Module 3

Manufacturing Process:
It is defined as the process of converting or processing raw materials into usable products. The
manufacturing process used in engineering industries basically to perform one or more of the following
functions:
➢ Change the physical properties of the work material.
➢ Change the shape and size of the work piece.
➢ Produce desired dimensional accuracy and surface finish.

Classification of Manufacturing Process:

➢ Primary Shaping Processes - Primary shaping processes are manufacturing of a product from an
amorphous material. Some processes produce finished products into its usual form whereas others
require further working to finish component to the desired shape and size. Example: Casting,
Powder metallurgy.
➢ Metal Forming Processes- Forming processes involve a wide variety of techniques, which make
use of suitable force, to cause a permanent deformation of the raw material to impart required
shape. Example: Forging, Rolling, Extrusion.
➢ Material Removal Processes - The process of removing the undesired or unwanted material
from the workpiece to obtain a good surface finish is known as material removal process or
machining process. Example: Turning, Milling, Drilling, Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM),
Laser–Beam Machining (LBM),
➢ Joining Processes - Metal Joining is defined as joining of two metal parts either temporarily or
permanently with or without the application of heat or pressure. Example: Welding, brazing,
soldering.

Non-Traditional or Non-Conventional Machining Processes (NCM/NTM):

The process of removing the material using various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical
or chemical energy or combinations of these energies but do not use a sharp cutting tool is called NCM
process.
Example: Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM), Laser–Beam Machining (LBM), Electro-chemical
machining (ECM), Water Jet Machining (WJM), Abrasive water Jet Machining (AJM), etc.
➢ Mechanical: Erosion of the work material by a high velocity stream of abrasives or fluids (or
both). Ex. Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), Ultrasonic Machining (USM), Water Jet Machining
(WJM), Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)
➢ Thermal: Thermal energy is applied to a very small portion of the work surface, causing that
portion to be removed by fusion and/or vaporization of the material. The thermal energy is
generated by conversion of electrical energy. Ex. Electro-discharge machining (EDM), Laser Jet
Machining (LJM), Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
➢ Electrochemical: Mechanism is reverse of electroplating. Ex. Electrochemical Machining (ECM),
Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG), Electro Jet Drilling (EJD)
➢ Chemical: Most materials (metals particularly) are susceptible to chemical attack by certain acids
or other etchants. In chemical machining, chemicals selectively remove material from portions of
the work part, while other portions of the surface are protected by a mask. Ex. Chemical Milling
(CHM), Photochemical Milling (PCM) etc.
Need for Non-Traditional Machining:
➢ New exotic work materials as well as innovative geometric design of products and
components - pressure on capabilities of conventional machining processes - desired
tolerances economically.
➢ This led to the development and establishment of NTM processes in the industry as efficient
and economic alternatives to conventional ones.
➢ Also, traditional machining methods are often ineffective in machining hard materials like
ceramics and composites or machining under very tight tolerances as in micromachined
components (Inconel, Ti-alloys or carbides).

Differences between Conventional and Non-Conventional Machining Processes:

Sl. No. Conventional (Traditional) Non-Conventional (Non-Traditional)
No direct contact between tool and
1. Direct contact of tool and workpiece
workpiece
There is no physical presence of tool,
2. Cutting tool is always harder than workpiece
hence tool may not be harder
3. Tool life is less due to high wear Tool life is more
Material removal occurs generally without
4. Generally macroscopic chip formation
chip formation
It uses different energies like electrical,
Material removal takes place due to application
5. thermos-chemical etc. to provide
of cutting force
machining
6. Suitable for all materials Not suitable for all materials
Difficulty to obtain high accuracy and surface
7. Exhibits high accuracy and surface finish
finish
8. Skilled labour may or may not be required Skilled labour is necessary
9. Low investment cost Comparatively higher
10. Easy set-up of the equipment Comparatively complex
ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM) PROCESS

Principle:
Abrasive jet machining is a NTM process where a stream of abrasive particles carried in a gas medium
from a nozzle is made to impact on the worksurface at a high velocity, due to this material is removed
from the workpiece by erosion. Complex shapes in hard and brittle materials can be easily machined
using abrasive jet machining process. The major components of abrasive jet machining equipment are:
1. Nozzle: A nozzle is used to accelerate the abrasive particles onto the worksurface. The nozzle is
made from a hard material like tungsten carbide or synthetic sapphire.
2. Abrasive: Aluminum oxide and silicon carbide are the commonly used abrasives. The size of the
abrasive particle ranges from 10-50 μm, with smaller sizes used for polishing and cleaning, while
the larger ones used for cutting operations.
3. Carrier gas:
➢ Air, nitrogen or carbon dioxide is generally used as a carrier gas.
➢ Air, when used must be filtered to remove moisture, oil and other contaminants before
entering the nozzle.
➢ Higher pressure leads to nozzle wear, while lower pressure leads to low metal removal rate.
Hence, gas pressure must be adjusted accordingly.
4. Metering system:
➢ The metering system includes mixing chamber, regulator, valves and other devices.
➢ The system must inject a uniform, adjustable flow of abrasive particles into the gas stream.

AJM OPERATION:

Fig: AJM set-up

➢ In operation, the filtered gas is supplied under pressure into the mixing chamber containing fine
abrasive particles.
➢ The vibrating action of the mixing chamber entrains the abrasive particles into the jet stream.
➢ The abrasive and the gas mixture is then passed into the nozzle through the connecting hose.
➢ The stream of mixture emerging from the nozzle at a high velocity is directed onto the work
surface to be machined.
➢ The metal removal from the worksurface usually occurs due to erosion or chipping caused by the
abrasive particles impacting the worksurface at high speed.
 ➢ A dust hood or vacuum dust collector is used to draw the dust particles and keep the operators
viewing clear.

Advantages of abrasive jet machining:

➢ Suitable for removal of deposits on surface
➢ Wide range of surface finish can be obtained
➢ Process is independent of electrical or thermal properties
➢ No thermal damage of workpiece
➢ Suitable for nonconductive brittle materials
➢ Low capital investment
➢ Ability to cut intricate shapes in hard, brittle and heat-sensitive materials.
➢ No workpiece chatter or vibrations.
➢ Low power consumption.

Disadvantages of abrasive jet machining:

➢ Not suitable for soft and ductile materials
➢ Abrasives are not reusable
➢ Abrasive collection and disposal are problematic
➢ Inaccurate cutting and drilling (stray cutting)
➢ Limited nozzle life
➢ Metal removal rate is low.
➢ High impinging velocity of the abrasives result in its embedding in the workpiece.
➢ Some materials, such as rubber and some plastics resist the chipping action, and thus cannot be
effectively processed by the process.
➢ Short nozzle tip distance (NTD) when used for cutting may damage the nozzle.

Applications of AJM:
➢ Used for machining of brittle and heat sensitive materials like glass, quartz, semiconductor
materials, mica etc.
➢ Used in drilling holes, cutting slots, deburring, trimming and removing oxides and other surface
films on the workpiece.
➢ Used in laboratories to prepare surfaces for strain gauge applications, and to create artificial flaws
in materials for calibration and testing equipment's.
➢ Removing glue and paint from paintings and leather objects.
 Module 5 Non Conventional Machining
Electrical-Discharge Machining (EDM)

In Electric Discharge Machining process an arc is produced when two current-carrying wires are
short-circuited. During this machining process, a small portion of metals is also eroded away,
leaving a small cater. EDM machining process is also known as spark erosion machining.
EDM involves a controlled erosion of electrically conductive materials by the initiation of
electrically conductive materials by the initiation of rapid and repetitive spark discharges
between the tool and workpiece separated by a small gap. Each electrical spark produces
sufficient heat to melt a portion of the workpiece and usually, some of the tooling materials also.
Due to rapid heating, the dielectric fluid evaporates in the arc gap which increases the resistance
until the arc is interrupted. The associated shock wave and flowing dielectric fluid remove the
gas bubbles which later collapse.

Advantages:
 Every conductive material can be cut by this process.
 It is independent on hardness of workpiece so hardened work piece can be machined easily.
 Complex die section and complex shapes can be produce accurately.
 This process is burr free.
 Thin section can be easily machined without deforming the part.

Disadvantages:
 In this machining process high tool wear occurs.
 Tool wears limits accuracy and surface finish of metal.
 Only good conductors of electricity can be machined by EDM.

Applications:

 Blind cavities and narrow slots in dies, minimum diameter hole can be produced is 0.13mm.
 EDM is particularly useful in machining of small holes, orifices, slots in diesel fuel injection
nozzles, airbrake valves and aircraft engines etc.
 Electro-Chemical Machining (ECM)

Electrochemical machining works on the Faraday law of electrolysis which state that if two
electrode are placed in a container which is filled with a conductive liquid or electrolyte and high
ampere DC voltage applied across them, metal can be depleted form the anode (Positive
terminal) and plated on the cathode (Negative terminal). This is the basic principle of
electrochemical machining. In this machining process, tool is connected with the negative
terminal of battery (work as cathode) and work-piece is connected with the positive terminal of
battery (work as anode). They both are placed in a electrolyte solution with a small distance.
When the DC current supplied to the electrode, metal removed from work-piece.

Advantages:
 It can machine very complicated surface.
 A single tool can be used to machining large number of work-piece.
 Machining of metal is independent on strength and hardness of tool.
 ECM gives very high surface finish.

Disadvantages:
 High initial cost of machine.
 Design and tooling system is complex.
 Nonconductive material cannot be machined.
 Blind hole cannot be machined form ECM.
 Space and floor area requirement is high compare to conventional machining.

Application:
 ECM is used to machining disk or turbine rotor blade.
 It can be used for slotting very thin walled collets.
 ECM can be used to generate internal profile of internal cam.
 Production of satellite rings and connecting rod, machining of gears and long profile etc.
 Laser Beam Machining (LBM)

Laser beam machining (LBM) uses the light energy from a laser device for the material removal
by vaporization and ablation. The setup for LBM is illustrated in Figure 1. The types of lasers
used in LBM are carbon dioxide gas lasers and solid-state lasers. In laser beam machining, the
energy of the coherent light beam is concentrated not only optically but also regarding time. The
light laser beam is pulsed so that the released energy results in an impulse against the work
surface with the melted material evacuating the surface at a high velocity that produces a
combination of evaporation and melting.

Advantages
 No tool wear as there is no direct contact between tool and workpiece.
 Metal and non-metals irrespective of their brittleness and hardness can be machined.
 Laser beam can go through a long distance as a result LBM can be used to weld, drill or cut
areas which are difficult to reach.
 Micro sized holes can created in all types of materials.
 Precise location of the spot is ensured.

Disadvantages
 The initial cost is very high and lifespan of the flash lamp is short.
 The safety procedures are needed to be followed very strictly.
 Too deep holes are not possible to drill.

Applications
 Welding of non-conductive and refractory material.
 Cutting complex profiles for both thin and hard materials.
 Used to make tiny holes. Such as the holes in the nipples of baby feeder.
 Mass-micro machining.
 Metal Joining process

Joining process is where two or more pieces of parts are joined together to produce a single product
of required shape and size. The parts required for joining are produced by any other manufacturing
technique. There are different methods used to join the parts.
The joining process can be classified as
 Permanent joining process
 Semi – permanent or temporary joining process
Permanent joining process is done by fusing the metal together. In this process the metal is heated
to its melting state and then it is fused to become one.
Some of the examples for permanent joining process are welding soldering and brazing
Temporary joining process is where the metal is not heated. The joining process is carried out at
room temperature.
Temporary joining process can be done using nuts, bolts, screws and adhesives.

Soldering
It is defined as “a process of joining two thin metal pieces using a dissimilar metal or an alloy by
heating to a suitable temperature and by using a filler metal having a melting point not exceeding
427oC and below the solidification temperature of the base metals”. The filler metal fills in the gap of
the joint by capillary action.
Soldering uses fusible alloys to join metals know as solder. Ordinary gas flames or electric soldering
iron is used to supply the heat to melt the solder. Fluxes are used with solder in soldering process.

There are two different types of solders.

Hard solders are called spelter and hard soldering process is called silver solder brazing. The hard
solder has lead and silver as it constituents. The melting point of the hard solder is in the range of
350 and above. This process gives greater strength and will stand more heat than soft solder.
Soft solder is used for joining most common metals with an alloy that melts at a temperature below
that of the base metal, and always below 4270C. The melting range of soft solder is 150 to 2000C.
The solder contains tin and lead as it constituents.

Advantages
 The process is done at low temperatures hence, no metallurgical damage to the base metal.
 The soldering joint can be dismantled by simple heating of the solder.
 It is cost effective.

Disadvantages
 The strength of the joint is not good compared to welding.
 Flux material has to be cleaned after soldering, as most of the fluxes are corrosive in nature.

Brazing
Brazing is a joining process, which joins the materials by heating to a suitable temperature and using
a filler metal having a melting temperature above 427°C and below the solidification temperature of
the base metals being joined.
The filler metal is distributed between the closely fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary attraction.
Brazing is distinguished from soldering in that soldering employs a filler metal having a melting point
below 427°C
Advantages
 It can be used to join dissimilar metals.
 It provides good pressure tight joints.
 Different cross sectional thickness material can be brazed.
 Brazing avoids metallurgical damage to the metal.

Disadvantages
 Size limitations of the parts to be brazed. As the outer area has to be elevated to the higher
temperature, in large sections increasing the temperature is difficult.
 Tight mating parts are necessary for capillary action.
 Flux are corrosive in nature, they have to be cleaned properly after brazing.

Welding

Welding is a process of joining metals by heating to suitable temperature, with or without the
application of pressure and with or without the use of filler material.
The welding process can be classified based on the source of energy to heat the metal and the state
of metal at the joint.
Pressure Welding
The surfaces of the joint to be welded is heated to a plastic state and forced together with external
pressure to finish the joint.
Ex: forge welding, resistance welding
Fusion Welding
The piece to be joined is heated to molten state and allowed to solidify to form joint with or without
the addition of filler material. The process is carried with out the application of pressure.
Ex: arc welding, gas welding

Arc Welding
The arc welding operates under the principle that when two conductor of an electric circuit are
touched together momentarily and then instaneously separated slightly, assuming that there is
sufficient voltage in the circuit to maintain the flow of current, an electric arc is formed.
Concentrated heat is produced throughout the length of the arc at a temperature of about 5000 to
6000°C. In arc welding, usually the parts to be welded are wired as one pole of the circuit, and

Fig. Electric arc welding

the electrode held by the operator forms the other pole. When the arc is produced, the intense heat
quickly melts the work piece metal which is directly under the arc, forming a small molten metal of
the electrode is carried over by the arc to the molten metal. The filler metal is inserted into the gap
between the base metals.
Gas Welding / Oxy-acetylene welding

When Right proportions of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and then ignited.
The flame produced is called as the oxy-acetylene flame. The temperature attained in this welding is
around 32000C hence has an ability to melt all commercial metals. The intense heat quickly melts the
work piece metal which is directly under the arc, forming a small molten metal of the electrode is
carried over by the gas to the molten metal. The filler metal is inserted into the gap between the
base metals.

Fig. Gas welding

Depending up on the ratio of oxygen supplied for combustion we can classify flames into 3 types.
This ratio is known as gas ratio. These flame types have a great effect on the melt pool chemically.

There are 3 types of flames and they are:

 Neutral Flame: A neutral flame is obtained by supplying equal volume of oxygen and
acetylene. It consists of a small whitish inner cone surrounded by sharply defined blue
flame.
o Most of the gas welding is done using the neutral flame.
 Carburising flame: This is obtained by supplying excess of acetylene in the gas ratio It has
3 cones, an inner white cone, surrounded by an intermediate whitish cone known as
“intermediate flame feather” and a bluish envelope flame.
o This flame is used for welding alloy steels, cast iron, aluminium.
 Oxidizing Flame: Oxidizing Flame is obtained when there is excess of oxygen gas ratio. It
appears to be similar to that of neutral flame but the inner white cone. Flame is shorter than
that of neutral flame.
o This flame is generally used in metal cutting rather than welding since weld metal
gets oxidized.
Difference between Soldering, brazing and welding

Parameters Soldering Brazing Welding

Direct melting of base NO NO Yes

metal
Flow of filler material Capillary action Capillary action Deposition
Joining metals Dissimilar Dissimilar Same metals
Surface finishing Good Good Needs surface finishing
operations
Joint strength Low Medium High
Filler metal melting Below 4270C Above 4270C Same as the base metal
temperature
Heat affected zone Nil or negligible Less High
Applications Commonly electrical Joining dissimilar Structural joints like
components are metal, fastening of pipe trusses and in
soldered to prevent fittings and leak proof automobiles, boilers
heat damage. joints. etc.