energies

Article
Experimental Study on the Effect of Sand and Dust on the
Performance of Photovoltaic Modules in Desert Areas
Xin Liu, Ningbo Wang, Mingzhi Zhao * and Xiaoming Hu

School of Energy and Power Engineering, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot 010051, China;
[email protected] (X.L.); [email protected] (N.W.); [email protected] (X.H.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Photovoltaic power generation is one of the most effective measures to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions, and the surface of photovoltaic modules in desert areas is mainly affected by sand
erosion and cover, which affect power output. Therefore, a wind–sand erosion system was established
to simulate the desert wind–sand environment, analyze the influence of dust erosion on the output
power of the component, and observe the surface erosion morphology of the component. Then, dust
particles of different sizes were selected to cover the surface of the photovoltaic module, and the
temperature change and output characteristics of the backplane of the module were studied. The
results show that the erosion rate increases with the increase in the erosion angle. When the erosion
rate is 25 m/s and 30 m/s, the output power decreases by 9.82%~16.00% and 15.42%~24.46% at
different erosion angles, respectively. As the particle size (0.05 mm~0.30 mm) deposited on the surface
of the photovoltaic module gradually increases, the open-circuit voltage of the module changes little,
and its maximum difference is 0.25 V. Short-circuit current and output power vary greatly; the
maximum difference in short-circuit current is about 13.00%, and the maximum difference in output
power is about 17.00%. Through our research, this study provides a certain reference for maximizing
power generation efficiency and the clean planning of desert photovoltaic power stations.

Keywords: photovoltaic modules; desert regions; erosion rate; dust particle size; output characteristics

Citation: Liu, X.; Wang, N.; Zhao, M.; 1. Introduction

Hu, X. Experimental Study on the
1.1. Research Background
Effect of Sand and Dust on the
Performance of Photovoltaic Modules
Due to the increase in the world’s population and the advancement of science and
in Desert Areas. Energies 2024, 17, 682.
technology, mankind’s demand for electricity is increasing. Currently, electricity generation
https://doi.org/10.3390/en17030682 relies heavily on the combustion of fossil fuels, the consumption of which produces large
amounts of carbon dioxide, thus affecting climate change. Numerous countries have
Academic Editor: Philippe Leclère
therefore turned their attention to renewable energy sources, and the use of solar power
Received: 19 December 2023 is one of the main forms of renewable energy use, the main components of which are
Revised: 24 January 2024 photovoltaic modules. And the output performance of PV modules is usually affected by
Accepted: 28 January 2024 weather factors [1,2]. In desert environments, the accumulation of sand and dust particles
Published: 31 January 2024 on the PV module’s surface and erosion are the main problems leading to the degradation
of PV module performance [2]. The temperature parameters of the PV module itself also
affect the output performance of the module [3].
China’s northern Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region contains China’s seventh largest
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. desert, Kubuqi Desert, with an average annual sunshine duration of 3117 h and high-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
intensity solar radiation, which are very suitable for the construction of photovoltaic power
This article is an open access article
plants. China’s largest ecological desert photovoltaic power plant is located here. However,
distributed under the terms and
PV performance in this region is highly affected by factors such as sand erosion and sand
conditions of the Creative Commons
accumulation on the module surface [4]; as such, the output performance and efficiency of
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
photovoltaic power stations are reduced.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Energies 2024, 17, 682. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17030682 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2024, 17, 682 2 of 18

1.2. Research Status and Challenges

Research related to the erosion and wear of the surface of an object by sand and dust
mainly focuses on the erosion of its surface by particles of a certain size at a certain speed
and angle, and many scholars have carried out different studies. Zhang Lian et al. [5] carried
out a numerical simulation of gas–solid two-phase flow in the 90◦ bend of a ventilation and
dust removal pipeline based on the discrete particle model (DPM), and the experimental
results showed that when the inlet wind speed and particle size are certain, the wear rate
of the bend decreases and then increases with the increase in bend diameter ratio, and the
wear of the bend is smaller when R/D = 3~4; when the R/D is certain, the relationship
between the wear rate E and the velocity V of the 90◦ bend is E = KV~(1.08~1.32); when
V = 0~5 m/s, the wear rate is small with the change in velocity; and when V > 5 m/s, the
wear rate is large with the change in wind speed. Lin Z et al. [6] used the URNS (SST)-DPM
method to study the effect of particle erosion on a horizontal ideal cavity. The erosion
distribution of the downstream bottom wall was explored, the initial erosion location was
extracted and analyzed, and they found that slightly lowering the back wall of the cavity
drastically reduced the erosive effect of particles. Hurol Kocoglu et al. [7] investigated the
tribological properties of composites consisting of discarded carbon fiber (CF), glass fiber
fabric (GF), and polyamide 6.6 (PA6.6) through solid particle and scratch experiments and
found that the blade of pure PA6.6 had a low erosion rate and the incorporation of CF and
GF materials reduced the erosion resistance; the blade of pure PA6.6 had the highest erosion
rate in the range of a 15~30◦ impact angle, and the composite laminate had the highest
erosion rate in the range of a 30~45◦ impact angle. Ren Bo et al. [8] established a prediction
model for the erosion rate of an annular air channel based on the flow rate, mass flow rate,
and particle size and found that the maximum erosion rate increased exponentially with
the increase in flow rate and a larger mass flow rate led to a decrease in the erosion rate,
and the critical mass flow rate was determined to be 5.23 kg/s. In addition, the erosion
rate first decreased and then increased with the increase in the particle size, and the critical
particle size was 0.7 mm. Xiaobo Kang [9] analyzed the effects of wind angle, incoming
wind speed, and PV module mounting tilt angle on the distribution of the sand erosion
rate on the surface of PV modules, and the results showed that with the gradual increase
in wind speed, the maximum erosion rate gradually increases; with the gradual increase
in the PV module mounting tilt angle, the maximum erosion rate of the surface of the PV
module gradually decreases; and with the gradual increase in the wind angle, the erosion
rate on the surface of the PV module shows a gradual increase in the trend of change and
reaches the maximum value when the wind angle is 75◦ .
Current research shows that the study of the effect of sand and dust on photovoltaic
modules is a more complex problem that is influenced by the specific local climate and
weather [10,11]; sand accumulation on the surface of photovoltaic modules is the main
cause of their reduced output performance [12,13]. Walwil et al. [14] investigated the effect
of lime, cement, and carbon particles adhering to the surface of PV modules on their output
characteristics and found that the smaller the particle size, the more pronounced the effect
on the PV modules. This result has also been verified by other research scholars [15].
Kazem et al. [16] conducted an experimental study on the effect of dust on the output
characteristics of photovoltaic modules in six different regions selected in northern Oman,
and the majority (64%) of the dust particles selected were analyzed to be concentrated in
the range of 2 to 63 µm in diameter. Javed et al. [17] conducted an experimental study
in the Qatar region to analyze the characteristics of dust deposited on the surface of PV
modules at different times of dust accumulation and found that the average particle size of
dust accumulated on the surface of PV modules decreases with the increase in exposure
time and reaches a relatively stable state with the increase in the exposure time, whereas
with the increase in exposure time, dust particles accumulated on the surface of the PV
modules will coalesce. Mani et al. [18] summarized the effect of dust on the performance
of solar PV modules by providing the cleaning cycle of PV modules in different climatic
zones and with different climatic characteristics.
Energies 2024, 17, 682 3 of 18

From the above study, it can be seen that the main factors affecting the output char-
acteristics of PV modules are sand and dust erosion of the module surface and sand and
dust covering the module surface. In essence, the performance change in solar photovoltaic
modules is produced under the joint influence of the two factors of particle size and tem-
perature. Many scholars have studied the influence of component surface temperature
on component performance, but the study of the influence of backplane temperature on
component output performance has not been developed. In addition, there are more studies
on the erosion of solid particles on the surface of objects, but there are fewer studies on the
effect of solid particle erosion on the power generation efficiency of photovoltaic modules.
Different regions have different characteristics of sand and dust, which have different
effects on the performance of PV modules, but there are fewer studies on the effects of PV
module performance under erosion of different wind speeds and coverage of sand and
dust with different particle sizes. Therefore, this paper takes the Kubuqi Desert in Inner
Mongolia as the background; first, we use the airflow-holding sand jet method to simulate
the wind and sand erosion in the desert environment and examine the influence of wind
and sand erosion on the output power of photovoltaic modules under different conditions;
secondly, we analyze the temperature change of the module backplane when covered by
different sand particle sizes and finally analyze the influence on the output characteristics
of the module according to the change in the different particle sizes and the temperature of
the backplane.

1.3. Contribution and Paper Organization

In this manuscript, the sand erosion characteristics of photovoltaic modules are ex-
tensively simulated, the damaging mechanism of sand erosion is meticulously examined,
and the impact of sand erosion on the performance of photovoltaic modules is assessed.
Subsequently, dissimilar particle sizes of dust are deposited on the surface of the photo-
voltaic module to scrutinize its influence on the photovoltaic module temperature, open
circuit voltage, short circuit current, and output power. Finally, pertinent laws are derived,
which can furnish a particular reference for optimizing the power generation efficiency and
maintenance scheduling of actual photovoltaic power stations.

2. Experimental Study on the Influence of Dust Erosion on the Surface and Power of
Photovoltaic Modules
2.1. Erosion Experiments and Impact Studies
2.1.1. Experimental Material
The sand dust utilized in the experiment was procured from an area adjacent to a
photovoltaic power plant situated within the Kubuchi Desert within the Inner Mongolia
Autonomous Region of China; the chosen sand dust specimens were meticulously analyzed
for particle size utilizing the sieving methodology. As a result of the measurements,
the volumetric content of sand particles with a particle size of less than 0.05 mm in the
implemented sand dust was found to be less than 0.20%; the quota of sand particles with
a particle size of 0.05 to 0.30 mm stands at 99.57%; and the portion of sand particles with
a particle size of more than 0.30 mm is less than 0.23%. Through the aforementioned
processes, it becomes evident that the particle size of the sand grains employed in the
experiments should primarily range from 0.05 to 0.30 mm. Moreover, the results suggest
that the hardness of the utilized sand dust is 6.75 GPa and its density is 2.70 g/cm3 .
The laminated glass utilized in the experimental process was selected to be the tough-
ened velvet glass frequently employed atop solar photovoltaic modules, with a modulus of
elasticity of 74 GPa, a hardness of 6.40 GPa, a density of 2.50 g/cm3 , and a length, width,
and height of 60 mm, 80 mm, and 3 mm. The characteristics of the solar photovoltaic
modules used in the experiments are listed in Table 1.
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19

Energies 2024, 17, 682 4 of 18

and height of 60 mm, 80 mm, and 3 mm. The characteristics of the solar photovoltaic mod-
ules used in the experiments are listed in Table 1.
Table1.1.
Table Parameters
Parameters of solar
of solar photovoltaic
photovoltaic modules.
modules.

Working
WorkingParameter
Parameter Name
Name Parameters
Parameters
Maximum power operating point/W
Maximum power operating point/W 0.495
0.495
Maximum operating power point voltage/V
Maximum operating power point voltage/V 4.5
4.5
Maximum
Maximumused
usedoperating
operating power
powerpoint current/A
point current/A 0.11
0.11
Open circuit voltage/V
Open circuit voltage/V 5.0
5.0
Short-circuit current/A 0.115
Short-circuit current/A 0.115

2.1.2.Experimental
2.1.2. Experimental Methods
Methods andand Equipment
Equipment
The
The experimental
experimental platform
platform constructed
constructed in thisin this section
section is wind
is a desert a desert
andwind and sand
sand ero-
erosion
sion simulation
simulation system,
system, whosewhose structure
structure is shownis shown in1.Figure 1.
in Figure

Figure
Figure 1. 1. Desert
Desert wind
wind andand sand
sand erosion
erosion simulation
simulation system.
system.

AsAs can
can bebe seen
seen in Figure
in Figure 1, the
1, the experimental
experimental platform
platform constructed
constructed consistsconsists
of equip-of equip-
mentsuch
ment such asas
ananairair compressor,
compressor, airflow
airflow control
control valves,
valves, a sandbox,
a sandbox, a sandblast
a sandblast gun, an gun, an
erosionchamber,
erosion chamber, and
and a recycle
a recycle bin.bin.
Theexperimental
The experimental process
process involves
involves thethe following:
following: firstfirst of all,
of all, thethe
useuse of air
of air compressors
compres-
sors to provide
to provide high-pressure
high-pressure airflow,
airflow, the
the airflowcontrol
airflow controlvalves
valvesto tocontrol
control the erosion rate rate of the
ofhigh-pressure
the high-pressure airflow;
airflow; secondly,
secondly, the the
sandsand
flowflow
fromfromthethe sandbox
sandbox andhigh-pressure
and high-pressureairflow
airflow
mixingmixing
by thebysandblast
the sandblast
gun gun guidance
guidance sentsent to the
to the erosion
erosion chamberfor
chamber forerosion;
erosion;andand finally,
finally,
the endtheofend
theoferosion
the erosion of sand
of the the sand particles
particles intointo
thethe recycle
recycle bin,ofofwhich
bin, whichthe therecycling
recy- of
cling of sand particles collected by the recycle bin can be repeated for
sand particles collected by the recycle bin can be repeated for use in other experiments.use in other experi-
ments.Pre- and post-erosion experiment comparison process: The mass of the tempered glass
Pre- and
specimen post-erosion
is calculated experimentbefore
meticulously comparison
and afterprocess: The mass by
the experiment of the tempered
utilizing a precision
glass specimen is calculated meticulously before and after the experiment
electronic balance, and then, the surface of the tempered glass specimen is examined by utilizing a under
precision electronic balance, and then, the surface of the tempered
a high-powered electron microscope (SEM) to discern the erosion morphology, and the glass specimen is ex-
amined under a high-powered electron microscope (SEM) to discern the erosion morphol-
alterations in the output attributes of the photovoltaic module prior and subsequent to the
ogy, and the alterations in the output attributes of the photovoltaic module prior and sub-
erosion are documented by using the Fluke Norma 500 power analyzer and the PROVA
sequent to the erosion are documented by using the Fluke Norma 500 power analyzer and
200A solar cell analyzer, respectively.
the PROVA 200A solar cell analyzer, respectively.
This section focuses on the analysis when the erosion speed of sand and dust are V1 ,
This section focuses on the analysis when the erosion speed of sand and dust are V1,
and V2 (the speeds of 25 m/s and 30 m/s are the maximum and extreme wind speeds
and V2 (the speeds of 25 m/s and 30 m/s are the maximum and extreme wind speeds under
under extreme sand and dust weather, respectively), and the erosion angle was selected
to be 15◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , 75◦ , and 90◦ to analyze the erosion of sand and dust on the PV
module and the impact on the performance parameters. Because the particle size of the
sand particles used in the experimental process is small and the erosion of tempered glass
by wind and sand is a long process, the time of the erosion experiment was set to 3 min [19].
 extreme sand and dust weather, respectively), and the erosion angle was selected to be
15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°, and 90° to analyze the erosion of sand and dust on the PV module
and the impact on the performance parameters. Because the particle size of the sand par-
Energies 2024, 17, 682
ticles used in the experimental process is small and the erosion of tempered glass by wind 5 of 18
and sand is a long process, the time of the erosion experiment was set to 3 min [19].

2.1.3.Evaluation
2.1.3. EvaluationofofErosion
Erosion Results
Results
Thedegree
The degreeofoferosion
erosion damage
damage to to
thethe
PVPV module
module can can be characterized
be characterized byrelative
by the the relative
erosion rateEE0 0[20],
erosionrate [20],which
whichis is expressed
expressed as shown
as shown in (1).
in (1).

mm1 −mm2 2 m
E00 
E = 1 = △ m (1) (1)
mtmt mtmt
2.1.4. Evaluation of Power Generation Efficiency of Photovoltaic Modules
2.1.4. Evaluation of Power Generation Efficiency of Photovoltaic Modules
The expression equation of the power loss rate of the PV module is shown in (2).
The expression equation of the power loss rate of the PV module is shown in (2).

PP−P1P1
η= P (2)
(2)
P
2.2. Discussion and Analysis of the Results of the Erosion Experiment
2.2.1.
2.2. Relativeand
Discussion Erosion Rate
Analysis of Tempered
of the Glass
Results of the in Relation
Erosion to the Angle of Erosion
Experiment
2.2.1. Figure
Relative2 Erosion
shows the
Ratechange in the Glass
of Tempered relative erosion to
in Relation rate
theEAngle
0 of tempered glass with the
of Erosion
erosion
Figureangle underthe
2 shows the conditions
change in the of two erosion
relative erosion speeds.
rate E0 ofIttempered
can be seenglassinwith
Figure
the2 that
erosion angle under the conditions of two erosion speeds. It can be seen in Figure 2 thatof the
when the erosion speeds were 25 m/s and 30 m/s, the tempered glass on the surface
photovoltaic
when module
the erosion speedsincreased with
were 25 m/s andthe
30increase in the erosion
m/s, the tempered glass angle. When the
on the surface erosion
of the
angle was 90 ◦ , the relative erosion rate of the tempered glass reached the maximum value,
photovoltaic module increased with the increase in the erosion angle. When the erosion
with this
angle was being
90°, the0.018 mg/g
relative andrate
erosion 0.09ofmg/g, respectively.
the tempered The main
glass reached reason forvalue,
the maximum this is that
tempered glass is a brittle material, and its relative erosion rate is proportional
with this being 0.018 mg/g and 0.09 mg/g, respectively. The main reason for this is that tem- to sin2 a.
It wasglass
pered alsoisfound that
a brittle the maximum
material, relative
and its relative erosion
erosion raterate occurs when
is proportional to the
sin2erosion
a. It wasangle
◦
is 90found
.
also that the maximum relative erosion rate occurs when the erosion angle is 90°.

0.10

0.08
V1=25m/s
V2=30m/s
E0 (mg·g-1)

0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00
15 30 45 60 75 90
Erosion angle a(°)
Figure
Figure2.2.Variation
Variationininthe relative
the erosion
relative raterate
erosion of tempered glass
of tempered at different
glass erosion
at different rates.rates.
erosion

ItItcan
canbebeseen
seenininFigure
Figure2 2that
thatunder
underdifferent erosion
different rates,
erosion when
rates, whenthethe
erosion angle
erosion angle is
is small,the
small, therelative
relativeerosion
erosion rate
rate of tempered
temperedglass
glassisissmall
smalland
andincreases
increaseswith thethe
with increase
increase in
the erosion angle. This is the main reason tempered glass has high hardness and a large
modulus of elasticity. When the erosion angle is small, the quality loss of tempered glass
is mainly caused by the micro-cutting action of sand particles. At this time, the normal
velocity of the tempered glass sand particles is small, so the kinetic energy of the sand
particles and the impact energy are relatively small. At this time, the normal direction of
the kinetic energy of the sand particles is not enough to cause damage to the larger cracks.
With the increase in the erosion angle, the normal velocity of the sand particles on the
surface of the tempered glass gradually increases and the initial kinetic energy carried by
Energies 2024, 17, 682 6 of 18

the sand particles increases, which makes the contact area between the sand particles and
the tempered glass gradually increase and then causes an increase in transverse and radial
cracks in the impacted parts of the surface of the tempered glass, and the relative erosion
rate also gradually increases.

2.2.2. Mechanistic Analysis of Erosion Damage

Erosion damage is generally divided into two types: low-angle micro-cutting action
and high-angle elastic-plastic deformation caused by erosion damage and low-angle micro-
cutting action and high-angle fatigue cracks caused by the expansion of the cross-over of
erosion damage. Therefore, in this erosion experiment, the change in erosion angle has a
more critical role in the erosion damage experiment and the change in relative erosion rate.
Figure 3 shows the SEM morphology of tempered glass under different erosion angles
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19
at an erosion speed of 30 m/s.
In Figure 3a, it is apparent that there are scratch marks and plow grooves present on
the surface of the tempered glass at an erosion angle of 30◦ . The scratch marks are more
in the erosion
uniformly angle. Thisbut
distributed, is the main
their reasonistempered
length glass has
inconsistent. Somehigh hardness
pits anddimensions
of varied a large
can also be observed, and some of the glass material surrounding the pits is glass
modulus of elasticity. When the erosion angle is small, the quality loss of tempered extruded
is mainly
from caused by
the surface the micro-cutting
under action ofby
force, accompanied sand
theparticles.
evolution Atof
this time, the normal
micro-cracks, which is
primarily the tempered
velocity ofattributed to theglass sand particles
degradation is small, glass
of tempered so theunder
kineticlow-angle
energy oferosion
the sand condi-
particles and the impact energy are relatively small. At this time, the normal direction of
tions predominantly due to the diminution of quality under the influence of micro-cutting.
the kinetic energy of the sand particles is not enough to cause damage to the larger cracks.
Examination of Figure 3b,c suggests that there are brittle fracture pits present on the surface
With the increase in the erosion angle, the normal velocity of the sand particles on the
of the tempered glass, and there is a substantial quantity of granular material surrounding
surface of the tempered glass gradually increases and the initial kinetic energy carried by
the pits, with cutting flakes being present in exceedingly few areas. This is predominantly
the sand particles increases, which makes the contact area between the sand particles and
because when the erosion angle is 90◦ , the normal velocity of the sand particles impacting
the tempered glass gradually increase and then causes an increase in transverse and radial
the surface
cracks in theofimpacted
the tempered glass
parts of peaks, thereby
the surface leading glass,
of the tempered to theand
maximum value
the relative of kinetic
erosion
energy of these sand
rate also gradually increases.particles. In the erosion process, scratches, cracks, increases in the
length and depth of the cracks, and an increase in the severity of damage are generated. At
this
2.2.2.juncture, as the
Mechanistic tempered
Analysis glass’s Damage
of Erosion force is non-uniform and its own stress is excessively
concentrated in the region of stress, a pronounced brittle fracture occurs, generating a
Erosion damage is generally divided into two types: low-angle micro-cutting action
large volume of particulate material
and high-angle elastic-plastic deformation caused and insignificant amounts
by erosion damage ofand
fragmented
low-anglematerial,
mi-
ultimately
cro-cutting action and high-angle fatigue cracks caused by the expansion of thesummary,
leading to the deterioration of the quality of tempered glass. In cross-overwhen
the erosiondamage.
of erosion angle isTherefore,
minimal, in the quality
this erosion decay of tempered
experiment, glass in
the change is erosion
primarily attributed
angle has a to
micro-cutting; as the erosion angle progressively increases, the quality
more critical role in the erosion damage experiment and the change in relative erosion rate. loss of tempered
glassFigure
evolves into athe
3 shows combination
SEM morphology of cutting and cracking;
of tempered and when
glass under different theerosion
erosion an-angle
reaches 90 ◦ , the quality loss of tempered glass is primarily rooted in crack formation.
gles at an erosion speed of 30 m/s.

(a) a = 30°; low magnification topography

Figure 3. Cont.
 Energies
Energies 2024,17,
2024, 17,682
x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19 7 of 18

(b) a = 90°; low magnification topography

(c) a = 90°; high magnification topography

Figure
Figure3.3.SEM
SEMmorphology
morphologyofof
tempered glass
tempered with
glass different
with erosion
different angles
erosion at 30atm/s
angles 30 erosion
m/s erosion speed.
speed.
2.2.3. Effect of Erosion on the Performance of Photovoltaic Modules
In Figure
The 3a, it is apparent
irradiation directionthat
andthere are scratch
photovoltaic marks and
module plow to
are used grooves present
maintain on
a relatively
the surface of the tempered glass at an erosion angle of 30°. The scratch marks
vertical direction. As can be seen from the change curve in Figure 4, the solar radiation are more
uniformly
intensity Fdistributed,
remained stablebut their length
within is inconsistent.
a certain Some pits
range during theofexperiment.
varied dimensions
At bothcan erosion
also be observed, and some of the glass material surrounding the
speeds, the output power P of the PV module increases first and then decreases pits is extruded fromas the
the surface
erosion under
angle force, accompanied
gradually increases. by the evolution
This is due to of micro-cracks,
the fact that whenwhichtheis primarily
erosion angle
attributed to the degradation of tempered glass under low-angle erosion conditions pre-
is small, the erosion profile on the surface of tempered glass mainly shows an elliptical
dominantly due to the diminution of quality under the influence of micro-cutting. Exam-
shape with openings on both sides, and the erosion area is large. During this erosion
ination of Figure 3b and c suggests that there are brittle fracture pits present on the surface
process, the degree of erosion of sand and dust particles on the tempered glass is relatively
of the tempered glass, and there is a substantial quantity of granular material surrounding
low, but the transmittance of the tempered glass decreases, resulting in the consequent
the pits, with cutting flakes being present in exceedingly few areas. This is predominantly
reduction in the output power of the photovoltaic module. With the gradual increase in the
because when the erosion angle is 90°, the normal velocity of the sand particles impacting
erosion
the angle,
surface the
of the erosion glass
tempered profile of the
peaks, tempered
thereby glass
leading surface
to the from value
maximum the two sides of the
of kinetic
opening gradually changes from an ellipse shape into a more complete
energy of these sand particles. In the erosion process, scratches, cracks, increases in ellipse shape,
the and
◦
length and depth of the cracks, and an increase in the severity of damage are generated. 15
the erosion area is gradually reduced. When the erosion angle gradually increases from
to 45◦ , the output power of the PV module gradually increases; when the erosion angle is
45◦ , the output power of the PV module reaches the maximum value; when the erosion
angle gradually increases from 45◦ to 90◦ , the output power of the PV module gradually
decreases; and when the erosion angle is 90◦ , the output power of the PV module reaches
Energies 2024, 17, 682 8 of 18

the minimum value. This is because when the erosion angle is large (especially when the
erosion angle is 90◦ ), although the erosion area of the tempered glass surface is scant when
the sand particles impinge upon the surface of the tempered glass, a contingent of the
sand particles appears to be irregularly rebounded, and then, with the subsequent collision
of the sprayed sand particles, which will again impact on the surface of the tempered
glass under conditions deviating from the original impact trajectory, this results in a larger
erosion area and causes the tempered glass to produces more severe wear and tear, which
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19
is the secondary erosion of the tempered glass, ultimately culminating in PV modules with
marginal output power.

0.31 1000

950
0.30
900
0.29
850

F/W·m-2
P（W）

0.28 800

750
0.27
V1=25m/s 700
V2=30m/s
0.26
F 650

0.25 600
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Erosion angle a(°)
Figure 4.
Figure 4. When
When the
the radiation
radiationintensity
intensityisisconstant,
constant,with
with the
the change
change in in
thethe erosion
erosion angle
angle andand
the the
erosionspeed,
erosion speed,the
theoutput
outputpower
powerofofthe
the photovoltaic
photovoltaic module
module is changed.
is changed.

The
The output
outputpower
powerofofthethePV
PVmodule
moduleused usedininthis
this section
section cancan
be be
determined
determined fromfrom
actual
actual experimental
experimentalmeasurements
measurementstotobebe0.362 0.362WW when
when it is
it not eroded.
is not eroded. It can be seen
It can in in
be seen
Figure
Figure44thatthatwhen
whenthetheerosion
erosionvelocity
velocityis is
2525m/s,
m/s,inin
comparison
comparison with thethe
with output
outputpower of of
power
the undamaged PV module, the output power of the damaged PV
the undamaged PV module, the output power of the damaged PV module is diminished module is diminished by
9.82%
by 9.82%to 16% underunder
to 16% variedvaried
erosion angle scenarios,
erosion with a mean
angle scenarios, with diminution of 13%. Under
a mean diminution of 13%.
this erosion velocity scenario, when the erosion angle is 15 ◦ , the output power of the PV
Under this erosion velocity scenario, when the erosion angle is 15°, the output power
◦ . This is
of
module is lesser than that of the photovoltaic module when the erosion
the PV module is lesser than that of the photovoltaic module when the erosion angle is angle is 90
due to the fact that when the erosion velocity is minimal, the secondary erosion triggered
90°. This is due to the fact that when the erosion velocity is minimal, the secondary erosion
by the elevated erosion angle exerts a minor erosion impact on the PV module, which can
triggered by the elevated erosion angle exerts a minor erosion impact on the PV module,
even be disregarded. Furthermore, at an erosion speed of 30 m/s, the output power of
which can even be disregarded. Furthermore, at an erosion speed of 30 m/s, the output
the PV modules was decreased by 15.42% to 24.46%, with an average reduction of 19.39%,
power
compared of the
withPVthemodules was decreased
output power of undamagedby 15.42% to 24.46%,
PV modules underwith an average
diverse erosionreduction
angle
of 19.39%, compared with the output power of undamaged
scenarios. Under this erosion speed scenario, the difference between the output PV modules under diverse
power
erosion
of the PVangle
modulescenarios.
and the Under
output this
power erosion
of the speed scenario,
undamaged the difference
PV module between the
is the maximum,
output power of the PV module
24.46%, when the erosion angle is 90 . and
◦ the output power of the undamaged PV module is
the maximum, 24.46%, when the erosion angle is 90°.
3. Effects of Different Dust Particle Sizes on Photovoltaic Module Output
Characteristics and Backplane
3. Effects of Different Temperature
Dust Particle Sizes on Photovoltaic Module Output
3.1. Experimental Setup
Characteristics and Backplane Temperature
Desert environments
3.1. Experimental Setup are geographically more expansive and environmentally more
variable, and the range of sand and dust particles deposited on the surface of photovoltaic
modulesDesert environments
in natural are geographically
environments is fraught with more expansive The
uncertainty. and choice
environmentally
of laboratory more
variable, and the range of sand and dust particles deposited on the surface of photovoltaic
modules in natural environments is fraught with uncertainty. The choice of laboratory
testing can better control the range of sand and dust particle sizes on the surface of PV
modules and help to quantitatively analyze the effect of sand and dust particle sizes on
the performance of PV modules.
Energies 2024, 17, 682 9 of 18

testing can better control the range of sand and dust particle sizes on the surface of PV
modules and help to quantitatively analyze the effect of sand and dust particle sizes on the
performance of PV modules.
Polycrystalline silicon photovoltaic modules with a rated power of 10 W were selected
as the experimental equipment, and their parameters are shown in Table 2. A Fluke Norma
500 power analyzer and a PROVA 200A solar cell analyzer were used to record the changes
in the various parameters of the photovoltaic modules before and after erosion, and a TP700
multi-channel data logger connected to a Pt100 thermal resistance was used to measure
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19
the temperature changes on the back of the photovoltaic modules when the surface area
was sandy.

Table2.2.Parameters
Table Parametersofofthe
thesolar
solarphotovoltaic
photovoltaic modules.
modules.

Working
Working Parameter
Parameter Name Name Parameters
Parameters
Maximum power operating point/Wpoint/W
Maximum power operating 10.00 10.00
Maximum
Maximum operating
operating power power point voltage/V
point voltage/V 17.20 17.20
Maximum usedused
Maximum operating power point
operating power current/A
point current/A 0.59 0.59
Open circuit voltage/V 21.50
Open circuit voltage/V 21.50
Short-circuit current/A 0.88
Short-circuit
Sizes (L × W × D)/mm current/A 0.88
340 × 280 × 17
Sizes (L × W × D)/mm 340 × 280 × 17
The sand particles were selected as above, all of which were chosen from the sur-
The asand
face near particles power
photovoltaic were selected
plant inastheabove, all of
Kubuchi whichofwere
Desert Innerchosen
Mongolia,fromfartheaway
surface
near a photovoltaic power plant in the Kubuchi Desert of Inner
from towns and cities, without anthropogenic influences. Because the main dust par-Mongolia, far away from
ticle size is concentrated between 0.05 and 0.30 mm, seven groups of particle sizes of is
towns and cities, without anthropogenic influences. Because the main dust particle size
concentrated
0.05~0.06 mm, between
0.06~0.070.05
mm,and 0.30 mm,
0.07~0.08 mm,seven groups
0.08~0.09 mm, of0.09~0.10
particle sizes of 0.05~0.06
mm, 0.10~0.20 mm, mm,
0.06~0.07
and mm,mm
0.20~0.30 0.07~0.08 mm, 0.08~0.09
were therefore selectedmm, 0.09~0.10
as the mm, 0.10~0.20
experimental materials mm, and a0.20~0.30
by using stan-
mm were
dard therefore
caliber separator.selected
Seven as the experimental
groups of particle sizesmaterials by usingata2.5
were weighed standard
g each caliber
to coversep-
arator.
the Seven
surface groups
of the of particle
PV modules sizes were
numbered 1, 2, 3,weighed at 7,
4, 5, 6, and 2.5and
g each to cover
the surface themodule
of PV surface of
No. 8 was
the PV cleaned
modules as shown1,in2,Figure
numbered 3, 4, 5,5.6, Eight
and 7,photovoltaic
and the surface modules
of PVofmodule
the same No.size
8 was
were mounted on the ◦ . The whole experi-
cleaned as shown in bracket at Eight
Figure 5. regular intervals with
photovoltaic a tilt angle
modules of 30
of the same size were mounted
ment
on thesite was empty,
bracket without
at regular the influence
intervals of obstacles,
with a tilt angle of 30°.andTheno human
whole factors disturbed
experiment site was
the experiment.
empty, without the influence of obstacles, and no human factors disturbed the experiment.

Figure5.5.Photovoltaic
Figure Photovoltaicmodules
modulescovered
covered
byby different
different dust
dust particle
particle sizes.
sizes.

Simultaneously, in the actual experiment, the sediment quality of 0.05~0.06 mm sand

particle size was less, and the difference was very small compared to the clean component,
so the two groups of 0.05~0.06 mm and 0.06~0.07 mm are discussed together. The output
of the PV module was measured using a solar cell analyzer. A Pt100 thermal resistor was
attached to the center of the backside of the PV module, and any temperature changes on
its surface caused by sand accumulation were recorded using a multi-channel data re-
Energies 2024, 17, 682 10 of 18

Simultaneously, in the actual experiment, the sediment quality of 0.05~0.06 mm sand

particle size was less, and the difference was very small compared to the clean component,
so the two groups of 0.05~0.06 mm and 0.06~0.07 mm are discussed together. The output
of the PV module was measured using a solar cell analyzer. A Pt100 thermal resistor was
attached to the center of the backside of the PV module, and any temperature changes on
its surface caused by sand accumulation were recorded using a multi-channel data recorder.
The duration of the experiment ranged from 12.5 to 16.0 h.
The wind speed on the day of the experiment is shown in Figure 6, and the ambient
temperature and irradiance are shown in Figure 7. The wind speed on the day of the exper-
iment was low, the sand and dust particles covering the surface of the PV module could
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW
not be blown up, and the temperature difference between different time periods 11 during
of 19
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19 the
experiment was relatively small, so the accuracy of the experiment was less affected.

4
4

3
3
speed(mꞏs
Windspeed(mꞏs ))
-1-1

2
2
Wind

1
1

0
011 12 13 14 15 16
11 12 13 14 15 16
Time of the day
Time of the day
Figure
Figure6. Wind
Windspeed
speedscatter plot.
scatter plot.
Figure 6.6.Wind speed scatter plot.
3.5
3.5
800
800
3.0
3.0
700
2.5 700
2.5
-2 -2)
Temperature(℃)

600
)
Temperature(℃)

2.0
Irradiance(Wꞏm

2.0 600
Irradiance(Wꞏm

1.5 500
1.5 500

1.0 400
1.0 400
Temperature（ ℃）
Temperature（ ℃）
0.5 Irradiance(Wꞏm-2-2)
0.5 Irradiance(Wꞏm ) 300
300
0.0
0.0
200
200
-0.5
-0.511 12 13 14 15 16
11 12 13 14 15 16
Time of the day
Time of the day
Figure 7. Changes in ambient temperature and irradiance.
Figure
Figure7.7.Changes
Changesininambient
ambienttemperature andand
temperature irradiance.
irradiance.
3.2. Analysis of the Experimental Results
3.2. Analysis of the Experimental Results
3.2.1. Influence of Different Dust Particle Sizes on Component Temperature
3.2.1. Influence of Different Dust Particle Sizes on Component Temperature
In the case of a fixed mass, the screened particle size is evenly spread on the surface
In the case of a fixed mass, the screened particle size is evenly spread on the surface
of the module, and the temperature of the photovoltaic module backplane is measured
of the module, and the temperature of the photovoltaic module backplane is measured
and recorded in real-time. Figure 8 shows the change in PV module temperature over time
and recorded in real-time. Figure 8 shows the change in PV module temperature over time
under the same dust mass and different dust particle sizes.
under the same dust mass and different dust particle sizes.
 Energies 2024, 17, 682 11 of 18

3.2. Analysis of the Experimental Results

3.2.1. Influence of Different Dust Particle Sizes on Component Temperature
In the case of a fixed mass, the screened particle size is evenly spread on the surface
of
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW the module, and the temperature of the photovoltaic module backplane is measured 12 of
and recorded in real-time. Figure 8 shows the change in PV module temperature over time
under the same dust mass and different dust particle sizes.

40
800

700
30
Temperature（℃）

600

Irradiance（Wꞏm-2）
Cleaning assembly 0.1~0.2mm
0.05~0.07mm 0.2~0.3mm
0.07~0.08mm Mixed particle size 500
0.08~0.09mm Environmental temperature
0.09~0.1mm Irradiance
20
400

300

10 200

100

0 0
12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5
Time of the day
Figure8.8.The
Figure The temperature
temperature changechange of the photovoltaic
of the photovoltaic modules
modules under different under different
dust particle dust particle s
size coverage.
coverage.
As can be seen in Figure 8, the temperature variation of the PV module with sand
accumulation is positively correlated with solar irradiance and ambient temperature. The
As can be seen in Figure 8, the temperature variation of the PV module with sa
temperatures of PV modules covered by sand and dust particles of different grain sizes
accumulation
are smaller thanisthe positively
temperaturescorrelated
of cleanwith solar irradiance
modules. This is becauseandwhenambient temperature. T
the sunlight
temperatures
irradiates of PV of
the surface modules coveredpart
the PV module, by ofsand
the and
lightdust
heat particles
is absorbed ofbydifferent
the sandgrain siz
are smaller
particles thanthe
covering thesurface
temperatures of clean
of the module, andmodules.
the sand dustThismaterial
is because
itself when
has weak the sunlig
thermal conductivity; weak thermal conductivity and quicksand
irradiates the surface of the PV module, part of the light heat is absorbed by the sain the desert quartz [17,21]
accounted for the main
particles covering thecomponents.
surface ofThe themodule’s
module,thermaland the conductivity
sand dustismaterial
even lower, the has we
itself
heat absorbed by the sand particles on the surface of the module is slow to be transferred
thermal conductivity; weak thermal conductivity and quicksand in the desert qua
downward, and most of them are retained in the internal part of the dust particles, resulting
[17,21]
in a rapid accounted
increase infor thethe main components.
temperature on the surface Theofmodule’s thermal At
the sand particles. conductivity
the same is ev
lower, the heat absorbed by the sand particles on the surface
time, the heat capacity of the sand and dust material itself is also low, and the ability to of the module is slow to
transferred
eliminate thedownward,
temperature and most of
difference them are
between retained
the levels in the[21].
is weak internal
Whenpart of the dust p
measured
ticles, resulting in a rapid increase in the temperature on the surface of thelower
from the back of the module, the temperature of the sand accumulation module is sand particl
than
At the that of the
same cleanthe
time, module, so the accumulation
heat capacity of the sand ofand
sanddust
on the surface of
material the is
itself module
also low,is and t
conducive
ability to toeliminate
lowering the thebackplane
temperaturetemperature of the module,
difference betweenand thewhen the particle
levels is weak size [21]. Wh
is 0.08~0.09 mm, the temperature of the module is significantly lower than that of the other
measured from the back of the module, the temperature of the sand accumulation modu
groups of particle sizes, which will be explained in this paper with the specific explanation
is lower
given than that
in Figure of the
9. Figure clean the
9 shows module, so thechanges
temperature accumulation
in the PVofmodules
sand onunderthe surface
the of t
module
same sand isquality
conducive to lowering
and different thesize
particle backplane
coveragetemperature
conditions forof sixthe module,
moments onand
the when t
particle
day of thesize is 0.08~0.09
experiment: mm,
13, 13.5, 14,the
14.5,temperature
15, and 15.5. of the module is significantly lower th
that From
of thetheotherresults shown of
groups in Figure
particle9, it is revealed
sizes, whichthat under
will the circumstance
be explained in thisofpaper
sand with t
and dust explanation
specific contamination, the temperature
given in Figure 9.ofFigure the photovoltaic
9 shows the module decreaseschanges
temperature initially in the P
and subsequently rises with the augmentation of the particle size of the sand and dust
modules under the same sand quality and different particle size coverage conditions
six moments on the day of the experiment: 13, 13.5, 14, 14.5, 15, and 15.5.
From the results shown in Figure 9, it is revealed that under the circumstance of sa
and dust contamination, the temperature of the photovoltaic module decreases initia
and subsequently rises with the augmentation of the particle size of the sand and du
 Energies 2024, 17, 682 12 of 18

particles. Specifically, the temperature of the module reaches its nadir when the particle size
is 0.08~0.09 mm, the module’s temperature ascends precipitously when the particle size
fluctuates between 0.10~0.20 mm, and the magnitude of the module’s temperature under a
mixture of these particle sizes falls somewhere in between the two. Once sand and dust
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of
envelop the surface of a photovoltaic module, they influence the module’s temperature by
both obstructing solar radiation and decelerating the module’s heat dissipation. Within
the same sand quality, the smaller the particle size of the sand particles, the greater the
number of sand particles it encompasses, and the smaller the distance between particles; as
particles; as previously mentioned, with the surge in sand particles, the sand particles
previously mentioned, with the surge in sand particles, the sand particles no longer align
longer align
uniformly but uniformly but exhibit
exhibit an overlay an overlayphenomenon;
or agglomeration or agglomeration phenomenon;
thus, under the combined thus, und
the combined influence of both methods, the temperature of the photovoltaic
influence of both methods, the temperature of the photovoltaic module appears to be the module a
pears to
lowest be the
value [17].lowest value [17].

24
13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5
22

20
Temperature（℃）

18

16

14

12

10

0 07 08 09 .1 2 .3 ze --
0. 0. 0. ~0 ~0. ~0 si
~ ~ ~ 9 1 2 e
05 07 08 0.
0 0. 0.
0
ic
l
0. 0. 0. rt
Sand particle size (mm)d p a
xe
Mi

Figure9.9.The
Figure Thetemperature
temperatureof of
photovoltaic modules
photovoltaic variesvaries
modules with the particle
with size of dust
the particle size at
of differ-
dust at differ
ent times.
times.

The accumulation of sand on the surface of solar photovoltaic modules will directly
The accumulation of sand on the surface of solar photovoltaic modules will direc
affect the temperature of the module, and the temperature in turn affects the output
affect the temperature
characteristics of theInmodule,
of the module. essence, and the temperature
the performance impactinofturn
solaraffects the output ch
photovoltaic
acteristics of the module. In essence, the performance impact of solar
modules is generated by the joint effect of sand particle size and temperature, whichphotovoltaic mo
ules is generated
belongs by therelationship.
to the correlation joint effect of sand particle
In conjunction withsize
theand temperature,
effect which
of particle size on belon
the temperature variation of the module backplane above, the output characteristics
to the correlation relationship. In conjunction with the effect of particle size on the te of the
module
perature arevariation
analyzed of
next.
the module backplane above, the output characteristics of the mo
ule are
3.2.2. analyzed
Effect next.Sand Particle Sizes on the Output Performance of
of Different
Photovoltaic Modules
3.2.2.Figure
Effect10ofshows
Different Sand Particle
the variation Sizes on the
in the open-circuit Output
voltage of PVPerformance
modules four of Photovoltaic
times on
Modules
the day of the experiment, including 13, 13.5, 14, and 15.5, under the condition of covering
the ground with different dust particle sizes of the same sand quality. It can be seen from
Figure 10 shows the variation in the open-circuit voltage of PV modules four tim
the figure that when the particle size of the dust-covered surface of the photovoltaic module
on the day of the experiment, including 13, 13.5, 14, and 15.5, under the condition of co
is from 0 (that is, the surface of the photovoltaic module is clean) to 0.3 mm particle size,
ering the ground with different dust particle sizes of the same sand quality. It can be se
from the figure that when the particle size of the dust-covered surface of the photovolt
module is from 0 (that is, the surface of the photovoltaic module is clean) to 0.3 mm p
ticle size, the open circuit voltage of the module changes little, and the maximum diff
ence is 0.25 V and the change amplitude is about 1.2%. At the same time, the open-circ
 Energies 2024, 17, 682 13 of 18

the open circuit voltage of the module changes little, and the maximum difference is 0.25 V
and the change amplitude is about 1.2%. At the same time, the open-circuit voltage is
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of
less affected by the radiation intensity, and the open-circuit voltage changes little under
different radiation intensities under the same particle size.

Time of the day

13 14 15 16
21.9 800
13 13.5 14 15.5 irradiance

750
21.8
Open-circuit voltage（ V）

Irradiance（ Wꞏm-2）
700

21.7 650

600
21.6
550

21.5 500
0 .07 .0 8 .09 .1 .2 .3 ize - -
~0 ~0 ~0 9 ~0 .1 ~0 . 2 ~0 l es
5 7 8 . 0 0 0 tic
0.0 0 .0 0.0 0
pa r
ed
Sand particle size (mm) Mix
Figure 10.The
Figure10. Theopen-circuit
open-circuitvoltage of photovoltaic
voltage modules
of photovoltaic variesvaries
modules with the particle
with size of size
the particle the of the d
dust particles.
particles.
Figure 11 shows the variation in the short-circuit current of PV modules under the
Figure
condition 11 shows
of different sandthe variation
particle sizes in the short-circuit
covering the ground withcurrent of PV
the same sandmodules
quality under
condition
for of different
four moments sand
on the day particle
of the sizes covering
experiment, such as 13,the ground
13.5, 14, and with the
15.5. It cansame sand qual
be seen
for four
from moments
the figure that theonshort
the circuit
day of the experiment,
current is proportional such
to theasirradiance,
13, 13.5, and
14, andwhen15.5.
the It can
irradiance
seen fromdecreases,
the figure thethat
shortthe
circuit
shortcurrent
circuitof the photovoltaic
current module also
is proportional to decreases.
the irradiance, a
When
whenthe thesurface of the decreases,
irradiance photovoltaicthemodule
shortis circuit
coveredcurrent
by 0.05~0.07
of themm sand, the short-
photovoltaic module a
circuit current of the module drops sharply, and the decrease is about 20%. However, when
decreases. When the surface of the photovoltaic module is covered by 0.05~0.07 mm sa
the surface of the photovoltaic module is covered by other sand with different particle
the short-circuit
sizes, current
the short circuit ofdoes
current the module
not change drops sharply,and
significantly, and thethe decrease
maximum is aboutis20%. Ho
difference
ever, 13%,
about when the surface
wherein of the
the short photovoltaic
circuit current of the module is covered
component coveredby byother sand size
the particle with differ
of 0.05~0.07 mm is slightly lower than that of other particle sizes. This is because, under maximu
particle sizes, the short circuit current does not change significantly, and the
difference
the conditionisofabout 13%,
the same wherein
mass, the short
the smaller circuitsize
the particle current
of theof theparticles
dust component in thecovered
unit by
area, the more dust particles there are and the larger the shielding area of the
particle size of 0.05~0.07 mm is slightly lower than that of other particle sizes. This is photovoltaic
module [22,23],the
cause, under andcondition
the accumulation of sand
of the same weakens
mass, the irradiance
the smaller of the incident
the particle on dust p
size of the
the surface of the module and causes the corresponding weakening of the short-circuit
ticles in the unit area, the more dust particles there are and the larger the shielding area
current. Therefore, the short circuit current of components covered by dust particles of
the photovoltaic
0.05~0.07 module
mm is smaller than[22,23], and the accumulation
that of components covered by otherof sand weakens the irradiance
dust particles.
the incident on the surface of the module and causes the corresponding weakening of
short-circuit current. Therefore, the short circuit current of components covered by d
particles of 0.05~0.07 mm is smaller than that of components covered by other dust pa
cles.
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of
Energies 2024, 17, 682 14 of 18

Time of the day

13 14 15 16
0.6 800
13 13.5 14 15.5 irradiance

0.5 750

Short-circuit current（ A）

Irradiance（ Wꞏm-2）
0.4 700

0.3 650

0.2 600

0.1 550

0.0 500
0 .07 .08 .09 .1 .2 .3 ize --
5 ~0 7~0 8~0 0 9 ~0 .1 ~0 . 2 ~0 l es
. 0 0 ic
0.0 0.0 0.0 0 art
edp
Sand particle size (mm) Mi x

Figure 11.The
Figure11. Theshort-circuit current
short-circuit of photovoltaic
current modules
of photovoltaic varies with
modules the particle
varies with the size of dust.size of dust.
particle
Figure 12 shows the variation in the output power of PV modules under the condition
Figurethe
of covering 12ground
shows withthe variation
different sandin the output
particle power
sizes withof PV
the modules
same underfour
sand quality the conditi
of covering
times theofground
on the day with different
the experiment, including sand particle
13, 13.5, sizes
14, and with
15.5. thebesame
It can sandthe
seen from quality fo
times that
figure on the
theday
outputof the experiment,
power including 13,
of the sand-deposited 13.5, 14, and
photovoltaic 15.5.isItsignificantly
module can be seen from t
lower
figurethanthatthat
theofoutput
the clean photovoltaic
power of the module. The smaller
sand-deposited the particle size,
photovoltaic modulethe greater
is significan
the
lowerinfluence
than thaton the output
of the power,
clean and the maximum
photovoltaic module.difference
The smaller is about 17%. With
the particle thethe grea
size,
increase in the particle size of the dust, the output power of photovoltaic modules generally
the influence on the output power, and the maximum difference is about 17%. With t
shows an upward trend, but the power at the mixed particle size decreases, mainly because,
increase in the particle size of the dust, the output power of photovoltaic modules gen
under the same mass bar, the smaller the particle size of dust per unit area, the more dust
ally shows
particles and antheupward
larger thetrend, butarea
shielding theofpower at the modules,
photovoltaic mixed particle
and with size
thedecreases,
increase main
because,
in under dust
dust particles, the same mass bar,
accumulation thelonger
is no smaller the particle
evenly sizeInstead,
distributed. of dustthere
per unit
is a area, t
more dust particles and the larger the shielding area of photovoltaic modules, and w
superposition or cluster [24], and the range of mixed particle sizes is just between 0.08
and 0.30 mm, in
the increase so dust
there particles,
is a trend of power
dust decline. Among
accumulation is nothem,
longerwhen the dust
evenly particle Instea
distributed.
size increases from 0.08~0.09 mm to 0.09~0.10 mm, the output power of
there is a superposition or cluster [24], and the range of mixed particle sizes is just betwethe photovoltaic
module decreases significantly. It can be seen from previous studies that the output power
0.08 and 0.30 mm, so there is a trend of power decline. Among them, when the dust p
of photovoltaic modules decreases with the increase in temperature, and it can be seen
ticle
in size 9increases
Figure that when from 0.08~0.09
the particle sizemm to 0.09~0.10
ranges mm, the
from 0.08~0.09 mmoutput power
to 0.09~0.10 mm,of the
the photov
taic moduleincreases
temperature decreases significantly.
significantly. Hence, It as
canthebedust
seen from size
particle previous
persistsstudies that the outp
in increasing,
power ofthe
although photovoltaic
temperature modules decreases
keeps ascending, with the
the increase increase
is modest andininsufficient
temperature, and it can
to have
aseen
broader influence
in Figure on the
9 that output
when thepower of the
particle component;
size ranges from hence, the power
0.08~0.09 mm willtopersist
0.09~0.10 m
in
therising.
temperature increases significantly. Hence, as the dust particle size persists in incre
ing, although the temperature keeps ascending, the increase is modest and insufficient
have a broader influence on the output power of the component; hence, the power w
persist in rising.
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of
Energies 2024, 17, 682 15 of 18

Time of the day

13 14 15 16
12 800
13 13.5 14 15.5 irradiance

750
10

700

Irradiance(Wꞏm-2)
Output power(W)

650

6
600

4
550

2 500
0 7 8 9 .1 .2 .3 e - -
0.0 0.0 0.0 ~0 ~0 ~0 e siz
5~ 7~ 8 ~ .0 9 0.1 0 .2
ti c l
0.0 0.0 0.0 0
par
e d
Sand particle size (mm) Mix

12.The
Figure 12.
Figure Theoutput
outputpower of photovoltaic
power modules
of photovoltaic varies with
modules thewith
varies particle
thesize of dust.
particle size of dust.
4. Discussion
4. Discussion
The experimental results show that the most important factors for determining the
The experimental
performance results modules
of photovoltaic show that the most
include important
a short-circuit factors
current, for determining
an open-circuit volt- the p
formance
age, and the ofoutput
photovoltaic modules
power. They are allinclude
affectedabyshort-circuit current,
incident irradiance anphotovoltaic
and open-circuit voltag
module
and the temperature,
output power. while dust
They areaccumulation
all affected affects these factors
by incident irradianceby affecting irradi-
and photovoltaic mo
ance and temperature [25]. Sand on the solar photovoltaic module surface
ule temperature, while dust accumulation affects these factors by affecting irradiance a area directly
affects the module temperature, and temperature is an important factor affecting mod-
temperature [25]. Sand on the solar photovoltaic module surface area directly affects t
ule output characteristics; in essence, the performance of the solar photovoltaic module
module
changes istemperature,
produced under andthetemperature
joint influenceisofan theimportant
particle sizefactor affecting module
and temperature. The outp
characteristics; in essence, the performance of the solar photovoltaic
erosion experiments show that different erosion angles cause different forces to cause the module changes
produced underglass
loss of tempered the on
joint
theinfluence
surface of of the particle
photovoltaic size and
modules. Thetemperature. The erosion e
low angle is mainly
caused by micro-cutting. As the angle increases, the proportion of
periments show that different erosion angles cause different forces to cause the losscrack superposition
gradually increases.
tempered glass on the surface of photovoltaic modules. The low angle is mainly caus
Presently, pioneering research predominantly focuses on the erosion of solid particu-
by micro-cutting. As the angle increases, the proportion of crack superposition gradua
lates on the surface of components, such as tool steel [26] and transportation pumps [27].
increases.
Numerous scholars have examined the influence of component surface temperature on
Presently,
component pioneering
performance research
[28], yet the effectpredominantly focuses on
of backplane temperature on the erosionoutput
component of solid part
ulates
efficiencyonremains
the surface of components, such as tool steel [26] and transportation pumps [2
underdeveloped.
Numerous
Throughscholars
the abovehave
work, examined
the influencethe law
influence of erosion
of related componentand dustsurface temperature
particles on
the performance of photovoltaic modules is obtained, which provides
component performance [28], yet the effect of backplane temperature on component o some reference for
maximizing
put efficiency the remains
power generation efficiency and cleaning planning of actual photovoltaic
underdeveloped.
power stations. However, this paper only studies the impact of dust accumulation on the
Through the above work, the influence law of related erosion and dust particles
performance of photovoltaic modules in the natural environment and does not mention
the performance of
the corresponding photovoltaic
solutions. modules
For example, is obtained,
coatings can bewhich
sprayed provides some reference
on the surface of f
maximizing the power generation efficiency and cleaning planning
photovoltaic modules to reduce damage and power reduction caused by sand erosion, and of actual photovolt
power stations.
sand particles canHowever, this easily
also slide more paperononly studiesofthe
the surface impact ofmodules
photovoltaic dust accumulation
to reduce on t
block irradiance.
performance of photovoltaic modules in the natural environment and does not menti
the corresponding solutions. For example, coatings can be sprayed on the surface of ph
tovoltaic modules to reduce damage and power reduction caused by sand erosion, a
sand particles can also slide more easily on the surface of photovoltaic modules to redu
block irradiance.
Energies 2024, 17, 682 16 of 18

5. Conclusions
In the study in this paper, the effect of wind and sand erosion on the output efficiency
of photovoltaic modules was analyzed, and the temperature change in the back sheet of
solar photovoltaic modules was observed in a case covered by different sand particle sizes,
and then, its effect on the output characteristics of solar photovoltaic modules was analyzed
according to the different particle sizes and the change in the back sheet temperature, and
the following conclusions were obtained:
When the erosion speed was 30 m/s, the erosion rate of tempered glass increased with
the increase in the erosion angle; when the erosion angle was 90◦ , the erosion rate reached
the maximum value, and this result is in line with the typical brittle material erosion law;
when the erosion angle was low, the quality loss of tempered glass was mainly generated
by the micro-cutting effect; with the gradual increase in the erosion angle, the quality
loss of tempered glass was gradually caused by the superposition of cutting and cracking
together; when the erosion angle reached 90◦ , the quality loss of tempered glass was mainly
caused by the superposition of cracks; when the erosion velocity was 25 and 30 m/s, the
output power of PV modules was reduced by 9.82%~16% and 15.42%~24.46%, respectively,
under different erosion angle conditions compared with the output power of uneroded
PV modules; and when the erosion speed was 30 m/s and the erosion angle was 90◦ , the
maximum difference between the output power of the photovoltaic module and the output
power of the non-eroded photovoltaic module was 24.46%.
The temperature change in the PV module is positively correlated with the ambient
temperature of the solar irradiance and the surface area of the module and is beneficial
to reduce the back panel temperature of the module. As the particle size of sand and
dust increases, the temperature of the PV module first decreases and then increases; the
temperature of the module reaches its lowest value when the particle size is 0.08~0.09 mm
and the temperature of the module is the highest when the particle size is 0.01~0.20 mm.
Changing the particle size of sand and dust has a small effect on the open-circuit voltage
of the module, with a maximum difference of 0.25 V and a variation of about 1.2%, and
the open-circuit voltage is also less affected by the intensity of radiation. The short-circuit
current is directly proportional to irradiance; when the surface of the module is covered
by sand and dust, the short-circuit current of the module plummets, and its maximum
difference is about 13%; under the condition of the same quality, the smaller the particle
size of sand and dust particles per unit area, the more sand and dust particles it hosts,
and the larger the impact on the short-circuit current of photovoltaic modules. The power
generation of sand-infiltrated photovoltaic modules is inferior to that of pristine photo-
voltaic modules, and the lesser the particle dimension, the larger the impact on the power
generation, with a maximum drop of about 17%; with the increase in dust particle size, the
output power of photovoltaic modules increased steadily to a stable trend.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.Z. and X.L.; methodology, X.L.; software, X.L. and
N.W.; validation, M.Z., X.L. and X.H.; formal analysis, X.L. and N.W.; investigation, X.L.; resources,
M.Z.; data curation, X.L.; writing—original draft preparation, X.L.; writing—review and editing, X.L.
and N.W.; visualization, X.L.; supervision, M.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research is sponsored by the Science and Technology Department of Inner Mongolia
Autonomous Region of China, project number 2020CG0066, focused on “Key technologies for solar
energy application in ecological restoration and modern agriculture in deserts and saline-alkali lands”.
The financial support includes material costs for pre-experiment preparation and publication fees for
the research paper, totaling approximately CNY 50,000.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Energies 2024, 17, 682 17 of 18

Nomenclature

m1 The mass of tempered glass before the erosion test, mg

m2 The quality of tempered glass after erosion test, mg
∆m The quality of tempered glass before and after the erosion test is poor, mg
m The flow of dust particles, g/min
t Time of the erosion experiment, min
E0 Relative erosion rate
η Power loss rate
P The output power of the photovoltaic module before the erosion test, W
P1 The output power of the photovoltaic module after the erosion test, W

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