Basics of Photography

Latin “Camera Obscura” = “Dark Room”

Light passing through a small hole produces an

inverted image on the opposite wall
Early use by artists for true-life sketching
Leonardo DaVinci, 15th c.
The portable “tent” camera obscura
Johannes Kepler (1604)
 Further
refinements, use
by 18th century
artists Canaletto
 First photo : Joseph Niépce (1825)
Light sensitive silver chloride plates
 Digital Single
Lens Reflex
Camera (DSLR)
 Human Eye vs Camera
• The human eye is a wonderful instrument,
relying on refraction and lenses to form
images. There are many similarities between
the human eye and a camera.
 Significance

• The camera and the human eye both process

light and record images. A camera uses light to
capture images on film or on a computer chip
or memory card, but the eyes process light
and send image signals to the brain. The
sensory perception of sight is achieved inside
the brain, not in the eyes.
 Cornea
• The outer covering of the eye is called the
cornea, which is compared to a camera's lens
cover, but it is different in that the cornea
does more than cover; it actually converges
light, bending the rays into the eye. A lens
cover on a camera simply keeps the camera
closed. The phenomenon that makes image
formation possible in eyes and cameras,
occurs in the cornea.
 Pupil
• Cameras have an aperture, a hole through
which light passes to the inside of the camera.
In the eye, the aperture is the pupil. When a
person blinks or closes his eyes, light is not
able to go through the pupil and enter the
eye. A camera has a shutter that opens and
closes to allow or shut out light.
 Lens Differences
• Both a camera and a human eye have lenses. There are two
main differences between a camera lens and a human lens,
also called the crystalline lens.

• The lens of a camera sits in the very front of the camera and
is visible; a human lens is inside the eye.

• The other difference is focus ability. A camera lens is

adjusted by the photographer to bring an object into focus,
but the human lens has its own focusing mechanism called
the cilliary muscles.

• These muscles change the shape of the crystalline lens

when the eye views objects at different distances and
adjusts the lens.
 Retina
• The back of the eye, called the retina, is like the film or
imaging area of a camera.

• According to the American Optometric Association, the

retina is a thin layer of tissue at the back of the eye that
contains millions of tiny light-sensing nerve cells called rods
and cones.

• The retina changes the light into electrical impulses and

sends them to the brain through the optic nerve. The image
is perceived in the brain so a person actually sees with his
brain, not his eye.

• Comparably, a camera "sees" with film, or a memory card.

HUMAN EYE
Human Eye Vs Camera
 Basics of Camera
(Exposure Triangle)

• ISO
• Aperture and
• Shutter Speed

The exposure triangle is a common way of associating the

three variables that determine the exposure of a
photograph: Aperture, Shutter Speed, and ISO.
 Aperture
• Aperture is a measure of how open or closed the lens’ iris is. A
wider aperture (or lower f-number) means more light will be
let in by the lens, simply because the opening is larger. A
narrower aperture (or higher f-number) allows less light to
reach the sensor.
• Depth of field is a by product of aperture. Narrower apertures
(higher f-numbers) give a greater depth of field; allowing
more of a scene to be in focus (think landscapes). Wider
apertures (lower f-numbers) create a narrow depth of field,
which can help isolate a subject and is one of the greatest
compositional tools at your disposal (think portraiture).
 Shutter Speed
• Shutter speed is a measure of how long the
shutter remains open and thus, how long the
sensor is exposed to light. Faster shutter
speeds give the sensor less time to collect light
and thus, result in a lower exposure. Slower
shutter speeds allow more time for the sensor
to collect light and result in a higher exposure.
 ISO (International Standardization
Organization)
• Back when film ruled the land, there wasn’t the
kind of flexibility in this third side that we have
now. You might say the exposure triangle was a
two-sided polygon.
• One could control the sensitivity to light of the
film they used, but once the roll was in the
camera, there was no changing it.
• Nowadays, we can control the sensitivity of the
digital sensor on the fly, through technically.
 Focal Length
• The distance, as marked on the lens, between
the film(Image sensor) and the optical center
of the lens. The distance is often listed in
millimeters, such as 50mm.
• Lenses are named by their focal length, can
find this information on the barrel of the lens.
For example, a 50 mm lens has a focal length
of 50 mm.
 F-Stop and Depth of Field
• “f” stands for “focal length”, When you substitute
focal length into the fraction, you’re solving for
the diameter of the aperture blades in your lens.
• For example, in 80-200mm f/2.8 lens, If your
f-stop is set to f/4, the diameter of the aperture
blades in your lens will look exactly 20 mm across
(80mm / 4)
• The amount of light a lens aperture allows, it has
one other huge effect on your photos – depth of
field.
• A number that indicates the size of the aperture lens opening
such as f/1.4, f/4, f/5.6, f/16, and f/22. The larger the f-stop
number, the smaller the lens opening. F-stop determines your
depth of field.

Above Picture shows large aperture of f/4 used for the photo on the left,
and an incredibly small aperture of f/32 for the photo on the right.
• As you can see, in the f/4 photo, only a thin
slice of the lizard’s head appears sharp. The
background of the photo is very blurry. This is
known as depth of field.
• Depth of field falls off gradually rather than
dropping sharply.
f/1.4 f/2.0 f/2.8 f/4.0 f/5.6 f/8.0 f/11.0 f/16.0 f/22.0

Very Large Large Moderat Moderate Moderat Small Small Very

large aperture aperture e aperture e aperture aperture small
aperture aperture aperture aperture

Lets in a Half as Half as Half as Half as Half as Half as Half as Half as

huge much much much much much much much much
amount light light light light (a light light light light (by
of light very which
“medium point
” your
aperture) photos
are very
dark)

Very Thin Thin Moderat Moderate Moderat Large Large Very

thin depth of depth of ely thin depth of ely large depth of depth of large
depth of field field depth of field depth of field field depth of
field field field field
 Types of Camera
There are so many different types of cameras.
Here are the various camera types that you
should consider.
•Compact / Zoom Compact Camera
•TLR - Twin Lens Reflex
•DSLRs – Digital Single Lens Reflex
• Mirrorless Camera
•Adventure Cameras
•Medium Format Camera Types
 Compact/Zoom Compact Camera
• It is also known as a point-and-shoot camera. A
compact camera is an inexpensive entry-level
camera for the amateur digital photographer.
• They usually come with standard, automatic
settings. They tend to be smaller as they don’t
have an optical viewfinder.
• They are the most user friendly of the types of
cameras options. You frame your subject and
press the button. The camera does all the work.
• Compact cameras have a built-in flash and a zoom
lens. They also come with an LCD screen. You can
view your scene before pressing the button to
take the picture.
• Compact zoom cameras have a more
powerful zoom lens. This means a much greater
magnification ability.
• They offer automatic exposure settings as well.
• These types of cameras do not offer
interchangeable lenses. This is due to the nature
of the enhanced zoom function. The zoom ranges
from 28-300mm.
 DSLRs – Digital Single Lens Reflex
• These are larger and heavier than compact cameras.
Most professional cameras out there are DSLRs.
• The lenses are interchangeable on these cameras. How
they behave will depend on whether the camera you
choose has a cropped sensor or a full-frame sensor.
• There are several different sensor sizes, commonly
called “cropped sensor”, “APS-C” or “DX” and “full
frame” or “FX”, which correspond exactly to the size of
35mm film. High end cameras tend to use FX for a
variety of reasons, mostly having to do with image
quality in difficult light conditions.
• DSLRs also offer a variety of manual settings and
creative controls.
 Mirrorless Camera
• The name “mirrorless” is from the lack of an
internal mirror that reflects light onto the sensor.
• The light that comes in through the lens goes
straight to the sensor. This then transmits the
information it captures on to the LCD screen.
• The new mirrorless cameras are a powerful
alternative to the DSLR. They tend to use an
electronic viewfinder rather than an optical
viewfinder.
 Adventure Cameras
• Action cameras have become very popular lately,
and more and more models are coming out.
• They are weatherproof and shockproof, with their
lens behind very durable glass. Action cameras are
very small, yet offer a lot of versatility and high
resolution for their size.
• As with other compact cameras, they are not
suitable for professional use. This is due to its
small sensor. They also don’t come with
interchangeable lenses. They may also lack an
optical viewfinder or even an electronic
viewfinder.
 Medium Format Camera Types
• Medium format refers to the 120 size film format used
in the Hasselblad V system film cameras. Hasselblad
are the leading manufacturer of this type of camera
system.
• Medium-format is a camera with a larger sensor than a
full-frame DSLR. It is common in certain types of
advertising work where very high resolutions are the
norm.
• These types of cameras offer amazing resolution. But
less sophisticated autofocusing systems and burst
modes. Thus, they are not suitable for every genre of
photography.
• Most expensive camera.
 Types of Lens
• There are different types of lens available,
designed for use in a wide range of
circumstances. However, they can largely be
grouped as follows:
• STANDARD / WIDE ANGLE LENSES
• MACRO LENSES
• TELEPHOTO LENSES
• BLOCK LENSES
 STANDARD LENSES
• A standard lens is one with a mid-range focal
length, typically around 50mm. They have an
angle of view which is roughly the same as the
angle that the human eye can comfortably
view, meaning that they produce images
which appear "natural" to the viewer.
• Standard camera lenses usually have a fixed
focal length and wide aperture, giving them
excellent performance in low light. They are
popular for a wide range of photography
subjects, including landscapes, portraits, and
candid shots.
 WIDE ANGLE LENSES
• A wide angle lens is one with a short focal length. They
provide an angle of view beyond that of a standard
lens, allowing them to capture more of the scene in a
single shot. Extreme wide angle lenses are known
as fisheye lens; these can capture around 180 degrees,
making for some intriguing, almost abstract photos.
• Wide angle lenses are useful for photographing
landscapes, cramped interiors, and other subjects
which won't fit into a normal lens's field of view.
Fisheye lenses take this even further, and are popular
for photographing action sports like skateboarding and
surfing, where their inherent distortion gives photos a
dynamic feel.
 Macro Lens
• A macro lens is one designed especially for
close-up photography. They have a different
internal construction from normal lenses which
gives them very good sharpness and contrast,
meaning that they produce some really
eye-catching photos.
• Macro lenses are useful for photographing any
subject at very close range. Typical subjects
include insects, animals, and plants, but they are
also popular for taking extremely detailed photos
of everyday objects.
 Telephoto Lens
• A telephoto lens has a long focal length and provides a
high level of magnification, allowing you to
photograph subjects at a moderate to far distance.
They tend to be bigger and heavier than other types of
lens, although modern technological advances have
made them more compact and easier to handle.
• Telephoto lenses are popular for any type of
photography where you can't get near to the subject,
including wildlife and sports events. They are also
commonly used in portrait photography, where a
moderate telephoto lens will provide a natural,
undistorted perspective.
 Block / Prime Lens
• A "prime" lens is one with a fixed focal length,
while a "zoom" lens is one that can zoomed in and
out to provide a wider range of focal lengths. Each
type has its own benefits and drawbacks.
• Prime lenses tend to have better optical quality
than zooms, and can usually achieve a wider
aperture, giving them better low-light
performance.
• Their lack of moving parts also makes them
lighter.
 Converters
• A lens mounted between a camera body and a lens
(usually a telephoto lens) to increase the effective
focal length of the lens.
• Different tele-converters have different magnifying
powers, ranging from 1.4 times to 3 times the lens's
normal magnification (1.4X to 3X). The effect is to
increase the lens's focal length by the degree of
magnification, so a 3X tele-converter used on a 50mm
lens triples the image size by tripling the effective focal
length to the equivalent of a 150mm lens.
• The disadvantages of using a tele-converter are light
loss and, generally, reduced image quality.
Unit – II
Basics of Lighting
 Lighting

● Photography is all about light. Without light, no matter how dim, you wouldn’t be able to make a good
photograph. The simplest of light’s qualities and its direction relative to your camera.

● There are essentially three directions: frontal, side and backlighting. The three directions have a
different effect on how three-dimensional your subject appears to be due to the that shadows are cast.
 Lights Quality

● A solid understanding of light can make you stand out from an average photographer.

● In fact, in portrait photography, light is even more important than the subject and location. This is because without the

proper use of light, you can ruin the shot, even with the best looking subject, at the most awesome location in the world!

● Let’s understand Light with six simple Principles. Once you understand and apply these concepts, you will immediately

notice the improvement of quality in your photographs.

● The six principles of light are: Intensity, Dynamic Range, Direction, Diffusion, White Balance and Reflection.
 Intensity of Light

● Intensity is the brightness level of light and it brightens up your subject. For both natural
light and studio light, you can modify the light source to change the intensity.

● The most important fact about intensity is that the distance between the light source and
your subject has a massive impact on the intensity of light.

● This is also known as the Inverse Square Law

 Dynamic Range
● Dynamic range and f-stops have a very close relationship. Dynamic range is the difference between the lightest and

darkest tones of an image, and a f-stop is the measurement of this range. Since f-stop measures light in representation of

numbers, what’s the relationship between the two?

● The difference of one f-stop of light means the light is twice (or half) as intense. Human eyes can detect roughly 10-14

stops of light, while a DSLR camera can only detect around 8-10. With that said, your camera sees a lot less than your

eyes.

● Dynamic range issues occur when this range goes beyond what the camera can record in details. These areas come out

as pure white or pure black in the photograph.

● Generally, most people tend to avoid pure white and black in portrait photography unless it is for artistic reasons.

Otherwise, it may look like as if you exposed the picture incorrectly.

 Direction of Light

● The position of your light source is very important because it determines how light hits your subject. It has a

great effect on the quality of your photograph.

● A common question people always ask is, “Why do I need to worry about the direction of light when the subject

is properly exposed?” Everyone has different opinions, but my point of view is that this is how you create mood,

define shadows, and shows depth to your subject.

● The biggest thing to avoid in portraits is flat images (which is created by lighting your subject directly from your

camera angle). The picture is either too bright or too dark; there is no shadow on your face (or a very harsh

one) because the flash was pointed straight at you.

 Diffusion of Light

● Diffusion relates to hardness and softness of light. It also determines the intensity of the shadow.

● When photographers talk about hard light, it means there is a rapid fall off between bright and dark areas in the

photograph creating harsh, sharp-edged shadows. As such, the photograph doesn’t look as appealing to the

viewer.

● An example of hard light would be taking picture under a bright sunny day or when you overexpose studio light

photographing your subject. Generally, hard light is not something you should be looking for in portrait

photography unless for artistic reasons.

● As you might have guessed, opposite hard light, there is soft light. This kind of light has mild falloff between

bright and dark areas in a photograph. The light is evenly spread and it looks like it wraps around the subject.

● An example of soft light would be taking pictures under an overcast day or using studio light with modifiers. The

portrait looks more pleasing to the viewer and the photograph does not show much contrast.
 White Balance

● White balance is the color temperature of your camera’s setting. Matching the right color temperature in the

environment you are shooting is very important. This is how you remove an unrealistic colorcast, so that your

photograph represents true color that you see in real life.

● Depending on your camera model, you should have a different white balance presets to choose from:

Tungsten(3200K), Fluorescent(4000K), Daylight(5200K), Flash(6200K), Indoor, Cloudy(6000K), Shade(7000K),

Custom (PRE), and Kelvin (manuel values K).

● As the photographer you need to make sure white appears white and not yellow/orange on the hot end, and

blue/green on the cold end on the Kelvin scale.

● If you shoot RAW, you can modify the white balance during post-processing of your images. This can also be

changed easily in Adobe Lightroom or Photoshop. By the way, this is one of the reasons why it is important to

shoot RAW instead of JPEG.

 Reflections
● Light has one very distinct behaviour; it travels in straight lines. Which means no matter whether you are using

natural light or studio light, it is only going to travel in one direction until it reaches a surface.

● Once the light reaches a surface it reflects off at the same angle it hits. The amount of light being reflected is

going to be determined by the color and texture of the surface.

● So why is reflection of light important for portrait photography?

● Once you understand light behaviour you can then modify it to control how much light you want for your

subject. For example, if you want soft light and you have no other equipment, you can bounce light off a wall.

The larger the light source the softer the light, you can now control both the direction and intensity of light for

your portrait photographs by doing so.

 Types of Lighting
There are many types are lighting used in the industries, lets see some types of lighting

1. Flat Light
2. Broad Light
3. Split Light
4. Backlight
5. Rim Light
6. Butterfly Light
7. Loop Light
 Flat Light
● When you have your light source facing directly at the front of your subject, this is flat lighting.
Flat lighting on a face will mean that your subject is well lit and you are unable to see any
shadows along their face.

● This is not a heavily desired look in portraits as you need shadows to draw your subject to life.
However, there are circumstances where it’s beneficial. Since shadows can draw out
imperfections and textures, flat lighting is beneficial when photographing babies in their acne
skin weeks, teens with heavy blemishes, and elderly people feeling insecure about their wrinkles.
 Broad Light

● With broad light (a type of side lighting), the face of your subject is at an angle and the most
well-lit side of the face is closest to the camera and the shadow falls on the back side of the face.
This type of light can make a face look fuller so it’s ideal for those with very narrow faces.
 Split Light
● Split lighting is another type of side lighting but it is defined as light that hits your subject from
the side at a 90 degree angle.
● You can easily recognize split lighting in an image by half of the subject being lit and the other
half in the shadows. With a face specifically, you’ll see the shadow line straight down the middle
of the forehead, nose, and chin.
● Split lighting tends to make your subject look tough and masculine so you want to really consider
your subject when choosing this type of lighting.
 Back Light

● Backlight is just that, light that comes from behind your subject. This is commonly seen in
photos from the beloved golden hour, when the sun is low in the horizon and starting to set, but
can be done at all hours of the day.
● Sources of backlight can include a window behind your subject in the middle of the day.
● By using backlight we can produce good silhouette pictures.
● When using a reflector, place it opposite the light source and then adjust the angle to direct the
light exactly where you want it. You’ll also want to move the reflector closer to your subject for
stronger light and further away from for softer light.
 Rim Light

● With backlight you often see the hazy or airiness from the light in the background resulting in
highlights but you don’t have that with rim light.

● With rim light, you’ll see the light from behind only highlight the edges of your subject (there’s a
little haze falling into the top right of the frame below but you can see how the rim light
separates the subject from the background). This is great to use when you need to separate your
subject from the background.
 Butterfly Lighting

● With butterfly light, the light is placed above and in front of your subject to create a small
shadow under the nose resembling a butterfly.
● This type of light beautifully highlights prominent cheekbones which is why you most often see it
used on women.
● However, it emphasizes the shadows from deep set eyes. Again, know your subject’s face and
how the light will affect their features. Butterfly light is also commonly referenced as paramount
light.
 Loop Lighting

● With loop lighting, the light is about 45 degrees to the side and slightly above eye level.
● This position of the light creates a shadow just under and to the side of one nostril and the nose.
● This is a flattering type of light on most everyone.
Usage of Filters
 Why Filters?
• Post-production and color grading can go a
very long way in making your images look
amazing, but in order to achieve a truly
cinematic image, front of the lens that matters
most.
 Common Filter
• UV filters
• ND Filter
• Polarizer
• Diffusion
• Color Filters
 UV filters
• Filter helps to cut down excess UV light from
hitting your lens/sensor and negatively
affecting your image.

• Many professional shooters like to keep a UV

Filter on their lenses at all times to protect the
surface of the lens from scratches and also to
take the impact if the lens is dropped.
 ND Filter
• ND filters essentially like putting sunglasses on
your lens. They allow you to control the
exposure of your image without having to
adjust your shutter speed, aperture setting.

• ND filters uniformly reduce the amount of

light reaching the camera's sensor. This is
useful when a sufficiently long exposure time.
ND 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0

Stops 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

% 25 12.5 6.25 3.125 1.563 0.871 0.391 0.195 0.1

 Graduated ND Filter
• Graduated ND filters reduce light in a gradient across the
filter. At one edge of the filter, a certain number of light
stops are reduced (which follow the same nomenclature as
uniform ND filters) and no blocked light on the opposite
side.
• Soft-Edge Graduated Neutral Density Filters: Light
degradation will be smooth from one edge to the middle of
the filter. Perfect for scenes where we want to remove light
just in the area of the image, like the sky, for instance.
• Hard-Edge Graduated Neutral Density Filters: They create
the same overall effect as the soft gradient but with a more
pronounced light degradation. They are used in images with
significant contrasts of light such as seascapes, especially
when the sun is in the frame.
 Polarizer
• Polarizers effectively cut out glare, reflections,
and other unpleasant sources of light without
darkening the entire image substantially.

• Filter is designed to cut out the light that you

don’t want in your image, but leave all of the
light that is giving you your exposure.
 Diffusion Filter
• Diffusion filters soften your subject slightly
and can often create a beautiful but very
subtle glow.
 Color Filters
• Color balancing filters can effectively warm
up, cool down, or otherwise add some sort of
color effect to your image.

• Custom white balancing and color correction

can certainly replicate the look of a color filter
easily.
 Lens Filter Effect Photography Type

UV & Skylight ∙ Protects lens glass

All
Filter
∙ Shields old photography film from UV rays

∙ Reduces reflections and glare

Polarizing Filter All
∙ Enhances colors and contrast

Neutral Density ∙ Reduces the amount of light entering the lens Landscape and Flash
Filter ∙ Allows the use of slower shutter speeds and wider apertures Photography

∙ Helps create motion blur

∙ Reduces the amount of light entering the lens through the top half of
the filter
Hard-Edge
∙ Provides a sharp transition between dark and clear for flat horizons Landscape Photography
Graduated ND Filter
∙ Balances exposure and high contrast between bright midday skies
and dark foreground
∙ Reduces the amount of light entering the lens through the top half of
the filter

Soft-Edge Graduated ∙ Provides a smoother transition between dark and clear so use of
Landscape Photography
ND Filter filter is not evident

∙ Balances exposure and high contrast between bright midday skies

and dark foreground
 Lens Filter Effect Photography Type

∙ Reduces the amount of light entering the lens around the upper
midline
Reverse Graduated
∙ Provides a smooth transition from dark to less dark from the middle Landscape Photography
ND Filter
to the top edge

∙ Properly exposes the sun for clearer sunsets and sunrises

∙ Corrects colors for accurate white balance

Colored Filter All
∙ Enhances or blocks one type of color

Close-Up Filter ∙ Allows closer focusing on subjects Macro Photography

∙ Helps capture sharp close-ups
∙ Produces multi-point star sparkles

∙ Softens or diffuses edges for dream-like effect with sharp center

Special Effects Filters ∙ Creates multiple copies of a subject or scene All

∙ Blocks infrared light and passes visible light

∙ Customizes the shape of bokeh lights

Unit - III
Types of Film-Sensitivity, Temperature, Speed etc.,
Reversal Films. Manipulation of Colour and Light.
Black and white and Colour
photography-negatives, colour materials,
processing and printing.
 Types of Film
Different size of films
● 135 or 35mm film
● 120 or medium format film
● 4x5, 8×10, etc. called large format film or sheet film

● Colour Negative Film,

● Colour Positive Film,
● Black and White Film,
● Reversal Film
 Color Negative Film

This type of film is popular among portrait and wedding photographers because
of their vivid colors and contrast. C-41 chemicals found in color negative film
yields negatives and prints through regular image processing.
 Color Positive / Reversal Film
● Color positive film produces colorful images or
slides through regular image processing. It
contains E-6 chemicals, which can be used with
C-41 chemicals (color negative film) to create
photos with intense contrast and bright colors.
This is known as cross-processing.
● In photography, a reversal film is a type of
photographic film that produces a positive
image on a transparent base.
● The film is processed to produce transparencies
 Black and White Film
Black and white film comes in two types:
“traditional” B&W film and C-41 B&W film.
Traditional or Silver Gelatin B&W film uses gelatin
with small silver salt crystals dispersed in the
substance—hence the term “Silver Gelatin.” It is
considered more stable and entails a much
simpler developing process (as compared to the
C-41 B&W), which is why it is typically the
preferred film of B&W shooters. On the other
hand, C-41 B&W film has numerous layers that are
 Film Sensitivity
One of the most important characteristics of film
is its sensitivity, often referred as film speed. The
sensitivity of a particular film determines the
amount of exposure required to produce an
image. A film with a high sensitivity (speed)
requires less exposure than a film with a lower
sensitivity (speed).
 Film Speed
The sensitivity of a photographic medium to light.
The film speed is determined by the size of its
silver halide crystals, the thickness of the
emulsion,and the presence of radiosensitive dyes.
Films are described as “fast” if the film requires
little light to produce an image and “slow” if more
light is needed.
Unit - IV
Basic Photography
Unit - IV

Developing and Printing Process

 Film Developing

● Film developing process is the chemical means by which photographic film or paper is treated after
photographic exposure to produce a negative or positive image.

● Photographic processing transforms the latent image into a visible image, makes this permanent and
renders it insensitive to light.
 Basic Requirements - Equipments.

Developing Tank

● A tank is the vessel used to hold your film and chemistry in place, and prevent light from exposing
the film during the developing process. The Paterson tank system is an industry standard for plastic
tanks, and comes with everything you need besides reels. For purists out there, stainless-steel tanks
for roll film are also of a standard size, and offer increased durability and temperature retention.
Whichever way you go, keep in mind that plastic reels must be matched with plastic tanks, and
stainless-steel reels must be matched with stainless steel tanks.
 Reels

● The second component for developing your film is a reel, or more than likely, reels.
● Tanks can be purchased to accommodate multiple reels simultaneously; you develop several rolls
of film at once.
● Plastic reels are easier to load due to the ratcheting system used to spiral film around them.
Stainless steel reels are a bit trickier to master but, when coupled with a steel tank, require less
chemistry for processing.
 Chemicals/Chemistry

The procedure may vary depending on the brand, but usually you’ll need to fill a bottle with
75% of the required amount of water, add the concentrated chemical or powder mix, then
pour in the rest of the water required.
 Changing Bag

● A film changing bag is basically a “mini darkroom.” It provides you with a light-free

environment where you can safely transfer the film from the canister to the reel in the

tank.

● Grab your changing bag and carefully load the church key, scissors, film tank, and film

canister inside the bag. Then, zip it closed and put both of your arms through the elastic

arm opening.
Other important equipments are:

Stopwatch,

Thermometer,

Storage containers. And

Film Clip.
 Developing Process

After acquired everything you need to develop. Beyond the developing kit itself, there
are a few other things you need for processing.

A completely dark room (or a changing bag

A sink with running water and

A clean, dust-free place for your film to dry when you’re finished
 Loading

After spending time familiarizing by loading a practice roll in light and dark, move to
your completely dark space and configure your equipment - have your tank and, if
applicable, center post, funnel, and lid all laid out, along with your reels. Also keep a
scissors in my back pocket to trim the film from the spool or remove film leaders, as
well as pry open 35mm cartridges if necessary.

Once set, turn out the lights and wait a few moments for your eyes to adjust, which
will allow you to spot if any light is creeping into your loading space. Go through the
process of either ratcheting or rolling your film onto the reels, put them into the tank
or onto the center post, attach the lid or funnel, and make sure all of your film is
secure before turning on the lights or leaving the light-tight space.
 Developing Preparation

● With your tank loaded, move over to the sink you will be using and lay out all of
the chemistry you need in pre measured amounts. Depending on the developer
you will be using, prepare enough chemistry using the recommended dilution
on your developer bottle.
● One important thing to note during this stage is temperature—most of the time,
it is recommended to work with liquids between 68-70°F / 20-21°C. Use your
thermometer to ensure the water you are mixing with developer is this
temperature, to produce consistent and accurate results. If the water
temperature is hotter or colder, the film’s contrast could be greatly affected and
developing times will change.
● Prepare your fixer according to its specified dilution, and make sure to not have
any fixer come into contact with your developing solution—do not mix fixer first
and then use the same vessel to mix developer, for instance.
 Developing

● With your mixed developer at 68°F, and your mixed fixer to the side.
● Pre-wetting stage, fill the tank loaded with film with 68°F water until it is full, and
let the film sit for 1 minute. This step brings the film and tank to the
temperature of the developer, can rinse off anti-halation layers, and it softens
the emulsion layer of the film to be more receptive to the developer.
● After 1 minute, pour the water from your tank down the drain (don’t worry if the
water turns a bright blue, dark purple, or some other color—that’s perfectly
normal) and quickly, but steadily.
● Pour in your mixed developer solution. As soon as your tank is full of chemistry,
start your timer and begin agitating the film.
● Depending on the tank you are using, various agitation styles can be employed,
ranging from total inversion agitation to simply using a spindle to rotate your
film.
● Agitate the film continuously for the first 30 seconds, and then agitate for 10-15
seconds every 30 seconds thereafter.
 Developer

● Once you have finished developing, either pour the spent developer down the
drain, if you are using one-shot developer, or return the developer to its bottle if
it is reusable.
● Quickly fill your tank with 68°F water, empty it, fill again with water, and agitate
continuously for 30 seconds to 1 minute.
● This step is functioning as a stop bath to halt the developing action, and is an
alternative to using proper stop bath chemistry.
 Stop Bath

● After the stop bath step, empty your tank and fill the tank with your mixed fixer
solution.
● Fixing typically takes about 5 minutes in total, a minute or so longer won’t hurt,
but the total amount of time is not as crucial as the development stage. After
fixing your film, make sure to return the solution to your bottle using your
fixer-dedicated funnel or graduate, and save.
 Fixer

● Now that the fixing is done, you are essentially finished with processing your
film, and can now remove the lid from your tank; however, recommend keeping
your film on the reels for the washing process.
● Process for washing is to fill and empty the tank with cool ~68°F water three or
four times, then slow the rate of the faucet and let the water continuously fill
and overflow in your tank for approximately 10 minutes.
 Post Development

● After development, let your film air-dry in a dust-free area for approximately 2 hours or
so, until the film is completely dry. If any moisture is still present on the film’s surface, just
be patient and wait for it to dry as opposed to trying to wipe it off. Once completely dry, I
typically cut the film into strips using a pair of scissors, and file into negative sleeves.
You’re all finished now, ready to scan or print your film.
Identifying Faults in
Negative
● Film is completely black
Indicates gross overexposure. If the film is all black including the rebates then the film has
been exposed to light and completely fogged.

Film is completely clear

Indicates gross underexposure. If there really is nothing there at all apart from edge
numbers, you probably didn't expose the film at all , either through incorrect loading
where the film hasn't wound on or by developing an unused film by accident. If the film is
completely clear including the rebate and the leader then you have fixed the film before
developing .

Negatives are very thin ( Faint )

Assuming correct exposure in the first place. Underdevelopment. Developer too cold, too
short development time, developer too dilute or insufficient agitation.

● Negatives are very dense ( dark )

Assuming correct exposure in the first place. Overdevelopment. Developer too hot, too
long development time, developer too concentrated or over agitation.

Film is cloudy or milky

Insufficient fixing. Too short fixing time, fixer exhausted or fixer too dilute. Return to fixer
solution or if necessary re-fix in a fresh solution.
Uneven development.
1) Film is lighter or underdeveloped along one side . Not enough developer to cover the film in the tank.
2) Negatives have denser areas mirroring the shape of the sprocket holes. Surge marks caused by vigorous
agitation causing developer to surge through sprocket holes.
3) Undeveloped patches or patches of film which have been unaffected by any processing solutions. Film
incorrectly loaded onto spiral allowing film surfaces to come in contact with each other inhibiting or
preventing chemicals from acting on surfaces.

Surface damage.
1) Dust embedded in surface. Dirty water or ,more likely, dust settling on film while it is hanging up to dry.
2) Scuff marks or scratches. Caused by rough handling. Although physically quite strong film is easily
scratched, particularly the emulsion side when wet.
3) Straight scratches extending the length of the film. Tramlines. Caused by dirt or grit either on the felt light
trap on the film cassette or on the film plate in the camera. Tramlines can also occur if you squeegee or run
wet film through your fingers to remove excess water before drying. Wet emulsion is very delicate and even
a small piece of dirt or grit will leave a scratch the length of your film.
4) Roughly circular marks on film surface. Drying marks. Droplets of water form on the film as it is drying. As
they dry out they leave residue on the film surface. If marks are on the non-emulsion (shiny) side it may be
possible to very gently polish them off, though I am not actually recommending this.
5) Clear crescent shaped marks. Caused by kinking or buckling the film during loading. Forcing the film onto
the spiral or cross threading the film in the grooves.
Printing Process
DARKROOM PRINTING Black & White
● In the commercial world Inkjet prints & digital files have replaced almost all wet process
silver halide printing.
● It still has a place in art & education, but the product range & depth of supply has fallen in
line with demand.
● This is based on the use of Photographic Paper which similarly to film is light sensitive. It is
less sensitive than film & colour blind to certain wavelengths of light.
● This enables it to be used in a Darkroom, which is essentially a light tight room equipped
with an appropriate source of coloured light, called a safelight. A print is created by using
an enlarger to project light through a negative onto photographic paper. Trays are use,
one each for developer, stop bath & fixer to process the print, which is then washed &
dried.
● A PHOTOGRAM is created by placing objects e.g. leaves or flowers etc on top of
photographic paper & very briefly exposing it to light in a darkroom & then processing the
paper as you would a normal print.
● Photo paper can also be used inside a pinhole camera & processed in a darkroom.
Photographic Papers
● Photographic papers were originally made by applying a photographic emulsion to a paper
base. Most currently available papers now have a PE base, also described as RC or resin
coated. This reduces washing time & improves dimensional stability.
● The Contrast of the paper is best described by grade numbers from 0 to 5. Grade 5 is
extreme with strong blacks & bright whites & a limited tonal range in between. Grade 0 is
the opposite- lacking in contrast, blacks & whites are not as strong& there is a very wide
range of tones in between. Grade 2 to 3 is in the middle with reasonable tones throughout.
● Photographic paper was for many years supplied as individual grades which required
photographers to either produce accurate negatives, that would print well on a grade 2 or
grade 3 paper or carry a number of boxes of paper of different grades.
● Ilford Multi-grade papers have replaced the old single grade papers. These modern
papers are sensitive to 2 colours & the mix of colours determines the grade. Special filters,
which fit in an enlarger filter drawer, are available to simplify the process. So you can print
from grade 0 to grade 5 with one box of paper by selecting an appropriate filter.

PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER – MULTIGRADE 1V RC SUPPLY & PRICE LIST OF POPULAR PAPER

SIZES
● There are 3 surfaces

○ Pearl 44M - popular lightly textured surface

○ Gloss 1M - popular traditional surface

○ Satin 25M – a matte un-textured surface ( less popular than 44M or 1M)
SAFELIGHTS
● Safelights in existing darkrooms are likely to consist of a housing with a plastic or glass
filter fitted & an internal low wattage bulb. The housing s is not available but we can at
present source the 902 10”x8” safelight filters used for Multi-grade printing.
Unit - V
 PHOTOGRAPHY
COMPOSITION RULES
• RULE OF THIRDS
• BALANCING ELEMENTS
• LEADING LINES
• SYMMETRY AND PATTERNS
• VIEWPOINT
• BACKGROUND
• DEPTH
• FRAMING
• CROPPING
 Rule of Thirds
• Imagine that your image is divided into 9 equal
segments by 2 vertical and 2 horizontal lines.
The rule of thirds says that you should position the
most important elements in your scene along these
lines, or at the points where they intersect.
 BALANCING ELEMENTS
• Placing your main subject off-centre, as with the rule
of thirds, creates a more interesting photo, but it can
leave a void in the scene which can make it feel
empty.
• You can achieve a balanced composition and even
out the main subject's "visual weight" by including
another object of lesser importance to fill the space.
 LEADING LINES
• When we look at a photo our eye is naturally drawn
along lines. By thinking about how you place
these leading lines in your composition, you can
affect the way we view the image, pulling us into the
picture, towards the subject, or on a journey
"through" the scene.

• There are many different types of line - straight,

diagonal, curvy, zigzag, radial etc - and each can be
used to enhance our photo's composition.
 SYMMETRY AND PATTERNS
• We are surrounded by symmetry and patterns, both
natural and man-made. They can make for very
eye-catching compositions, particularly in situations
where they are not expected.
• Another great way to use them is to break the
symmetry or pattern in some way, introducing
tension and a focal point to the scene.
 VIEWPOINT
• Before photographing your subject, take time to
think about where you will shoot it from. Our
viewpoint has a massive impact on the composition
of our photo, and as a result it can greatly affect the
message that the shot conveys. Rather than just
shooting from eye level, consider photographing
from high above, down at ground level, from the
side, from the back, from a long way away, from very
close up, and so on.
 BACKGROUND
• How many times have you taken what you thought
would be a great shot, only to find that the final image
lacks impact because the subject blends into a busy
background? The human eye is excellent at
distinguishing between different elements in a scene,
whereas a camera has a tendency to flatten the
foreground and background, and this can often ruin an
otherwise great photo.
• Thankfully this problem is usually easy to overcome at
the time of shooting - look around for a plain and
unobtrusive background and compose your shot so
that it doesn't distract or detract from the subject.
 DEPTH
• Because photography is a two-dimensional medium,
we have to choose our composition carefully to
conveys the sense of depth that was present in the
actual scene. You can create depth in a photo by
including objects in the foreground, middle ground
and background.
• Another useful composition technique is
overlapping, where you deliberately partially obscure
one object with another. The human eye naturally
recognises these layers and mentally separates them
out, creating an image with more depth.
 FRAMING
• The world is full of objects which make perfect
natural frames, such as trees, archways and holes.

• By placing these around the edge of the composition

you help to isolate the main subject from the outside
world.

• The result is a more focused image which draws your

eye naturally to the main point of interest.
 CROPPING
• Often a photo will lack impact because the main
subject is so small it becomes lost among the clutter
of its surroundings.
• By cropping tight around the subject you eliminate
the background "noise", ensuring the subject gets
the viewer's undivided attention.
Basic Principles of Photography
 Basic Principles of Photography
• Balance,
• Rhythm,
• Pattern,
• Emphasis,
• Contrast,
• Unity and Movement.
 Balance

• Balance is used to illustrate the visual weight

of an image. It can either unite a photograph
or create division. A carefully balanced image
lends a sense of stability to a photograph. An
unbalanced image creates disunity or unrest.
We can achieve balance in three ways:
• Symmetry – both sides of an image reflect the
same subject matter, like a mirror image.
• Asymmetry – contrasting elements balance
the image. For example, a highly textured
surface on one side of an image,
counterbalanced by a smooth, matte surface
on the other.
• Radial symmetry – elements spaced equally
around a central point, like spokes on a wheel.
The symmetrical balance in this photograph of a bridge creates
depth and leads the viewers eye through the image.
 Rhythm
• Subjects in a space regulate the way we view a
photograph.
• Rhythm dictates the recurring or
organised/disorganised distribution of visual
elements throughout an image.
• The spaces, correlations and differences
between subjects in a photograph.
 Pattern
• Pattern makes sense of the visual world
through regularity. From man-made objects to
organic material and abstraction.
• Elements of design can be organised in a
predictable manner to form pattern.
• Patterns are repetitions of the elements of art
and design. These work in unison within a
single frame.
 Emphasis
• Emphasis shapes the centre of interest in an
image. Colour, space, texture and line work
together to determine the focus of an image.
• A lone subject located in the centre of an image
will attract attention. It is the most readily
available component of the photograph.
• The size of a subject also dictates the way the
viewer will ‘read’ a photograph. A larger subject
suggests closeness to the surface of the
photograph. It commands greater attention than
that of a smaller subject in the background.
 Contrast
• Contrast is created when two or more
opposing elements are present in a
photograph. Light against dark, warm against
cool.
• But contrast includes physical elements too.
Texture is another way to utilise the principle
of contrast in photography. Including two or
more textures in a photograph not only
introduces tactility, it creates a sense of place.
 Unity
• Unity describes the visual relationship
between elements in a photograph. It helps
create a cohesive image.
• Using similar colours or tones, concepts or
elements cultivates a sense of unity.
 Movement
• The term ‘movement’ in photography often
describes the relationship between the camera’s
shutter speed and a subject. When it comes to art
and design, movement refers to the path the
viewer’s eye takes while reading a photograph.
• Movement is shaped by the elements and
principles of art and design. A photographer can
take control the way a viewer absorbs a
photograph.
• Understanding the nature and psychology of
human sight is an important part of controlling
movement.