterility, severe skin burns,
and lower the body resistance against diseases. They disrupt the genetic process,
mainly in the unborn child, and show their effects even upto five generations. Nuclear
radiations affect us not only directly, but also indirectly by affecting the flora, fauna
and the acquatic life around us. They kill vegetation, fishes and animals.
Notes
The damage caused by nuclear radiations depends on the exposed part of the body, as
well as on the energy, intensity and the nature of the radiation. Different parts of human
body show different sensitivities to radiation. The -particles are, as a rule, quite harmful
because of their high ionising power. The damaging effects of different radiations are
generally compared in terms of their relative biological effectiveness, called the RBE
factors. These factors for different particles/rays are given in Table 27.3.
Table 27.3: RBE factors of different radiations

Particles/rays
RBE factors
X-rays, -rays,
-particles
There is no control on natural sources of radiation. However, efforts can certainly be

made to lower down radiation from man-made sources. Some of these are to:

Avoid nuclear explosions.

Minimise production of radio-isotopes.

Extreme care should be exercised in the disposal of industrial wastes containing
traces of radio-nuclides.

Nuclear medicines and radiation therapy should be used only when absolutely
necessary, and with well considered doses.
Thermal neutrons
2 to 5
Fast neutrons
10
-particles, high
energy ions of
O, N, etc.
10 to 20

Valence electrons take part in chemical reactions and the energy involved in such
reactions is of the order of 1eV.
In a nuclear reaction, the atomic nuclei interact to form a new element.
Energy involved in nuclear reaction is of the order of MeV.
In a nuclear reaction, atomic number, mass number and charge are conserved.
When a heavy nucleus like uranium is bombarded by slow neutrons, it splits into two
fragment with release of 2-3 neutrons and 200MeV energy. This process is known as
nuclear fission.
Substances that undergo fission are called fissile substances.

239
Pu are fissile materials.
Chain reaction occurs when more than one emitted neutron induce further fission for
each primary fission.
Nuclear reactor is a device to sustain controlled chain reaction.
In nuclear fusion two light nuclei are fused into one.
*Plasma in the forth state of matter which consists of ions and electrons.
316
233
Th,
233
U,
235
U, and

For producing nuclear fusion, the reacting nuclei must be heated to nearly 20 million
kelvin to gain sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the Coulombian potential barrier.
In stars energy is produced by nuclear fusion reaction.
Amount of hydrogen consumed in the sun is nearly 400 106 ton per second.
Radio-isotopes find diverse applications in agriculture, medicine and industry.
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
Notes
Terminal Exercise
1. How does a nuclear reaction differ from a chemical reaction?
2. What is the use of moderator and absorber in a fission reactor?
3. On the basis of B.E per nucleon versus mass number curve, explain nuclear fusion.
4. What is a nuclear reaction? State the conservation laws obeyed in nuclear reactions.
Give threes examples of nuclear reactions.
5. What is nuclear fission? Give an example to illustrate your answer.
6. Calculate the mass of 235U consumed to generate 100 mega watts of power for 30 days.
7. Heavy hydrogen undergoes the following fusion reaction
2
1
D +
2
1
4
2
He + 24 MeV
Calculate the amount of heavy hydrogen used in producing the same energy as above.
Compare the two results.
8. What is nuclear fusion? Write an equation of nuclear fusion to support your answer.
9. What is the source of energy in the sun? How is it generated? Illustrate with an
example.
10. Describe the construction of an atomic reactor.
11. Calculate the energy released in a fusion reaction
3 ( 42 He) 12
6 C
Given, the mass of on -particle = 4.00263u.

27.1
1. a.
19
9
F +
b.
27
13
AI +
1
1
H
1
0
16
8
O +
24
11
4
2
Na +
He;
4
2
He;
3.317
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MODULE - 7
Physics
Atoms and Nuclei

c.
234
90
d.
63
29
Th
Cu +
2
1
234
90
Pa +
64
30
0
1
e;
Zn +
1
0
2. 17.9MeV
Notes
3.
14
7
N +
4
2
He
17
8
O +
1
1
H + 6.5MeV.
27.2
1. Due to increase of n/p ratio above the natural ratio, its stability decreases. To decrease
the ratio to attain more stability, it emits a -particle.
2. 239Pu
3. 200 MeV.
27.3
1. (1) In fission the energy released is 0.84 MeV/u where as in fusion. It is
6.7 MeV/u. Thus energy released per unit mass is more in the later case.
2. (a) 17.3 MeV, (b) 2.69 MeV.
27.4
1. Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor
2. nearly 1 kg.

6. 30.6 kg
11. 7.35 MeV
318
7. 146.6 g
MODULE - 7

ATOMS AND NUCLEI
Maximum Marks: 50
Atoms and Nuclei
Time : 1 Hours
INSTRUCTIONS
Notes

Name
Enrolment Number
Subject
Assignment Number
Address
Get your assignment checked by the subject teacher at your study centre so that you get positive feedback
about your performance.

1.
What is the ratio of the energies of first and second orbits of hydrogen atom?
(1)
2.
Express 1 ev in 5.
(1)
3.
Express 1 u in kg.
4.
Why is the wave nature of matter not apparent to our daily observatious?
(1)
5.
What happens to the average life of the radioactive sample when its mass decreases?
(1)
6.
What is the use of moderator is a nuclear fission reaction?
(1)
7.
How does the velocity of phibelectrons change when the velocity wavelength of incident radiatious is
increased?
(1)
8.
Distinguish between isotopes and isobars.
9.
Obtain the ole Broglie wavelength associated with an electron accelerated through a potential difference
of 200 r.
(2)
(1)
10. With the help of examples distinguish between chemical and nuclear reactiouns.
(2)
11. Write the postulates of Bohrs theory of hydrogen atom.
(2)
12. Show that the density of a nuclears is independent of its mass number.
(2)
13. Distinguish between half life and average life of a radioactive substance. Find the half life of a radioactive
element which reduces to
1
th of its initial mass in 16 days.
8
14. Specific charge (e/m) is more important a physical quality as compared to charge (e) or mars (m) of a
fundamental particle. Give examples in support of this statement.
(4)
15. Write nuclear equations for :
3.319
319
(a) the alpha decay of
286
88
(b) the decay of
15
32
Ra
(c) the + decay of 116C

(d) the r decay of
60
27
Co x
(4)
16. Obtain the binating energy per nuclear of 117 N nucleus. Give
mr = 1.00783 u
mn = 1.00867u
mn = 14.00307 u.
17. For scattering of -particles by an atom of atomic number , the relation between impact parameter b
and the scattering angle is given by
e 2 cot /2
b=
.
4 o(mv2 /2)
(a) What is the value of scattering angle for which b = 0 ?

(b) Why is it that the mass of the nucleus does not enter the formula but the charge does?
(c) For a given value of b, does the angle of deflection increase or decrease with increasing energy?
(d) For a given energy of the -particle does the scattering angle increase or decrease with decrease in
impact parameter?
(4)
18. The total energy of an electron in the ground state of the hydrogen atom is about ( 13.ev). Find :
(a) What is the kinetic energy of the election in its first excited state?
(b) What is the potential energy of the electron is its first excited state?
(c) What is the total energy of the election in its first excited state?
(d) Which of the above answers would change if the choice of zero potential energy is altered?
19. In an experimental stidy of photoelectric effect the values of stopping potentials for various wavelengths
were obtained as under :
(5)
( Ao ) 3650
4358
5461
6907
Vs (V) 1.28
0.95
0.74
0.16
(a) Determine the value of plancks coustant h.

(b) Estimate the threshold frequency and work function for the material.
20. Derive a relation for the de Broglie wavelength associated with an election accelerated in a potential field
of V volts.
Which part of em spectrum you find radiotious having wavelengths comparable to the de Broglie wavelength
associated with a 100 ev electron.
(5)
320
MODULE - VIII
SEMICONDUCTOR
28. Semiconductors and Semiconductor Devices
29. Applications of Semiconductor Devices
Semiconductors and Semiconducting Devices
MODULE - 8
Semiconductors and their
Applications
28
SEMICONDUCTORS AND
SEMICONDUCTING DEVICES
Notes
E ver since man moved out of the cave and settled into a civil society, his quest for
comfort has increased continuously. The invention of fire and wheel proved turning points
in human history. Probably, the next big development was the grey revolution, which
transformed the way of communication, transportation and living. Sitting in our living rooms,
we can connect to our loved ones face-to-face across oceans and continents using computer
mediated video-conferencing. Human kind has reached other planets and searching for
life beyond the earth and outside the solar system.
In our everyday life, transistor radio, TV, cell phone, computers use what we call
semiconductor devices. Silicon and germanium are the most familiar semiconductor
materials. Normally, the conductivity of a semiconductor lies inbetween the conductivities
of metals and insulators. However, at absolute zero, the semiconductor also acts like a
perfect insulator. The conductivity of a semiconductor is influenced by adding some impurity
element called dopant. Depending on the type of carrier added by a dopant, the
semiconductor is classified as p-type or n-type.
When a part of a pure semiconductor is doped with p-type impurity and the remaining part
is doped with n-type impurity, we obtain a p-n junction. A p-n junction is also called a
diode. A more useful semiconductor device is a bipolar junction transistor. In this lesson
you will learn about various types of semiconductors, their behaviour and how they are
combined to form useful devices such as Zener diode, solar cell, photodiode, light emitting
diode and transistor, etc. These simple structures are used in voltage regulators, display
switches and storage devices, communication systems, computers, satellites, space vehicles
and power systems.
Objectives
differentiate between n-type and p-type semiconductors.
explain formation of depletion region and barrier potential in a p-n junction

diode;
3.321
321
MODULE - 8
Applications
Notes
Physics
describe I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode in the forward and reverse
biases;
explain the action of a transistor;
describe the effect of doping, size and function of different regions in a transistor;
list the differences between p-n-p and n-p-n transistors;
list different configurations in which a transistor can be connected and describe

their input and output characteristics; and
compare different configurations of a transistor in terms of their input/output

resistance, gain and applications.
28.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Semiconductors are classified on the basis of their purity as intrinsic (pure) and extrinsic
(impure) semiconductors. Let us now learn about these.
28.1.1 An Intrinsic Semiconductor

Pure silicon and germanium are intrinsic semiconductors as they have no impurity
whatsoever. You may recall that electrons in these elements are all tightly held (or say
locked) in their crystalline structure, i.e., they are not free to move. When energy is added
to pure silicon in the form of heat, say, it can cause a few electrons to break free of their
bonds, leaving behind a hole in each case. (The absence of electrons is treated as positively
charged particle having the same amount of positive charge as on an electron.) These
electrons move randomly in the crystal. These electrons and holes are called free carriers,
and move to create electrical current. However, there are so few of them in pure silicon
that they are not very useful.
Note that in an intrinsic semiconductor, electrons and holes are always generated in pairs
and the negative charge of free electrons is exactly balanced by the positive charge of
holes. However, a hole only shifts its position due to the motion of an electron from one
place to another. So we can say that when a free electron moves in a crystal because
of thermal energy; its path deviates whenever it collides with a nucleus or other free
electrons. This gives rise to a zig-zag or random motion, which is similar to that of a
molecule in a gas.
(a)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(e)
Fig. 28.1 : Movement of electrons and holes in a semiconductor
322

Now refer to Fig. 28.1(a) and consider the electron- hole pair generated at point A. The
free electron drifts in the crystal leaving vehind a hole. The broken bond now has only one
electron and this unpaired electron has tendency to acquire an electron and complete its
pair by forming a covalent bond. Due to thermal energy, the electron from neighbouring
bond, say at point B, may get excited to break its own bond and jump into the hole at A. As
a result, the hole at A vanishes and a new hole appears at B (Fig. 28.1(c)). Thus motion of
electron from point B to point A causes the hole to move from A to B.
MODULE - 8
Applications
Notes
You may now like to ask: What will happen when hole at B attracts and captures a valence
electron from neighbouring bond at C? The movement of electron from C to B causes
movement of hole from B to C [see Fig. 28.1(d) and (e)]. Conventionally, the flow of
electric current through the semiconductor is taken in the same direction in which holes
move.
At absolute zero temperature, all valence electrons are tightly bound to their parent atoms
and intrinsic semiconductor behaves as an insulator. At room temperature, the thermal
energy makes a valence electron in an atom to move away from the influence of its
nucleus. Therefore, a covalent bond is broken and electron becomes free to move in the
crystal, resulting in the formation of a vacancy, called hole. Thus, due to thermal energy,
some electron-hole pairs are generated and semiconductor exhibits small conductivity.
For example, at room temperature (300 K), Ge has intrinsic carrier concentration
of about 2.5 1019 m3. As temperature increases, more electron- hole pairs are generated
and conductivity increases. Alternatively, we can say that resistivity decreases as
temperature increases. It means that semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient
of resistance.
28.1.2 An Extrinsic Semiconductor

You now know that intrinsic semiconductors have high resistivity. Also their conductivity
shows little flexibility. For these reasons, intrinsic (pure) semiconductors are of little
use; at best these can be used as a heat or light sensitive resistance. These limitations
are overcome by adding a small and measured quantity of another material to intrinsic
(pure) semiconductor, which either increases the number of holes or electrons.
Note that the word impurity is being used here because we are adding atoms of some
other element to a pure material.
The process of addition of impurities to a pure or intrinsic semiconductor is called doping
and the impurity atom that is added is called dopant. Such doped semiconductors are
called extrinsic semiconductors.
The dopants are generally taken from either group III (having three valence electrons)
or group V (having five valence electrons) of the Periodic Table. Fig.28.2 shows a small
portion of the Periodic Table. Here groups III and V have been highlighted to indicate the
types of materials generally used for doping.
3.323
323
MODULE - 8
Physics

Applications
Notes
III
IV
VI
II
Al
Si
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Hg
Fig. 28.2 : A part of the Periodic Table. Group III and V elements are used for doping an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Normally we add a very small amount of impurity atoms to the pure simiconductor. It is of
the order of one atom per 108 atoms of intrinsic semiconductor. These atoms change the
balance of charge carriers; either they add free electrons or create holes. Either of these
additions makes the material more conducting. Thus, most of the charge carriers in extrinsic
semiconductors originate from the impurity atoms.
28.1.3 n-and p-type Semiconductors

From the electronic configuration of Si (1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p2), you will recall that ten
electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus and four electrons revolve around the nucleus in
the outermost orbit. In an intrinsic silicon semiconductor, the Si atom attains stability by
sharing one electron each with four neighbouring Si atoms. (This is called covalent
bonding). The same holds true for germanium; its electronic configuration is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6,
3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p2. When silicon (or germanium) is doped with a pentavalent (five
electrons in the outermost orbit) atom like phosphorus, arsenic or antiomony, four electrons
form covalent bonds with the four neighbouring silicon atoms, but the fifth (valence) electron
remains unbound and is available for conduction, as shown in Fig. 28.3. Thus, when a
silicon (or germanium) crystal is doped with a pentavalent element, it develops excess free
electrons and is said to be an n-type semiconductor. Such impurities are known as donor
impurities.
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Fig.28.3 : Covalent bonding in a n-type semiconductor
Note that in n-type semiconductors, the no. of free electrons is far greater than the number
of holes and the latter stands for negative charges.
If silicon (or germanium) is doped with a trivalent (three electrons in the outermost shell)
324

atom like boron, aluminium, gallium or indium, three valence electrons form covalent bonds
with three silicon atoms and deficiency of one electron is created. This deficienty of
electron is referred to as hole. It is shown in Fig. 28.4. Such a semiconductor is said to be
a p-type semiconductor and the impurities are known as acceptor impurities.
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
MODULE - 8
Applications
Notes
Fig. 28.4 : Colvalent bonding in a p-type semiconductor
You may now like to ask: Is a n-type semiconductor negatively charged? The answer to
this question is not in affermative.
In fact, the number of free electrons is exactly equal to the total number of holes and
positively charged ions and a semiconductor, whether intrinsic or doped, is electricially
neutral.
Note that in a p-type semiconductor, more holes are created due to addition of acceptor
impurity than by breaking covalent bonds due to thermal energy at room temperature.
Hence, the net concentration of holes is significantly greater than that of electrons. That
is, in a p-type semiconductor, the holes are the majority charge carriers.

1. At 300 K, pure silicon has intrinsic carrier concentration of 1.5 1016 m3. What is the
concentration of holes and electrons?
....................................................................................................................................
2. The n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping with
(i) trivalent impurity
(ii) pentavalent impurity
(iii) tetravalent impurity
(iv) trivalent as well as tetravalent
....................................................................................................................................
3. An intrinsic semiconductor can be converted into an extrinsic semiconductor by addition
. This process in called
of
....................................................................................................................................
4. Electrons in n-type semiconductor and holes in p-type semiconductor are the
3.325
325
MODULE - 8
Applications
Physics
carriers.
....................................................................................................................................
5. An extrinsic semiconductor has
intrinsic semiconductor.
resistivity as compared to an
....................................................................................................................................
Notes
28.2 A p-n Junction

You now know that n-type and p-type semiconductors respectively have electrons and
holes as majority charge carriers. What do you think will happen if a n-type material is
placed in contact with a p-type material? Shall we obtain some useful device? If so, how?
To answer such questions, let us study formation and working of a p-n junction.
28.2.1 Formation of a p-n Junction

To form a p-n junction, the most convenient way is to introduce donor impurities on one
side and acceptor impurities into the other side of a single semiconducting crystal, as
shown in Fig.28.5.
p-region
n-region
electron
hole
negative ion
positive ion
depletion
region
Fig. 28.5 : A p-n junction with depletion region
We now know that there is greater concentration of electrons in the n-region of the crystal
and of holes in the p-region. Because of this, electrons tend to diffuse to the p-region and
holes to the n-region and recombine. Each recombination eleminates a hole and a free
electron. This results in creation of positively and negatively charged ions near the junction
in n and p regions, respectively. As these charges accumulate, they tend to act as shield
preventing further movement of electrons and holes across the junction. Thus, after a few
recombinations, a narrow region near the junction is depleted in mobile charge carriers. It
is about 0.5 m thick and is called the deplection region or space-charge region.
Due to accumulation of charges near the junction, an electric field is established. This
326

gives rise to electrostatic potential, known as barrier potential. This barrier has polarities,
as shown in Fig. 18.6. When there is no external electric field, this barrier prevents diffusion
of charge carriers across the junction.
MODULE - 8
Applications
p-n junction
Notes
p-region
n-region
+
barrier potential of
depletion region
Fig.28.6 : Barrier potential due to depletion region
The barrier potential is characteristic of the semiconductor material. It is about 0.3 eV for
Ge and about 0.7eV for Si. The junction acts as a diode. It is symbolically represented as
shown in Fig. 28.7(a). Here A corresponds to p-region and acts as an anode. Similarly, K
indicates n-region and corresponds to a cathode. Fig 28.7 (b) shows a picture of p-n
junction diode available in market.
Black Band Indicates n-side
AA A
Input
E
KK
p
n
(a)
Fig. 28.7:
(b)
a) Symbol of a p-n junction (diode). The arrow gives the direction of conventional
current. It is from p to n region b) A p-n junction diode available in the market.
You may have noted that semiconductor diodes are designated by two letters followed by
a serial number. The first letter indicates the material: A is used for material with a band
gap of 0.6 eV to 1.0eV such as germanium. B is used for material with a band gap of
1.0eV to 1.3eV, such as silicon. The second letter indicates the main application: A signifies
detection diode, B denotes a variable capacitance diode, E for tunnel diode, Y for rectifying
diode and Z denotes Zener diode. The serial numbers specify power rating, peak reverse
voltage, maximum current rating, etc. (We have to refer to manufacturers catelogue to
know exact details.) For example, BY127 denotes a silicon rectifier diode and BZ148
3.327
327
MODULE - 8
Applications
Notes
Physics
represents a silicon Zener diode.
To make visual identification of anode and cathode, the manufacturers employ one of the
following ways :
the symbol is painted on the body of the diode;
red and blue marks are used on the body of the diode. Red mark denotes anode,
whereas blue indicates the cathode;
a small ring is printed at one end of the body of the diode that corresponds to the
cathode. The band in Fig. 28.7(b) indicates the n-side of the p-n junction.
Note that we have to work within the specified ranges of diode ratings to avoid damage to
the device.

1. Fill in the blanks:
(a) When a p-n junction is formed, the
diffuse across the junction.
(b) The region containing uncompensated acceptor and donor ions is called
region.
(c) The barrier potential in silicon is
V and in germanium, it is
V.
(d) In a p-n junction with no applied electric field, the electrons diffuse from n-region
concentration of
in n-region as
to p-type region as there is
compared to p- region.
2. Choose the correct option:
(a) The potential barrier at the p-n junction is due to the charges on the either side of
the junction. These charges are
(i) majority carriers
(ii) minority carriers
(iii) fixed donor and acceptor ions.
(iv) none of above
....................................................................................................................
(b) In a p-n junction without any external voltage, the junction current at
equillibrium is
(i) due to diffusion of minority carriers only
(ii) due to diffusion of majority carriers only
(iii) zero, as no charges are crossing the junction
(iv) zero, as equal and opposite charges are crossing the junction
....................................................................................................................
328

(c)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
MODULE - 8
Applications
In a semiconductor diode, the barrier potential repels

minority carriers in both the regions
majority carriers in both the regions
both the majority and the minority carriers
none of the above
....................................................................................................................
Notes
3. Why is depletion region named so? What is depletion region made of?
....................................................................................................................................
28.3 Forward and Reverse Biased p-n Junction

Biasing means application of voltage. To make a p-n junction to conduct, we have to
make electrons move from the n-type region to the p-type region and holes moving in the
reverse direction. To do so, we have to overcome the potential barrier across the junction
by connecting a battery to the two ends of the p-n junction diode. The battery can be
connected to the p-n junction in two ways:
Positive terminal of the battery connected to the p-side and negative terminal of the
battery connected to the n-side. This is called forward bias [Fig. 28.2(a)].
Positive terminal of the battery connected to the n-side and negative terminal of the
battery connected to the p-side. This is called reverse bias [Fig. 28.8(b)].
When a junction is forward biased and the bias exceeds barrier potential, holes are compelled
to move towards the junction and cross it from the p-region to the n-region. Similarly,
electrons cross the junction in the reverse direction. This sets in forward current in the
diode. The current increases with voltage and is of the order of a few milliampere. Under
the forward bias condition, the junction offers low resistance to flow of current. Can you
guess its magnitude? The value of junction resistance, called forward resistance, is in
the range 10 to 30.
p
+
(a)
+
(b)
Fig. 28.8 : a) Forward biased, and b) reverse biased p-n junction
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Notes
Physics
When the p-n junction is reverse biased, holes in the p-region and electrons in the
n-region move away from the junction. Does it mean that no current shall flow in the
circuit? No, a small current does flow even now because of the fewer number of electronhole pairs generated due to thermal excitations. This small current caused by minority
carriers is called reverse saturation current or leakage current. In most of the
commercially available diodes, the reverse current is almost constant and independent of
the applied reverse bias. Its magnitude is of the order of a few microamperes for Ge
diodes and nanoamperes in Si diodes.
A p-n junction offers low resistance when forward biased, and high resistance when
reverse biased. This property of p-n junction is used for ac rectification.
When the reverse bias voltage is of the order of a few hundred volt, the current through
the p-n junction increases rapidly and damages it due to excessive power dissipation. The
voltage at which a diode breaks down is termed as breakdown voltage. Physically, it can
be explained as follows: When a reverse bias is applied, a large electric field is established
across the junction. This field (i) accelerates the available minority carriers, which, in turn,
collide with the atoms of the semiconductor material and eject more electrons through
energy transfer (avalanche effect), and (ii) breaks covalent bonds by exerting large force
on electrons bound by the bonds. This results in creation of additional electron-hole pairs in
the junction region (Zener effect). Both these processes give rise to large reverse current
even for a small increment in reverse bias voltage. This process is termed as Zener
breakdown.

1. Define forward bias.
.....................................................................................................................................
2. Define reverse bias.
.....................................................................................................................................
(a) When forward bias is applied on a p-n junction diode, the width of the depletion
region .......
(b) When a p-n junction diode is reverse biased, the width of depletion region
(c) When the reverse bias voltage is made too high, the current through the p-n
junction ................................. abruptly. This voltage is called ........................... .
(a) In a forward biased junction
(i) the holes in the n-region move towards the p-region
(ii) there is movement of minority carriers
(iii) charge carriers do not move
330

(iv) majority carriers in both the regions (n and p-regions) move into other regions.
............................................................................................................
MODULE - 8
Applications
(b) In a reverse biased junction

(i) there is no of potential barrier
(ii) there is movement of majority carriers only
(iii) there is movement of minority carriers only
(iv) none of the above
Notes
.............................................................................................................
5. State two types of reverse breakdowns which can occur in a p-n junction diode and
differentiate between them.
....................................................................................................................................
28.4 Characteristics of p-n junction diodes

The practical application of a semiconductor device in electronic circuits depends on the
current and voltage (I-V) relationship, as it gives vital information to a circuit designer as
well as a technician. Therefore, with the help of IV characteristics, we can know how
much current flows through the junction diode at a particular voltage.
28.4.1 Forward Bias Characteristics

Refer to Fig. 28.9(a). You will note that to draw forward bias characterstic of a p-n
junction diode, the positive terminal of a battery (B) is connected to p-side of the diode
through the rheostat. (Alternative by we can use a variable battery.) The voltage applied
to the diode can be varied with the help of the rheostat. The milliammeter (mA) measures
the current in the circuit and voltmeter (V) measures the voltage across the diode. The
direction of conventional current is the same as the direction of the diode arrow. Since
current experiences little opposition to its flow through a forward biased diode and it
increases rapidly as the voltage is increased, a resistance (R) is added in the circuit to limit
the value of current. If this resistance is not included, the diode may get permanently
damaged due to flow of excessive current through it.
The I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias is shown in Fig. 28.9(b).
I
(mA)
+ V
+
B
Rh
mA
D
R
0.7V
Knee
(a)
(b)
Fig 28.9 : a) Circuit diagram I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode in forward bias, and
b) typical characterstics curve.
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Physics
Note that the characteristic curve does not pass through origin; instead it meets the V-axis
around 0.7V. It means that the p-n junction does not conduct until a definite external
voltage is applied to overcome the barrier potential. The forward voltage required to get
the junction in conduction mode is called knee voltage. It is about 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V
for Ge p-n junction.
This voltage is needed to start the hole-electron combination process at the junction. As
the applied voltage is increased beyond knee voltage, the current through the diode increases
linearly. For voltage of around 1V, the current may attain a value of 30-80 mA.
28.4.2 Reverse Bias Characteristics

To draw reverse bias characteristics of a p-n junction, we use the circuit diagram shown
in Fig. 28.10 (a). If you compare it with Fig. 28.9(a) for forward I-V characteristics, you
will note two changes:
(i) The terminals of the junction are reversed.
(ii) Instead of milliammeter, microammeter ( A) is used.
A typical I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in reverse bias is shown in Fig 28.10(b).
+ V
+
+
P'
Breakdown
Leakage current
V
Reverse Region
I
(A)
(a)
(b)
Fig.28.10 : a) Circuit diagram to obtain I-V characteristics of a p-n junction in reverse bias, and
b) reverse bias characteristic curve
Note that the junction current is comparatively much less in reverse bias for all voltages
below the breakdown voltage. And at breakdown voltage, the current increases rapidly
for a small increase in voltage. Moreover, comparison of Fig. 28.9 (b) and 28.10 (b)
reveals that a p-n junction diode offers low resistance when it is forward biased and high
resistance when reverse biased. At the breakdown voltage in reverse biased p-n junction
diode, the sharp increase in reverse current is due to sudden decrease in resistance offered
by the junction.
From this we may conclude that a p-n junction diode conducts in only one direction, i.e.
has unidirectional conduction of current, with electrons flowing from the n-type region to
p-type end in forward bias.
You may have seen turnstiles at a metro subway station that let people go through in only
one direction. A diode is a one-way turnstile for electrons.
p-n junction diodes find wide applictions. These include :
1. The unidirectional conducting property of a diode is used to convert ac voltage into dc
332

voltage as a rectifier. Diodes are also used in adaptors to recharge batteries of cell
phones, CDplayers, laptops, etc. You will study about it in detail in the next lesson.
MODULE - 8
Applications
2. A device that uses batteries often contains a diode as it simply blocks any current
from leaving the battery, if it is reverse biased. This protects the sensitive electronics
in the device.
Notes

1. Explain the concept of knee voltage.
....................................................................................................................................
2. (a) The knee voltage in case of silicon diode is __________ whereas in germanium
diode it is _________.
(b) In a p-n junction diode, the current flows only in
(c) The reverse saturation current is of the order of
diodes.
direction.
for germanium
3. Choose the correct option :

(a) The I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode in forward bias show
(i) a non-linear curve
(ii) linear curve
(iii) linear as well as non-linear portions
(iv) none of above
(b) When a p-n junction is forward biased and the voltage is increased, the rapid
increase in current for relatively small increase in voltage occurs
(i) almost immediately
(ii) only when the forward bias exceeds the potential barrier
(iii) when there is breakdown of the junction
28.5 Types of Diodes

By adjusting the levels of doping, doping material and the geometry (size, area etc.) of a
p-n junction diode, we can modify its electrical and optical behaviour. In this section, we
have listed diodes whose properties have been deliberately modified to obtain specific
capabilities. Each of these diodes has its own schematic symbol and reflects its nature and
functions.
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You can use the following table to make a comparison between different diodes:
Name
Symbol
Zener
diode
Notes
Photo-diode
LED
Solar cell
Construction
mechanism
p-n junction diode
with heavily doped
p- & n- regions. Very
narrow depletion layer
(< 10 nm).
Main
function
Zener
Provides
breakdown
continuous
mechanism
current in
reverse
breakdown
voltage region
without being
damaged.
p-n junction diode.
Photovoltaic Converts an
Uses light (or photo)
effect
optical input
emitting semiconductor
into electrical
materials, with
current in
very thin p-region,
reverse bias.
whose thickness
is determined by
wavelength of radiation
to be detected
p-n junction diode with Electroluminous Changes an
materials having band
electrical input
energies correspoding
to a light
to near infrared region
output in
or visible light region
forward bias.
(GaAsP or InP)
p-n junction diode in

Photovoltaic Conversion
which either p or
effect
of solar
n region is made very
energy into
thin to avoid significant
electrical
absorption of light
energy
before reaching
the junction

1. Choose the correct option
(a) A zener diode is operated in
(i) Forward bias
(ii) Reverse bias
(iii) Both of the above
(iv) None of the above
334
Principle
Main use
Voltage
stabilization
or regulation
Receivers for
remote
controls in
VCR & TV
Used in
multimeters,
digital
watches,
instrument
displays,
calculators,
switch
boards,
burglar alarm
and remote
control
devices
1. In satellites
to power
systems.
2. To charge
batteries.
3. Calculators

..........................................................................................................................
MODULE - 8
Applications
(b) Zener dide is

(i) A highly doped p-n junction diode
(ii) A lowly doped p-n junction diode
(iii) A moderately doped p-n junction diode
Notes
(iv) Another name of normal p-n junction diode

..................... .......................................................................................................
(c) A zener diode is used as a
(i) amplifier
(ii) rectifier
(iii) constant current device
(iv) constant voltage device
....................................................................................................................
2. Fill in the blanks
breakdown mechanism.
a) The zener diode is based on the

b) A photodiode is operated in
bias.
c) In a photodiode, the p-n junction is made from

material.
semiconductor
d) LEDs are made up of the conductor material from

table.
of the periodic
bias.
e) The light emitting diodes poerate in

f)
The
light.
arrow in the symbol of LED symbolizes

of electrons and holes.
g) In an LED light is emitted due to

h) LED is based on the principle of
i)
Solar cells are based on
j)
When sunlight having energy

the solar cell, it is
of
.
effect.
than the band gap energy falls on
and frees electron-hole pairs.
28.6 Transistors pnp and npn

In the preceeding sections, you have learnt about a p-n junction diode, which permits
current to flow in only one direction. This limits its applications to rectification and detection.
A more useful semiconductor device is a bipolar junction transistor.
The invention of transistor by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley in 1948
at Bell laboratory in USA revolutionised the electronic industry. The transistors find many
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Notes
Physics
any varied uses in our daily life ranging from gas lighter to toys to amplifiers, radio sets and
television. In the form of switching device, these can be used to regulate vehicular traffic
on the roads. They form key elements in computers, space vehicles, power systems in
satellites and communication.
A transistor is basically a silicon or germanium crystal containing three alternate regions of
p and n-type semiconductors as shown in Fig.28.11. These three regions are called
emitter(E), base(B) and collector(C). The middle region is the base and the outer two
regions are emitter and collector. Note that the emitter and collector are of the same type
(p or n) and collector is the largest of the three regions.
The base terminal controls the current flowing between the emitter and the collector. This
control action gives the transistor an added advantage over the diode, which has no possibility
of controlling the current flow. Depending on the type of doping, the transistors are classified
as n-p-n or p-n-p. In general, the level of doping decreases from emitter to collector to
base.
E
n
B
p
E
p
C
p
(a)
(b)
Fig. 28.11 : a) n-p-n, and b) p-n-p transistor
The names of the terminals of a transistor give clear indication of their functions. In case
of a n-p-n transistor, the majority carriers (electrons) from the emitter are injected into
base region. Since base is a very lightly doped thin layer, it allows most of the electrons
injected by the emitter to pass into the collector. Being the largest of three regions, the
collector dissipates more heat compared to the other two regions.
(a )
(b)
Figs 28.12 : Symbols of a) n-p-n, and b) p-n-p transistors
The symbolic representations of n-p-n and p-n-p transistors are shown in Fig. 28.12. The
arrow head indicates the direction of flow of conventional current.
You may now like to ask : Why does the arrow head point outward in case of n-p-n
transistor and inward in case of p-n-p transistor?
In a n-p-n, transistor, the emitter current is due to flow of electrons from emitter to base,
and the conventional current flows from base to emitter and hence the arrow head points
out from the base. In case of p-n-p transistor, the emitter current comprises flow of holes
from emitter to base. Thus the conventional current flows from emitter to base.
Since transistors are bipolar devices, their operation depends on both the majority and
minority carriers.
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William Bradford Shockley

(1910 1989)
England born, American physicist W.B. Shockley was one of the
three scientists who received 1956 Nobel Prize in physics for the
discovery of transistor. Basically a solid state physicist, shockley
contributed significantly to the development of theoretical
understanding of bands in semiconductors, order and disorder in alloys; theory of
vacuum tubes, theory of dislocations and theory of ferromagnetic domains. He is
truely one of the pioneers of electronic revolution.
Notes
28.6.1 Working Principle

You are familiar with the working of a p-n junction. We now discuss the working principle
of a transistor and consider an n-p-n transistor first because it is more commonly used.
When no voltage is applied across the transistor, diffusion of free electrons across the
junctions produces two depletion layers, as shown in Fig. 28.13. For each depletion layer,
the barrier potential is about 0.7V at 25C for a silicon transistor and 0.3V for a germanium
transistor. As you may be aware, silicon transistors are more widely used than germanium
transistors because of higher voltage rating, greater current ratings, and low temperature
sensitivity. For our discussion, we refer to silicon transistors,
unless otherwise indicated.
Since the three regions in a transistor have different doping
levels, the depletion layers have different widths. If a region
is heavily doped, the concentration of ions near the junction
will be more, resulting in thin depletion layer and vice versa.
Since the base is lightly doped as compared to emitter and
collector, the depletion layers extend well into it, whereas
penetration in emitter/collector regions is to a lesser extent
(Fig. 28.13). Moreover, the emitter depletion layer is
narrower compared to collector depletion layer.
In order to made a transistor funciton properly, it is necessary
to apply suitable voltages to its terminals. This is called
biasing of the transistor.
Emitter-base
depletion
layer
Collector-base
depletion
layer
Figs 28.13 : Depletion layers

in a transistor
when no voltage
is applied
A n-p-n Transistor
A typical biasing scheme of a n-p-n transistor is shown in Fig. 28.14(a). Note that the
emitter-base junction is forward biased while the collector-base junction is reverse
biased. We therefore expect a large emitter current and low collector current. But in
practice, we observe that the collector current is almost as large as the emitter current.
Let us understand the reason. When forward bias is applied to the emitter, free electrons
in the emitter have to overcome the barrier potential to enter the base region
[see Fig. 28.14(b)]. When VBE exceeds barrier potential (0.6 to 0.7V for silicon transistor),
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Physics
these electrons enter the base region, as shown in Fig. 28.14(c). Once inside the base,
these electrons can flow either through the thin base into the external base lead or across
the collector junction into the collector region. The downward component of base current
is called recombination current. It is small because the base is lightly doped and only a
few holes are available. Since the base region is very thin and it receives a large number
of electrons, for VBE> 0.7V, most of these electrons diffuse into the collector depletion
layer. The free electrons in this layer are pushed (by the depletion layer field) into the
collector region [(Fig. 28.14(d)] and flow into the external collector lead. So, we can say
that a steady stream of electrons leaves the negative source terminal and enters the emitter
E
C
n
+
V
CB
VBE
+
(a)
n
VBE
+
VCB
VBE
+
VCB
(b)
(c)
Collector current
IC
Emitter current
IE
VBE
Base current
IB
+
V
CB
(d)
Fig. 28.14 :
A n-p-n transistor when a) emitter is forward-biased and collector is reversebiased, b) free electrons in an emitter, c) free electrons injected into base; and d)
free electrons pass through the base to the collector.
region. The forward bias forces these electrons to enter the base region. Almost all these
electrons diffuse into the collector depletion layer through the base. The depletion layer
field then pushes a steady stream of electrons into the collector region. In most transistors,
more than 95 percent emitter-injected electrons flow to the collector; less than 5 percent
flow to the external base lead.
From this you should not conclude that you can connect two discrete diodes back to back
to get a transistor. This is because in such a circuit, each diode has two doped regions and
the overall circuit would have four doped regions and the base region would not be the
same as in a transistor. The key to transistor action, therefore, is the lightly doped thin
base between the heavily doped emitter and the intermediately doped collector. Free
electrons passing through the base stay in base for a short time and reach the collector.
338

The relation between collector current (IC) and emitter current (IE) is expressed in terms
of signal current gain, , of a transistor. It is defined as
IC
IE .
MODULE - 8
Applications
(28.1)
You should note that the value of is nearly equal to but always less than one.
Notes
Similarly, we can relate the collector current to the base current in a transistor. It is denoted
by greek letter beta:
IC
IB
(28.2)
Beta signifies the current gain of the transistor in common-emitter configuration. The
value of is significantly greater than one.
Since emitter current equals the sum of collector current and base current, we can write
I E = IC + IB
On dividing throughout by IC, we get
IE
I
1+ B .
=
IC
IC
(28.3)
In terms of and , we can rewrite it as

1
1
= 1+
(28.4)
1
Let us now consider how a p-n-p transistor differs from a n-p-n transistor in its details.
=
or
A p-n-p Transistor
A p-n-p transistor biased for operation in the active region is shown in Fig 28.15. Note that
we reverse the battery terminals when n-p-n transistor is substituted by p-n-p transistor.
E
VEB
VCB
Fig. 28.15 : A p-n-p transistor biased for active operation
As before, the emitter - base junction is forward biased by battery of voltage VEB and the
collector base junction is reverse biased by a battery of voltage VCB. The resistance of the
emitter-base junction is very small due to its forward bias as compared to the collectorbase junction (which is reverse biased). Therefore, we apply small forward bias voltage
(0.6V) to the emitter-base junction, whereas the reverse bias voltage applied to the collector3.339
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Notes
Physics
base junction is of much higher value (9V).
The forward bias of emitter-base junction makes the majority carriers, that is the holes, in
emitter (p-region), to diffuse to the base (n-region), on being repelled by the positive
terminal of the battery. As width of the base is extremely thin and it is lightly doped, very
few (two to five percent) of total holes that enter the base recombine with electrons and
95% to 98% reach the collector region. Due to reverse bias of the collector- base region,
the holes reaching this region are attracted by the negative potential applied to the collector,
thereby increasing the collector current (IC). Therefore, increase in emitter current (IE)
increases collector current. And Eqns. (28.1) (28.4) hold in this case as well.

a) The arrow head in the symbol of a transistor points in the direction of
(i) hole flow in the emitter region
(ii) electron flow in emitter region
(iii) majority carriers flow in the above region
b) The emitter current in a transistor in normal bias is
(i) less than the collector current
(ii) equal to sum of base current and collector current
(iii) euqal to base current
(a) A ransistor has
(b) In a transistor,
regions and
junctions.
has the least thickness.
(c) The emitter region is

least
doping.
doped, whereas
(d) The collector of the transistor has
region has the
size and
doping.
junction is forward
(e) The transistor is said to be in active region when

biased and
junction is reverse biased.
(f) The two types of transistors are
and
You now know the working principle of a transistor. Let us learn the various ways in which
a transistor is biased.
28.6.2 Transistor Configurations

A transistor is a two-port device; it can take an input and deliever an output. For both input
and output, two terminals are needed. This can be done in a transistor by making one of the
three terminals common. The configurations of a transistor in which one of the terminals is
340

common to both input and output are shown in Fig. 28.16.
When emitter is common to both input and output circuits, we obtain common emitter
MODULE - 8
Applications
(CE) configuration (Fig. 28.16a);
When base is common to both input and output circuits, we obtain common base (CB)
configuration (Fig. 28.16b); and
When collector is common to both input and output circuits, we have common collector
Notes
(CC) configuration (Fig.28.16c).

In each of these configurations, the transistor characteristics are unique. The CE
configuration is used most widely because it provides voltage, current and power gains. In
the CB configuration, the transistor can be used as a constant current source while the CC
configuration is usually used for impedance matching.
V0
V0
Fig. 28.16: Transistor configuration: a) CE, b) CB, and c) CC
For each configuration, we can plot three different characteristics: a) input characteristics,
b) output characteristics, and c) transfer characteristics, depending on the nature of
quantities involved.
Table 28.2 gives various quantities related to each of these characteristics in all the three
configurations and the transistor constants of interest.
Table 28.2: Physical quantities of interest in different characteristics of a transistor
Configuration
Input
Characteristic
Output
characteristic
Transfer
Important
characteristic transistor
constant
CE
VBE and IB
with VCE as
parameter
VCE and IC with IB and IC

IB as parameter
Current gain,
CB
VBE and IE
with VCB as
parameter
VCB and IC with IE and IC

IE as parameter
Large signal
current gain,
CC
VCB and IB
with VCE as
parameter
VCE and IE with IB and IE

IB as parameter
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To work with a transistor, you will be required to identify its base, emitter and collector
leads. To do so, you can follow the following steps.
B
C
Notes
Look for the a small notch provided on the metallic cap. The
terminal close to the notch is emitter. To identify other two
terminals, turn the transistor up-side-down. You can easily
identify the base and the collector as shown in Fig. 28.17.
Like a p-n junction diode, transistors are also designated with

two letters followed by a serial number. The first letter gives
an indication of the material. A is for germanium and B is for
Fig. 28.17 : Identifying
silicon. The second letter indicates the main application: C is
transistor
used for audio frequency transistors, D for power transistors
leads.
and F for radio-frequency transistors. The serial number
consists of digits assigned by the manufacturer for
identification. For example, AC 125 represents germanium transistor for AF applications.
E
28.7 Transistor Characteristics

As mentioned earlier, operation of a transistor can be studied with input and output I-V
characteristics. The nature of these characteristics is unique and depends on the
configuration used. Let us first study CE configuration.
28.7.1 Common Emitter (CE) Configuration of a npn Transistor

Common emitter characteristics of a transistor relate voltage and current when emitter is
common to both input and output circuits. The circuit diagram for CE characteristics of a
n-p-n transistor is shown in Fig. 28.18. VBB is a variable dc supply of 0-3V and VCC is a
variable dc supply of 0-15V. R1 and R2 are potentiometers and R is a variable resistor. It is
used to control base to emitter voltage, VBE.
IB
VBB
0-3V
VCE
VCC
0-15V
VBE
Fig. 28.18 : Circuit diagram for input and output characteristics of a transistor in CE configuration.
Input characteristics
In CE configuration, the input characteristics show the variation of IB with VBE when VCE
is held constant. To draw this characteristic, VCE is kept at a suitable value with the help of
R and R1. Then VBE is changed in steps and corresponding values of IB are measured with
342
VCE = 4V
VCE = 2V
Note that for a given value of VCE , the curve is as

obtained for forward biased p-n junction diode. For
V BE< 0.5V, there is no measurable base current
(IB = 0). However, IB rises steeply for VBE > 0.6V.
From the reciprocal of the slope of input
characteristic, we get input resistance of the
transistor defined as the ratio of small change in base
- emitter voltage to the small change produced in the
base current at constant collector - emitter voltage:
Rie =
V BE
I B

Applications
IB
(A)
the help of microammeter, connected to base. Fig.

28.19. shows typical input characteristics of a np-n
transistor in CE configuration.
MODULE - 8
VCE = 0V
IB
Notes
VBE
VBE (V)
Fig. 28.19 : Input characteristics of

a typical npn transistor
in CE configuration
(28.5)
V BE
Usually, the value of Rie is in the range 20-100. You should note that since the curve is not
linear, the value of input resistance varies with the point of measurement. As VCE increases,
the curve tends to become more vertical and the value of
Rie decreases.
Output characteristics
The output characteristic curves depict the variation of
collector current IC with VCE, when base current IB is kept
constant. To draw output characteristics, IB is fixed, say at
10 A, by adjusting R1 and R. VCE is then increased from 0
to 10 V in steps of 0.5V by varrying R2 and the corresponding
value of IC is noted. Similarly, the output characteristics can
be obtained at IB = 40A, 60A, 80A. However, in no case,
the maximum base current rating of the transistor should be
exceeded.
The output characteristics of this configuration are shown
in Fig. 28.20.
Fig. 28.20 : Output

characteristics
of a typical npn
transistor in CE
configuration
From the output characteristics, you will note that IC changes

with increase in VCE for a given value of IB and IC increases with IB for a given VCE. From
these characteristics, we can calculate output admittance (hoe):
hoe =
I C
VCE
(28.6)
where denotes a small change.

3.343
343
MODULE - 8
Applications
Notes
Physics
28.7.2 Common Emitter (CE) Configuration of a pnp Transistor

In the preceding section, you learnt to draw input and output characterstics of a n-p-n
transistor in common emitter configuration. Now we will consider a p-n-p transistor.
Fig. 28.21 shows the circuit diagram for CE characteristics of a p-n-p transistor. The
transistor is biased to operate in the active region. The microammeter and voltmeter are
used in the base- emitter circuit to measure the base current (IB) and the voltage between
base and emitter. Similarly, milliammeter and voltmeter are connected in collector-emitter
circuit to measure the collector current (IC) and voltage between collector and emitter
i
(VCE).
c
+
A + E
VEE
+
V2
R2
Fig. 28.21 :
VEB
VCE
mA
V1
+
R1
V CC
+
Circuit diagram for obtaining input and output characteristics of a p-n-p transistor
in CE configuration
Input Characteristics
Input characteristics are graphs between VBE and IB at different constant values of VCE.
To plot input characteristics, the potentiometer R1 in the emitter- collector circuit is adjusted
till the voltmeter shows constant value. Then potentiometer in the emitter-base circuit is
adjusted in such a way that base-emitter voltage is zero. For this value, base current is also
observed to be zero. Keeping the VCE constant, VBE is increased gradually and change in
base current is noted with the help of microammeter. To plot input characteristics at
VCE = 2V, say, the potentiometer in emitter-collector circuit is adjusted till the voltmeter
in the same circuit reads 2V. Then potentiometer in the emitter -base circuit is adjusted to
make V BE zero. Then V BE is increased
I
gradually, keeping VCE constant. Similarly the
V = 2V
(A)
input characteristics of the transistor in the
6V
80
10V
CE configuration can be drawn for different
70
values of VCE = 6V, 1V and so on. Fig.
60
28.22 shows typical input characteristics of
50
CE configuration. As may be noted, the
40
nature of input characteristics is similar to
30
the forward characteristics of p-n junction
20
diode. The base current remains zero as long
10
as the base voltage is less than the barrier
0
0
0.5
1.0 V (V)
voltage (for silicon transistor, it is ~0.7V). As
the base voltage exceeds barrier voltage,
Fig. 28.22 : Input characteristics of a
typical p-n-p transistor in CE
current begins to increase slowly and then
configuration.
b
CE
BE
344
MODULE - 8
Applications
rises abruptly.
You may also recall that these curves are similar to the ones obtained for the CE
configuration for n-p-n transistor.
From the reciprocal of the slope of the curve of input characteristic, the a.c input resistance
of the transistor can be calculated.
a.c input resistance (Rin) of the transistor in CE configuration is expressed as:
Rin =
VBC
I B
= constant
Notes
(28.7)
VCE
In this configuration Rin is typically of the order of one k.
Output Characteristics
These are graphs between collector-emitter
voltage (VCE) and the collector current (IC) at
different constant values of base current (IB).
To draw these characteristics, VCE is made
zero and VBE is adjusted till the microammeter
in the base-emitter circuit is set to read a
constant value. Thus VCE is adjusted to make
IB constant at a particular value. Now keeping
IB constant, VCE is increased from zero in a
number of steps and the corresponding
collector current IC is noted with the help of
milliammeter connected in series with
collector.
VCE
Fig 28.23 : Output characteristics of a

typical pnp transistor in CB
configuration
How can we plot the output characteristics at IB = 50 A? To do so, VBE is adjusted

till milliammeter reads 50 A. Increase VCE gradually and note correspoding values of IC.
The graph betweent VCE and IC gives the output characteristics at IB = 50 A. Similarly,
the output characteristics can be obtained at IB = 100 A, 200 A and so on. Fig. 28.23
shows output characteristics of p-n-p transistor for CE configuration.
Example 28.1 Calculate the current gain of a transistor if the current gain = 0.98
Solution: =
0.98
=
= 49
1 1 0.98
Example 28.2 In a transistor, 1 mA change in emitter current changes collector current

by 0.99 mA. Determine the a.c current gain.
Solution: Given Ie = 1 mA = 1 103 A and Ic = 0.99 mA = 0.99 103 A
Therefore, a.c current gain of the transistor =
Ic 0.99 10 3
=
A = 0.99
Ie
1 10 3 A
3.345
345
MODULE - 8
Physics

Applications
Notes

curve relates the input current with input voltage, for a given
(a) The
output voltage.
curve relates the output current with the output voltage for a
(b) The
given input current.
and
are the
(c) In common emitter configuration of a transistor, the
output terminals
and
are the input terminals, whereas
and
(d) The
are the output terminals of a transistor in common base configuration.
346
Semiconductors are materials like silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge), which have
conductivities midway between insulators and conductors.
Semiconductors are of two types : Intrinsic (pure) and extrinsic (dopped).
Extrinsic semiconductors can be p-type (dopped with 3rd group impurities) or n-type
(doped with 5th group impurities).
A p-n junction diode consists of a n-type region and a p-type region, with terminals on
each end.
When a p-n junction is formed, diffusion of holes and electrons across the junction
results in a depletion region which has no mobile charges.
The ions in the region adjacent to the depletion region generate a potential difference
across the junction.
A forward biased p-n junction offers low resistance to flow of electrons.
A reverse biased p-n junction diode offers high resistance to flow of current.
A p-n junction allows current to flow in only one direction.
A transistor consists of three separate regions (emitter, base and collector) and two
junctions. Emitter is most heavily doped and base is the least doped. While collector
has the largest size, base is the thinnest.
Transistor can either be n-p-n type or p-n-p type.
A transistor can be connected in any of the three configurations: common collector

(CE), common base (CB) or common emitter (CE).
The characteristics of a transistor vary according to the configuration of the transistor.
CE configuration is preferred over other configurations as it provides high current

gain and voltage gain.

it was discovered by chance, it opened flood gates for new physics. It finds wide use in
industry, agriculture and medical care. Let us learn about it now.
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
26.3.1 Discovery
The story of discovery of radioactivity is very interesting. In 1896, French physicist A.H.
Becquerel was working on the phenomenon of fluorescence (in which some substances
emit visible light when they are exposed to ultra-violet radiations). In one of the drawers of
his desk, he had kept a collection of various minerals, besides several unopened boxes of
photographic plates. Somehow, the collection of minerals remained untouched for a
considerable period of time. One day Becquerel used one of the boxes of photographic
plates to photograph something. When he developed the plates, he was disappointed to
find that they were badly fogged as if previously exposed to light. He tried the other boxes
of photographic plates and found them also in the same poor condition. He could not
understand as to why plates were fogged because all the boxes were sealed and the plates
inside were wrapped with thick black paper.
Notes,
Becquerel was puzzled and investigated the situation further. He found that uranium placed
in his drawer had done the damage and concluded that there must be some new type of
penetrating radiation originating from the uranium salt. This radiation was named Becquerel
rays and the phenomenon of emission of this radiation was named radioactivity. The
elements exhibiting this phenomenon were called radioactive elements.
Soon after this discovery, and based on an exhaustive study, Madame Marie Curie alongwith
her husband Pierre Curie, isolated an element from uranium ore by a painstaking method
known as chemical fractionating. This new element, which was a million times richer in
the mysterious rays than uranium, was given the name radium. Another radioactive element
discovered by Madam Curie was named polonium in honour of her native country-Poland.
26.3.2 Nature of Radiations

In 1899, Lord Rutherford, a British physicist, analysed the Becquerel rays emitted by
radioactive elements. He established the existence of two distinct components :
-particles and -rays. The existence of third radiation gamma rays was established
by P. Villars.
We know that nuclei of all atoms contain positively
charged protons, which repel each other strongly
due to electrostatic repulsion. To overcome this
repulsion, neutrons in the nuclei act as glue. But in
case of heavier nuclei, this electrostatic repulsion
is so strong that even the addition of neutrons is not
able to keep the nuclei stable. To achieve stability,
such nuclei disintegrate spontaneously by emitting
and particles along with -rays as shown in
Fig 26.4. So, we can say that in natural radioactivity,
, and -rays are emitted.
The emitted radiation is called the radioactive
radioactive
substance
Fig. 26.4 : Emission of , and

radiations
3.293
293
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
Notes,
Physics
radiation and the process of disintegration (break-up) of atomic nuclei (by emitting ,
and -rays) is called radioactive decay. Sometimes, the break-up can be induced by
bombarding stable nuclei with other light particles (like neutron and protons). It is then
called artificial radio-activity.
The characteristic features of this phenomenon are that it is spontaneous and in the case
of or emission, a new nucleus belonging to a new element is formed. That is, one
element gets converted into another element. This is thus a nuclear disintegration
phenomenon and suggests the posibility of mutation of new nuclei. Let us first study the
characteristic properties of , , and radiations.
(i) -particles
Alpha particles are helium nuclei ( 42 He ) and consist of two protons and two neutrons.
Detailed studies of these particles revealed the following properties :
Being charged particles, they get deflected in electric and magnetic fields.
They produce fluorescence in substances like zinc sulphide and barium platino cyanide,
affect a photographic plate, can induce radioactivity in certain elements and produce
nuclear reactions.
They have great ionizing power. A single particle in its journey through a gas can
ionize thousands of gas atoms before being absorbed.
They have little penetration power through solid substances, and get scattered by thin
foils of metals. They can be stopped by 0.02 mm thick aluminum sheet.
The energies of particles emitted from a radioactive substance is a characteristic of

the emitting nucleus. This corresponds to a variation in their velocity from
1.4 107ms1 to 2.05 107ms1.
(ii) -particles
-Particles can be both positively and negatively charged. They originate in the nucleus in
the process of conversion of a neutron into a proton, and vice versa. Further studies of particles have revealed the following properties.
294
Being charged particles, they get deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
They produce fluorescence in materials like zinc-sulphide and barium plationcynide;

and affect photographic plates.
They can ionize gas atoms but to a much smaller extent than the -particles.
Negatively charged -particles can pass through a few mm of aluminium sheets.

They are about 100 times more penetrating than -particles.
Average energies of negative -particles vary between 2 MeV and 3MeV. Due to
their small mass, their velocities vary in range from 0.33c to 0.988c, where c is velocity
of light.
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
(iii) -rays
-rays are electromagnetic waves of high frequency, and as such highly energetic. They
are characterized with the following properties :
They do not get deflected by electric or magnetic fields. They travel with velocity of
light in free space.
Their penetration power is more than that of and -particles; -rays can penetrate
through several centimeters of iron and lead sheets.
They have ionizing power that is smaller compared to that of and -particles.
They can produce fluorescence in materials and affect a photographic plate.
They knock out electrons from the metal surfaces on which they fall and heat up the
surface. Hard -rays (i.e. high energy -rays) are used in radio therapy of malignant
cells.
Notes,
Marie Curie
(18671934)
Marie Curie shared the 1903 Nobel prize in physics with A. Henri
Becquerel and her husband Pierre Curie for her studies in the
field of radioactivity. She was the first person in the world to
receive two Nobel prizes; the other Nobel prize she received
was in chemistry in 1911. Later her daughter Joliot also won the
Nobel prize in chemistry for her discovery of artificial radioactivity.
26.3.3 Radioactive Decay

In any radioactive decay, spontaneous emission consists of either a single -particle or a
-particle. The emission of an -particle from a radioactive nucleus (called parent nucleus)
changes it into a new nucleus (new element is called daughter nucleus) with its atomic
number decreased by two and its mass number decreased by four. Similarly, emission of a
particle changes the parent nucleus into a daughter nucleus with its atomic number
increased by unity (if it is emission) but its mass number remains unchanged. The
emission of -rays does not change the atomic number or the mass number of the parent
nucleus and hence no new nucleus is formed.
Note that in any nuclear disintegration, the charge number (Z) and the mass number (A)
are always conserved. Thus for any radioactive nucleus, denoted by X, the nuclear
transformations may be written as :
A
Z
decay
4
2
He +A4
Z2 Y
(-particle)
A
Z
decay
0
1
e +AZ1 Y
(-particle)
3.295
295
MODULE - 7
Physics
Atoms and Nuclei

( AZ X )*
decay
A
Z
X +
The asterisk over the symbol of element implies that it is in an excited state.
26.3.4 Law of Radioactive Decay

Notes,
We rewrite Eqn. (26.4) as
dN (t )
= dt
N (t )
On integration, we get
ln N(t) = t +k.
At t = 0, N(t) = N0
k = ln N0
Hence
ln N(t) ln N0 = t
N (t )
or ln N = t
0
On taking antilog, we
obtain the required result:
N(t) = N0 exp ( t)
We now know that if we have a given amount of radioisotope, it will gradually decrease
with time due to disintegrations. The law describing radioactive decay is very simple. The
rate of radioactive disintegration is independent of external factors such temperature,
pressure etc. and depends only on the law of chance. It states that the number of
radioactive atoms disintegrating per second is proportional to the number of
radioactive atoms present at that instant of time. This is called law of radioactive
decay.
Let N0 be the number of radioactive atoms, at t = 0, and N (t) be the number of radioactive
atoms at time t. If dN denotes the number of atoms that decay in time dt, then (N dN)
signifies the number of radioactive atoms at time (t + dt). Hence, rate of decay
dN (t )
N,
dt
or
dN (t )
= N(t)
dt
(26.4)
where denotes decay constant, which is characteristic of the radioactive substance

undergoing decay. The negative sign signifies that the number of nuclei decreases with
time. This relation can be rearranged as
1 dN (t )
= N (t ) dt
(26.5)
Thus, decay constant (

) may be defined as the ratio of the instantaneous rate of
disintegration to the number of radioactive atoms present at that instant.
The law of decay is sometimes also expressed in exponential form and is also called the
law of exponential decay. To obtain the exponential form, we integrate Eq. (26.4) with
respect to time :
N(t) = N0exp(t)
(26.6)
The most important conclusion from this law is that N will become zero only when t = .
Thus, no radioactive element will disappear completely even after a very long time.
The radioactive decay law clearly shows that even if the number of atoms N0 for different
radioactive elements is same initially, at a later time they will have different values of N(t)
due to different values of their decay constants (). They will thus show different rates of
disintegration. This is determined by their half-life (T1/2) and average lives (Ta).
296
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
Units of Disintegration
The decay constant is measured in units of per second. The activity of a radioactive
substance at any instant of time is measured by its rate of disintegration. Its SI unit
has been named becquerel :
1 becquerel = 1 disintegration per second.
Notes,
Another unit of the decay constant is curie.

1 curie = 3.7 1010 disintegrations per second.
which is the rate of disintegration of radium (Ra) measured per second per gram.
Yet another unit is rutherford (rd) :
1 rd = 106 disintegrations per second.
26.3.5 Half Life (T1/2)
N0
The half life (T1/2) of any radioactive element

is defined as the time in which the number of
parent radioactive atoms decreases to half of 1 N0
2
the initial number.
1
By definition, at t = T1/2, N = N0/2. Therefore, 4 0

1
using Eqn. (26.6), we can write
N0
8
N0/2 = N0 exp ( T1/2)

or
T 1/2 = loge2
T1/2
2T1/2
3T1/2 4T1/2
Fig. 26.5 : Radioactive decay

curve
or
T 1/2 =
log e 2
2.303 log10 2
2.303 0.3010
0.693
Thus, half-life of any radioactive substance is inversely proportional to its decay constant
(radioactive
and is a characteristic property of the radioactive nucleus. The half-life of 14
6 C
will
be
reduced
to 0.5 g in
carbon) is 5730 years. This means that one gram of 14
6 C
5730 years. This number will be further reduced to
0.5
= 0.25 g in another 5730 years.
2
3.297
297
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
Notes,
Physics
i.e. in a total period of 11460 years. Refer to Fig. 26.5 to see how a radioactive sample
decays with time.
Example 26.4 : An animal fossil obtained in the Mohanjodaro excavation shows an
activity of 9 decays per minute per gram of carbon. Estimate the age of the Indus Vally
Civilisation. Given the activity of 14C in a living specimen of similar animal is 15 decays per
minute per gram, and half life of 14C is 5730 years.
Solution : 14C is radioactive isotope of carbon. It remains in fixed percentage in the living
species. However, on death, the percentage of 14C starts decreasing due to radioactive
decay. Using radioactive decay law, we can write
N(t) = N0 exp (t)
so that
N/N0 = exp (t)
or
9/15 = exp (t)
or
loge (9/15) = t
or
15
loge = t
9
which gives
t = 1/ [loge (15/9)]
Here T1/2 = 0.693/ = 5730 years. Therefore,

t = 2.303 (5730/0.693) [log1015 log109]
Hence
t = 4224.47 years.
Thus, the specimen containing carbon 14 existed 4224.47 years ago. Hence the estimated
age of Indus valley civilsation is 4225 years.

1.
How can you say that radioactivity is a nuclear disintegration phenomenon?

..................................................................................................................................
2.
Compare the ionizing and penetration powers of , and - radiations.

..................................................................................................................................
3.
Apply the law of conservation of charge and mass numbers to determine the values
of a and b in the following decay - equations :
(i) ZXA = 2He4 + aYb +
(ii) ZX4 = 1e0 + aYb +
..................................................................................................................................
298
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
4.
The half-life of a radioactive substance is 5 years. In how much time, 10g of this
substance will reduce to 2.5g?
..................................................................................................................................
Applications of Radioactivity
Notes,
Radioactivity finds many applications in our every day life. Some of these are given
below.
(i)
In medicine : In the treatment of cancer (radiotherapy), a radio-active cobalt

source which emits x-rays is used to destroy cancerous cells. The decay of a
single radioactive atom can be registered by an instrument placed at a remote
location outside a container wall. This high sensitivity is utilized in tracer technique
as an important tool in medical diagnostics, like the detection of ulcer in any part
of the body. A few radioactive atoms of some harmless element
24
11
Na ) are
injected into the body of a patient. Their movement can then be recorded. The
affected part absorbs the radioactive atoms whose flow is, therefore, stopped
and the diseased part of the body is easily located.
(ii) In agriculture : By exposing the seeds to controlled radiation, we are able to
improve the quality and yield of crops, fruits and vegetables. Radiating these
before their storage helps in saving from decay.
(iii) In geology : In estimating the age of old fossils. The normal activity of living
carbon containing matter is found to be about 15 decays per minute for every
gram of carbon. This activity arises from the small proportion of radioactive
carbon 14 present in the atmosphere with the ordinary carbon 12. This isotope
(14C) is taken by plants from the atmosphere and is present in animals that eat
plants. Thus, about one part in 108 radioactive carbon is present in all living
beings (all animals and plants). When the organism is dead, its interaction with
the atmosphere (i.e. absorption, which maintains the above equilibrium) ceases
and its activity begins to fall. From this, the age of the specimen can be
approximately estimated. This is called carbon-dating and is the principle of
determining the age of old fossils by archeologists.
The same technique has been used in estimating the age of earth from the
measurements of relative amounts of 238U and 206Pb in geological specimens
containing uranium ore. Assume that the specimen of ore contained only uranium
and no lead at the time of birth of the earth. With the passage of time, uranium
decayed into lead. The amount of lead present in any specimen will therefore
indicate its age. The present age of the earth, using this method, has been
estimated to be about 4 billion years.
(iv) In industry : -radiations are used to find the flaws (or imperfections) in the
inner structure of heavy machinery. For example, if there is an air bubble inside,
the penetration of -rays will be more at that point.
3.299
299
MODULE - 7
Physics
Atoms and Nuclei

The nucleus in an atom contains positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons.
The number of protons inside the nucleus of an atom of any element gives the atomic
number of the element.
The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called its
mass number.
The atoms having same atomic number but different mass numbers are called isotopes.
The atoms with same mass number but different atomic numbers are called isobars.
The atoms with same number of neutrons are called isotones.
The nucleons inside the nucleus of every atom are bound together by strong attractive
nuclear forces which are short-range and charge-independent.
The mass of a nucleus is found to be less than the sum of the masses of its nucleons.
This difference in mass is called mass-defect. It is a measure of the binding energy.
The size (volume) of the nucleus depends on its mass number.
The spontaneous emission of -particle or -particle followed by -emission from any

nucleus is called radioactivity.
The -particles have been identified as helium nuclei, while -particles have been
identified as fast moving electrons. The -rays are electromagnetic waves of extremely
short wavelength.
According to the law of radioactive decay, the number of radioactive atoms disintegrating
per second is proportional to the number of radioactive atoms present at that instant.
The half life of a radioactive substance is the time during which the number of radioactive
atoms reduce to half of its original number.
The law of exponential decay is N(t) = N0 exp (t).
Notes,
Terminal Exercise
1. When does a radioactive sample disintegrate?
2. Differentiate between isotopes and isobars.
3. Explain the characteristics of binding energy per nucleon versus mass number curve.
4. What is the nature of nuclear force? Give its characteristics.
5. Explain how decay constant is related to half-life of a radioactive substance.
300
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
6. Define the following terms:

(i) Atomic number; (ii) Mass number; (iii) Mass defect;
(iv) Binding energy of nucleons; (v) Half-life;
(vi) Average life;
(vii) Decay constant.
Notes,
7. State the law of radioactive decay.

8. What is carbon dating? What is its importance?
9. Calculate the number of neutrons, protons and electrons in the following atoms.
23
(i) 11
Na ; (ii) 12 H ; (iii)
238
92
35
U ; (iv) 17
Cl ;
10. Calculate the mass defect and binding energy of nucleons for the following nuclei.
(i) 42 He ; (ii) 37 Li ; (iii) 14
;
7 N
Given, 1 u = 1.660566 1027kg = 931 MeV, Mass of a proton = 1.007276 u. Mass of
a neutron = 1.008665 u, Mass of 2He4 atom = 4.00260 u, Mass of 37 Li atom = 7.01601 u,
Mass of 14
7 N atom = 14.00307 u.
11. Using the present day abundance of the two main uranium isotopes and assuming that
the abundance ratio could never have been greater than unity, estimate the maximum
possible age of the earths crust. Given that the present day ratio of 238U and 235U is
137.8 : 1; Half life of 238U is = 4.5 109 year; and that of 235U is 7.13 108 years.
1
12. If the activity of a redioactive sample drops to
th of its initial value in 1 hour and 20
16
minutes, Calculate the half-life.

26.1
1.
Isotopes
12
6
1
1
C and
14
6
Isobars
H and 12 H & 13 H
16
8
35
17
206
82
O & 18
8 O
37
Cl & 17
Cl
Pb &
238
92
U&
207
82
Pb
239
92
76
32
2
1
76
Ge & 34
Se
40
18
76
32
Isotones
A & 40
20 Ca
76
Ge & 34
Se
H & 32 He
14
6
23
11
18
C&8O
24
Na & 12 Mg
28
3
1
H & 32 He
27
13
Al & 14 Si
7
3
7
Li & 4 Be
27
13
Al & 14 Si
28
3.301
301
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
Physics
2. (i) heavier; (ii) mass; (iii) nucleons; (iv) 14; (v) 14
(vi) atomic.
3. Atomic number.
26.2
1. m = 1.041358 u; 969.5 MeV.
Notes,
2. 2.4 1015m.
26.3
1. Nuclear disintegration usually involves or emission which results in change of
atomic and mass numbers of the parent element. With the emission of and particles,
the heavier nuclei shed some of their mass resulting in comparatively lighter nuclei.
Hence, it is a nuclear disintegration phenomenon.
2. Ionizing power of
>>
Penetration power of
<<
3. i) a = Z 2 and b = A 4
ii) a = Z + 1 and b = A.
4. Two half life times are required one for reduction from 10 to 5 grams and the other
from 5 to 2.5 grams, i.e.. 10 years.

9. (i) 12, 11, 11
(ii) 1, 1, 1
10. (i) 0.034, 28MeV
(ii) 0.044, 37.86 MeV (iii) 0.10854, 101MeV
11. 6 109 years

12. 20 min
302
(iii) 146, 92, 921
(iv) 18, 17, 17
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
27
NUCLEAR FISSION AND
FUSION
Notes
W e all know that the sun supports life on the earth by continuously providing energy. It
has been doing so for the last several billion years and will continue to do so for billions of
years to come. What is the source of this huge amount of energy emitted by the sun? This
question fascinated human mind always. But now we reliably know that the energy in the
core of sun is produced by fusion of hydrogen nucli into helium at very high temperatures.
This is also true of other stars. Imitation of these conditions in a fusion reactor is being
highlighted as the ultimate source of all our energy requirements in coming years.
Similarly, you most have read about energy security and the role of nuclear energy to
produce electricity in our nuclear reactors at Tarapore, Kota, Kaiga, Narora, Kalpakkam
and Kakrapara. Similarly, you may have read in newspapers that on August 6, 1945, an
atom bomb dropped over Hiroshima, a large city of Japan, destroyed the entire city almost
completely in a span of a few seconds and lacs of lives were lost. It released an energy
equivalent to that released by the explosion of a 20,000 ton TNT (tri nitro toluene) bomb
and was completely new in human history. Since then, more powerful (atomic, hydrogen
and neutron) bombs have been made whose destructive power is equivalent to several
Mega tons of TNT. The super powers are said to have stockpiled a large number of such
bombs. The destructive power of their stock is so enormous that they can destroy the
entire earth several times over. The physical process responsible for such colossal amount
of energy is nuclear fission. You will now learn about these processes.
Objectives
After studying this lesson, you should be able to
state conservation laws for nuclear reactions;
explain the terms nuclear chain reaction, controlled and uncontrolled fission
chain reactions;
describe working of a nuclear reactor; and
explain the mechanism of production of energy in stars.

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27.1 Chemical and Nuclear Reactions

27.1.1 Chemical Reaction
Notes
We know that all substances are made up of atoms. In lesson 26, you learnt that electrons
in the outermost orbit govern the chemical properties of an element. That is, atoms combine
with other atoms or molecules (a group of atoms) and rearrange their valence electrons
This is accompanied by reduction in their potential energy.
The formation of a new compound molecule due to rearrangement of valence
electrons in interacting atoms and molecules with the release or absorption of energy
is called a chemical reaction. In this process, the nucleus is not affected at all. Even
the electrons in the inner orbits remain unaffected.
An example of a chemical reaction is the interaction of carbon atoms with oxygen molecules
to produce carbon dioxide :
C + O2 CO2 + 4.08 eV
(27.1)
In this chemical reaction, 4.08 eV energy is released for each reacting carbon
atom. It is called the binding energy (B.E) of CO2 molecule. Reactions which result in
release of energy are said to be exothermic. Chemical reactions which require energy to
be supplied to be initiated are endothermic. For example, if 4.08 eV of energy is given to
a CO2 molecule under suitable conditions, it will break up into its constituents:
CO2 + 4.08eV C + O2
(27.2)
As shown in Eq. (27.1), 4.08 eV energy leaves the system to form CO2 gas. Therefore,
the mass of CO2 molecule will be less than the total mass of C and O2 by a mass equivalent
of 4.08 eV. The loss of mass m can be calculated using the relation E = mc2 :
m =
4.081.60210 19
= 7.26 1036kg
91016
(27.3)
Such a small change in mass cannot be detected and we say that the mass is conserved in
chemical reactions, though slight change of mass does occur.
The important points to be noted in chemical reactions are
Energies of the order of 10 eV are involved.
Change of mass is of the order of 1035 kg, which is extremely small and we say that
the mass is conserved.
The total number of atoms of each type on the right hand side of the chemical equation
is always equal to the total number of atoms of each type on the left hand side.
27.1.2 Nuclear Reactions

In nuclear reactions, the nuclei, not electrons, of the reactants interact with each other.
They result in the formation of new elements. This process is also called transmutation of
nuclei. From the previous lesson, you may recall that in nuclear reactions energies of the
order of MeV are involved.
304

We know that the entire positive charge of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus, whose
size is of the order of 1015m. The nucleus is surrounded by electrons revolving in certain
specified orbits. These create a strong electrostatic potential barrier (also called the Coulomb
barrier) as shown in Fig. 27.1. The Coulomb barrier is about 3 MeV for carbon nuclei and
20 MeV for lead nuclei. It means that a charged projectile aimed at a nucleus will experience
strong repulsion by the Coulomb barrier of the target nucleus. If the kinetic energy of
projectile is not large enough to penetrate the barrier, it will come back without producing
any nuclear reaction. For a proton to enter a carbon nucleus and produce transmutation,
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
Notes
proton potential
energy
Coulomb
barrier
V=0
neutron potential
energy
nucleus
Fig. 27.1 : Proton and neutron potential energies near a nucleus
its energy should be more than 3MeV or so. It is because of the large amounts of energy
involved in nuclear reactions that we do not observe these reactions in everyday life at
ordinary temperatures and pressures.
The phenomenon of nuclear transmutation or nuclear reaction was discovered by Lord
Rutherford in the year 1919. He bombarded nitrogen gas with high energy -particles of
energy 7.7 M eV obtained from a polonium source. He observed that nitrogen transformed
into oxygen. This change was accomponied by high energy protons :
4 He + 14 N 17O + 1H
2
17
8
1
(27.5)
The oxygen nuclei and protons carry away 6.5 MeV. Clearly this reaction can occur if
1.2 MeV energy is supplied from outside. Therefore, it is an endothermic nuclear reaction.
When aluminium is bombarded by 7.7 M eV alpha particles from polonium, the following
nuclear reaction takes place and 10.7 MeV energy is released:
27 Al + 4He 30Si + 1H
13
2
14
1
(27.6)
Here we see that more energy is released than the input energy; it is an exothermic
reaction. Note that there is a gain of nearly 3 MeV energy per reaction, which is
approximately 700,000 times the energy released in burning of one carbon atom. But this
reaction cant be used for production of energy because out of 125,000 incident
alpha particles only one succeeds in producing the reaction. Hence on the whole,
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Notes
Physics
there is much more energy spent than produced.
Nuclear reactions can also be produced by protons, deuterons, neutrons and other light
nuclei. Of these, neutrons are the best projectiles for producing nuclear reactions;
being neutral particles, they do not experience Coulomb repulsion.. Thus even thermal
neutrons (i.e. neutrons having energy 0.0253 eV) can penetrate the target nucleus and
produce a nuclear reaction.
Some typical examples of nuclear reactions produced by protons, deutrons and neutrons
are:
Li + 11H 32 He + 24 He
(27.7)
10
5
B+ 12 H 3 24 He
(27.8)
10
5
B+ n 73 Li + 42 He
(27.9)
6
3
Like chemical reactions, nuclear reactions also follow conservation laws.We state these
now.
27.1.3 Conservation Laws for Nuclear Reactions

The sum of the mass numbers of the reactants is equal to the sum of mass numbers
of the products. In Eqn. (27.7), mass number 7 = 3 + 4 = 6 + 1 is conserved.
The sum of atomic numbers of the reactants is equal to the sum of atomic numbers
of the products. In Eqn. (27.7), atomic number 4 = 3 + 1 = 2 + 2 is conserved.
Nuclear reactions follow the law of conservation of energy. We know that mass
is concentrated form of energy. Therefore the sum of input kinetic energy plus
the mass of the reactants is equal to the output kinetic energy plus the mass of
the products.
Nuclear reactions follow the law of conservation of momentum, which results in

distribution of kinetic energy among various product nuclei.
Now, answer the following questions.

1.
Complete the following equations of nuclear reaction.

(a)
19
9
F + 11H 16
8 O +?
27 Al + 1 n ?+ 4He
(b) 13
0
2
234 Th 234Pa +?
(c) 90
91
63
2
64
(d) 29 Cu + 1 D 30 Zn + ?
306

2.
Atoms and Nuclei
Calculate the energy released in the nuclear reaction given below

10
5
B+
2
1
4
D 3 2 He + Q
( )
2
4
Given that m(10B) = 10.01294 u; m 1 D = 2.014103 u, and m(2 He) = 4.002604 u.
3.
MODULE - 7
Notes
14 N nucleus, on bombarding with alpha particles, produces 17 O . Write down the

8
7
reaction equation and calculate the energy released.
( )
( )
14
17
Given that: m 7 N = 14.003014 u; m 8 O = 16.999138 u; m 42 H e = 4.002604
( )
1
u; m 1 H = 1.007825 u and energy of particle = 7.7MeV.
..................................................................................................................................
27.2 Nuclear Fission

The story of discovery of fision is very fascinating. In the year 1938, Enrico Fermi, Otto
Hahn and others irradiated uranium nuclei with slow neutrons to produce transuranic
elements (having Z greater than 92), which do not occur in nature. When incident neutrons
were captured by the uranium nuclei, the neutron-proton ratio increased. In reducing this
ratio, it was expected that uranium would become active. That is a neutron would
essentially behave as if it has changed into a proton resulting in the release of a -particle
and some energy according to the equation:
238 U + 1 n
92
0
239 Np + 0 e + Q
1
93
(27.10)
In this process, a new transuranic element having atomic number 93 was expected to be
produced. In fact, Fermi and his co-researchers observed activities with half-lives
different from any of the known values for heavy elements in the vicinity of uranium.
From those observations, they concluded that transuranic elements had been produced.
And to identify the element, they carried out chemical analysis but failed.
In the same year, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strausmann carried out a series of experiments and
established that barium, an element of intermediate mass number, rather than a transuranic
element, was one of the products of the reaction and it was accomponied by release of
nearly 200 MeV of energy. This result the product of slow neutron bombardment of
uranium was barium was completely unexpected and defied all knowledge of nuclear
physics of that time. These findings were reported in Nature in Dec. 1938.
Initially, Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch explained these results on the basis of liquid drop
model of nucleus and named this process nuclear fission using the analogy with biological
cell division. Later on, Bohr and Wheeler calculated the amount of energy released in the
process, confirming the physical basis of this model.
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Enrico Fermi
(1901 1954)
Enrico Fermi, the Italy born physicist, was responsible for peaceful
uses of nuclear energy for mankind. He demonstrated that nuclear
Notes
transformations may occur in any element exposed to stream of

neutrons. He achieved self-sustained nuclear fission chain reaction
in 1942.
Fermi was only 25 years old when he formulated the FermiDirac statistics, applicable
to particles having half integral spin values (called fermions). At the time of his
premature death, he was engrossed in theoretical studies of cosmic radiations.
27.2.1 Mechanism of Nuclear Fission

In the year 1939, Bohr and Wheeler developed the theory of fission using the analogy
between nuclear forces and the forces which bind molecules in a liquid. They predicted
that
235
92
235
U was more fissile than 92
U . Refer to Fig. 27.2. If shows the schematics of
nuclear fission of
235
92
235
92
U by thermal neutrons according to the equation.
92
1
U + 10 n 141
36 Ba + 36 Kr + 30 n + Q
(27.11)
time
Fig. 27.2 : Nuclear-fission of a nucleus according to the liquid drop model
The emitted neutrons have energy of the order of a few MeV, and Q 200MeV.
Note that a fission event occurs within 1017s of neutron capture and fission neutrons are
emitted within about 1014s of the event. Moreover, the fission fragments are of unequal
mass; one being 1.5 to 2 times heavier than the other. Also, Eqn. (27.11) gives only one of
the more than 40 different modes in which a
235
92
U nucleus can fission. It means that about
235
80 different nuclei of intermediate masses are produced in the fission of 92
U . The heavier
fragments lie in the mass range 125150 with the a maximum around 140, whereas the lighter
fragments lie in the range 80 110 with a maximum around 95. The number of neutrons
emitted is either two or three and the average number of neutrons produced per fission of 235U
is 2.54
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Notes
Fig. 27.3 : Nuclear fission
Bohr and Wheeler treated the nucleus as a charged spherically symmetric liquid drop in
its equilibrium (lowest energy) state. According to them, when a nucleus captures a
thermal neutron, the binding energy (BE) of this neutron, which is 6.8 MeV per atomic
mass unit for 235 U , is released. This energy excites the nucleus and distorts its shape.
While the force of surface tension tries to restore the original shape, the Coulomb force
tends to distort it further. As a result, it oscillates between spherical and dumb bell shapes,
as shown in Fig.27.2, depending on the energy of excitation. When the energy gained by
the nucleus is large, the amplitude of these oscillatious pushes the nuclens into dumb bell
shape. When the distance between the two charge centres exceeds a critical value,
electrostatic repulsion between them overcomes nuclear surface tension and pushes the
nucleus into two parts resulting in fission.
235
A substance like 92
U which undergoes fission by thermal neutrons is called a fissile
233
233
239
material. Other fissile materials are 90
Th , 92
U and 93
Pu . You may note that all these
nuclei have odd mass number and even atomic number.
We can estimate the amount of energy released in the fission of

mass defect as follows:
235
92
U by calculating the
Table 27.1 Energy Generated in a Nuclear Reaction

Reactants
235
Mass
Products
141
56
235.0439 u
Ba
140.9139 u
Kr
91.8973 u
3 Vn
3.025995 u
92
36
1.008665 u
Total mass
236.052565 u
Mass defect
0.21537u
Energy released
0.21537 931 ~ 200 MeV
Mass
Total mass
235.837195 u
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27.2.2 Nuclear Chain Reaction

You have now learnt that when a neutron is
Notes
235
92
U , it splits into two fragments

and 2-3 neutrons are emitted. These are
capable of causing further fissions. This
immediately presented the exciting possibility
of maintaining a fission chain reaction in which
each fission event removes one neutron and
Fig. 27.4 : Nuclear Chain reaction
replaces that by more than two. When the rate
of production of neutrons equals the rate of
loss of neutrons, the reaction is said to be self-sustained. The device designed to maintain
a self-sustained and controlled chain reaction is called a nuclear reactor.
captured by
Nuclear reactors are usually classified according to the purpose for which they are used.
So a nuclear power reactor is used to produce electricity and a research reactor is used to
produce radioisotopes for medical purposes, carrying out experiments for refinements or
applied research. We also categorise nuclear reactors as fast and thermal, depending on
the energy of neutrons causing fission. In India, we have thermal power reactors at Tarapore,
Narora, Kota, Kaiga, etc. At Kalpakkam, we are developing a fast breeder research
reactor.
You will now learn about a nuclear reactor in brief.
27.3 Nuclear Reactor

Ever since the first nuclear reactor was constructed by Fermi and his co-workers at the
university of Chicago USA, a large number of reactors have been built the world over
primarily to meet demand for energy. Some countries generate as much as 70% of their
total energy from nuclear reactors. In India, the contributions of nuclear energy is only
about 2%, but efforts are on to increase this share. In absolute terms, we are generating
about 20,000 MWe from nuclear reactors.
Nuclear reactors have huge complex structures and great care has to be exercised in
designing them. The basic principle of a nuclear power plant is very simple and analogous
to any power plant. The heat liberated in fission is used to produce steam at high pressure
and high temperature by circulating a coolant, say water, around the fuel. (In a coal fired
station, coal is burnt to produce steam. Since one fission event generates about 7 105
times more energy than that produced in burning one atom of carbon, we can cut down on
emission of greenhouse gases substantially by switching over to nuclear energy. However,
there are some complex social and political issues with global dimensions that will ultimately
decide our ultimate nuclear energy options.)
The steam runs a turbinegenerator system to produce electricity. (In research reactors,
the heat is discharged into a river or sea. You many have heard about Bhahha Atomic
Research Centre at Trombay, Mumbai or Indira Gandhi Atomic Research Centre at
Kalpakkam. The heat generated by the research reactors at these centres is discharged
into the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal, respectively.)
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Hot liquid
Control rods
Heat exchanger
Steam
Shielding
Electric
Turbine generator
Notes
Pump
Condenser
Uranium containers
Cool liquid
Pump
Power reactor
Fig. 27.5 : Schematic diagram of a nuclear reactor
The general features of a reactor are illustrated in Fig. 27.5. All nuclear reactors consist of:
A reactor core, where fission takes place resulting in release of energy. It has fuel
rods (embedded in a modertor in a thermal reactors), and control rods to maintain the
chain reaction at the desired level. Coolant is circulated to remove the heat generated
in fission. Usually, heavy water or ordinary water are used as coolants and cadmium or
boron are used for control rods.
A reflector is put next to the core to stop neutron leakage from the core.
The whole assembly is placed inside a vessel, called pressure vessel. Usually, a few
inches thick stainless steel is used for this purpose.
A thick shield is provided to protect the scientists and other personnel working around
the reactor from radiations coming from the reactor core. It is usually in the form of a
thick concrete wall.
The entire structure is placed inside a reactor building. It is air tight and is maintained
at a pressure slightly less than the atomospheric pressure so that no air leaks out of the
building.
The heat generated inside the reactor core of a reactor due to fision is removed by circulating
a coolant. The heated coolant is made to give up its heat to a secondary fluid, usually
water in a heat exchanger. This generates steam, which is used to drive turbine-generator
system to produce electricity in a power plant and discharged into a river/lake/sea in a
research reactor.

1.
Why does a
238
92
U nucleus become active after absorbing a neutron?
..................................................................................................................................
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2.
Out of
238
92
U,
141
Ba,
239
Pu, and
12
6
C , which nucleus is fissile?
..................................................................................................................................
3.
How much energy is released when
235
U undergoes nuclear fission?
92
Notes
..................................................................................................................................
27.3 Nuclear Fusion

You now know that uranium nucleus can be made to split into lighter nuclei resulting in
release of huge amount of energy. You may now ask: Can we combine lighter nuclei to
produce energy? To discover answer to this question, refer to the binding energy per
nucleon (BE/A) curve (Fig.26.2). You will note that binding energy per nucleon increases
as we go from hydrogen to helium . It means that helium is more stable than hydrogen.
Consider the following reaction:
D + 1D 2He + Q
2
You can easily calculate the B.E of reactants and products:

Total B.E of reactants, BE1 = 2 2.22 = 4.44MeV
Total B.E of products, BE2 = 28.295 MeV
Table 27.2 : Binding Energy per
nucleon (BE/A) of
some light nuclei
Nucleon
BE/A(in MeV)
1.11
2.827
He
2.573
He
7.074
Li
5.332
6.541
Li
Q = (BE2 BE1) ~ 24MeV

Note that the energy released per nucleon in this reaction is 24/4=6 MeV, which is
nearly seven times the energy released per nucleon (200/238 = 0.83 MeV) in a nuclear
fission event.
The process in which two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus is called
nuclear fusion.
Fusion process presents itself as a more viable energy option. However, the process of
fusion is more difficult to achieve than nuclear fission because both the deuterons are
positively charged. When we try to bring them together to fuse into one nucleus, they repel
each other very strongly and the reaction is ordinarily impossible.
To achieve this reaction, the deuterons have to be heated to nearly 10 million kelvin so that
they acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome repulsion before they collide to fuse
into helium nucleus. But the problems associated with maintaining such high temperatures
continuously and containing the reactants together has not yet been solved fully. The
controlled thermonuclear reaction necessary for harnessing this source of energy is however
not far now.
Almost inexhaustible amount of deuterium (heavy hydrogen) is present in the ocean. Once
we begin to harness this source, our energy problem should be solved for ever. We will get
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an endless supply of cheap electricity without any pollution. This is because one gram of
deuterium (heavy hydrogen) yields about 100,000 kW h of energy.
27.3.1 Energy in the Sun and Stars

The stars like our sun are very massive objects. They have been continuously emitting
tremendous amount of energy for the last billions of years.
Notes
Such a huge amount of energy cannot be obtained by burning conventional fuels like coal.
Nuclear fission can also not be the source of this energy, because heavy elements do not
exist in the sun in large quantity. The sun mainly consists of hydrogen and helium gases.
Then you may like to know: What is the source of energy in the sun? This question has
engaged human intellect for long. As a child, you must have gazed the sky when you
learnt the rhyme: Twinkle twinkle litter star, How I wonder what you are!
You may know that the huge mass of the sun produces extremely strong gravitational
field, which compresses its constituent gases by enormous pressure resulting in the rise of
temperature to millions of kelvin at its centre. It has been estimated that the temperature
at the centre of the sun is 20 million kelvin. At such high temperatures and pressures, gas
molecules travel at high speeds and collide setting in thermonuclear reaction and resulting
in the release of large amount of energy.
Bethe proposed that fusion of hydrogen into helium is responsible for the energy produced
in stars:
4 11 H
4
2
He + 2 +1oe + Q
The overall result here is: four hydrogen nuclei fuse into a helium nucleus with the release
of two positrons (electron-like microscope particles of the same mass but positive charge)
and 26.8 MeV energy. The tremendous amount of energy released in a thermo-nuclear
reaction is the source of energy in stars. The quantity of hydrogen in the sun is sufficient
to keep it shining for nearly 8 billion years more.

1.
200 MeV energy is released in fission of one
235
92
U5 nucleus and 26.8 MeV energy is
released in fusion of 4 protons. Which process releases more energy per unit mass?
..................................................................................................................................
2.
Consider the following reactions:

(a) 11 H +
7
3
Li
4
2
He + Q .
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2
1
(b)
H +
2
1
3
1
H +
1
1
H + 4MeV.
Calculate Q in the first reaction and mass of tritium in the second reaction.
Given m ( 12 H ) = 2.014103u, m ( 42 H ) = 4.002604u, m ( 1 H ) = 1.007825u and

1
m ( 3 Li ) = 7.015982u.
7
Notes
.........................................................................................................................
27.4 Nuclear Energy

We need energy for all economic activities in life. The amount of energy consumed per
capita is a measure of advancement of a nation. According to a recent UNESCO report
(2007), we are consuming about 40% more than what mother earth can generate in the
form of food, water and energy. In fact, the human society has been continuously striving
for energy security and looking for newer sources of energy. Due to over use, conventional
sources of energy are depleting very fast and may exhaust completely in the next one
hundred years. The nuclear energy is perhaps an important option for meeting our future
energy needs through peaceful applications. Let us discuss these now.
27.4.1 Peaceful Applications

The most important peaceful application of nuclear energy is in the generation of electricity.
One of the main advantages of nuclear power plant is that the fuel is not required to be fed
into it continuously like the gas or coal in a thermal power plant. Further, it does not
pollute the environment to the extent discharge of smoke or ash from fossil
fuel/power plants do. The fuel once loaded in a reactor runs for nearly 6 months at a
stretch. Because of this nuclear power plants have been used to power huge ships and
submarines.
However, spent fuel of a reactor is highly radioactive because a large number of radioisotopes are present in it. India has developed its own facility to treat spent fuel and
extract it from those radio-isotopes which find uses in agriculture, medicine, industry
and research. To avoid the spread of radioactive radiations from the radioactive wastes,
the radioactive wastes are generally embedded deep inside salt mines in heavy steel cases.
Yet, it has evoked considerable controversy due to its destructive potential which was
displayed on August 6, 1945, when an atom bomb was dropped on Hiroshima (Japan)
killed hundred thousand people in a very short time. Subsequently, even more powerful
hydrogen and nitrogen bombs have been developed. These can destroy this beautiful planet
many times over.
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Nuclear Power in India
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The possibility of harnessing nuclear power for civil use was recognised by Dr H.J.
Bhabha soon after India got independence. He outlined a three stage development
plan for meeting countrys nuclear power needs. These are :
Employ pressurised Heavy Water Reaction (PHWR) fuelled by natural uranium
Notes
to generate electricity and produce plutonium as a by-product.
Set up fast breeder reactors burning the plutonium to breed U-233 from thorium.
Develop the second stage and produce a surplus of fissile material.
Nuclear power has been produced in India through 14 small and one mid-sized nuclear
power reactors in commercial operation, eight under construction and more planned.
As of now, nuclear power contributes nearly 2 1010 kW h of electricity 3% of
total power capacity available.
Government policy is to have 20 GWe of nuclear capacity operating by 2020 and
25% nuclear contribution is foreseen by 2050.

1.
What type of reactors are used in India for power generation?

..................................................................................................................................
2.
How much
235
92
U undergoes fission in an atomic bomb which releases energy equivalent
to 20,000 tons of TNT. (Given that 1 g of TNT gives out 1000 calorie of heat).
..................................................................................................................................
27.4.2 Hazards of Nuclear Radiations and Safety Measures

The living and non-living things around us constitute our environment. In this
environment, a delicate balance has existed for millions of years between the flora,
fauna, acquatic and human life. This balance is now being threatened. One of the
factors disturbing this balance is the ever increasing pollution in our environment.
Out of the various types of pollutants present in our environment, the one which has
very serious long term biological effects are the nuclear radiations. Earlier these
were present only because of natural sources like the radioactive minerals and cosmic
rays, but now their presence is increasing day by day due to man-made sources. The
major present day man-made sources of nuclear radiations are the nuclear tests,
nuclear installations like the nuclear research facilities, nuclear reactors, and radio
isotopes in treating diseases.
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Nuclear radiations dissociate complex molecules of living tissues through ionisation
and kill the cells. They induce cancerous growth, cause sterility, severe skin burns,
and lower the body resistance against diseases. They disrupt the genetic process,
mainly in the unborn child, and show their effects even upto five generations. Nuclear
radiations affect us not only directly, but also indirectly by affecting the flora, fauna
and the acquatic life around us. They kill vegetation, fishes and animals.
Notes
The damage caused by nuclear radiations depends on the exposed part of the body, as
well as on the energy, intensity and the nature of the radiation. Different parts of human
body show different sensitivities to radiation. The -particles are, as a rule, quite harmful
because of their high ionising power. The damaging effects of different radiations are
generally compared in terms of their relative biological effectiveness, called the RBE
factors. These factors for different particles/rays are given in Table 27.3.
Table 27.3: RBE factors of different radiations

Particles/rays
RBE factors
X-rays, -rays,
-particles
There is no control on natural sources of radiation. However, efforts can certainly be

made to lower down radiation from man-made sources. Some of these are to:

Avoid nuclear explosions.

Minimise production of radio-isotopes.

Extreme care should be exercised in the disposal of industrial wastes containing
traces of radio-nuclides.

Nuclear medicines and radiation therapy should be used only when absolutely
necessary, and with well considered doses.
Thermal neutrons
2 to 5
Fast neutrons
10
-particles, high
energy ions of
O, N, etc.
10 to 20

Valence electrons take part in chemical reactions and the energy involved in such
reactions is of the order of 1eV.
In a nuclear reaction, the atomic nuclei interact to form a new element.
Energy involved in nuclear reaction is of the order of MeV.
In a nuclear reaction, atomic number, mass number and charge are conserved.
When a heavy nucleus like uranium is bombarded by slow neutrons, it splits into two
fragment with release of 2-3 neutrons and 200MeV energy. This process is known as
nuclear fission.
Substances that undergo fission are called fissile substances.

239
Pu are fissile materials.
Chain reaction occurs when more than one emitted neutron induce further fission for
each primary fission.
Nuclear reactor is a device to sustain controlled chain reaction.
In nuclear fusion two light nuclei are fused into one.
*Plasma in the forth state of matter which consists of ions and electrons.
316
233
Th,
233
U,
235
U, and

For producing nuclear fusion, the reacting nuclei must be heated to nearly 20 million
kelvin to gain sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the Coulombian potential barrier.
In stars energy is produced by nuclear fusion reaction.
Amount of hydrogen consumed in the sun is nearly 400 106 ton per second.
Radio-isotopes find diverse applications in agriculture, medicine and industry.
MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
Notes
Terminal Exercise
1. How does a nuclear reaction differ from a chemical reaction?
2. What is the use of moderator and absorber in a fission reactor?
3. On the basis of B.E per nucleon versus mass number curve, explain nuclear fusion.
4. What is a nuclear reaction? State the conservation laws obeyed in nuclear reactions.
Give threes examples of nuclear reactions.
5. What is nuclear fission? Give an example to illustrate your answer.
6. Calculate the mass of 235U consumed to generate 100 mega watts of power for 30 days.
7. Heavy hydrogen undergoes the following fusion reaction
2
1
D +
2
1
4
2
He + 24 MeV
Calculate the amount of heavy hydrogen used in producing the same energy as above.
Compare the two results.
8. What is nuclear fusion? Write an equation of nuclear fusion to support your answer.
9. What is the source of energy in the sun? How is it generated? Illustrate with an
example.
10. Describe the construction of an atomic reactor.
11. Calculate the energy released in a fusion reaction
3 ( 42 He) 12
6 C
Given, the mass of on -particle = 4.00263u.

27.1
1. a.
19
9
F +
b.
27
13
AI +
1
1
H
1
0
16
8
O +
24
11
4
2
Na +
He;
4
2
He;
3.317
317
MODULE - 7
Physics
Atoms and Nuclei

c.
234
90
d.
63
29
Th
Cu +
2
1
234
90
Pa +
64
30
0
1
e;
Zn +
1
0
2. 17.9MeV
Notes
3.
14
7
N +
4
2
He
17
8
O +
1
1
H + 6.5MeV.
27.2
1. Due to increase of n/p ratio above the natural ratio, its stability decreases. To decrease
the ratio to attain more stability, it emits a -particle.
2. 239Pu
3. 200 MeV.
27.3
1. (1) In fission the energy released is 0.84 MeV/u where as in fusion. It is
6.7 MeV/u. Thus energy released per unit mass is more in the later case.
2. (a) 17.3 MeV, (b) 2.69 MeV.
27.4
1. Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor
2. nearly 1 kg.

6. 30.6 kg
11. 7.35 MeV
318
7. 146.6 g
MODULE - 7

ATOMS AND NUCLEI
Maximum Marks: 50
Atoms and Nuclei
Time : 1 Hours
INSTRUCTIONS
Notes

Name
Enrolment Number
Subject
Assignment Number
Address

1.
What is the ratio of the energies of first and second orbits of hydrogen atom?
(1)
2.
Express 1 ev in 5.
(1)
3.
Express 1 u in kg.
4.
Why is the wave nature of matter not apparent to our daily observatious?
(1)
5.
What happens to the average life of the radioactive sample when its mass decreases?
(1)
6.
What is the use of moderator is a nuclear fission reaction?
(1)
7.
How does the velocity of phibelectrons change when the velocity wavelength of incident radiatious is
increased?
(1)
8.
Distinguish between isotopes and isobars.
9.
Obtain the ole Broglie wavelength associated with an electron accelerated through a potential difference
of 200 r.
(2)
(1)
10. With the help of examples distinguish between chemical and nuclear reactiouns.
(2)
11. Write the postulates of Bohrs theory of hydrogen atom.
(2)
12. Show that the density of a nuclears is independent of its mass number.
(2)
13. Distinguish between half life and average life of a radioactive substance. Find the half life of a radioactive
element which reduces to
1
th of its initial mass in 16 days.
8
14. Specific charge (e/m) is more important a physical quality as compared to charge (e) or mars (m) of a
fundamental particle. Give examples in support of this statement.
(4)
15. Write nuclear equations for :
3.319
319
(a) the alpha decay of
286
88
(b) the decay of
15
32
Ra
(c) the + decay of 116C

(d) the r decay of
60
27
Co x
(4)
16. Obtain the binating energy per nuclear of 117 N nucleus. Give
mr = 1.00783 u
mn = 1.00867u
mn = 14.00307 u.
17. For scattering of -particles by an atom of atomic number , the relation between impact parameter b
and the scattering angle is given by
e 2 cot /2
b=
.
4 o(mv2 /2)
(a) What is the value of scattering angle for which b = 0 ?

(b) Why is it that the mass of the nucleus does not enter the formula but the charge does?
(c) For a given value of b, does the angle of deflection increase or decrease with increasing energy?
(d) For a given energy of the -particle does the scattering angle increase or decrease with decrease in
impact parameter?
(4)
18. The total energy of an electron in the ground state of the hydrogen atom is about ( 13.ev). Find :
(a) What is the kinetic energy of the election in its first excited state?
(b) What is the potential energy of the electron is its first excited state?
(c) What is the total energy of the election in its first excited state?
(d) Which of the above answers would change if the choice of zero potential energy is altered?
19. In an experimental stidy of photoelectric effect the values of stopping potentials for various wavelengths
were obtained as under :
(5)
( Ao ) 3650
4358
5461
6907
Vs (V) 1.28
0.95
0.74
0.16
(a) Determine the value of plancks coustant h.

(b) Estimate the threshold frequency and work function for the material.
20. Derive a relation for the de Broglie wavelength associated with an election accelerated in a potential field
of V volts.
Which part of em spectrum you find radiotious having wavelengths comparable to the de Broglie wavelength
associated with a 100 ev electron.
(5)
320
MODULE - VIII
SEMICONDUCTOR
28. Semiconductors and Semiconductor Devices
29. Applications of Semiconductor Devices
MODULE - 8
Applications
28
SEMICONDUCTORS AND
SEMICONDUCTING DEVICES
Notes
E ver since man moved out of the cave and settled into a civil society, his quest for
comfort has increased continuously. The invention of fire and wheel proved turning points
in human history. Probably, the next big development was the grey revolution, which
transformed the way of communication, transportation and living. Sitting in our living rooms,
we can connect to our loved ones face-to-face across oceans and continents using computer
mediated video-conferencing. Human kind has reached other planets and searching for
life beyond the earth and outside the solar system.
In our everyday life, transistor radio, TV, cell phone, computers use what we call
semiconductor devices. Silicon and germanium are the most familiar semiconductor
materials. Normally, the conductivity of a semiconductor lies inbetween the conductivities
of metals and insulators. However, at absolute zero, the semiconductor also acts like a
perfect insulator. The conductivity of a semiconductor is influenced by adding some impurity
element called dopant. Depending on the type of carrier added by a dopant, the
semiconductor is classified as p-type or n-type.
When a part of a pure semiconductor is doped with p-type impurity and the remaining part
is doped with n-type impurity, we obtain a p-n junction. A p-n junction is also called a
diode. A more useful semiconductor device is a bipolar junction transistor. In this lesson
you will learn about various types of semiconductors, their behaviour and how they are
combined to form useful devices such as Zener diode, solar cell, photodiode, light emitting
diode and transistor, etc. These simple structures are used in voltage regulators, display
switches and storage devices, communication systems, computers, satellites, space vehicles
and power systems.
Objectives
differentiate between n-type and p-type semiconductors.
explain formation of depletion region and barrier potential in a p-n junction

diode;
3.321
321
MODULE - 8
Applications
Notes
Physics
describe I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode in the forward and reverse
biases;
explain the action of a transistor;
describe the effect of doping, size and function of different regions in a transistor;
list the differences between p-n-p and n-p-n transistors;
list different configurations in which a transistor can be connected and describe

their input and output characteristics; and
compare different configurations of a transistor in terms of their input/output

resistance, gain and applications.
28.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Semiconductors are classified on the basis of their purity as intrinsic (pure) and extrinsic
(impure) semiconductors. Let us now learn about these.
28.1.1 An Intrinsic Semiconductor

Pure silicon and germanium are intrinsic semiconductors as they have no impurity
whatsoever. You may recall that electrons in these elements are all tightly held (or say
locked) in their crystalline structure, i.e., they are not free to move. When energy is added
to pure silicon in the form of heat, say, it can cause a few electrons to break free of their
bonds, leaving behind a hole in each case. (The absence of electrons is treated as positively
charged particle having the same amount of positive charge as on an electron.) These
electrons move randomly in the crystal. These electrons and holes are called free carriers,
and move to create electrical current. However, there are so few of them in pure silicon
that they are not very useful.
Note that in an intrinsic semiconductor, electrons and holes are always generated in pairs
and the negative charge of free electrons is exactly balanced by the positive charge of
holes. However, a hole only shifts its position due to the motion of an electron from one
place to another. So we can say that when a free electron moves in a crystal because
of thermal energy; its path deviates whenever it collides with a nucleus or other free
electrons. This gives rise to a zig-zag or random motion, which is similar to that of a
molecule in a gas.
(a)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(e)
Fig. 28.1 : Movement of electrons and holes in a semiconductor
322

Now refer to Fig. 28.1(a) and consider the electron- hole pair generated at point A. The
free electron drifts in the crystal leaving vehind a hole. The broken bond now has only one
electron and this unpaired electron has tendency to acquire an electron and complete its
pair by forming a covalent bond. Due to thermal energy, the electron from neighbouring
bond, say at point B, may get excited to break its own bond and jump into the hole at A. As
a result, the hole at A vanishes and a new hole appears at B (Fig. 28.1(c)). Thus motion of
electron from point B to point A causes the hole to move from A to B.
MODULE - 8
Applications
Notes
You may now like to ask: What will happen when hole at B attracts and captures a valence
electron from neighbouring bond at C? The movement of electron from C to B causes
movement of hole from B to C [see Fig. 28.1(d) and (e)]. Conventionally, the flow of
electric current through the semiconductor is taken in the same direction in which holes
move.
At absolute zero temperature, all valence electrons are tightly bound to their parent atoms
and intrinsic semiconductor behaves as an insulator. At room temperature, the thermal
energy makes a valence electron in an atom to move away from the influence of its
nucleus. Therefore, a covalent bond is broken and electron becomes free to move in the
crystal, resulting in the formation of a vacancy, called hole. Thus, due to thermal energy,
some electron-hole pairs are generated and semiconductor exhibits small conductivity.
For example, at room temperature (300 K), Ge has intrinsic carrier concentration
of about 2.5 1019 m3. As temperature increases, more electron- hole pairs are generated
and conductivity increases. Alternatively, we can say that resistivity decreases as
temperature increases. It means that semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient
of resistance.
28.1.2 An Extrinsic Semiconductor

You now know that intrinsic semiconductors have high resistivity. Also their conductivity
shows little flexibility. For these reasons, intrinsic (pure) semiconductors are of little
use; at best these can be used as a heat or light sensitive resistance. These limitations
are overcome by adding a small and measured quantity of another material to intrinsic
(pure) semiconductor, which either increases the number of holes or electrons.
Note that the word impurity is being used here because we are adding atoms of some
other element to a pure material.
The process of addition of impurities to a pure or intrinsic semiconductor is called doping
and the impurity atom that is added is called dopant. Such doped semiconductors are
called extrinsic semiconductors.
The dopants are generally taken from either group III (having three valence electrons)
or group V (having five valence electrons) of the Periodic Table. Fig.28.2 shows a small
portion of the Periodic Table. Here groups III and V have been highlighted to indicate the
types of materials generally used for doping.
3.323
323
MODULE - 8
Physics

Applications
Notes
III
IV
VI
II
Al
Si
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Hg
Fig. 28.2 : A part of the Periodic Table. Group III and V elements are used for doping an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Normally we add a very small amount of impurity atoms to the pure simiconductor. It is of
the order of one atom per 108 atoms of intrinsic semiconductor. These atoms change the
balance of charge carriers; either they add free electrons or create holes. Either of these
additions makes the material more conducting. Thus, most of the charge carriers in extrinsic
semiconductors originate from the impurity atoms.
28.1.3 n-and p-type Semiconductors

From the electronic configuration of Si (1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p2), you will recall that ten
electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus and four electrons revolve around the nucleus in
the outermost orbit. In an intrinsic silicon semiconductor, the Si atom attains stability by
sharing one electron each with four neighbouring Si atoms. (This is called covalent
bonding). The same holds true for germanium; its electronic configuration is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6,
3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p2. When silicon (or germanium) is doped with a pentavalent (five
electrons in the outermost orbit) atom like phosphorus, arsenic or antiomony, four electrons
form covalent bonds with the four neighbouring silicon atoms, but the fifth (valence) electron
remains unbound and is available for conduction, as shown in Fig. 28.3. Thus, when a
silicon (or germanium) crystal is doped with a pentavalent element, it develops excess free
electrons and is said to be an n-type semiconductor. Such impurities are known as donor
impurities.
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Fig.28.3 : Covalent bonding in a n-type semiconductor
Note that in n-type semiconductors, the no. of free electrons is far greater than the number
of holes and the latter stands for negative charges.
If silicon (or germanium) is doped with a trivalent (three electrons in the outermost shell)
324

atom like boron, aluminium, gallium or indium, three valence electrons form covalent bonds
with three silicon atoms and deficiency of one electron is created. This deficienty of
electron is referred to as hole. It is shown in Fig. 28.4. Such a semiconductor is said to be
a p-type semiconductor and the impurities are known as acceptor impurities.
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
MODULE - 8
Applications
Notes
Fig. 28.4 : Colvalent bonding in a p-type semiconductor
You may now like to ask: Is a n-type semiconductor negatively charged? The answer to
this question is not in affermative.
In fact, the number of free electrons is exactly equal to the total number of holes and
positively charged ions and a semiconductor, whether intrinsic or doped, is electricially
neutral.
Note that in a p-type semiconductor, more holes are created due to addition of acceptor
impurity than by breaking covalent bonds due to thermal energy at room temperature.
Hence, the net concentration of holes is significantly greater than that of electrons. That
is, in a p-type semiconductor, the holes are the majority charge carriers.

1. At 300 K, pure silicon has intrinsic carrier concentration of 1.5 1016 m3. What is the
concentration of holes and electrons?
....................................................................................................................................
2. The n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping with
(i) trivalent impurity
(ii) pentavalent impurity
(iii) tetravalent impurity
(iv) trivalent as well as tetravalent
....................................................................................................................................
3. An intrinsic semiconductor can be converted into an extrinsic semiconductor by addition
. This process in called
of
....................................................................................................................................
4. Electrons in n-type semiconductor and holes in p-type semiconductor are the
3.325
325
MODULE - 8
Applications
Physics
carriers.
....................................................................................................................................
5. An extrinsic semiconductor has
intrinsic semiconductor.
resistivity as compared to an
....................................................................................................................................
Notes
28.2 A p-n Junction

You now know that n-type and p-type semiconductors respectively have electrons and
holes as majority charge carriers. What do you think will happen if a n-type material is
placed in contact with a p-type material? Shall we obtain some useful device? If so, how?
To answer such questions, let us study formation and working of a p-n junction.
28.2.1 Formation of a p-n Junction

To form a p-n junction, the most convenient way is to introduce donor impurities on one
side and acceptor impurities into the other side of a single semiconducting crystal, as
shown in Fig.28.5.
p-region
n-region
electron
hole
negative ion
positive ion
depletion
region
Fig. 28.5 : A p-n junction with depletion region
We now know that there is greater concentration of electrons in the n-region of the crystal
and of holes in the p-region. Because of this, electrons tend to diffuse to the p-region and
holes to the n-region and recombine. Each recombination eleminates a hole and a free
electron. This results in creation of positively and negatively charged ions near the junction
in n and p regions, respectively. As these charges accumulate, they tend to act as shield
preventing further movement of electrons and holes across the junction. Thus, after a few
recombinations, a narrow region near the junction is depleted in mobile charge carriers. It
is about 0.5 m thick and is called the deplection region or space-charge region.
Due to accumulation of charges near the junction, an electric field is established. This
326

gives rise to electrostatic potential, known as barrier potential. This barrier has polarities,
as shown in Fig. 18.6. When there is no external electric field, this barrier prevents diffusion
of charge carriers across the junction.
MODULE - 8
Applications
p-n junction
Notes
p-region
n-region
+
barrier potential of
depletion region
Fig.28.6 : Barrier potential due to depletion region
The barrier potential is characteristic of the semiconductor material. It is about 0.3 eV for
Ge and about 0.7eV for Si. The junction acts as a diode. It is symbolically represented as
shown in Fig. 28.7(a). Here A corresponds to p-region and acts as an anode. Similarly, K
indicates n-region and corresponds to a cathode. Fig 28.7 (b) shows a picture of p-n
junction diode available in market.
Black Band Indicates n-side
AA A
Input
E
KK
p
n
(a)
Fig. 28.7:
(b)
a) Symbol of a p-n junction (diode). The arrow gives the direction of conventional
current. It is from p to n region b) A p-n junction diode available in the market.
You may have noted that semiconductor diodes are designated by two letters followed by
a serial number. The first letter indicates the material: A is used for material with a band
gap of 0.6 eV to 1.0eV such as germanium. B is used for material with a band gap of
1.0eV to 1.3eV, such as silicon. The second letter indicates the main application: A signifies
detection diode, B denotes a variable capacitance diode, E for tunnel diode, Y for rectifying
diode and Z denotes Zener diode. The serial numbers specify power rating, peak reverse
voltage, maximum current rating, etc. (We have to refer to manufacturers catelogue to
know exact details.) For example, BY127 denotes a silicon rectifier diode and BZ148
3.327
327
MODULE - 8
Applications
Notes
Physics
represents a silicon Zener diode.
To make visual identification of anode and cathode, the manufacturers employ one of the
following ways :
the symbol is painted on the body of the diode;
red and blue marks are used on the body of the diode. Red mark denotes anode,
whereas blue indicates the cathode;
a small ring is printed at one end of the body of the diode that corresponds to the
cathode. The band in Fig. 28.7(b) indicates the n-side of the p-n junction.
Note that we have to work within the specified ranges of diode ratings to avoid damage to
the device.

(a) When a p-n junction is formed, the
diffuse across the junction.
(b) The region containing uncompensated acceptor and donor ions is called
region.
(c) The barrier potential in silicon is
V and in germanium, it is
V.
(d) In a p-n junction with no applied electric field, the electrons diffuse from n-region
concentration of
in n-region as
to p-type region as there is
compared to p- region.
(a) The potential barrier at the p-n junction is due to the charges on the either side of
the junction. These charges are
(i) majority carriers
(ii) minority carriers
(iii) fixed donor and acceptor ions.
(iv) none of above
....................................................................................................................
(b) In a p-n junction without any external voltage, the junction current at
equillibrium is
(i) due to diffusion of minority carriers only
(ii) due to diffusion of majority carriers only
(iii) zero, as no charges are crossing the junction
(iv) zero, as equal and opposite charges are crossing the junction
....................................................................................................................
328

(c)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
MODULE - 8
Applications
In a semiconductor diode, the barrier potential repels

minority carriers in both the regions
majority carriers in both the regions
both the majority and the minority carriers
none of the above
....................................................................................................................
Notes
3. Why is depletion region named so? What is depletion region made of?
....................................................................................................................................
28.3 Forward and Reverse Biased p-n Junction

Biasing means application of voltage. To make a p-n junction to conduct, we have to
make electrons move from the n-type region to the p-type region and holes moving in the
reverse direction. To do so, we have to overcome the potential barrier across the junction
by connecting a battery to the two ends of the p-n junction diode. The battery can be
connected to the p-n junction in two ways:
Positive terminal of the battery connected to the p-side and negative terminal of the
battery connected to the n-side. This is called forward bias [Fig. 28.2(a)].
Positive terminal of the battery connected to the n-side and negative terminal of the
battery connected to the p-side. This is called reverse bias [Fig. 28.8(b)].
When a junction is forward biased and the bias exceeds barrier potential, holes are compelled
to move towards the junction and cross it from the p-region to the n-region. Similarly,
electrons cross the junction in the reverse direction. This sets in forward current in the
diode. The current increases with voltage and is of the order of a few milliampere. Under
the forward bias condition, the junction offers low resistance to flow of current. Can you
guess its magnitude? The value of junction resistance, called forward resistance, is in
the range 10 to 30.
p
+
(a)
+
(b)
Fig. 28.8 : a) Forward biased, and b) reverse biased p-n junction
3.329
329
MODULE - 8
Applications
Notes
Physics
When the p-n junction is reverse biased, holes in the p-region and electrons in the
n-region move away from the junction. Does it mean that no current shall flow in the
circuit? No, a small current does flow even now because of the fewer number of electronhole pairs generated due to thermal excitations. This small current caused by minority
carriers is called reverse saturation current or leakage current. In most of the
commercially available diodes, the reverse current is almost constant and independent of
the applied reverse bias. Its magnitude is of the order of a few microamperes for Ge
diodes and nanoamperes in Si diodes.
A p-n junction offers low resistance when forward biased, and high resistance when
reverse biased. This property of p-n junction is used for ac rectification.
When the reverse bias voltage is of the order of a few hundred volt, the current through
the p-n junction increases rapidly and damages it due to excessive power dissipation. The
voltage at which a diode breaks down is termed as breakdown voltage. Physically, it can
be explained as follows: When a reverse bias is applied, a large electric field is established
across the junction. This field (i) accelerates the available minority carriers, which, in turn,
collide with the atoms of the semiconductor material and eject more electrons through
energy transfer (avalanche effect), and (ii) breaks covalent bonds by exerting large force
on electrons bound by the bonds. This results in creation of additional electron-hole pairs in
the junction region (Zener effect). Both these processes give rise to large reverse current
even for a small increment in reverse bias voltage. This process is termed as Zener
breakdown.

1. Define forward bias.
.....................................................................................................................................
2. Define reverse bias.
.....................................................................................................................................
(a) When forward bias is applied on a p-n junction diode, the width of the depletion
region .......
(b) When a p-n junction diode is reverse biased, the width of depletion region
(c) When the reverse bias voltage is made too high, the current through the p-n
junction ................................. abruptly. This voltage is called ........................... .
(a) In a forward biased junction
(i) the holes in the n-region move towards the p-region
(ii) there is movement of minority carriers
(iii) charge carriers do not move
330

(iv) majority carriers in both the regions (n and p-regions) move into other regions.
............................................................................................................
MODULE - 8
Applications
(b) In a reverse biased junction

(i) there is no of potential barrier
(ii) there is movement of majority carriers only
(iii) there is movement of minority carriers only
Notes
.............................................................................................................
5. State two types of reverse breakdowns which can occur in a p-n junction diode and
differentiate between them.
....................................................................................................................................
28.4 Characteristics of p-n junction diodes

The practical application of a semiconductor device in electronic circuits depends on the
current and voltage (I-V) relationship, as it gives vital information to a circuit designer as
well as a technician. Therefore, with the help of IV characteristics, we can know how
much current flows through the junction diode at a particular voltage.
28.4.1 Forward Bias Characteristics

Refer to Fig. 28.9(a). You will note that to draw forward bias characterstic of a p-n
junction diode, the positive terminal of a battery (B) is connected to p-side of the diode
through the rheostat. (Alternative by we can use a variable battery.) The voltage applied
to the diode can be varied with the help of the rheostat. The milliammeter (mA) measures
the current in the circuit and voltmeter (V) measures the voltage across the diode. The
direction of conventional current is the same as the direction of the diode arrow. Since
current experiences little opposition to its flow through a forward biased diode and it
increases rapidly as the voltage is increased, a resistance (R) is added in the circuit to limit
the value of current. If this resistance is not included, the diode may get permanently
damaged due to flow of excessive current through it.
The I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias is shown in Fig. 28.9(b).
I
(mA)
+ V
+
B
Rh
mA
D
R
0.7V
Knee
(a)
(b)
Fig 28.9 : a) Circuit diagram I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode in forward bias, and
b) typical characterstics curve.
3.331
331
MODULE - 8
Applications
Notes
Physics
Note that the characteristic curve does not pass through origin; instead it meets the V-axis
around 0.7V. It means that the p-n junction does not conduct until a definite external
voltage is applied to overcome the barrier potential. The forward voltage required to get
the junction in conduction mode is called knee voltage. It is about 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V
for Ge p-n junction.
This voltage is needed to start the hole-electron combination process at the junction. As
the applied voltage is increased beyond knee voltage, the current through the diode increases
linearly. For voltage of around 1V, the current may attain a value of 30-80 mA.
28.4.2 Reverse Bias Characteristics

To draw reverse bias characteristics of a p-n junction, we use the circuit diagram shown
in Fig. 28.10 (a). If you compare it with Fig. 28.9(a) for forward I-V characteristics, you
will note two changes:
(i) The terminals of the junction are reversed.
(ii) Instead of milliammeter, microammeter ( A) is used.
A typical I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in reverse bias is shown in Fig 28.10(b).
+ V
+
+
P'
Breakdown
Leakage current
V
Reverse Region
I
(A)
(a)
(b)
Fig.28.10 : a) Circuit diagram to obtain I-V characteristics of a p-n junction in reverse bias, and
b) reverse bias characteristic curve
Note that the junction current is comparatively much less in reverse bias for all voltages
below the breakdown voltage. And at breakdown voltage, the current increases rapidly
for a small increase in voltage. Moreover, comparison of Fig. 28.9 (b) and 28.10 (b)
reveals that a p-n junction diode offers low resistance when it is forward biased and high
resistance when reverse biased. At the breakdown voltage in reverse biased p-n junction
diode, the sharp increase in reverse current is due to sudden decrease in resistance offered
by the junction.
From this we may conclude that a p-n junction diode conducts in only one direction, i.e.
has unidirectional conduction of current, with electrons flowing from the n-type region to
p-type end in forward bias.
You may have seen turnstiles at a metro subway station that let people go through in only
one direction. A diode is a one-way turnstile for electrons.
p-n junction diodes find wide applictions. These include :
1. The unidirectional conducting property of a diode is used to convert ac voltage into dc
332

voltage as a rectifier. Diodes are also used in adaptors to recharge batteries of cell
phones, CDplayers, laptops, etc. You will study about it in detail in the next lesson.
MODULE - 8
Applications
2. A device that uses batteries often contains a diode as it simply blocks any current
from leaving the battery, if it is reverse biased. This protects the sensitive electronics
in the device.
Notes

1. Explain the concept of knee voltage.
....................................................................................................................................
2. (a) The knee voltage in case of silicon diode is __________ whereas in germanium
diode it is _________.
(b) In a p-n junction diode, the current flows only in
(c) The reverse saturation current is of the order of
diodes.
direction.
for germanium
3. Choose the correct option :

(a) The I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode in forward bias show
(i) a non-linear curve
(ii) linear curve
(iii) linear as well as non-linear portions
(iv) none of above
(b) When a p-n junction is forward biased and the voltage is increased, the rapid
increase in current for relatively small increase in voltage occurs
(i) almost immediately
(ii) only when the forward bias exceeds the potential barrier
(iii) when there is breakdown of the junction
28.5 Types of Diodes

By adjusting the levels of doping, doping material and the geometry (size, area etc.) of a
p-n junction diode, we can modify its electrical and optical behaviour. In this section, we
have listed diodes whose properties have been deliberately modified to obtain specific
capabilities. Each of these diodes has its own schematic symbol and reflects its nature and
functions.
3.333
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MODULE - 8
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Physics
You can use the following table to make a comparison between different diodes:
Name
Symbol
Zener
diode
Notes
Photo-diode
LED
Solar cell
Construction
mechanism
p-n junction diode
with heavily doped
p- & n- regions. Very
narrow depletion layer
(< 10 nm).
Main
function
Zener
Provides
breakdown
continuous
mechanism
current in
reverse
breakdown
voltage region
without being
damaged.
p-n junction diode.
Photovoltaic Converts an
Uses light (or photo)
effect
optical input
emitting semiconductor
into electrical
materials, with
current in
very thin p-region,
reverse bias.
whose thickness
is determined by
wavelength of radiation
to be detected
p-n junction diode with Electroluminous Changes an
materials having band
electrical input
energies correspoding
to a light
to near infrared region
output in
or visible light region
forward bias.
(GaAsP or InP)
p-n junction diode in

Photovoltaic Conversion
which either p or
effect
of solar
n region is made very
energy into
thin to avoid significant
electrical
absorption of light
energy
before reaching
the junction

1. Choose the correct option
(a) A zener diode is operated in
(i) Forward bias
(ii) Reverse bias
(iii) Both of the above
(iv) None of the above
334
Principle
Main use
Voltage
stabilization
or regulation
Receivers for
remote
controls in
VCR & TV
Used in
multimeters,
digital
watches,
instrument
displays,
calculators,
switch
boards,
burglar alarm
and remote
control
devices
1. In satellites
to power
systems.
2. To charge
batteries.
3. Calculators

..........................................................................................................................
MODULE - 8
Applications
(b) Zener dide is

(i) A highly doped p-n junction diode
(ii) A lowly doped p-n junction diode
(iii) A moderately doped p-n junction diode
Notes
(iv) Another name of normal p-n junction diode

..................... .......................................................................................................
(c) A zener diode is used as a
(i) amplifier
(ii) rectifier
(iii) constant current device
(iv) constant voltage device
....................................................................................................................
breakdown mechanism.
a) The zener diode is based on the

b) A photodiode is operated in
bias.
c) In a photodiode, the p-n junction is made from

material.
semiconductor
d) LEDs are made up of the conductor material from

table.
of the periodic
bias.
e) The light emitting diodes poerate in

f)
The
light.
arrow in the symbol of LED symbolizes

of electrons and holes.
g) In an LED light is emitted due to

h) LED is based on the principle of
i)
Solar cells are based on
j)
When sunlight having energy

the solar cell, it is
of
.
effect.
than the band gap energy falls on
and frees electron-hole pairs.
28.6 Transistors pnp and npn

In the preceeding sections, you have learnt about a p-n junction diode, which permits
current to flow in only one direction. This limits its applications to rectification and detection.
A more useful semiconductor device is a bipolar junction transistor.
The invention of transistor by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley in 1948
at Bell laboratory in USA revolutionised the electronic industry. The transistors find many
3.335
335
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Notes
Physics
any varied uses in our daily life ranging from gas lighter to toys to amplifiers, radio sets and
television. In the form of switching device, these can be used to regulate vehicular traffic
on the roads. They form key elements in computers, space vehicles, power systems in
satellites and communication.
A transistor is basically a silicon or germanium crystal containing three alternate regions of
p and n-type semiconductors as shown in Fig.28.11. These three regions are called
emitter(E), base(B) and collector(C). The middle region is the base and the outer two
regions are emitter and collector. Note that the emitter and collector are of the same type
(p or n) and collector is the largest of the three regions.
The base terminal controls the current flowing between the emitter and the collector. This
control action gives the transistor an added advantage over the diode, which has no possibility
of controlling the current flow. Depending on the type of doping, the transistors are classified
as n-p-n or p-n-p. In general, the level of doping decreases from emitter to collector to
base.
E
n
B
p
E
p
C
p
(a)
(b)
Fig. 28.11 : a) n-p-n, and b) p-n-p transistor
The names of the terminals of a transistor give clear indication of their functions. In case
of a n-p-n transistor, the majority carriers (electrons) from the emitter are injected into
base region. Since base is a very lightly doped thin layer, it allows most of the electrons
injected by the emitter to pass into the collector. Being the largest of three regions, the
collector dissipates more heat compared to the other two regions.
(a )
(b)
Figs 28.12 : Symbols of a) n-p-n, and b) p-n-p transistors
The symbolic representations of n-p-n and p-n-p transistors are shown in Fig. 28.12. The
arrow head indicates the direction of flow of conventional current.
You may now like to ask : Why does the arrow head point outward in case of n-p-n
transistor and inward in case of p-n-p transistor?
In a n-p-n, transistor, the emitter current is due to flow of electrons from emitter to base,
and the conventional current flows from base to emitter and hence the arrow head points
out from the base. In case of p-n-p transistor, the emitter current comprises flow of holes
from emitter to base. Thus the conventional current flows from emitter to base.
Since transistors are bipolar devices, their operation depends on both the majority and
minority carriers.
336
MODULE - 8
Applications
William Bradford Shockley

(1910 1989)
England born, American physicist W.B. Shockley was one of the
three scientists who received 1956 Nobel Prize in physics for the
discovery of transistor. Basically a solid state physicist, shockley
contributed significantly to the development of theoretical
understanding of bands in semiconductors, order and disorder in alloys; theory of
vacuum tubes, theory of dislocations and theory of ferromagnetic domains. He is
truely one of the pioneers of electronic revolution.
Notes
28.6.1 Working Principle

You are familiar with the working of a p-n junction. We now discuss the working principle
of a transistor and consider an n-p-n transistor first because it is more commonly used.
When no voltage is applied across the transistor, diffusion of free electrons across the
junctions produces two depletion layers, as shown in Fig. 28.13. For each depletion layer,
the barrier potential is about 0.7V at 25C for a silicon transistor and 0.3V for a germanium
transistor. As you may be aware, silicon transistors are more widely used than germanium
transistors because of higher voltage rating, greater current ratings, and low temperature
sensitivity. For our discussion, we refer to silicon transistors,
unless otherwise indicated.
Since the three regions in a transistor have different doping
levels, the depletion layers have different widths. If a region
is heavily doped, the concentration of ions near the junction
will be more, resulting in thin depletion layer and vice versa.
Since the base is lightly doped as compared to emitter and
collector, the depletion layers extend well into it, whereas
penetration in emitter/collector regions is to a lesser extent
(Fig. 28.13). Moreover, the emitter depletion layer is
narrower compared to collector depletion layer.
In order to made a transistor funciton properly, it is necessary
to apply suitable voltages to its terminals. This is called
biasing of the transistor.
Emitter-base
depletion
layer
Collector-base
depletion
layer
Figs 28.13 : Depletion layers

in a transistor
when no voltage
is applied
A n-p-n Transistor
A typical biasing scheme of a n-p-n transistor is shown in Fig. 28.14(a). Note that the
emitter-base junction is forward biased while the collector-base junction is reverse
biased. We therefore expect a large emitter current and low collector current. But in
practice, we observe that the collector current is almost as large as the emitter current.
Let us understand the reason. When forward bias is applied to the emitter, free electrons
in the emitter have to overcome the barrier potential to enter the base region
[see Fig. 28.14(b)]. When VBE exceeds barrier potential (0.6 to 0.7V for silicon transistor),
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Notes
Physics
these electrons enter the base region, as shown in Fig. 28.14(c). Once inside the base,
these electrons can flow either through the thin base into the external base lead or across
the collector junction into the collector region. The downward component of base current
is called recombination current. It is small because the base is lightly doped and only a
few holes are available. Since the base region is very thin and it receives a large number
of electrons, for VBE> 0.7V, most of these electrons diffuse into the collector depletion
layer. The free electrons in this layer are pushed (by the depletion layer field) into the
collector region [(Fig. 28.14(d)] and flow into the external collector lead. So, we can say
that a steady stream of electrons leaves the negative source terminal and enters the emitter
E
C
n
+
V
CB
VBE
+
(a)
n
VBE
+
VCB
VBE
+
VCB
(b)
(c)
Collector current
IC
Emitter current
IE
VBE
Base current
IB
+
V
CB
(d)
Fig. 28.14 :
A n-p-n transistor when a) emitter is forward-biased and collector is reversebiased, b) free electrons in an emitter, c) free electrons injected into base; and d)
free electrons pass through the base to the collector.
region. The forward bias forces these electrons to enter the base region. Almost all these
electrons diffuse into the collector depletion layer through the base. The depletion layer
field then pushes a steady stream of electrons into the collector region. In most transistors,
more than 95 percent emitter-injected electrons flow to the collector; less than 5 percent
flow to the external base lead.
From this you should not conclude that you can connect two discrete diodes back to back
to get a transistor. This is because in such a circuit, each diode has two doped regions and
the overall circuit would have four doped regions and the base region would not be the
same as in a transistor. The key to transistor action, therefore, is the lightly doped thin
base between the heavily doped emitter and the intermediately doped collector. Free
electrons passing through the base stay in base for a short time and reach the collector.
338

The relation between collector current (IC) and emitter current (IE) is expressed in terms
of signal current gain, , of a transistor. It is defined as
IC
IE .
MODULE - 8
Applications
(28.1)
You should note that the value of is nearly equal to but always less than one.
Notes
Similarly, we can relate the collector current to the base current in a transistor. It is denoted
by greek letter beta:
IC
IB
(28.2)
Beta signifies the current gain of the transistor in common-emitter configuration. The
value of is significantly greater than one.
Since emitter current equals the sum of collector current and base current, we can write
I E = IC + IB
On dividing throughout by IC, we get
IE
I
1+ B .
=
IC
IC
(28.3)
In terms of and , we can rewrite it as

1
1
= 1+
(28.4)
1
Let us now consider how a p-n-p transistor differs from a n-p-n transistor in its details.
=
or
A p-n-p Transistor
A p-n-p transistor biased for operation in the active region is shown in Fig 28.15. Note that
we reverse the battery terminals when n-p-n transistor is substituted by p-n-p transistor.
E
VEB
VCB
Fig. 28.15 : A p-n-p transistor biased for active operation
As before, the emitter - base junction is forward biased by battery of voltage VEB and the
collector base junction is reverse biased by a battery of voltage VCB. The resistance of the
emitter-base junction is very small due to its forward bias as compared to the collectorbase junction (which is reverse biased). Therefore, we apply small forward bias voltage
(0.6V) to the emitter-base junction, whereas the reverse bias voltage applied to the collector3.339
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MODULE - 8
Applications
Notes
Physics
base junction is of much higher value (9V).
The forward bias of emitter-base junction makes the majority carriers, that is the holes, in
emitter (p-region), to diffuse to the base (n-region), on being repelled by the positive
terminal of the battery. As width of the base is extremely thin and it is lightly doped, very
few (two to five percent) of total holes that enter the base recombine with electrons and
95% to 98% reach the collector region. Due to reverse bias of the collector- base region,
the holes reaching this region are attracted by the negative potential applied to the collector,
thereby increasing the collector current (IC). Therefore, increase in emitter current (IE)
increases collector current. And Eqns. (28.1) (28.4) hold in this case as well.

a) The arrow head in the symbol of a transistor points in the direction of
(i) hole flow in the emitter region
(ii) electron flow in emitter region
(iii) majority carriers flow in the above region
b) The emitter current in a transistor in normal bias is
(i) less than the collector current
(ii) equal to sum of base current and collector current
(iii) euqal to base current
(a) A ransistor has
(b) In a transistor,
regions and
junctions.
has the least thickness.
(c) The emitter region is

least
doping.
doped, whereas
(d) The collector of the transistor has
region has the
size and
doping.
junction is forward
(e) The transistor is said to be in active region when

biased and
junction is reverse biased.
(f) The two types of transistors are
and
You now know the working principle of a transistor. Let us learn the various ways in which
a transistor is biased.
28.6.2 Transistor Configurations

A transistor is a two-port device; it can take an input and deliever an output. For both input
and output, two terminals are needed. This can be done in a transistor by making one of the
three terminals common. The configurations of a transistor in which one of the terminals is
340

common to both input and output are shown in Fig. 28.16.
When emitter is common to both input and output circuits, we obtain common emitter
MODULE - 8
Applications
(CE) configuration (Fig. 28.16a);
When base is common to both input and output circuits, we obtain common base (CB)
configuration (Fig. 28.16b); and
When collector is common to both input and output circuits, we have common collector
Notes
(CC) configuration (Fig.28.16c).

In each of these configurations, the transistor characteristics are unique. The CE
configuration is used most widely because it provides voltage, current and power gains. In
the CB configuration, the transistor can be used as a constant current source while the CC
configuration is usually used for impedance matching.
V0
V0
Fig. 28.16: Transistor configuration: a) CE, b) CB, and c) CC
For each configuration, we can plot three different characteristics: a) input characteristics,
b) output characteristics, and c) transfer characteristics, depending on the nature of
quantities involved.
Table 28.2 gives various quantities related to each of these characteristics in all the three
configurations and the transistor constants of interest.
Table 28.2: Physical quantities of interest in different characteristics of a transistor
Configuration
Input
Characteristic
Output
characteristic
Transfer
Important
characteristic transistor
constant
CE
VBE and IB
with VCE as
parameter
VCE and IC with IB and IC

IB as parameter
Current gain,
CB
VBE and IE
with VCB as
parameter
VCB and IC with IE and IC

IE as parameter
Large signal
current gain,
CC
VCB and IB
with VCE as
parameter
VCE and IE with IB and IE

IB as parameter
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Physics
To work with a transistor, you will be required to identify its base, emitter and collector
leads. To do so, you can follow the following steps.
B
C
Notes
Look for the a small notch provided on the metallic cap. The
terminal close to the notch is emitter. To identify other two
terminals, turn the transistor up-side-down. You can easily
identify the base and the collector as shown in Fig. 28.17.
Like a p-n junction diode, transistors are also designated with

two letters followed by a serial number. The first letter gives
an indication of the material. A is for germanium and B is for
Fig. 28.17 : Identifying
silicon. The second letter indicates the main application: C is
transistor
used for audio frequency transistors, D for power transistors
leads.
and F for radio-frequency transistors. The serial number
consists of digits assigned by the manufacturer for
identification. For example, AC 125 represents germanium transistor for AF applications.
E
28.7 Transistor Characteristics

As mentioned earlier, operation of a transistor can be studied with input and output I-V
characteristics. The nature of these characteristics is unique and depends on the
configuration used. Let us first study CE configuration.
28.7.1 Common Emitter (CE) Configuration of a npn Transistor

Common emitter characteristics of a transistor relate voltage and current when emitter is
common to both input and output circuits. The circuit diagram for CE characteristics of a
n-p-n transistor is shown in Fig. 28.18. VBB is a variable dc supply of 0-3V and VCC is a
variable dc supply of 0-15V. R1 and R2 are potentiometers and R is a variable resistor. It is
used to control base to emitter voltage, VBE.
IB
VBB
0-3V
VCE
VCC
0-15V
VBE
Fig. 28.18 : Circuit diagram for input and output characteristics of a transistor in CE configuration.
Input characteristics
In CE configuration, the input characteristics show the variation of IB with VBE when VCE
is held constant. To draw this characteristic, VCE is kept at a suitable value with the help of
R and R1. Then VBE is changed in steps and corresponding values of IB are measured with
342
VCE = 4V
VCE = 2V
Note that for a given value of VCE , the curve is as

obtained for forward biased p-n junction diode. For
V BE< 0.5V, there is no measurable base current
(IB = 0). However, IB rises steeply for VBE > 0.6V.
From the reciprocal of the slope of input
characteristic, we get input resistance of the
transistor defined as the ratio of small change in base
- emitter voltage to the small change produced in the
base current at constant collector - emitter voltage:
Rie =
V BE
I B

Applications
IB
(A)
the help of microammeter, connected to base. Fig.

28.19. shows typical input characteristics of a np-n
transistor in CE configuration.
MODULE - 8
VCE = 0V
IB
Notes
VBE
VBE (V)
Fig. 28.19 : Input characteristics of

a typical npn transistor
in CE configuration
(28.5)
V BE
Usually, the value of Rie is in the range 20-100. You should note that since the curve is not
linear, the value of input resistance varies with the point of measurement. As VCE increases,
the curve tends to become more vertical and the value of
Rie decreases.
Output characteristics
The output characteristic curves depict the variation of
collector current IC with VCE, when base current IB is kept
constant. To draw output characteristics, IB is fixed, say at
10 A, by adjusting R1 and R. VCE is then increased from 0
to 10 V in steps of 0.5V by varrying R2 and the corresponding
value of IC is noted. Similarly, the output characteristics can
be obtained at IB = 40A, 60A, 80A. However, in no case,
the maximum base current rating of the transistor should be
exceeded.
The output characteristics of this configuration are shown
in Fig. 28.20.
Fig. 28.20 : Output

characteristics
of a typical npn
transistor in CE
configuration
From the output characteristics, you will note that IC changes

with increase in VCE for a given value of IB and IC increases with IB for a given VCE. From
these characteristics, we can calculate output admittance (hoe):
hoe =
I C
VCE
(28.6)
where denotes a small change.

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Notes
Physics
28.7.2 Common Emitter (CE) Configuration of a pnp Transistor

In the preceding section, you learnt to draw input and output characterstics of a n-p-n
transistor in common emitter configuration. Now we will consider a p-n-p transistor.
Fig. 28.21 shows the circuit diagram for CE characteristics of a p-n-p transistor. The
transistor is biased to operate in the active region. The microammeter and voltmeter are
used in the base- emitter circuit to measure the base current (IB) and the voltage between
base and emitter. Similarly, milliammeter and voltmeter are connected in collector-emitter
circuit to measure the collector current (IC) and voltage between collector and emitter
i
(VCE).
c
+
A + E
VEE
+
V2
R2
Fig. 28.21 :
VEB
VCE
mA
V1
+
R1
V CC
+
Circuit diagram for obtaining input and output characteristics of a p-n-p transistor
in CE configuration
Input Characteristics
Input characteristics are graphs between VBE and IB at different constant values of VCE.
To plot input characteristics, the potentiometer R1 in the emitter- collector circuit is adjusted
till the voltmeter shows constant value. Then potentiometer in the emitter-base circuit is
adjusted in such a way that base-emitter voltage is zero. For this value, base current is also
observed to be zero. Keeping the VCE constant, VBE is increased gradually and change in
base current is noted with the help of microammeter. To plot input characteristics at
VCE = 2V, say, the potentiometer in emitter-collector circuit is adjusted till the voltmeter
in the same circuit reads 2V. Then potentiometer in the emitter -base circuit is adjusted to
make V BE zero. Then V BE is increased
I
gradually, keeping VCE constant. Similarly the
V = 2V
(A)
input characteristics of the transistor in the
6V
80
10V
CE configuration can be drawn for different
70
values of VCE = 6V, 1V and so on. Fig.
60
28.22 shows typical input characteristics of
50
CE configuration. As may be noted, the
40
nature of input characteristics is similar to
30
the forward characteristics of p-n junction
20
diode. The base current remains zero as long
10
as the base voltage is less than the barrier
0
0
0.5
1.0 V (V)
voltage (for silicon transistor, it is ~0.7V). As
the base voltage exceeds barrier voltage,
Fig. 28.22 : Input characteristics of a
typical p-n-p transistor in CE
current begins to increase slowly and then
configuration.
b
CE
BE
344
MODULE - 8
Applications
rises abruptly.
You may also recall that these curves are similar to the ones obtained for the CE
configuration for n-p-n transistor.
From the reciprocal of the slope of the curve of input characteristic, the a.c input resistance
of the transistor can be calculated.
a.c input resistance (Rin) of the transistor in CE configuration is expressed as:
Rin =
VBC
I B
= constant
Notes
(28.7)
VCE
In this configuration Rin is typically of the order of one k.
Output Characteristics
These are graphs between collector-emitter
voltage (VCE) and the collector current (IC) at
different constant values of base current (IB).
To draw these characteristics, VCE is made
zero and VBE is adjusted till the microammeter
in the base-emitter circuit is set to read a
constant value. Thus VCE is adjusted to make
IB constant at a particular value. Now keeping
IB constant, VCE is increased from zero in a
number of steps and the corresponding
collector current IC is noted with the help of
milliammeter connected in series with
collector.
VCE
Fig 28.23 : Output characteristics of a

typical pnp transistor in CB
configuration
How can we plot the output characteristics at IB = 50 A? To do so, VBE is adjusted

till milliammeter reads 50 A. Increase VCE gradually and note correspoding values of IC.
The graph betweent VCE and IC gives the output characteristics at IB = 50 A. Similarly,
the output characteristics can be obtained at IB = 100 A, 200 A and so on. Fig. 28.23
shows output characteristics of p-n-p transistor for CE configuration.
Example 28.1 Calculate the current gain of a transistor if the current gain = 0.98
Solution: =
0.98
=
= 49
1 1 0.98
Example 28.2 In a transistor, 1 mA change in emitter current changes collector current

by 0.99 mA. Determine the a.c current gain.
Solution: Given Ie = 1 mA = 1 103 A and Ic = 0.99 mA = 0.99 103 A
Therefore, a.c current gain of the transistor =
Ic 0.99 10 3
=
A = 0.99
Ie
1 10 3 A
3.345
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MODULE - 8
Physics

Applications
Notes

curve relates the input current with input voltage, for a given
(a) The
output voltage.
curve relates the output current with the output voltage for a
(b) The
given input current.
and
are the
(c) In common emitter configuration of a transistor, the
output terminals
and
are the input terminals, whereas
and
(d) The
are the output terminals of a transistor in common base configuration.
346
Semiconductors are materials like silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge), which have
conductivities midway between insulators and conductors.
Semiconductors are of two types : Intrinsic (pure) and extrinsic (dopped).
Extrinsic semiconductors can be p-type (dopped with 3rd group impurities) or n-type
(doped with 5th group impurities).
A p-n junction diode consists of a n-type region and a p-type region, with terminals on
each end.
When a p-n junction is formed, diffusion of holes and electrons across the junction
results in a depletion region which has no mobile charges.
The ions in the region adjacent to the depletion region generate a potential difference
across the junction.
A forward biased p-n junction offers low resistance to flow of electrons.
A reverse biased p-n junction diode offers high resistance to flow of current.
A p-n junction allows current to flow in only one direction.
A transistor consists of three separate regions (emitter, base and collector) and two
junctions. Emitter is most heavily doped and base is the least doped. While collector
has the largest size, base is the thinnest.
Transistor can either be n-p-n type or p-n-p type.
A transistor can be connected in any of the three configurations: common collector

(CE), common base (CB) or common emitter (CE).
The characteristics of a transistor vary according to the configuration of the transistor.
CE configuration is preferred over other configurations as it provides high current

gain and voltage gain.
MODULE - 8
Applications
Terminal Exercise
1. Describe the most important characteristic of a p-n junction diodes.
2. Explain the formation of depletion region in a p-n junction diode.
3. Which charge carriers conduct forward current in a p-n junction diode?
Notes
4. Differentiate between
(i) Forward bias and reverse bias
(ii) Avalancehe and zener breakdown
5. Explain the working of p-n-p and n-p-n transistors.
6. Define current gains and of a transistor.
7. For = 0.998, calculate change in IC if change in IE is 4 mA.

28.1
1. Zero
2.
(ii)
3. impurity, doping
4.
majority
5.
lower
28.2
1. (a) majority carriers
(b) depletion region
(c) 0.7eV, 0.3eV
(d) higher, electrons
2. (iii), (iii), (i)
28.3
3. (a) decreases
(b) increases
(c) increases, breakdown voltage
(b) one
(c) micro ampere
(b) reverse
(c) light sensitive
(d) group III-V
(e) forward
(f) emission
(g) recombination
(h) electroluminiscence
4. (a) (iv); (b) (iii)
28.4
2. (a) 0.7 V, 0.3 V;
3. (a) (iii) ; (b) (ii)
28.5
1. (ii), (i), (iv)
2. (a) Zener
3.347
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MODULE - 8
Applications
Physics
(i) photovoltaic
(j) more, absorbed
28.6
1. (a) (i); (b) (ii)
2. (a) Three, two;
Notes
(d) largest size, moderate
(b) Base
(c) Most heavily, base
(e) Emitter-base, collector-base
(f) npn, pnp
28.7
1. (a) input characteristic
(c) collector, emitter
(b) output characteristics

(d) base and emitter, base and collector

7. 3.992 mA
348
MODULE - 8
Applications
29
APPLICATIONS OF
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
In the last lesson, you learnt the working principle of semiconductor devices like p-n
junction diode, Zener diode, LED, solar cells and transistors. Due to their miniature size
and special electrical properties, these devices find applications in almost every household
appliance and gadget like gas lighter, security alarm, radio, TV, telephone, tape recorder,
CD player, computer, fan regulator, emergency lights etc. All control mechanisms in big
industries and flight control equipments in an aeroplane and power systems in satellites
use semiconductor devices. In a way, it is now difficult to imagine life without these.
In this lesson you will learn some simple applications of diodes and transistors. This
discussion is followed by an introduction to elements of digital electronics. This branch
of electronics handles special types of signals/waveforms, which can assume only two
values, 0 and 1. Digital electronics is based on the concept of logic gates. These gates
accept input in digital form and give output according to the logic operation it is supposed
to perform. You will learn about logic gates, their symbols and circuit implementation in
this lesson.
Objectives
explain the use of diode as a half-wave and a full-wave rectifier;
explain the use of Zener diode as voltage regulator;
describe the uses of a transistor as an amplifier, a switch and an oscillator;
explain the logic gates with their Truth Tables; and
realize logic gates using simple circuit elements.
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Applications
29.1 Applications of p n Junction Diodes

You now know that a pn junction exhibits asymmetric electrical conduction, i.e., its
resistance in forward bias is different from that in reverse bias. This property of a diode is
used in rectification, i.e., conversion of an ac signal into a dc signal (of constant magnitude).
Notes
In every day life, we may need it to charge a cell phone, laptop etc. Let us now learn about
it.
29.1.1 p-n Junction Diode as a Rectifier

You have learnt in Lessons of Module 5 that the electricity supply in our homes provides
us ac voltage. It is a sinusoidal signal of frequency 50 Hz . It means that voltage (or
current) becomes zero twice in one cycle, i.e., the waveform has one positive and other
negative half cycle varying symmetrically around zero voltage level. The average voltage
of such a wave is zero. Let us now learn the mechanism to convert an ac into dc.
a) Half-Wave Rectification
Refer to Fig. 29.1. The signal from ac mains is fed into a step down transformer T which
makes it available at the terminals X and Y. The load resistance RL is connected to these
terminals through a p-n junction diode D. You may now like to ask : Why have we used a
step down transformer? This is done due to the fact that most devices require voltage
levels lower than 220V. The stepped down ac signal is obtained at the output of stepdown
transformer. The potential at terminal X with respect to Y will vary as a sine function with
time, as shown in Fig. 29.2(a). In the positive half cycle, during the time interval 0 to T/2,
diode D will be forward biased and conduct, i.e., current flows through RL from A to B.
However, during the negative half cycle, i.e., in the interval T/2 to T, D is reverse biased
and the junction will not conduct, i.e. no current flows through RL. This is shown in Fig.
29.2(b). Since the p-n junction conducts only in one-half cycle of the sine wave, it acts as
a half-wave rectifier.
During the non-conducting half cycle, the maximum reverse voltage appearing across the
diode is equal to the peak ac voltage Vm. The maximum reverse voltage that a diode can
oppose without breakdown is called its Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV). For rectification,
we must choose a diode having PIV greater than the peak ac voltage to be rectified by it;
otherwise it will get damaged. The dc voltage, Vdc across RL, as measured by voltmeter in
case of half-wave rectifier, is given by
Vdc = Vm/
350
(29.1)

T

Applications
ac
mains
MODULE - 8
RL V
B
Fig.29.1: Half wave rectifier circuit
(a)
0
T
2
(b) 0
3T
2
Fig. 29.2: (a) Input ac voltage, and b) half-wave rectified output
where Vm is the peak ac voltage. The dc current Idc through the load resistance RL is given
by
Vdc
Vm
Idc = R = R
L
L
(29.2)
Note that in this case, we are utilizing only half of the input power and obviously it is not an
efficient way of obtaining dc. You may logically think that instead of one, we should use
two diodes in such a way that they conduct in alternate cycles. This is known as full-wave
rectification. Let us learn about it now.
b) Full-Wave Rectification
For full-wave rectification, we feed the input signal in a centre tapped step down transformer.
(It has two identical secondary windings connected in series.) D1 and D2 are two p-n
junction diodes, as shown in Fig. 29.3. One end of the load resistance RL is connected to
the central point Y of the secondary windings and the other end is connected to the
cathode terminals of the diodes D1 and D2. The anodes of these diodes are connected
respectively to the ends X and Z of the secondary windings. The potentials at the ends X
and Z are in opposite phase with respect to Y, i.e., when potential of X is positive, Z will be
351
MODULE - 8
Applications
Physics
negative and vice versa. It is shown graphically in Fig. 29.4 (a) and (b).
D1
A
V
Notes
RL
ac
mains
Z
C
D2
Fig 29.3 : A full-wave rectifier circuit using two diodes
(a) 0
(b) 0
Fig. 29.4 : a) Potential at point X is positive with respect to Y, and b) potential of point Z is
negative with resptect to Y
Suppose that to start with, terminal X is positive and Z is negative with respect to Y. In this
condition, diode D1 will conduct but D2 will not conduct. The current will flow through the
load from B to Y and the output voltage across RL is as shown in Fig 29.5(a). During the
next half cycle, terminal X will be negative and Z will be positive. Under this condition,
diode D2 conducts and current will again pass through the load resistance in the same
direction, that is from B to Y . The corresponding waveform is shown in Fig. 29.5(b).And
the net output across RL is pulsating , as shown in Fig. 29.5(c).
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t Input Signal
(a)
(b)
(c)
T
2
3T
2
2T
Fig. 29.5 : Voltage across RL a) when D1 conducts, b) D2 conducts, c) net output of full wave
rectifier
Since current through the load now flows over the entire cycle of the sine wave, this is
called full-wave rectification. The dc voltage Vdc and dc current Idc are given by
Vdc = 2 Vm/
(29.3)
and
Vdc
2Vm
Idc = R = R
L
L
(29.4)
Note that the unidirectional current flowing through the load resistance after full-wave
rectification pulsates from maximum to minimum (zero) and is not useful for any practical
application. To reduce the fluctuating component and obtain more steady current, we filter
the pulsating part. You may be eager to know as to how do we achieve this. Let us now
353
MODULE - 8
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discover answer to this important question.
Filtering
We recall that impedance offered by a capacitor to the flow of ac depends on its freqeuncy.
Therefore, a capacitor C connected across the load resistance, as shown in Fig. 29.6,
filters out high frequency component.
Notes
T
D1
C
In high quality power supplies

combination of inductors and
capacitor L C L or C L C is
used. Depending on the way,
these components are connected
these filters are called T or .
RL
ac
mains
D2
Fig. 29.6 : Circuit diagram for capcitor-filter in full-wave rectification
The capacitor gets charged to nearly maximum potential Vm when diode D1 conducts for
period t = T/4. When the current tends to decrease for T/4 < t < T/2, the capacitor discharges
itself and tries to maintain current through the load, reducing fluctuations considerably, as
shown in Fig. 29.7. The larger the value of capacitor and the load resistance, the lower will
be the fluctuations in the rectified dc. The capacitor C connected across the load to reduce
fluctuations is called a filter capacitor. In a power supply, we use LC and C-L-C (or )
filters to reduce the rippling effect. You will learn about these in detail in your higher
classes.
V
Vm
O
t
T
2
3
2
2T
Fig 29.7: Output voltage when capacitor is used to filter ac
Special p-n junction, called Zener diode, acts as voltage regulator in reverse bias. You
will now study about it.
29.1.2 Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

The half-and full-wave rectifiers with filters are the simplest type of power supplies.
These provide almost pure dc but have one deficiency. When load current is increased by
decreasing resistance, the output voltage drops. This is because, when large current is
drawn, the filter capacitor gets discharged more and its voltage across the load resistor
354

reduces. Similarly, if the ac input changes, the dc output voltage also varies. Obviously, a
MODULE - 8
Applications
supply with varying output voltage affects the performance of different devices being
operated with it. For example, if we operate an amplifier, the quality of sound reproduced
by it will get deteriorated. To remove this deficiency, a Zener diode is used with simple
power supplies which gives constant dc voltage. Such a circuit is called regulated power
supply.
The Zener regulated voltage supply circuit is shown in Fig. 29.9. It consists of a Zener
diode with breakdown voltage Vz. This will be equal to the stabilized output voltage VO A
suitable series resistance Rs is included to control circuit current and dissipate excess
voltage. The anode of Zener diode is connected to the negative terminal of input supply,
and the cathode is connected in series with Rs to positive terminal of input supply, that is,
the Zener is connected in reverse bias condition. The load resistance is connected across
the Zener diode. The Zener regulator will only operate if the input supply voltage to the
regulator, Vi is greater than Vz . After breakdown, the voltage across it remains nearly
constant and is independent of the current passing through it. The current Is flowing passing
through Rs is given by the equation
Is = (Vi Vz)/Rs
RS
Vi +
(29.5)
IS
IL
IZ
unregulated
dc from
fitter
Vz
VZ = VO
RL
Fig. 29.9 : Zener diode as a stabilizer
This current divides in two parts: the Zener current Iz and load current IL. Applying
Kirchoffs law, we can write
Is = Iz + IL
or
Iz = Is IL
(29.6)
For Zener diode to operate, some current I Zmin should always flow through it. Therefore,
the load current IL should always be less than the main current Is. Typical value of I Zmin
may range from 5 mA to 20 mA.
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MODULE - 8
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If load current is zero, the entire Is will pass through Zener diode and output voltage VO will
be equal to Vz. When some load current is drawn, say IL, the Zener current will decrease
by the same amount but the output voltage will remain Vz. Similarly, if the ac main voltage
increases or decreases, the input voltage, Vi will increase or decrease accordingly. It will
Notes
result in change of Is given by Eqn.(29.5). Due to change in Is, the change in Vi will appear
as a drop across the series resistance Rs. The Zener voltage Vz and hence VO will remain
unchanged. Thus we see that the output voltage has been stabilized against the variations
in the current and the input voltage.
The power dissipation in Zener diode is given by the relation
Pd = Vz Iz
(29.7)
This dissipation should not exceed the maximum power dissipation rating recommended
by the manufacturer for Zener diode. Let us now understand the design of a Zener
regulated power supply with one example.
Example 29.1: The load current varies from 0 to 100 mA and input supply voltage
varies from 16.5 V to 21 V in a circuit. Design a circuit for stabilized dc supply of 6 V.
+
IL
Rs
16.5-21V dc
1W
Vz = 6V
RL
Solution: We choose a Zener diode of 6 V. Let I Zmin be 5 mA. The maximum current will
flow through the Zener when there is no load current. Its magnitude will be (100+5) mA=
0.105A.
The value of Rs is determined by the minimum input voltage and maximum required current:
Rs =
Vz min Vz
I max
16.5V 6V
= 100
105mA
The current through the Zener diode will be maximum when the input voltage is maximum,
that is 21 V and IL = 0. Therefore, the maximum Zener current Imax = (21V 6V)/100
0.15 .
The maximum power dissipation in the diode is 6V 0.15A= 0.9W.

It means that we should use a Zener diode of 6 V, 1 W and resistance Rs. of 100. It
356

should be connected in the circuit as shown above. It will give a stable output of 6 V for
the specified ranges of load and input variation.
MODULE - 8
Applications

1.
Draw a circuit of full-wave rectifier with a filter capacitor.

..................................................................................................................................
2.
What will be the output voltage, if you connect a Zener diode in forward bias instead
of reverse bias in the regulator circuit of Example 29.1?
..................................................................................................................................
29.2 Transistor Applications

You learnt the working principle of transistor in detail in the last lesson. Normally, the
collector is reverse biased and no current flows in collector-emitter circuit. If we pass a
very small current in the base circuit, a very large current starts flowing in the collector
circuit. This property has made a transistor indispensable for vast electronic applications.
But here we have discussed its applications as an amplifier, as a switch, and as an oscillator
(frequency generator).
29.2.1 Transistor as an Amplifier

An electrical signal is voltage or current, which is coded with some useful information. For
example, when we speak in front of a microphone, its diaphragm vibrates and induces a
very small voltage in its coil, depending on the intensity of sound. This induced voltage
appears as a weak signal and can not operate a loudspeaker to reproduce sound. To make
it intelligible, it is fed into a device called amplifier. The amplifier increases the level of
input signal and gives out magnified output. If Vi is the input signal voltage fed to the
amplifier and VO denotes the amplified output, their ratio is called voltage gain.
RL
IBR+L ib
input VS
signal
iC + ic
VCC
VO
+
VBB
Fig. 29.10: Basic amplifier circuit using a n-p-n transistor in CE mode
357
MODULE - 8
Applications
Physics
i.e.,
VO
AV = V
(29.8)
Similarly, we can define the current gain and power gain as
Notes
iO
AI = i
i
(29.10)
PO
Ap = P
i
(29.11)
The circuit for transistor as an amplifier is shown in Fig. 29.10. Here an n-p-n transistor is
used in CE mode. Its collector is reverse biased through the load resistance RL by the
battery VCE. When a base current IB flows, some collector current IC will start flowing. On
decreasing IB, a stage will be reached when IC becomes almost zero. This is the lower
limit of variation of IB. Similarly, on increasing IB again, a stage of saturation is reached and
IC stops increasing. This corresponds to the upper limit of variation of IB. For faithful
amplification of input signal, a base current equal to the mean of these two limiting values
of IB is passed through the base by forward biasing it with battery VBB. We can choose the
operating point in the centre of linear operating range of the transistor. This is called
biasing of the base. A signal source providing an input signal S is connected in series with
BB.
Due to addition of oscillating signal voltage S to BB , the base current changes by an
amount ib around the dc biasing current IB. The signal voltage is kept low so that the
signal current ib if added and subtracted from IB does not cross the upper and lower
limits of the base current variation. Otherwise, the transistor will go into cut off or saturation
region and the amplified output will be highly distorted and noisy. Note that signal current
ib = S/ri
(29.12)
where ri is the input impedance. This change in base current ib results in a large change
in collector current, say ic given by
ic= ib = s/ri
(29.13)
where is the ac current amplification factor, equal to ic / ib. From (Eqn. 29.13) we get
s = ic ri /
(29.14)
By applying Kirchsoffs law to the output circuit in Fig. 29.10, we have

VCC = VCE + ICRL
(29.15)
On differentiating Eqn. (29.15), we get

dVCC = dVCE + dIC RL
Since VCC is constant, dVCC= 0. Therefore, we get
dVCE = dIC RL
But dVCE is the change in output 0 and dIC in ic. Therefore,
0 = ic RL
358
(29.16)
MODULE - 8
Applications
The voltage gain Av of the amplifier is given by

AV = 0/ S = (ic RL)/(icri/)
= RL / ri
(29.17)
The ratio /ri is called transconductance of transistor and is denoted by gm. Hence Eqn.
(29.17) can be written as
AV = gm RL
(29.18)
The negative sign indicates that input and output are in opposite phase, i.e. they differ in
phase by 180. The power gain is given by
AP= AI AV = AV
(29.19)
Note that power gain does not mean that the law of conservation of energy is violated in
an amplifier. The ac power output of the amplifier is more than the ac input signal power
but this gain is achieved at the cost of dc power supplied by the voltage source.
John Bardeen
(1908 1991)
John Bardeen is the only researcher in history of science who received two Nobel
Prizes in Physics. He was born in Madison, Wisconcin USA,
in a highly educated family. He was so bright a kid that his
parents moved him from third grade to Junior high school. He
did his graduation in Electrical Engineering. But, he also had
to struggle for his career. After spending three years as
geophysicist with Gulf Oil Company, he went to Princeton for
his Ph.D. in Mathematical Physics. After a brief stint at
Harvard and Minnesota and in Naval Ordnance Labs, he joined
William Shockleys research group at Bell Laboratories. With
Walter Brattain, he devloped the first transistor for which Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley
were conferred the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Bardeen shared his second Nobel in 1972 with Leon C Cooper and R Schieffer for their
theoretical work on superconductivity.

1.
For a CE mode amplifier, i is 20 mV and o is one volt. Calculate voltage gain.

..................................................................................................................................
2.
The P0 of an amplifier is 200 times that Pi. Calculate the power gain.
..................................................................................................................................
3.
For a CE amplifier, RL = 2000 , ri = 500 and = 50. Calculate voltage gain and
power gain.
..................................................................................................................................
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MODULE - 8
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Notes
Physics
29.2.2 Transistor as a switch

In day-to-day life, we use electrical switches to put the gadgets like lamps, fans, machines
on or off manually. Note that the switch has two distinct states, viz on and off. In electronics,
we come across situations where we need to apply an input to some device in the form of
two distinct voltage levels. This is as if we were operating a switch. When switch is on,
one voltage level is applied but when switch is off, the other one is applied. Typically, such
voltage levels are used in computers, where digital signals are employed. This is done by
using a trasistor in the non-linear region of its operation. In the transister characteristics
shown in Fig 29. 11, we see two extreme regions: cut-off region and saturation region.
The (jagged) region below the zero base (IB = 0) signifies the cut off regions. The transistor
does not conduct and entire supply voltage VCC appears across the transistor between the
collector and the emitter (VCE). That is, the output voltage at the collector is VCC.
SATURATION
IC
Q
I >IB (sat)
IB = IB(sat)
VCC
RC
IB
CUTOFF
IB = 0
0
VCC
Fig. 29.11 : Transistor output characteristics
When the base current IB is greater than its saturation value, the transistor conductor fully
and collector-emitter voltage VCE is almost zero. In such a case, the output voltage obtained
between collector and ground is zero and entire voltage drop appears across RL. That is ,
V
the collector current IC = CC .
RL
VCC = 12V
RL = 1k
12V
RB=100k
VCE
Ib
VBE
VO
VBB
0V
Fig. 29.12: Transistor as a switch
360

Fig 29.12 shows a typical circuit of transistor as a switch. The control signal for switching
the transistor on or off is given in the form of VBB. For the input loop, we can write
MODULE - 8
Applications
IB RB + VBE VBB = 0
When VBB = 0, we get
IB =
VB E
RB
(29.20)
Since IB is less than zero, the transistor is cut off, and

V 0 = VCC
(29.21)
If VBB = 5V, and VBE = 0.7 V for the chosen transistor, from Eqn. (29.20) we get
IB (100 k) + 0.7V 5 V= 0.
IB =
5V 0.7V
= 43
100k
For normal transistors, this value of base current is enough to drive the transistor to full
saturation. In this case, VO = VCE sat = 0 and the collector current
VCC 12V
I C = R = 1K = 12mA.
L
This kind of switch can also be used as an indicator in displays. For example, if we connect
an LED is series with the collector resistor, as shown in Fig 29.13, the collector current
drives the LED on for high (+5V) input, and it lights up. Whenever input is zero, the LED
is off because no collector current flows through the circuit.
+ 15V
1k
5V
10k
5V
0V
Fig. 29.13: LED indicator using transistor switch
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MODULE - 8
Applications
Notes
Physics
Another major application of transistors is to generate an oscillating signal of desired
frequency. This is done by a special circuit called an oscillator. The oscillators find many
applications, particularly in radio transmitters to generate the carrier wave frequency.
These are also used in clock generators, electronic watches and computers etc. There are
various types of oscillators. We here discuss a typical oscillator circuit using a transistor.
29.2.3 Transistor as an Oscillator

An electronic oscillator is a device which generates continuous electrical oscillations. In a
simple oscillator circuit, a parallel LC circuit is used as resonant circuit and an amplifier is
used to feed energy to the resonant circuit. It can generate frequencies from audio to
radio range depending on the choice of L and C.
We know that when a charged capacitor is connected across an inductor, the charge
oscillates. But due to loss of energy by radiation and heating of wires, the energy is lost
and the amplitude of oscillations decays with time. To build a sinusoidal oscillator, where
the oscillations are sustained (i.e. they do not decay), we need an amplifier with positive
feedback. The basic idea is to feed a part of output signal in input signal. By adjusting the
gain of the circuit and the phase of the feedback signal, energy dissipated in each cycle is
replenished to get sustained oscillations of desired frequency.
Schematically we can depict an oscillator to be made up of two main blocks: an amplifier
with gain A, and a feedback circuit with feedback factor , as shown in Fig 29.14.
Vi = VO
(180 phase shift)

AVi = VO
Amplifier
A
VO
Feedback
(180 phase shift)
VO
+
Fig. 29.14: Schematic diagram of an oscillator
In case, A < 1, VO decreases continuously. On the other hand, if A > 1, V0 increases

gradually.But if A = 1, we get constant value of V0 leading to sustained oscillations.
Now, we consider a CE amplifier, like the one discussed in Sec. 29.2.1. It has 180o phase
difference between the input and output, i.e. it has negative gain (A). To keep the total
feedback gain A = 1, we require that is also negative; equal to
A1. That is, it is necessary to introduce a phase shift of 180o in the feedback circuit as
well.
In Fig. 29.15, we have shown a circuit diagram of an oscillator using LC tank circuit and a
transistor amplifier in CE mode. This is called Colpitts Oscillator.
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MODULE - 8
Applications
+VCC
RF choke
R1
L
R2
+ C
1
V0
R3
C2
Fig. 29.15 : Colpitts Oscillator
In this circuit C1, C2 and L form the tank circuit. The oscillating current is generated in this
circuit, which is at its resonant frequency. The output is obtained across C1, the feedback
is provided across C2 connected to the base of the transistor amplifier in CE mode. In this
case 180 is introduced by the amplifier and another 180 phase shift is provided by the
capacitor C2 which is connected between ground and other end of the inductor coil. Hence,
the total loop gain is positive. When the gain of transistor amplifier is sufficiently large at
the resonant frequency, we obtain sustained oscillations at the output.
29.3 Logic Gates

In electronics, we come across mainly two types of waveforms. The information carried
by these waveforms is called signal. When the signal takes any value within a range of
amplitude at any instant of time, it is called a continuous signal. When the signal takes the
value only at certain times, it is called a discrete signal. When the signal takes only particular
finite number of amplitude values, it is called a digital signal (Fig. 29.16).
The digital signal varies in steps and typically has only two widely separated values 0 and
1. These are called bits. Normally 0V corresponds to bit 0 and 5 V corresponds to bit
1. Since the levels are so widely separated, any noise riding on the signal within the
range of almost 2V, [( 0V + 2 V) for level 0 and (5V 2V) for level 1, does not affect
the signal value, Hence these signals are immune to noise. The signals used in a computer
are digital. The information is coded in the form of digital signals by a series of bits arranged
in different order. Each bit is a pulse of fixed time duration.
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
1
O
T 1 T 2 T 3 T 4 T5
Fig. 29.16: a) continuous signal, b) discrete signal, and c) digital signal
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Different mathematical operations can be performed on the digital signal. The mathematics
governing these operations is called Boolean algebra.
In Boolean algebra, the basic operations are addition and multiplication. If it is a digital
data that takes value 0 or 1, the following identities hold:
Notes
A0=0
(29.22)
A+1=1
(29.23)
The circuits which perform these operations are called logic gates. Let us now learn
about basic logic gates.
29.3.1 Basic Logic Gates

Logic gates are devices which have one or more inputs and one output. They give different
output when the input bits differ in their arrangement. The output produced by these gates
follows the laws of Boolean logic. There are three basic types of logic gates :
1. AND Gate, 2. OR Gate, 3. NOT Gate
These gates perform multiplication, addition and inversion (negation) operations, respectively.
Let us now learn the working of these logic gates.
1. AND Gate
An AND gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. The logic symbol of a two
input AND gate is given Fig 29.17(a). We can understand the behaviour of an AND gate
by considering a number of electrical switches connected in series. For examples, switches
A and B are two inputs of the gate and the bulb gives the output Y. The ON switch stands
for logic input 1 and OFF switch stands for logic input 0. In this case, the bulb will glow
only if it is connected to the supply voltage. This will happen only if both A and B switches
are simultaneously ON (or 1). The behaviour of output Y at various values of A and B is
shown in Table in Fig. 29.17(c). This table is called Truth Table.
A
A
B
Y V
(a)
(b)
+ 5V
(c)
5V A
D1
RL=5k
0
5V
0
Y
B
D2
(d)
Fig 29.17: a) Symbol of AND gate, b) switch implementation of AND gate, c) Truth Table of AND
Gate, and d) diode implementation of AND gate.
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The Boolean expression for the AND operation is represented as

Y = A.B = AB = A B and read as A AND B.
Realization of AND Gate : The logic gate realized by using diodes is called a DDL Gate
(DiodeDiode Logic Gate). The diode implementation of a two-input AND gate is shown
in Fig.29.17 (d). The anodes of two diodes D1 and D2 connected in parallel are forward
biased by a 5 V battery through a 5 k resistance. The output is taken from the anode.
Cathode wires A and B serve as input terminals. When either A or B or both the terminals
are grounded, the respective diode will conduct and a potential drop will develop across
the resistance and output will be 0.7 V, i.e. logic 0. When both the terminals are connected
to 5V (i.e. for input 1, 1), neither of the diodes will conduct and output will be 5 V, i.e. logic 1
2 OR Gate
The OR gate can have two or more inputs and only one output. The logic symbol of a two
input OR gate is given in Fig 29.18(a). We can explain the behaviour of an OR gate with
the help of a number of electrical switches connected in parallel. For a two input OR gate,
two switches are connected, as shown in Fig.29.18(b). The switch A and B are the two
inputs of the gate and the bulb gives output Y. The ON switch stands for logic input 1 and
OFF switch stands for logic input 0. The glowing bulb stands for logic output 1 and the
non-glowing bulb for logic output 0. In this case, when either A OR B or both the switches
are ON, the supply voltage reaches the output and the bulb glows. The input-output
correlation for an OR gate is shown in the Truth Table given in Fig. 29.18(c).
A
A
V
(a)
(b)
D1
A
(c)
B
Y
1 5V
0
0
1 5V
D2
(d)
Fig 29.18: a) Symbol of OR gate, b) switch implementation of OR gate, c) Truth Table of OR gate,
and d) diode implementation of OR gate
365
MODULE - 8
Applications
Physics
The Boolean expression for an OR operation is represented as
Y = A + B and read as A or B.
Realization of OR Gate: The diode implementation of a two-input OR gate is shown in
Fig. 29.18 (d). The cathodes of diodes D1 and D2 connected in parallel are grounded
Notes
through a 5 k resistance. The output is taken from the cathode and the two anode wires
A and B serve as input terminals. When either A or B or both the terminals are connected
to the positive terminal of the 5 V battery, the respective diode/diodes will conduct and
potential at the output will be bout 5V i.e. logic 1. When both the switches are open,
output will be 0 V i.e. logic 0.
3 NOT Gate
Another important gate used in digital signal handling is the NOT gate, which inverts the
signal, i.e., if input is 1 then output of NOT gate is 0 and for 0 input, the output is 1.
The symbol for NOT gate is shown in Fig. 29.19(a). The Truth Table of NOT gate is
shown in fig. 29.19(b).
VCC
5V
Y=A
1k
10 k
A
(b)
(a)
5V
Y
0V
5V
Fig. 29 19: a) Symbol of NOT gate, b) Truth Table of NOT gate, and c) circuit
implementation of NOT gate
The circuit to implement a NOT gate is identical to that used for a transistor as a switch.
This is shown in Fig. 29.19(c). When input A is at 0 level, transistor is off and the entire
VCC voltage (5V) appears at the output Y. When input A is 1 (5V), the transistor conducts
and output voltage Y is 0.
The inversion operation is indicated by a bar on the top of the symbol of the input e.g. in
the Truth Table we can write, Y = NOT (A) = A
So far we have discussed basic logic gates. You may now ask: Can we combine these to
develop other logic gates? You will discover answer to this question in the following section.
366
MODULE - 8
Applications
29.3.2 Combination Logic Gates

Two most important gates formed by combination of logic gates are (1) NAND
[NOT+AND] and (2) NOR [NOT+OR] gates. In digital electronics, a NAND gate or a
NOR gate serves as a building block because use of multiple number of either of these
gates allows us to obtain OR, AND and NOT gates. For this reason, these are called
universal gates. Let us now learn about combination logic gates.
1. NAND Gate
The NAND Gate is obtained by combining AND gate and NOT gate, as shown in Fig.
29.20 (a). Here the output Y of AND gate is inverted by the NOT gate to get the final
output Y. The logic symbol of a NAND gate is shown in Fig. 29.20(b). The Truth Table of
a NAND gate is given in Fig. 29.20(c). It can be obtained by inverting the output of an
AND gate. The truth table of a NAND gate shows that it gives output 1 when at least
one of the inputs is 0 The Boolean expression of a NAND operation is represented as
Y = A.B = AB = AB
Y = AB
A
B
Y = AB
A
B
(a)
(b)
Y = AB
Y = AB
(c)
Fig. 29.20 : a) NAND as combination logic gate, b) symbol of NAND GATE, and c)
Truth Table of a NAND gate
2. NOR Gate.
The NOR gate, obtained by combining an OR gate and NOT gate, is shown in Fig. 29.21(a)
Here the output of OR gate, Y , is inverted by the NOT gate to get the final output Y. The
logic symbol of a NOR gate is given in Fig. 29.21(b). The Truth Table of a NOR gate
given in Fig. 29.21(c), can be arrived at by inverting the output of an OR gate. The Truth
Table of a NOR gate shows that it gives output 1 only when both the inputs are 0
The Boolean expression for a NOR operation is represented as Y = A + B .
367
MODULE - 8
Physics

Applications
Y = AB
Y=A+B
B
(a)
Notes
(b)
Y = A+B
Y = A+ B
Fig. 29.21 : a) NOR as combination logic gate, b) symbol of NOR gate, and c) Truth
Table of NOR gate
As mentioned earlier, the NAND and NOR gates are basic building blocks of all the logic
gates. Let us now see, how we can obtain the three basic gates AND, OR and NOT by
using NAND gates.
29.3.4 Realization of Basic Gates from NAND Gate

The NAND gate is considered to be the universal gate because all other gates can be
realized by using this gate.
(a) Realization of a NOT gate : If two input leads of a NAND gate are shorted together,
as shown in Fig. 29.22, the resulting gate is a NOT gate. You can convince yourself about
this by writing its truth table.
Here we have A = B
Y =
Fig. 29.22 : NAND gate as NOT gate
(b) Realization of an AND gate : The AND gate can be realized by using two NAND
gates. The output of one NAND gate is inverted by the second NAND gate used as NOT
gate as shown in Fig 29.23(a). The combination acts as an AND gate, as is clear from the
Truth Table given in Fig. 29.23(b).
A
B
Y
Y
A
0
0
1
1
B
0
1
0
1
Y = AB
Y = AB
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
(b)
Fig. 29. 23: a) NAND gates connected to implement AND gate and
b) Truth Table of AND gate using NAND gate
368

c) Realization of an OR gate : The OR gate can be realized by using three NAND
gates. Two NAND gates are connected as inverters and their outputs are fed to the two
inputs of a NAND gate, as shown in Fig. 29.24. The combination acts as an OR gate.
MODULE - 8
Applications
A = A
Y = AB = A + B
B = B
Fig. 29.24 : Three NAND gates connected as OR gate

Complete the following table from Fig. 29.24 to prove that it is an OR gate.
A

A p-n junction diode can be used as a rectifier to convert ac into dc.
A half-wave rectified dc contains more ac component than the full-wave rectified dc.
A Zener diode stablizes the output of a power supply.
In a stabilizer, the Zener diode dissipates more power when the current taken by the
load is less.
For amplification, a transistor needs input current.
Transistor can be used as a switch by biasing it into saturation and cut-off regions.
There are three basic logic gates: AND,OR and NOT.
NAND gate is a universal gate because it can be used to implement other gates easily.
369
MODULE - 8
Physics

Applications
Terminal Question
1. Why the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) of a p-n junction diode in half-wave rectifier
with filter capacitor is double of that without the capacitor?
Notes
2. Explain how a Zener diode helps to stabilize dc against load variation.

3. What should be the range of variation of amplitude of input signal for proper working
of an amplifier?
4. Draw a circuit using diodes and transistors to implement a NOR gate.

29.1
1. See Fig.29.6
2. In case of full wave rectifier, both diodes D1 and D2 charge C to maximum voltage of
Vmax in alternate half cycles. Hence, the PIV of the diodes should be 2 Vmax.
3. Rz = 100 , Rs = 100 and R = Rz + Rs = 200
Hence,
21
= 0.105A
200
and V = IR = 0.105 100
= 10.5V
I=
29.2
V0
1V
1. Av = V = 20 mV = 50.
i
3.
Av =
P0
2. Ap = P = 200.
i
RL 50 2000
=
= 200
ri
500
Ap = Av = 50 200 = 10000.
29.3
A
0
0
1
1
370
B
0
1
0
1
A'
0
1
1
1
B'
0
1
0
1
Y
0
1
1
1
MODULE - 8
SEMICONDUCTORS AND SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
Applications
Maximum Marks: 50
Time : 1 Hours
INSTRUCTIONS

Name
Enrolment Number
Subject
Assignment Number
Address

1.
Name the majority charge carriers in n-type semiconductor?
2.
Draw symbol for a n-pri transistor.
3.
Explain the meaning of the term doping in semiconductors.
4.
What is the effect of forward biasing a p-n junction on the width of deplition region around it?
5.
How do you identity collector and emitter in a transter.
6.
Draw the logic symbol of a NOR gate.
7.
Out of silicon and germanium which has more free charge carrier density at room temperature. Why?1
8.
In common base configuration current gain is less than 1 but still be can have a voltage gain. How? 1
9.
Distinguish between a LED and a solar cell. Draw diagram of each.
10. Draw the characterstics of a pn junction diode in (i) forward bias (ii) reverse bias.
11. In a half wave reitifier input frequency is 50 Hz. What is its output frequency? What is the out put
frequency of a full wave rectifier for the same input frequency.
2
12. Two amplifiers are connected one after the other in series. The first amplifier has a voltage gain of 10 and
the second has a voltage gain of 20. If the input signal is 0.01v, calculate the output ac signal.
2
13. How can you realize an AND gate with the help of p-n junction diodes? Draw the circuit and explain to
truth table.
4
14. For a common emitter amplifier, the audio signal voltage across a 5 k collector resistance is 5v.
Suppose the current amplification factor of the transter is 100, find the input signal voltage and base
4
current, if the base resistance is 1 k .
15. Define current gain in common base configuration and common emitter configuration. Establish a relation
between the two.
4
371
16. With the help fo suitable diagrams explain
(a) how does a capacitor convert functuating ac steady dc.

(b) how a zener diode stabilizes dc output against load variations.
17. Explain :
(i) Why a transistorhas to be biased for using it as an amplifer,

(ii) how the range of variation of amplitude of input signal is decided for the proper working of a transistor,
(iii) Why the voltage gain of an amplifier can not be increased beyond a limit by increasing load resistance.
18. Identity the logic gates indicates by circuits given below.
A
(b)
(a)
Corresponding to the input signal at A and B as shown below draw output waveform for each ats.
t1
t2
t3
t4 t5
t6
C
t
19. With the help of a circuit diagram explain how a transistor can be used as an amplifier?
20. Draw a circuit diagram for studying the charactertics. Draw the input and output charactertics and explain
the current gain obtained.
5
372
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SENIOR SECONDARY COURSE

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OPEN SCHOOLING

COURSE DESIGN COMMITTEE

Dr. Naresh Kumar

Dr. Oum Prakash Sharma

Prof. L.S. Kothari

Sh. R.S. Dass

Dr. G.S. Singh

Sh. K.S. Upadhyaya

Dr. V.B. Bhatia

COURSE DEVELOPMENT TEAM

Dr. Naresh Kumar

Dr. Shubha Gokhle

Dr. Komilla Suri

Sh. R.S. Dass

Dr. Shoeb Abdullah

Sh. Mahesh Sharma

Dr. M.K. Gandhi

A Word With You

A Note From the Director

HOW TO USE THE STUDY MATERIAL

Overview of the Learning Material

Units, Dimensions and Vectors

10. Kinetic Theory of Gases

13. Simple Harmonic Motion

Elastic Properties of Solids

Electric Charge and Electric Field

28. Semiconductors and

20. Reflection and Refraction of Light

Electronics in Daily Life

Module - V : Electricity and Magnetism

Electric Charge and Electric Field

Electric potential and Capacitors

Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

Electromagnetic induction and Alternating Current

Modul - VI : Optics and Optical Instruments

Reflection and Refraction of Light

Dispersion and Scattering of Light

Wave Phenomena of Light

Module - VII : Atoms and Nuclei

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

Nuclei and Radioactivity

Nuclear Fission and Fusion

Module - VIII : Semiconductor

Semiconductors and Semiconductor Devices

Applications of Semiconductor Devices

Electric Charge and Electric Field

state the basic properties of electric charges;

explain the concepts of quantisation and conservation of charge;

explain Coulombs law of force between electric charges;

15.1 Frictional Electricity

Similar results will be obtained by bringing a charged glass rod.

Electric Charge and Electric Field

15.1.1 Conservation of Charge

15.1.2 Quantisation of Charge

Intext Questions 15.1

3. A charged object has q = 4.8 10

C. How many units of fundamental charge are

there on the object? (Take e = 1.6 10