Energy

- in physics, it is the capacity for doing work. It may exist in potential, kinetic, thermal,
electrical, chemical, nuclear, or other various forms.

Electricity
- is a form of energy resulting from the existence of charged particles (such as electrons or
protons), either statically as an accumulation of charge or dynamically as a current.
- is an extremely versatile form of energy.

Static Electricity
-Static electricity is the result of an accumulation of electric charges that occurs when two non-
metallic objects rub against each other

Dynamic Electricity
- is the flow of electric charges through a conductor; in other words, an electric current .

Direct Current - electrons flow in a single direction.

Alternating Current - electrons change their direction continuously from positive to
negative.

What electricity provides you?

 Light
 Heat
 Mechanical Power

Examples of Appliances that runs Electricity

 Telephones
 Computers
 Televisions
 Cellphone
 ETC.

Sources of Electricity
Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectric dams generate electricity. Hydroelectric dams harness the energy of water
release form the reservoir to turn hydraulic turbines. The turbines convert the energy of the
falling water into mechanical energy.

Thermoelectricity
Thermoelectricity, in physics, is electricity generated by the application of heat to the junction of
two dissimilar materials. If two wires of different materials are joined at their ends and one end is
maintained at higher temperature than the other, a voltage difference will, arise, and an electric
current will exist between the hot and cold junctions.

Piezoelectric Effect
When pressure is applied to certain crystals, a potential across certain faces of a crystal when it is
subjected to mechanical pressure. Conversely, when an electric field is applied on certain faces
of the crystal, the crystal undergoes mechanical distortion.
Solar Energy
Solar Energy, radiation produced by nuclear fusion reactions deep in the Sun's core. The Sun
provides almost all the heat and light Earth receives and therefore sustains every living being.

Nuclear Energy
Nuclear Energy, energy released during the splitting or fusing of atomic nuclei. The energy of
any system, whether physical, chemical, or nuclear, is manifested by the system's ability to do
work or to released heat or radiation. The total energy in a system is always conserved, but it can
be transferred to another system or changed in form.

Batteries and Cells

Battery, also electric cell, device that converts chemical energy into electricity. Battery consists
of two or more cells connected in series or parallel, but the terms is also used for single cells.
Primary cells - cannot be recharged.
Secondary cells - rechargeable.

Primary Cells
The common form of primary cell is the Leclanche cell, invented by the French chemist Georges
Leclanche in the 1960s. It is popularly called dry cell invention.
Dry Cell Battery The simple dry cell battery contains a negative electrode and a positive
electrode.

Secondary Cells
The storage battery, or secondary cell, which can be recharged by reversing the chemical
reaction, was invented in 1859 by the French physicist Gaston Plante. Plante's cell was lead-acid
battery, type widely used today.

Solar Batteries
produce electricity by a photoelectric conversion process. The source of electricity is a
photosensitive semiconducting substance such as silicon crystal to which impurities have been.
When the crystal is struck by light, electrons are dislodged from the surface of the crystal and
migrate toward the opposite surface.

Electron Flow – Negative to Positive

Conventional Current Flow – Positive to Negative

What Do Resistors Do in a Circuit?

 Potential dividers.
 Biasing resistors.
 Op-amp gain and feedback.
 Current limiting
 Impedance matching.
 Current measuring.
 Data and address bus pullups.

Resistor
A resistor is an electrical component that restricts the flow of electrical current in a circuit.
The analogy often used to explain its operation is to consider current as water flowing in a
hosepipe; a resistor can be considered as a constriction in the pipe that limits the flow of water.

Types Of Resistors
Fixed Value Resistors
These are the predominant type of resistor configuration, and as the name suggests, they have a
fixed resistance value. It is possible to buy a resistor of any ohmic value that you require.

Variable Resistors
Variable resistors (also known as potentiometers) are resistors that can
have their value changed either by turning a shaft or in pre- set pots by a
screwdriver.

Resistor Networks
-It is often the case that multiple resistors of the same value are needed,
in data bus pull up applications, for example. For these applications, it is
possible to purchase resistor packs either as single inline (SIL) or dual
inline (DIL) packages.

Resistor Value Marking

Most resistors have value marked on them. For surface mount resistors, this can be one of
several options. They can be a 3 or 4-digit code representing the value using a value and
multiplier system.
For example, 102 would represent 10 or 1kQ, the 4-digit type could be 1002 which is 100
x 102 or 10KQ. For low values, you may see something like 4R7 which is 4.70. R is used as a
decimal point in this instance.
Given the minute size of surface resistors, these can be extremely difficult to see,
especially now that SMD resistors are available in tighter tolerances, and with more values. For
this reason, the EIA96 system is used. This involves a lookup table where a three-digit value is
used to point to a value and multiplier, hence specifying the value in a minimum number of
digits.

Ohm’s Law
Direct Current Circuit Basics
Schematic Symbols
- When we want to denote an electrical conductor such as a wire, we draw a straight, solid
line either horizontally across, or vertically up and down, the page.

-When two conductor lines cross, assumethat the do not

connect at the crossing points unless you see a heaver, solid dot
where they meet.

- We symbolize a battery, which is a combination of two or

more cells in series, by drawing several parallel lines, alternately
long and short.

Schematic and Wiring Diagrams

Schematic diagram illustrate the interconnections among components in a circuit or
system, but the actual values of the components are not necessarily indicated. A wiring diagram
tells you all of those things.
Wiring Diagram – values are indicated.
Schematic Diagram – shows the interaction of components in a circuit.

Circuit Simplification
We can simplify most DC circuits to three major components: a
voltage source, a set of conductors, and a resistance.
SMD – surfaced mounted device
IC – Integrated Circuit

Ohm’s Law
The mathematical relationship between voltage, current, and
resistance was discovered in 1826 by Georg Simon Ohm. Ohm's
law, states that the amount of current, I, is directly proportional to the voltage, V, and inversely
proportional to the resistance, R.

Besides the coverage of Ohm's law, this lesson also introduces you to the concept of
power.
Power can be defined as the time rate of doing work. The symbol for power is P and the
unit is the watt.

The Current I = V/ R
The applied voltage V can be varied from 0 to 12 V, as an
example. The bulb has a 12-V filament, which requires this much
voltage for its normal current to light with normal intensity.
With 12 V applied, the bulb lights, indicating normal
current. When V is reduced to 10 V, there is less = light because of
less I. As V decreases, the bulb becomes dimmer. For zero volts
applied, there is no current and the bulb cannot light. In summary,
the changing brilliance of the bulb shows that the current varies
with the changes in applied voltage.

High Voltage but Low Current

It is important to realize that with high voltage, the current can have a low value when
there is a very high resistance in the circuit.
For example, 1000 V applied across 1,000,000Ω results in
a current of only A. By Ohm's law, 1/1000 A. By Omh’s Law,

The practical fact is that high-voltage circuits usually do

have small values of current in electronic equipment. Otherwise,
tremendous amounts of power would be necessary.

Low Voltage but High Current

At the opposite extreme, a low value of voltage in a very low
resistance circuit can produce a very high current.
A 6-V battery connected across a resistance of 0.010
produces 600 A of current:

Typical V and I
Transistors and integrated circuits generally operate with a dc supply of 5, 6, 9, 12, 15,
24, or 50 V. The current is usually in millionths or thousandths of one ampere up to about 5 A.

The Voltage V = IR
The voltage across R must be the same as the source V, because the resistance is connected
directly across the battery. The numerical value of this V is equal to the product | R.

The Resistance R = V/I

R is 30 because 6V applied across the resistance produces 2A through it. Whenever V and
I are known, the resistance can calculated as the voltage be across R divided by the current
through it.

 If you want Ohm's Law to produce the correct results, you must use the proper units.
 Under most circumstances, you'll want to use the standard units of volts, amperes, and
ohms.
 If you use volts, milliamperes (mA), and ohms, or if you use kilovolts (kV),
microamperes (µA), and megaohms (MΩ), you can't expect to get the right answers.
 If you see initial quantities in units other than volts, amperes, and ohms, you should
convert to these standard units before you begin your calculations.
 After you've done all the arithmetic, you can convert the individual units to whatever you
like.

The Rule of Significant Figures

Competent engineers and scientists go by the rule of significant figures, also called the
rule of significant digits. After completing a calculation, we always round the answer off to
the least number of digits given in the input data numbers.

Power
 can be defined as the time rate of doing work.
 The symbol for power is P and the unit is the watt (W).
 James Watt
 1 watt = work done in one second by one volt of potential difference in moving
one coulomb of change.